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Metacognition
Metacognition
Metacognition describes the processes involved when learners plan, monitor, evaluate and
make changes to their own learning behaviours.
Perkins (1992) defined four levels of metacognitive What are the misconceptions
learners: tacit; aware; strategic; reflective. ‘Tacit’ learners are of metacognition?
unaware of their metacognitive knowledge. They do not
• Metacognition is always deliberate. Many
think about any particular strategies for learning and merely
metacognition researchers highlight the conscious,
accept if they know something or not. ‘Aware’ learners know
deliberate nature of metacognition. An alternative
about some of the kinds of thinking that they do –
approach is to say that less conscious, automatic
generating ideas, finding evidence, etc. – but thinking is not
processes are also metacognitive. For example, a learner
deliberate or planned. ‘Strategic’ learners organise their
may check work for errors as they write, out of habit,
thinking by using problem solving, grouping and classifying,
with little awareness that they are doing so until an
evidence seeking, decision making, etc. They know and apply
error is identified. The notion of automatic or implicit
the strategies that help them learn. ‘Reflective’ learners are
metacognition may cause further difficulties in
not only strategic about their thinking but they also reflect
distinguishing cognitive from metacognitive processes.
upon their learning while it is happening, monitoring the
However, it has led to more sophisticated models of
success of any strategies they are using and then changing
metacognition, particularly in the area of metacognition
them as appropriate.
in young children (Whitebread et al., 2009).
What other terms are associated • Metacognition is for older students. In contrast to
the view that metacognitive skills emerge at the age of
with metacognition?
8 to 10 years old, Veenman & Spaans (2005), Whitebread
• Self-regulated learning is a broader term, encompassing & Pino-Pasternak (2010) and Larkin (2010) document a
cognition, metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive number of studies which indicate evidence of young
regulation and the motivation necessary to employ children’s metacognitive abilities. Findings include
these strategies successfully (EEF, 2019). children as young as 18 months demonstrating error-
• Metamemory – the metacognitive aspects of learning correction strategies, 5 to 6-year-old children showing
and memory (Nelson & Narens, 1990). understanding of memory processes, and 3 to 5-year-
olds exhibiting a wide range of verbal and non-verbal
What are the benefits of metacognition? indicators of metacognitive processes in nursery and
• Metacognitive practices help learners to plan, monitor reception classrooms. These studies demonstrate that
and evaluate their own progress and take control of their although young children may not be able to describe
learning as they read, write and solve problems in the the metacognitive processes they are exhibiting, it does
classroom. not mean that these processes are not occurring.
• Research indicates that metacognition is a powerful
predictor of learning. Metacognitive practices make Practical tips:
a unique contribution to learning over and above the How can schools make the best use of metacognition?
influence of cognitive ability. The implication of this • Prioritise professional development in metacognition.
research is that improving a learner’s metacognitive There should be an explicit focus on teaching both
practices may compensate for any cognitive limitations cognitive and metacognitive techniques, and how to
they may have (Veenman, Wilhelm & Beishuizen, create a learning environment that supports the
2004; Wang, Haertel & Walberg, 1990). development of metacognitive skills and motivation.
• Metacognitive practices have been shown to improve Encourage teachers to work together and share practice
academic achievement across a range of ages, cognitive that promotes the development of metacognitive
abilities and learning domains. This includes reading and abilities in the classroom. For example, a group
text comprehension, writing, mathematics, reasoning could meet regularly to reflect on a reading about
and problem solving, and memory (Dignath & Buttner, metacognition or to share their experiences of
2008; EEF, 2019; Hattie, 2009). implementing a new strategy.
• Metacognitive skills can help students to transfer what • Support teachers in encouraging metacognitive
they have learnt from one context to the next, or from a practices at school. For example, exam wrappers are
previous task to a new task. The teacher can support this worksheets that learners complete before and/or after
by explaining how what has been learnt from one task they receive test feedback. These include questions to
can be applied to the next. help learners to reflect on the processes of planning,
monitoring and evaluation when preparing for and
sitting the test.
Metacognition continued
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