Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching (Ed 1

5)
Module Metacognition

Definitions

This higher-level cognition was given the label metacognition by American

developmental psychologist John H. Flavell (1979).

The term metacognition literally means cognition about cognition, or more informally,
thinking about thinking. Flavell defined metacognition as knowledge about cognition and
control of cognition. For example, a person is engaging in metacognition if he notices
that he is having more trouble learning A than B; [or] if it strikes him that he should
double-check C before accepting it as fact. J. H. Flavell (1976, p. 232). Andreas
Demetriou's theory (one of the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development) used
the term hypercognition to refer to self-monitoring, self-representation, and self-
regulation processes, which are regarded as integral components of the human mind. [6]
Moreover, with his colleagues, he showed that these processes participate in general
intelligence, together with processing efficiency and reasoning, which have traditionally
been considered to compose fluid intelligence.
Metacognition also involves thinking about one's own thinking process such as study
skills, memory capabilities, and the ability to monitor learning. This concept needs to be
explicitly taught along with content instruction. Metacognitive knowledge is about one's
own cognitive processes and the understanding of how to regulate those processes to
maximize learning.

Some types of metacognitive knowledge would include:

• Content knowledge (declarative knowledge) which understands one's own capabilities

such as a student evaluating his/her own knowledge of a subject in a class. It is notable
that not all metacognition is accurate. Studies have shown that students often mistake
lack of effort with understanding in evaluating themselves and their overall knowledge of
a concept.[8] Also, more confidence in having performed well, goes along with less
accurate metacognitive judgment of the performance. [9]
• Task knowledge (procedural knowledge) which is how one perceives the difficulty of a
task which is the content, length, and the type of assignment. The study mentioned in
Content knowledge also deals with the ability of one to evaluate the difficulty of the task
related to their overall performance on the task. Again, the accuracy of this knowledge
was skewed as students who thought their way was better/easier also seemed to
 perform worse on evaluations, while students who were rigorously and continually
evaluated reported to not be as confident but still did better on initial evaluations.
• Strategic knowledge (conditional knowledge) which is one's own capability for using
strategies to learn information. Young children are not particularly good at this; it is not
until upper elementary where students start to develop the understanding of strategies
that will be effective.

1 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
Metacognition is a general term encompassing the study of memory-monitoring and
self-regulation, meta-reasoning, consciousness/awareness and auto-
consciousness/self-awareness. In practice these capacities are used to regulate one's
own cognition, to maximize one's potential to think, learn and to the evaluation of proper
ethical/moral rules. It can also lead to the reduction in response time for a given
situation due to heightened awareness and potentially reduce cycle times to complete
problems or tasks.
In the domain of experimental psychology, an influential distinction in metacognition
(proposed by T. O. Nelson & L. Narens) is between Monitoring— making judgments
about the strength of one's memories—and Control—using those judgments to guide
behavior (in particular, to guide study choices). Dunlosky, Serra, and Baker (2007)
covered this distinction in a review of metamemory research that focused on how
findings from this domain can be applied to other areas of applied research.
In the domain of cognitive neuroscience, metacognitive monitoring and control has been
viewed as a function of the prefrontal cortex, which receives (monitors) sensory signals
from other cortical regions and through feedback loops implements control (see
chapters by Schwartz & Bacon and Shimamura, in Dunlosky & Bjork, 2008). [3]

Metacognition is studied in the domain of artificial intelligence and modelling. [10]

Therefore, it is the domain of interest of emergent systemics.
It has been used, albeit off the original definition, to describe one's own knowledge that
we will die. Writers in the 1990s involved with the grunge music scene often used the
term to describe self-awareness of mortality. [citation needed]

Components

Metacognition is classified into three components: [11]

1. Metacognitive knowledge (also called metacognitive awareness) is what

individuals know about themselves and others as cognitive processors. 2.
Metacognitive regulation is the regulation of cognition and learning experiences
through a set of activities that help people control their learning. 3. Metacognitive
 experiences are those experiences that have something to
do with the current, on-going cognitive endeavor.

Metacognition refers to a level of thinking that involves active control over the process of
thinking that is used in learning situations. Planning the way to approach a learning
task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating the progress towards the completion of
a task: these are skills that are metacognitive in their nature.
Metacognition includes at least three different types of metacognitive awareness when
considering metacognitive knowledge:[12]

2 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
1. Declarative knowledge: refers to knowledge about oneself as a learner and
about what factors can influence one's performance. [2] Declarative knowledge can
also be referred to as "world knowledge".[13] 2. Procedural knowledge: refers to
knowledge about doing things. This type of knowledge is displayed as heuristics and
strategies.[2] A high degree of procedural knowledge can allow individuals to perform
tasks more automatically. This is achieved through a large variety of strategies that
can be accessed more efficiently.[14] 3. Conditional knowledge: refers to knowing
when and why to use declarative and procedural knowledge. [15] It allows students to
allocate their resources when using strategies. This in turn allows the strategies to
become more effective.[16]

Similar to metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive regulation or "regulation of

cognition" contains three skills that are essential. [2][17]

1. Planning: refers to the appropriate selection of strategies and the correct

allocation of resources that affect task performance. 2. Monitoring: refers to one's
awareness of comprehension and task
performance 3. Evaluating: refers to appraising the final product of a task and the
efficiency at which the task was performed. This can include re- evaluating
strategies that were used.
Similarly, maintaining motivation to see a task to completion is also a metacognitive
skill. The ability to become aware of distracting stimuli – both internal and external – and
sustain effort over time also involves metacognitive or executive functions. The theory
that metacognition has a critical role to play in successful learning means it is important
that it be demonstrated by both students and teachers.

Students who demonstrate a wide range of metacognitive skills perform better on

 exams and complete work more efficiently [citation needed]. They are self- regulated learners
who utilize the "right tool for the job" and modify learning strategies and skills based on
their awareness of effectiveness. Individuals with a high level of metacognitive
knowledge and skill identify blocks to learning as early as possible and change "tools" or
strategies to ensure goal attainment. Swanson (1990) found that metacognitive
knowledge can compensate for IQ and lack of prior knowledge when comparing fifth
and sixth grade students' problem solving. Students with a high-metacognition were
reported to have used fewer strategies, but solved problems more effectively than low-
metacognition students, regardless of IQ or prior knowledge. [18] In one study examining
students who do text messaging during college lectures, it was suggested that students
with higher metacognitive abilities were less likely than other students to have their
learning impacted by using a mobile phone in class. [19]

The fundamental cause of the trouble is that in the modern world the stupid are
cocksure while the intelligent are full of doubt.

— Bertrand Russell

3 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
Metacognologists are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses, the nature of the
task at hand, and available "tools" or skills. A broader repertoire of "tools" also assists in
goal attainment. When "tools" are general, generic, and context independent, they are
more likely to be useful in different types of learning situations.

Another distinction in metacognition is executive management and strategic knowledge.

Executive management processes involve planning, monitoring, evaluating and revising
one's own thinking processes and products. Strategic knowledge involves knowing what
(factual or declarative knowledge), knowing when and why (conditional or contextual
knowledge) and knowing how (procedural or methodological knowledge). Both
executive management and strategic knowledge metacognition are needed to self-
regulate one's own thinking and learning.[20]

Finally, there is no distinction between domain-general and domain-specific

metacognitive skills. This means that metacognitive skills are domain-general in nature
and there are no specific skills for certain subject areas. The metacognitive skills that
are used to review an essay are the same as those that are used to verify an answer to
a math question.[21]

Metacognitive experience is responsible for creating an identity that matters to an

individual. The creation of the identity with metacognitive experience is linked to the
identity-based motivation (IBM) model. The identity-based motivation model implies that
"identities matter because they provide a basis for meaning making and for action." [22] A
 person decides also if the identity matters in two ways with metacognitive experience.
First, a current or possible identity is either "part of the self and so worth pursuing" [23] or
the individual thinks that the identity is part of their self, yet it is conflicting with more
important identities and the individual will decide if the identity is or is not worth
pursuing. Second, it also helps an individual decide if an identity should be pursued or
abandoned.

Usually, abandoning identity has been linked to metacognitive difficulty. Based on the
identity-based motivation model there are naive theories describing difficulty as a way to
continue to pursue an identity. The incremental theory of ability states that if "effort
matters then difficulty is likely to be interpreted as meaning that more effort is
needed."[24] Here is an example: a woman who loves to play clarinet has come upon a
hard piece of music. She knows that how much effort she puts into learning this piece is
beneficial. The piece had difficulty so she knew the effort was needed. The identity the
woman wants to pursue is to be a good clarinet player; having a metacognitive
experience difficulty pushed her to learn the difficult piece to continue to identify with her
identity. The entity theory of ability represents the opposite. This theory states that if
"effort does not matter then difficulty is likely to be interpreted as meaning that ability is
lacking so effort should be suspended." [24] Based on the example of the woman playing
the clarinet, if she did not want to identify herself as a good clarinet player, she would
not have put in any effort to learn the difficult piece which is an example of using
metacognitive experience difficulty to abandon an identity.

Relation to sapience

4 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
Metacognologists believe that the ability to consciously think about thinking is unique to
sapient species and indeed is one of the definitions of sapience.There is evidence that
rhesus monkeys, apes, and dolphins can make accurate judgments about the strengths
of their memories of fact and monitor their own uncertainty, while attempts to
demonstrate metacognition in birds have been inconclusive. A 2007 study has provided
some evidence for metacognition in rats, but further analysis suggested that they may
have been following simple operant conditioning principles, or a behavioral economic
model.

Strategies

Metacognitive-like processes are especially ubiquitous when it comes to the discussion

of self-regulated learning. Being engaged in metacognition is a salient feature of good
self-regulated learners. Reinforcing collective discussion of metacognition is a salient
feature of self-critical and self-regulating social groups. The activities of strategy
selection and application include those concerned with an ongoing attempt to plan,
 check, monitor, select, revise, evaluate, etc.

Metacognition is 'stable' in that learners' initial decisions derive from the pertinent facts
about their cognition through years of learning experience. Simultaneously, it is also
'situated' in the sense that it depends on learners' familiarity with the task, motivation,
emotion, and so forth. Individuals need to regulate their thoughts about the strategy they
are using and adjust it based on the situation to which the strategy is being applied. At a
professional level, this has led to emphasis on the development of reflective practice,
particularly in the education and health-care professions.
Recently, the notion has been applied to the study of second language learners in the
field of TESOL and applied linguistics in general (e.g., Wenden, 1987; Zhang, 2001,
2010). This new development has been much related to Flavell (1979), where the notion
of metacognition is elaborated within a tripartite theoretical framework. Learner
metacognition is defined and investigated by examining their person knowledge, task
knowledge and strategy knowledge.

Wenden (1991) has proposed and used this framework and Zhang (2001) has adopted
this approach and investigated second language learners' metacognition or
metacognitive knowledge. In addition to exploring the relationships between learner
metacognition and performance, researchers are also interested in the effects of
metacognitively-oriented strategic instruction on reading comprehension (e.g., Garner,
1994, in first language contexts, and Chamot, 2005; Zhang, 2010). The efforts are
aimed at developing learner autonomy, interdependence and self-regulation.

Metacognition helps people to perform many cognitive tasks more effectively. [1]
Strategies for promoting metacognition include self-questioning (e.g. "What do I already
know about this topic? How have I solved problems like this before?"), thinking aloud
while performing a task, and making graphic representations (e.g. concept maps, flow
charts, semantic webs) of one's thoughts and knowledge. Carr, 2002, argues that the
physical act of writing plays a large part in the development of metacognitive skills. [33]

5 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
Strategy Evaluation matrices (SEM) can help to improve the knowledge of cognition
component of metacognition. The SEM works by identifying the declarative (Column 1),
procedural (Column 2) and conditional (Column 3 and 4) knowledge about specific
strategies. The SEM can help individuals identify the strength and weaknesses about
certain strategies as well as introduce them to new strategies that they can add to their
repertoire.

A regulation checklist (RC) is a useful strategy for improving the regulation of cognition
aspect of one's metacognition. RCs help individuals to implement a sequence of
 thoughts that allow them to go over their own metacognition. King (1991) found that
fifth-grade students who used a regulation checklist outperformed control students when
looking at a variety of questions including written problem solving, asking strategic
questions, and elaborating information.

Metacognitive strategies training can consist of coaching the students in thinking skills
that will allow them to monitor their own learning. [36] Examples of strategies that can be
taught to students are word analysis skills, active reading strategies, listening skills,
organizational skills and creating mnemonic devices. [37]

Walker and Walker have developed a model of metacognition in school learning termed
Steering Cognition. Steering Cognition describes the capacity of the mind to exert
conscious control over its reasoning and processing strategies in relation to the external
learning task. Studies have shown that pupils with an ability to exert metacognitive
regulation over their attentional and reasoning strategies used when engaged in maths,
and then shift those strategies when engaged in science or then English literature
learning, associate with higher academic outcomes at secondary school.

Metastrategic knowledge

"Metastrategic knowledge" (MSK) is a sub-component of metacognition that is defined

as general knowledge about higher order thinking strategies. MSK had been defined as
"general knowledge about the cognitive procedures that are being manipulated". The
knowledge involved in MSK consists of "making generalizations and drawing rules
regarding a thinking strategy" and of "naming" the thinking strategy.

The important conscious act of a metastrategic strategy is the "conscious" awareness

that one is performing a form of higher order thinking. MSK is an awareness of the type
of thinking strategies being used in specific instances and it consists of the following
abilities: making generalizations and drawing rules regarding a thinking strategy, naming
the thinking strategy, explaining when, why and how such a thinking strategy should be
used, when it should not be used, what are the disadvantages of not using appropriate
strategies, and what task characteristics call for the use of the strategy.
MSK deals with the broader picture of the conceptual problem. It creates rules to
describe and understand the physical world around the people who utilize these
processes called higher-order thinking. This is the capability of the individual to take
apart complex problems in order to understand the

6 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
components in problem. These are the building blocks to understanding the "big picture"
(of the main problem) through reflection and problem solving. [40]
Characteristics of theory of mind: Understanding the mind and the "mental world":

1. False beliefs: understanding that a belief is only one of many and can be
false. 2. Appearance–reality distinctions: something may look one way but may be
something else. 3. Visual perspective taking: the views of physical objects differ
based on
perspective. 4. Introspection: children's awareness and understanding of their own
thoughts.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacognition
 7 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
Theory of Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences differentiates intelligence into specific 'modalities',

rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Howard
Gardner proposed this model in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences. According to the theory, an intelligence must fulfill eight criteria: [1] potential
for brain isolation by brain damage, place in evolutionary history, presence of core
operations, susceptibility to encoding (symbolic expression), a distinct developmental
progression, the existence of savants, prodigies and other exceptional people, and
support from experimental psychology and psychometric findings.

Gardner proposed eight abilities that he held to meet these criteria: musical- rhythmic,
visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily- kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalistic. He later suggested that existential and moral intelligence
may also be worthy of inclusion. Although the distinction between intelligences has
been set out in great detail, Gardner opposes the idea of labeling learners to a specific
intelligence. Gardner maintains that his theory should "empower learners", not restrict
them to one modality of learning. According to Gardner, intelligence is "a
biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural
setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture.

Many of Gardner's "intelligences" correlate with the g factor, supporting the idea of a
single, dominant type of intelligence. According to a 2006 study, each of the domains
proposed by Gardner involved a blend of g, cognitive abilities other than g, and, in some
cases, non-cognitive abilities or personality characteristics.

• 1Intelligence modalities
o 1.1Musical-rhythmic and harmonic o
1.2Visual-spatial o 1.3Verbal-linguistic o
1.4Logical-mathematical o 1.5Bodily-
kinesthetic o 1.6Interpersonal o
1.7Intrapersonal o 1.8Naturalistic o
1.9Existential
8 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
Musical-rhythmic and harmonic

Main article: Musicality

This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a
high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch,
and are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. They have
sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre.

Visual-spatial Main article: Spatial intelligence

(psychology)
This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye.
Spatial ability is one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical model of
intelligence.

Verbal-linguistic Main article:

Linguistic intelligence

People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and
languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing
words along with dates.[8] Verbal ability is one of the most g-loaded abilities. This type of
intelligence is measured with the Verbal IQ in WAIS-IV.

Logical-mathematical
Further information: Reason

This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning, numbers and critical thinking.
This also has to do with having the capacity to understand the underlying principles of
some kind of causal system. Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and
to general intelligence (g factor).

Bodily-kinesthetic Further information: Gross motor skill and

Fine motor skill

The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily
motions and the capacity to handle objects skillfully. Gardner elaborates to say that this
also includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with
the ability to train responses.
 People who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should be generally good at
physical activities such as sports, dance, acting, and making things.

Gardner believes that careers that suit those with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
include: athletes, dancers, musicians, actors, builders, police officers, and soldiers.
Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they will not
produce the actual physical learning that is needed in this intelligence.

9 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
Interpersonal Main
article: Social skills

In theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are characterized by their
sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments, motivations, and their ability to
cooperate in order to work as part of a group. According to Gardner in How Are Kids
Smart: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter- and Intra- personal intelligence is
often misunderstood with being extroverted or liking other people... Those with high
interpersonal intelligence communicate effectively and empathize easily with others,
and may be either leaders or followers. They often enjoy discussion and debate."
Gardner has equated this with emotional intelligence of Goleman.

Gardner believes that careers that suit those with high interpersonal intelligence include
sales persons, politicians, managers, teachers, lecturers, counselors and social
workers.

Intrapersonal Further information:

Introspection
This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having
a deep understanding of the self; what one's strengths or weaknesses are, what makes
one unique, being able to predict one's own reactions or emotions.

Naturalistic

Not part of Gardner's original seven, naturalistic intelligence was proposed by him in
1995. "If I were to rewrite Frames of Mind today, I would probably add an eighth
intelligence - the intelligence of the naturalist. It seems to me that the individual who is
readily able to recognize flora and fauna, to make other consequential distinctions in the
natural world, and to use this ability productively (in hunting, in farming, in biological
science) is exercising an important intelligence and one that is not adequately
 encompassed in the current list." [15] This area has to do with nurturing and relating
information to one's natural surroundings. [8] Examples include classifying natural forms
such as animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types. This ability was clearly
of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be
central in such roles as botanist or chef.
This sort of ecological receptiveness is deeply rooted in a "sensitive, ethical, and holistic
understanding" of the world and its complexities – including the role of humanity within
the greater ecosphere.

10 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
Existential Main article: Spiritual
intelligence

Gardner did not want to commit to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that an
"existential" intelligence may be a useful construct, also proposed after the original 7 in
his 1999 book. The hypothesis of an existential intelligence has been further explored
by educational researchers.

Additional intelligences
On January 13, 2016, Gardner mentioned in an interview with BigThink that he is
considering adding the teaching-pedagogical intelligence "which allows us to be able to
teach successfully to other people. In the same interview, he explicitly refused some
other suggested intelligences like humour, cooking and sexual intelligence.

Critical reception

Gardner argues that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities, but that there are only
very weak correlations among them. For example, the theory postulates that a child who
learns to multiply easily is not necessarily more intelligent than a child who has more
difficulty on this task. The child who takes more time to master multiplication may best
learn to multiply through a different approach, may excel in a field outside mathematics,
or may be looking at and understanding the multiplication process at a fundamentally
deeper level.

Intelligence tests and psychometrics have generally found high correlations between
 different aspects of intelligence, rather than the low correlations which Gardner's theory
predicts, supporting the prevailing theory of general intelligence rather than multiple
intelligences (MI). The theory has been criticized by mainstream psychology for its lack
of empirical evidence, and its dependence on subjective judgement.

Definition of Intelligence

One major criticism of the theory is that it is ad hoc: that Gardner is not expanding the
definition of the word "intelligence", but rather denies the existence of intelligence as
traditionally understood, and instead uses the word "intelligence" where other people
have traditionally used words like "ability" and "aptitude". This practice has been
criticized by Robert J. Sternberg, Eysenck, and Scarr. White (2006) points out that
Gardner's selection and application of criteria for his "intelligences" is subjective and
arbitrary, and that a different researcher would likely have come up with different
criteria.
Defenders of MI theory argue that the traditional definition of intelligence is too narrow,
and thus a broader definition more accurately reflects the differing ways in which
humans think and learn.
Some criticisms arise from the fact that Gardner has not provided a test of his multiple
intelligences. He originally defined it as the ability to solve problems that have value in
at least one culture, or as something that a student is

11 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban
interested in. He then added a disclaimer that he has no fixed definition, and his
classification is more of an artistic judgment than fact:

Ultimately, it would certainly be desirable to have an algorithm for the selection of

intelligence, such that any trained researcher could determine whether a candidate's
intelligence met the appropriate criteria. At present, however, it must be admitted that
the selection (or rejection) of a candidate's intelligence is reminiscent more of an artistic
judgment than of a scientific assessment.

Generally, linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities are called intelligences, but

artistic, musical, athletic, etc. abilities are not. Gardner argues this causes the former to
be needlessly aggrandized.
12 Prepared and Compiled by: Richard T. Catain, Ph.D. Institute of Education-Colegio de Montalban