Home Computer Access

and Internet Use

Updated: December 2015

 Home Computer Access and Internet Use
December 2015

In 2013, almost six out of ten children, ages three to 17 (57 percent), used
the Internet at home, nearly six times as many as in 1997 (11 percent).
Seventy-nine percent had a computer at home, up from 15 percent in
1984.

Importance
Home access to computers and the Internet has expanded dramatically over the last two
decades, and the ways children, youth, and adults use these tools are in rapid flux, as new
technologies are developed. For example, Internet-enabled devices now include not only
computers, but televisions, electronic books, and other handheld devices such as music
players and cell-phones. Increasingly, the lines are blurred between computers and many other
types of electronic media.

Young people are most likely to use a computer for social networking, playing games, and
watching videos. Ten percent report reading magazines or newspapers online. Among older
youth (in grades seven through twelve), more than half (55 percent) have looked up online
1
health information.

Research on the effects of home computer and Internet use on children is limited and often
does not control for the presence of other potentially confounding factors. However, there is
widespread concern that children may be exposed to sexually explicit, violent, and other age-
inappropriate content on the Internet. Research, while inconclusive about the impact of
nonviolent sexually explicit material, has consistently demonstrated that exposure to violent
material (both sexual in nature and not) is associated with desensitization to violence,
increased hostility and imitation of violent behaviors, and greater anxiety and fear among
2
children and youth. In addition, time spent with a computer may take the place of time spent
exercising or being active, and may put children at risk for obesity, and eye, wrist, and back
3
problems.

There is little evidence that having a computer at home improves student’s academic
performance, or narrows achievement gaps associated with race or socio-economic status. To
the contrary, the available evidence suggests that widespread provision of home computers
4
would have negative effects on academic achievement overall.

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Trends
The proportion of children with home access to computers increased steadily until 2012, from
15 percent in 1984 to 76 percent in 2003, to 85 percent in 2012. In addition, the percentage of
children who use the Internet at home rose from 11 percent in 1997, the first year for which
such estimates are available, to 42 percent in 2003, and to 62 percent in 2012. However, both
computer ownership and Internet usage at home decreased in 2013, to 79 and 57 percent,
respectively. (Figure 1)

Figure 1
Percentage of Children Ages 3 to 17 Who Have Access to a
Computer at home and Who Use the Internet at Home,
Selected Years, 1984-2013
100.0

84.9
75.5
80.0
70.4 78.5
Home Computer Access
65.0
62.0
60.0
Percent

49.7 57.1
41.1 42.0
40.0
31.9
30.4
Home Internet Use
24.2

20.0
15.3 10.8

0.0
1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015
S ourc e: D ata for 1 9 84: Kominski, R. "C omputer U se in the U nited S tates:1984." Current Population Reports, S eries P -23, N o. 1 55, U .S . D epartment of C ommerce
E c onomics and S tatistics A dministration, U .S. C ensus Bureau, M arch 1 998. D ata for 1 9 89: Kominski, R. " C omputer U se in the U nited S tates:1 989." C urrent P opulation
Reports , Series P -23, N o. 1 71, U .S. D epartment of C ommerce Economics and S tatistics A dministration, U .S. C ensus Bureau, O ctober 1 989. D ata for 1 9 93: " Computer
U s e in the U nited States: O ctober 1 993" U .S. D epartment of C ommerce Economics and S tatistics Administration, U .S. C ensus Bureau, O ctober 1 993. D ata for 1 9 97:
N ewburger, E . C . "C omputer U se in the U nited States: 1 997, P opulation Characteristics" C urrent P opulation Reports, P 20-522, U .S. D epartment of C ommerce E conomics
and Statistics Administration, U .S . C ensus Bureau, O ctober 1 997. D ata for 2 0 00: N ewburger, E . C . " H ome C omputers and I nternet U se in the U nited S tates: S pecial
S tudies " C urrent P opulation Reports, P 2 3-207, U .S. D epartment of C ommerce E conomics and S tatistics A dministration, U .S. C ensus Bureau, A ugust 2 000.
D ata for 2 0 01: C hild T rends calculations of data from U .S . C ens us. " Computer and I nternet U se in the U nited S tates, 2 001." T ables 2 A and 4 A.
D ata for 2 0 03: C hild T rends calculations using data from U .S. C ensus. "C omputer and I nternet Use in the U nited States: October 2 003."
T ables 2 A and 4 A . http://www.c ens us .gov/population/www/s oc demo/computer/2 003.html. D ata for 2 0 1 0-2013:: C hild T rends' original analysis of
O c tober C urrent P opulation Survey

According to a 2009 survey of eight- to eighteen-year-olds, 36 percent have a computer in

their bedroom, and nearly as many (33 percent) have Internet access there. Youth spend
nearly an hour-and-a-half (outside of schoolwork) with a computer each day, up from just over
5
one hour in 2004.

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Differences by Race/ Hispanic Origin6

White and Asian/Pacific Islander children are more likely to have access to a computer at
home (87 and 91 percent, respectively, in 2013) than are black or Hispanic children (65 and 66
percent, respectively). White and Asian/Pacific Islander children are also more likely to use the
Internet at home (64 and 62 percent, respectively) than are black or Hispanic children (48 and
47 percent, respectively). (Figure 2)

Figure 2
Percentage of Children Ages 3-17 Who Have Access to
Computers and Use the Internet at Home,
by Race and Hispanic Origin, 2013
100
91
87 Home Computer Access Home Internet Use

80

64 65 66
62
60
Percent

48 47

40

20

0
Non-Hispanic White Black Hispanic Asian and Pacific Islander

Source: Child Trends' original analysis of the July 2013 Current Population Survey.

Differences by Household Income Level

In 2013, children’s access to computers at home and their home Internet use was positively
related to household income. At that time, 49 percent of children in households with incomes
of less than $15,000 had access to a computer at home, compared with 94 percent of children
in households with incomes of $75,000 or more. (Figure 3) Children’s Internet use at home
followed a similar pattern, ranging from 33 to 71 percent. (Appendix 2)

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Figure 3
Percentage of Children Ages 3 to 17 Who Have Access
to Computers at Home, by Income Level, 2013
100
94

86
80
80

68
62 61
60
Percent

49

40

20

0
Under $15,000 $15,000-19,999 $20,000-24,999 $25,000-34,999 $35,000-49,999 $50,000-74,999 $75,000+

Source: Child Trends' original analysis of the July 2013 Current Population Survey

Differences by Parental Education

There is a strong gradient by parents’ education attainment in children’s home access to
computers, and particularly in their Internet access. In 2013, 51 percent of children in homes
where the householder did not have a high school education had access to a home computer,
a significantly lower proportion than found in homes where the householder had a high school
diploma (68 percent), had some college education (84 percent), or had a college degree or
higher (94 percent). Internet access was reported by significantly fewer children with the
least-educated householders (39 and 48 percent, respectively) than by those with parents in
the two higher education groups (61 and 70 percent, respectively). (Figure 4)

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Figure 4
Percentage of Children Ages 3-17 Who Have Access to
Computers and Use the Internet at Home,
by Parental Education, 2013
100
94
Home Computer Access
Home Internet Use
84

80

68 70

61
60
Percent

51
48

39
40

20

0
Less than high school High school diploma/GED Some college Bachelor's degree or more
diploma

Source: Child Trends' original analysis of the July 2013 Current Population Survey
.

Differences by Age
Home internet usage rises with increasing age. One in three children ages three to five years
use the Internet at home, compared with 54 percent of six- to eleven-year-olds and 72 percent
of twelve- to 17-year-olds. (Appendix 2)

State and Local Estimates

2013 state estimates for children with computer and internet access at home are available at
http://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2014/acs/acs-28.pdf
(Table 2)

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International Estimates
The World Economic Forum has issued a report which includes 2012 country-level data on the
percentage of households with a personal computer and access to the Internet. Available at:
www3.weforum.org/docs/Global_IT_Report_2012.pdf (page 362)

National Goals
None.

Related Indicators
 Watching Television: www.childtrends.org/?indicators=watching-television

Definition
Children who have access to a computer at home are defined as those living in a household
with at least one computer. Some year-to-year changes in the data may be a result of changes
in question wording.

Between 1984 and 1997, this was any household that responded yes to the question: “Is there a
computer in this household?” In 2000, the question was changed to: “Is there a personal
computer or laptop in this household?” In 2001 and 2003, the question was “Is there a
computer or laptop in this household?” In 2010, the question was: “At home, do you or any
member of this household own or use a desktop, laptop, netbook or notebook computer?” In
2011 and 2012, the question was: “How many desktop, laptop, netbook, notebook, and tablet
computers are there in use in this household?” In 2013, the question was changed to “Does
anyone in this household use a desktop, laptop, netbook or notebook computer, or a tablet
computer such as an Apple iPad or Samsung Galaxy, at home?”

Children and youth who use the Internet at home are defined as those who answered yes to
whether they access the Internet at home; question wording has changed slightly since 1997.
Since 2011, the question has specifically referred to accessing the Internet at home using
mobile devices.

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Data Sources
 Data for 2010-2013: Child Trends' original analysis of the Current Population Survey.

 Income data for 2003: Day, J. C., Janus, A., and Davis, J. (2005). Computer and
Internet use in the United States: 2003. U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population
Reports, http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p23-208.pdf.

 All other data for 2003: Child Trends calculations using data from U.S. Census.
Computer and Internet use in the United States: October 2003. Tables 2A and 4A.
http://www.census.gov/hhes/computer/publications/2003.html

 Data for income 2001: U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics
Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). A nation online: How Americans are
expanding their use of the Internet. Table 5-1.
http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/dn/index.html

 All other data for 2001: U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Computer and Internet use in the
United States. Table 2A and 4A.
http://www.census.gov/hhes/computer/publications/2001.html

 Data for 2000: Newburger, E. C. (2001). Home computers and Internet use in the
United States: Special studies. Current Population Reports, P23-207, U.S. Department
of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Table B.
http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/p23-207.pdf

 Data for 1997: Newburger, E. C. (1999). Computer use in the United States: 1997,
population characteristics. Current Population Reports, P20-522, U.S. Department of
Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Detailed
table 2. http://www.census.gov/hhes/computer/publications/1997.html

 Data for 1993: U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration,
U.S. Census Bureau. (1993). Computer use in the United States: October 1993. Table C.
http://www.census.gov/hhes/computer/publications/1993.html

 Data for 1989: Kominski, R. (1991). Computer use in the United States: 1989. Current
Population Reports, Series P-23, No. 171, U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and
Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Detailed table 2.
http://www.census.gov/hhes/computer/publications/1989.html

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 Data for 1984: Kominski, R. (1988). Computer use in the United States: 1984. Current
Population Reports, Series P-23, No. 155, U.S. Department of Commerce Economics
and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Detailed table 2.
http://www.census.gov/hhes/computer/publications/1984.html

Raw Data Source

U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey

http://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/technical-documentation.html

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Appendix 1 - Percentage of Children, Ages 3 to 17, who Have Access to

Computers at Home:1 Selected Years, 1984-20132
1984 1989 1993 1997 2000 2001 2003 2010 2011 2012 2013

Total 15.3 24.2 31.9 49.7 65.0 70.4 75.5 82.9 83.2 84.9 78.5
Gender
Male 16.8 25.2 31.5 50.1 65.3 70.0 75.2 82.6 83.2 84.8 78.3
Female 13.6 23.1 32.4 49.3 64.8 70.9 75.9 83.3 83.3 85.1 78.7
Age
3 to 5 years 10.8 16.8 10.9 40.6 58.0 62.9 70.2 78.7 79.2 82.7 75.8
6 to 11 years 15.3 22.1 23.3 49.1 64.1 - - 82.4 82.7 85.2 77.4

12 to 17 years 16.8 27.7 28.0 55.1 69.5 - - 85.7 86.0 87.4 80.9

3 to 5 years 10.8 16.8 10.9 40.6 58.0 62.9 70.2 78.7 79.2 82.7 75.8

6 to 9 years 14.3 20.7 21.9 47.0 - 67.8 73.3 81.6 82.1 84.8 76.6

10 to 14 years 17.6 26.6 27.6 54.7 - 73.3 78.0 84.9 84.7 86.7 79.7

15 to 17 years 15.7 27.7 27.4 54.7 - 76.1 79.2 85.9 86.6 87.7 81.7
Race and Hispanic Origin
White 17.1 26.7 35.8 - 69.7 75.3 79.6 85.1 84.7 86.6 80.8
White, non-Hispanic - - - 61.5 77.3 82.8 86.5 90.5 91.0 91.4 86.8
Black3 6.1 10.6 13.0 24.2 42.5 45.5 54.0 70.6 74.1 74.5 65.0
Hispanic 4.6 9.6 12.1 23.0 37.1 46.7 54.9 71.4 69.2 75.4 66.2
Asian and Pacific
Islander - - - - 71.9 81.3 - 91.8 93.5 91.5 90.7

Asian - - - - - - 83.7 93.2 94.3 93.2 92.7

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(computer at home) 1984 1989 1993 1997 2000 2001 2003 2010 2011 2012 2013

Householder's Education
Less than high school
diploma 4.2 6.4 7.6 15.2 30.1 37.8 46.6 57.2 57.5 62.8 51.4

High school diploma/GED 12.0 16.6 20.7 40.1 55.8 64.2 68.4 77.3 76.9 77.6 68.2
Some college 20.5 30.6 37.4 57.1 74.8 77.2 81.9 88.5 88.3 89.0 84.2
Bachelor's degree or
more 30.4 48.6 62.7 80.0 89.9 92.1 93.5 95.7 96.7 97.4 94.3

Family Structure
Family households - - - - 65.2 70.6 75.7 83.1 83.3 85.0 78.5
Married-couple
household 17.8 28.3 38.3 59.0 73.6 78.8 82.3 88.4 88.5 90.6 84.9

Male householder 8.9 19.2 23.2 33.4 48.8 57.4 64.2 75.8 76.5 77.7 71.1
Female householder 7.2 11.0 13.9 25.3 43.0 48.7 58.0 70.0 71.7 72.9 64.6
Nonfamily household - - - - 50.0 54.9 61.7 68.9 74.7 76.1 75.0
Household Income
Under $25,000 7.2 11.4 11.6 20.0 32.9 40.0 47.2 60.9 62.2 65.0 54.0
Under $15,000 4.6 6.8 7.6 15.6 27.3 33.3 42.8 54.2 57.9 62.1 48.5
$15,000-19,999 9.3 14.5 16.2 21.3 36.0 - 49.2 69.3 66.2 66.8 62.3
$20,000-24,999 13.0 22.0 19.0 31.0 41.9 - - 70.1 69.3 70.6 61.4
$25,000-$49,999 22.7 31.0 32.9 51.4 63.5 68.7 74.3 82.3 79.2 82.1 74.0
$25,000-34,999 19.4 26.2 27.4 43.0 53.9 59.7 - 78.2 74.1 77.6 67.6
$35,000-49,999 27.8 38.0 37.5 58.1 71.4 75.7 - 86.0 83.4 86.1 79.6
$50,000-74,999 - 47.9 55.8 72.4 82.6 86.9 88.1 90.9 93.5 93.0 86.4
$75,000+ - 62.8 75.2 88.4 93.2 94.9 95.6 95.9 97.1 97.8 94.4

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(computer at home) 1984 1989 1993 1997 2000 2001 2003 2010 2011 2012 2013

Region
Northeast 19.3 30.4 35.3 54.0 70.2 75.4 81.8 87.6 89.0 87.8 81.7
Midwest 15.9 24.0 32.5 53.7 68.6 74.3 77.6 82.9 86.3 86.0 82.6
South 12.3 20.6 26.9 43.6 60.9 65.4 71.4 80.3 79.5 82.8 74.4
West 15.8 25.1 36.1 51.2 63.6 70.1 75.5 83.9 82.5 85.5 79.1
Metropolitan Status
Metropolitan - - - - 65.9 - - 83.5 84.1 85.6 79.1
Inside central city - - - - 53.4 - - 78.1 78.7 80.2 72.7
Outside central city - - - - 72.8 - - 86.9 87.1 89.1 83.0
Nonmetropolitan - - - - 61.1 - - 80.1 78.3 80.9 74.8
1
Wording of the question has changed slightly over time, and some year-to-year changes may be a result of changes in question wording. Between 1984

and 1997, the question was: “Is there a computer in this household?”. In 2000, the question was changed to: “Is there a personal computer or laptop in

this household?”. In 2001 and 2003, the question was “Is there a computer or laptop in this household?”. In 2010, the question was: “At home, do you or

any member of this household own or use a desktop, laptop, netbook or notebook computer?”. In 2011 and 2012, the question was: “How many desktop,

laptop, netbook, notebook, and tablet computers are there in use in this household?”. In 2013, the question was changed to “Does anyone in this

household use a desktop, laptop, netbook or notebook computer, or a tablet computer such as an Apple iPad or Samsung Galaxy, at home?”.

2
In most years, data were collected in October. However, in 2000, data were collected in August; in 2001, data were collected in September; and, in 2011

and 2013, data were collected in July.

3
Estimates for 1997 are for non-Hispanic blacks only.

Source: Data for 1984: Kominski, R. (1998). Computer use in the United States: 1984: Bureau of the Census. Data for 1989: Kominski, R. (1989).

Computer use in the United States: 1989: Bureau of the Census. Data for 1993: Education and Social Stratification Branch. (1993). Use of computers at
home and school by persons 3 to 17 years old: October 1993. Suitland, MD: Bureau of the Census. Data for 1997: Newburger, E. C. (1997) Computer use

in the United States: 1997: Bureau of the Census. Data for 2000: Newburger, E. C. (2000) Computer use in the United States: Special studies: Bureau of

the Census. Income data for 2001: Bureau of the Census. (2002). A nation online: how Americans are expanding their use of the Internet: Bureau of the

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 Home Computer Access and Internet Use
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Census. All other data for 2001: Child Trends calculations using data from U.S. Census. Computer and Internet Use in the United States, 2001: Tables 2A

and 4A. Income data for 2003: Day, J. C., Janus, A., and Davis, J. (2005) Computer and internet use in the United States: 2003: U.S. Census Bureau,

Current Population Reports. Available at: http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p23-208.pdf. All other data for 2003: Child Trends calculations using data
from U.S. Census. "Computer and Internet Use in the United States: October 2003." Tables 2A and 4A. available at:

http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/computer/2003.html. Data for 2010-2013: Child Trends' original analysis of the Current Population

Survey.

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Appendix 2 – Percentage of Children, Ages 3 to 17, who Use the Internet at

Home: Selected Years, 1997-20131
1997 2000 2001 2003 2010 2011 2012 2013

Total 10.8 30.4 41.1 42.0 56.7 57.5 62.0 57.1

Gender
Male 11.2 30.2 41.0 41.1 56.1 56.7 61.4 57.1
Female 10.4 30.6 41.1 43.0 57.4 58.4 62.7 57.0
Age
3 to 5 years 0.8 7.3 13.4 15.1 23.1 27.8 32.3 34.0
6 to 11 years 8.1 24.7 - - 55.0 54.2 60.6 53.6

12 to 17 years 18.7 47.9 - - 75.8 77.8 77.9 71.6

3 to 5 years 0.8 7.3 13.4 15.1 23.1 27.8 32.3 34.0

6 to 9 years 5.5 - 30.6 30.0 49.9 49.1 56.7 50.3

10 to 14 years 15.8 - 52.0 52.7 69.9 68.9 71.9 64.2

15 to 17 years 20.0 - 62.8 64.7 78.5 83.6 81.2 76.5

Race and Hispanic Origin
White - 33.6 44.2 45.7 58.8 58.8 63.7 58.6
White, non-Hispanic 14.2 38.4 50.5 51.6 65.0 64.3 68.9 63.7
2
Black 3.0 14.7 24.4 24.8 45.2 48.9 53.4 48.1
Hispanic 3.8 12.8 20.3 24.1 42.6 44.3 50.6 46.8
Asian and Pacific Islander - 35.2 51.5 - 63.7 62.9 68.1 62.5
Asian - - - 43.8 64.5 64.2 69.3 63.1

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(Internet at home) 1997 2000 2001 2003 2010 2011 2012 2013

Householder's Education
Less than high school
diploma 1.9 11.1 17.2 19.9 32.9 36.0 39.8 39.1

High school diploma/GED 6.1 24.3 35.3 35.6 50.6 51.0 55.8 48.2
Some college 11.5 34.9 45.5 46.3 61.0 61.5 64.7 60.7
Bachelor's degree or more 23.2 46.6 59.1 57.3 70.3 69.1 75.0 69.6
Family Structure
Family households - 30.5 41.2 42.1 56.8 57.6 62.2 57.2
Married-couple
household 13.1 35.1 46.6 46.4 61.6 61.2 67.0 61.8

Male householder 7.5 23.9 33.4 35.1 50.0 52.0 57.4 50.3
Female householder 4.5 17.8 26.7 30.4 45.0 49.3 51.5 47.7
Nonfamily household - 24.8 31.6 33.6 46.6 49.0 47.6 44.5
Household Income
Under $25,000 2.4 10.7 17.5 19.2 34.7 38.7 40.4 38.4
Under $15,000 1.7 7.7 14.3 16.5 30.1 35.4 36.0 33.4
$15,000-19,999 3.3 12.9 - 19.9 41.8 43.1 42.9 47.3
$20,000-24,999 3.7 15.2 - - 40.1 42.6 48.9 44.0
$25,000-$49,999 8.0 26.9 36.5 37.6 52.7 51.9 56.7 51.7
$25,000-34,999 6.2 21.0 28.9 - 47.0 48.9 52.6 48.6
$35,000-49,999 9.5 31.8 42.4 - 57.8 54.4 60.5 54.4
$50,000-74,999 17.8 39.9 52.1 50.8 63.1 64.4 69.9 62.3
$75,000+ 27.3 51.7 63.4 63.4 73.0 71.3 77.3 71.0

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(Internet at home) 1997 2000 2001 2003 2010 2011 2012 2013

Region
Northeast 13.3 35.5 47.2 49.2 61.7 61.4 66.8 60.2
Midwest 10.3 32.1 43.5 44.8 58.3 61.6 65.1 61.9
South 9.2 27.6 38.7 38.7 53.8 54.1 58.8 53.5
West 11.7 29.0 37.5 38.9 56.5 56.5 61.1 56.2
Metropolitan Status
Metropolitan - 30.8 - - 57.7 58.4 63.2 57.6
Inside central city - 23.7 - - 51.0 53.1 57.1 51.7
Outside central city - 34.7 - - 61.9 61.2 67.5 61.1
Nonmetropolitan - 28.7 - - 51.3 52.2 55.4 54.3
1
In most years, data were collected in October. However, in 2000, data were collected in August; in 2001, data were collected in September; and, in 2011

and 2013, data were collected in July.

2
Estimates for 1997 are for non-Hispanic blacks only.

Source: Data for 1997: Newburger, E. C. (1997) Computer use in the United States: 1997: Bureau of the Census. Data for 2000: Newburger, E. C. (2000)

Computer use in the United States: Special studies: Bureau of the Census. Income data for 2001: Bureau of the Census. (2002). A nation online: how

Americans are expanding their use of the Internet: Bureau of the Census. All other data for 2001: Child Trends calculations using data from U.S. Census.

Computer and Internet Use in the United States, 2001: Tables 2A and 4A. Income data for 2003: Day, J. C., Janus, A., and Davis, J. (2005) Computer and

internet use in the United States: 2003: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports. Available at: http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p23-

208.pdf. All other data for 2003: Child Trends calculations using data from U.S. Census. "Computer and Internet Use in the United States: October 2003."

Tables 2A and 4A. available at: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/computer/2003.html. Data for 2010-2013: Child Trends' original

analysis of the Current Population Survey.

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Endnotes
1 2
Rideout, V. J., Foehr, U. G., and Roberts, D. F. (2010). Generation M : Media in the lives of 8- to 18-year-

olds. Kaiser Family Foundation. Available at http://kff.org/entmedia/upload/8010.pdf

2
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. (2001). Non-technical strategies to reduce children’s

exposure to inappropriate material on the Internet: Summary of a Workshop. Board on Children, Youth,
and Families and Computer Science and Telecommunications Board. Joah G. Iannotta, ed. Washington,

D.C.: National Academy Press. http://www.nap.edu/books/0309075912/html/

3
Shields, M. K., and Behrman, R. E. (Fall/Winter 2000). Children and computer technology: Analysis and
recommendations. The Future of Children, 10(2): 4-30. Available at:

http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1602687

4
See, for example, Clotfelter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., and Vigdor, J. L. (2008). Scaling the digital divide: Home

computer technology and student achievement. Durham, NC: Duke University. Available at
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/events/colloquia/Vigdor_ScalingtheDigitalDivide.pdf

5
Rideout, V. J. et al., op. cit.
6
Hispanics may be any race, though whites in this report refer to non-Hispanic whites only.

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