Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00843

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Short Communication

A comprehensive review on fire damage assessment of reinforced

concrete structures
Di Qin a, *, PengKun Gao a, Fahid Aslam b, *, Muhammad Sufian c,
Hisham Alabduljabbar b
a
Changchun Institute of Technology, Changchun 130021, PR China
b
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
c
School of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The provision of appropriate fire-safety measures is a basic need in building design to guarantee
Fire the safety of its occupants. Damage due to fire is one of the most destructive aspects that cause
High temperature deterioration of reinforced concrete structures. Although concrete is a noncombustible material,
Concrete
its physical, chemical, and mechanical characteristics degrade if exposed to a high temperature.
Damage assessment
Buildings
The seriousness of a fire in concrete structures is mostly determined by the magnitude and
duration of the fire. If the magnitude of fire is minor and for a limited time then the damage to the
concrete members is likely to be minimal. Similarly, a higher magnitude or high temperature with
a longer duration will cause maximum damage or may result in the collapse of concrete struc­
tures. The purpose of this review is to summarize the damage of reinforced concrete (RC)
structures after a severe occurrence of fire. Additionally, to discuss the firefighting deficiencies,
and remedial measures adopted for recovering the damage due to fire in high-rise buildings. The
current study is a review of previous studies from the last decade on important fire damage
assessment measures used for damage assessment of RC structures. Some case studies have also
been reported in this work. The review results show the popularity of surveys and case studies on
fire damage related to RC structures. The essential contributing factors are collected that corre­
spond to the damage of RC structures due to fire. The electrical problems, faulty fire detection
systems, and a lack of firefighting equipment, and obstacles in emergency exits were shown to be
the most frequent causes of fire damage.

1. Introduction

One of the most frequent and devastating catastrophes in the world is the fire disaster. It has been a troubling problem in un­
derdeveloped nations for years [1]. In cases of accidental fire, RC is typical of great constructional efficiency, as shown by the Grenfell
Tower fire in 2017 or the Windsor Tower fire in 2005. Despite hourly flames, the concrete building did not completely collapse in the
two subsequent instances. In many cases, the fire disaster is not as severe as the two instances discuss above, and recovery is possible
[1]. Many scientists have focused on natural disasters such as earthquake-caused fires. One of the rare occurrences that may result in a
variety of consequences is fire following an earthquake. Buildings are exposed to a variety of natural and man-made hazards such as

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: qindi@ccit.edu.cn (D. Qin), f.aslam@psau.edu.sa (F. Aslam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00843
Received 7 August 2021; Received in revised form 13 December 2021; Accepted 14 December 2021
Available online 17 December 2021
2214-5095/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
D. Qin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00843

Table 1
General overview of domestic fires [14].
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Causes of fire International Smoking Cooking Use of candles Electric appliance Use of heating Playing with fire Other Unknown

UK 9% 57% 4% 17% 6% – 4% 2% –
Netherland 11% 3% – – 31% – 2% 27% –
US 6% 2% 26% 5% 3% 11% 0.4% 9% 36%
Australia 3% 4% 44% 4% 12% 3% 3% – 29%

earthquakes, hurricanes, fires, explosions that can cause a partial or complete collapse of the building. In the case of a hazard, such
damage may endanger resident’s lives and results in substantial direct and indirect monetary losses [2]. The temperature of a fully
established fire can rise over 1000 ◦ C, causing structural materials like steel, wood, and concrete to lose their strength and rigidity
[3–5]. Furthermore, material deterioration has a high risk of causing irreversible structural damage, which may lead to the building’s
early collapse under other natural hazards for which it was originally built, putting structural safety in danger [6–9]. Table 1 shows a
general summary of domestic fires. Building fires pose a substantial danger to life safety throughout both the pre-flashover and
post-flashover stages, resulting in many casualties each year [10]. During the pre-flashover period, several poisonous gases are pro­
duced, posing a serious health risk to people [11]. Carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, and phosgene gas are the most frequent. Small
dust particles and poisonous vapor are also included in combustion smoke, which may irritate the eyes and digestive system.
Furthermore, during a fire, smoke and hot gases conceal and obstruct escape routes from the structure, increasing the danger of
poisonous gas inhalation and burns. Combustion and breathing hot air reduce oxygen levels in the space, posing a danger to life safety
[12]. Property safety is one of the most serious consequences of fire, which results in billions of dollars in direct and indirect damage
across the world [10]. Combustion, firefighting activities, and leakage from hazardous substance containers due to fire damage all
contribute to the pollution of the environment. During a fire, hazardous chemicals are released into the environment through the fire
plume, firefighting operations, air and water contamination, resulting environmental degradation. Exposure intensity, medium
transmission, and sensitivity of receiving air, aquatic, and terrestrial ecosystems all influence the degree of environmental contami­
nation [13]. As a result, buildings must be built to resist many expected risks in order to guarantee life and structural safety as well as
environmental friendliness throughout their design life, and fire is one such severe hazard [2].
Fire is one of the most damaging elements that cause RC structures to degrade. At high temperatures, concrete outperforms other
construction materials like steel and wood in terms of mechanical properties. This implies that concrete buildings that have been
damaged by the fire may still be utilized. The load-bearing capacity of some structural members is significantly reduced, while other
structural element’s durability is simply affected. It is critical to assess the residual strength of concrete members after fire damage
before determining a treatment technique. Several research works have been conducted on the flexural capacity of concrete members
under fire [14]. Fire is one of the most significant dangers to civil buildings, and it is critical for building design to ensure the safety of
people by providing adequate fire protection systems. Although concrete is a non-combustible material when subjected to high
temperatures, its physical, chemical, and mechanical properties deteriorate. The extent and duration of the fire are mainly influenced
by the degree of fire damage to concrete structures. Thus, a comprehensive summary related to fire damage assessment is required to
understand the overall scenario from damage to the assessment stage.

2. Objectives of current review

Fire is a huge danger that poses a potential threat to human life, RC structures, and the environment. Buildings include a variety of
direct and indirect sources that contribute to the danger of fire, and the early phases of a fire create a substantial risk to life, structural
damage, property loss, and the environment. The article tackles some of the existing issues caused by the fire in RC buildings. The
majority of the structures are built to endure many decades and offer housing and functional services to a large number of people
during their planned life. The objective of this research is to get a better understanding of how RC structures react after a large fire, as
well as the techniques used to determine the assessment of high-rise buildings following fire damage. In this review, Section 3 explains
the different phases of damage that occurred in RC structures after the fire in which the different identification parameters are dis­
cussed as well as code-based clauses are described. Additionally, the petrographic technique is discussed that gives a good indication of
the temperature reached by the concrete at different depths and can also visualize the cracking and damage that occurs for the fire
damage assessment of structures. Section 4 summarizes the flaws in the firefighting systems of RC structures. The fire damage-related
remedial safety measures adopted for RC structures are reported in Section 5. Finally, the conclusions and future suggestions regarding
active and operational conditions are stated in Section 6. This article summarizes an overview of the aforementioned issues which will
be useful for the fire engineering community.

3. Damage to RC structures after fire

RC buildings have high natural fire resistance and high temperatures may not always result in destruction. A post-fire assessment is
required due to the concrete state of the buildings. Concrete in buildings that have been exposed to fire does not have uniform features
in cross-section. The near-surface concrete layer experienced the most severe deterioration [15]. RC structures usually remain stable
following a fire, despite the damage and residual deformations that need maintenance [1]. Many scholars have investigated the

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Fig. 1. Assessment for residual capacity of RC structural elements.

Table 2
Fire inspection checklist [24].
Study Primary study Primary study

– Simple examination Detailed examination

Visual assessment Simple technique Mechanical test Material inquiry Numerical study

Methods a. Discoloration of the concrete; b. a. Schmidt hammer a. Sample of the a. UV spectrum method; a. UV spectrum method;
Dimensions of the crack; test; concrete core; b. Microwave capacity; b. Microwave capacity;
c. Spalling. b. Test of concrete b. Sample of steel c. Thermo-luminescence c. Thermo-luminescence
carbonation. bar; measurement; measurement;
c. Vibration test; d. Ultrasonic test; d. Ultrasonic test;
d. Loading test. e. X-ray diffraction e. X-ray diffraction
technique. technique.

performance of fire-damaged concrete structures [14]. Reinforced buildings of concrete offer excellent natural fire resistance in
comparison to stainless steel and wood structures [3]. As the concrete coating penetrates further into the member cross-section, it
insulates the reinforcement from the heat. This allows the load-bearing capacity of a building to stay relatively high during and after a
fire. On the other hand, high-strength concrete is less fire-resistant than ordinary concrete, while lightweight concrete is more
fire-resistant. Despite this, unlike steel and wood, concrete is seldom completely destroyed in a fire [16]. When concrete is subjected to
high temperatures, its thermal, physical, and chemical reactions degrade its mechanical characteristics [17]. The extreme thermal
properties of normal concrete, high strength concrete, lightweight concrete, shotcrete, and mortars are comparable [18]. RC beams
and slabs near the ceiling that are exposed to rising convective currents immediately during a fire are more vulnerable [19]. RC
structures subjected to fire maintenance have considerable residual capability due to the superior fire-resistant characteristics of
concrete, and the re-use of the structure is often feasible for the future. On the other hand, heat degradation may lead to irreversible
strength and serviceability loss. A thorough evaluation of the residual capacity is needed to make refined decisions about future use
and the requirement for repairs in fire-damaged structures [20]. Fig. 1 shows the flow chart for the assessment of the residual capacity
of RC structural elements.

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Fig. 2. View of the cover reinforcement loss: (a) support region (b) span region [21].

Fig. 3. Illustration of floor slabs damage: (a) Cover local defects; (b) Peel-off concrete cover in reinforced bars region [21].

3.1. Determination of damage due to fire

The ability to evaluate the impact of a fire on the structural load-bearing capacity and safety generally requires measuring the
concrete residual strength. This may be used to assess whether the structure is suitable for future use, identify the kind and scope of
repairs required, or demolish the damaged structure. Damages and regions of concrete degradation are easily visible and identifiable if
the structural components have been substantially damaged by fire [21]. During the initial visual assessment of less damaged com­
ponents, changes in the appearance of concrete cannot be detected. More comprehensive information may be acquired via laboratory
and on-site testing on the condition and internal structure of the concrete. Concrete compressive strength is the most important factor
to consider after fire damage. It is especially important to establish the thickness of the external layer of the part in which the concrete
has been affected till it needs to be considered for damaged [22]. Standard fire, parametric and natural flames (without cooling), are all
used to study the RC structures. The fires i.e. parametric and natural are generally more accurate representations of real fires than
conventional fires [23]. In assessing structures after a fire, the thickness of the external crossings, in which the concrete is sufficiently
damaged to be regarded as destructed is very important [15]. The checklist for a fire inspection is represented in Table 2.

3.2. Damage failure assessment after fire

The mechanical and thermal characteristics of concrete and steel are affected by heat. When the mechanical characteristics lose
toughness and resistance lead to damage of structural components. The heat transfer from the fire-printed portion to other structural
parts is caused by thermal propagation. In concrete and reinforcing materials, mechanical characteristics include a decrease in
compression and tension, as well as a rise and decrease in strain [25]. Fire, especially post-earthquake fires, is a major danger to human
civilization. This threat is a once-in-a-lifetime occurrence with far-reaching implications. Concrete strength deterioration at high
temperatures is related to chemical-physical processes and mechanical damage within the concrete microstructure is one of the most
important phenomena influencing the load-bearing capability of a building subjected to fire conditions. This issue has received a lot of
attention [26]. When assessing structural load-bearing capacity, concrete heated to 500–600 ◦ C may be considered damaged from a
practical perspective. After cooling, concrete strength is almost always lower after high temperatures than that of room temperature
[27]. The thermal inertia of concrete, which is important in large-scale members exposed to fire for a long period. The thermal inertia
of the concrete allows for long-term temperature adjustment even after the heating has stopped [15]. A summary of the collected
experimental data was given in the form of relationships between concrete temperature and relative compressive strength degradation.
The decrease in concrete strength at high temperatures is influenced by a variety of variables, including aggregate type, concrete
porosity, and member size, heating, and loading duration [28]. The loss of concrete cover along the longitudinal borders in the support
areas and local areas at the base of the major beams was observed as a consequence of the thermal expansion of the strengthening bars.

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Table 3
Color changes of a concrete structure at various ranges of temperature [35].
Range of temperature T~300 ◦ C 300–600 ◦ C 600–950 ◦ C 950~
◦
C greater ◦ C

Color Normal Pink to red Whitish grey Buff

Appearance Normal Surface crazing, cracking, and aggregate Spalling, exposed of steel reinforcement and powered Extreme
pop-outs existence spalling
Condition Normal Sound but strength may be reduced Weak Extreme/
severe

Fig. 4. The compressive strength of concrete decreases at various cross-section depths as a function of heating time [34].

After doing the test with a steel hammer, the range of damage detected was found to be larger. The primary reinforcing bars were
revealed as a consequence of the cover being removed. The absence of a concrete cover, with a thickness of 35–45 mm, resulted in a
decrease in the compacted concrete area near the support. The concrete in the main areas of beams in the stirrups was not damaged,
and according to tests its current strength corresponds to the desired class [21]. Some of damage structural elements due to fire are
shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.
As a consequence of the study, numerous losses of concrete cover on the base surfaces of precast panels were found, ranging from
3 cm to 4 cm, caused by thermal spalling. In other cases, the steel was discovered completely bare of the concrete coating with some
bars even detaching from the deeper concrete layer [21]. As a result, the core of the member is exposed to higher temperatures for
longer than the top layer, resulting in a reduction in the strength of the concrete member. After the fire has been extinguished, this
process may take many hours. The second significant factor is the cooling rate. While the concrete surface cools, the member
cross-section produces a non-uniform temperature distribution. This increases the tension, which is known as "self-equilibrating"
tension [27]. It is increased when the cross-section temperature gradient increases, i.e. the cooling is more rapid [29]. As compared to
members that are cooled freely in the air, the compressive strength loss can be up to two times higher [15]. It is widely known that the
positive impact on concrete strength at high temperature of the compressive stress is equal to 20–40% of the compressive strength at
room temperature [27]. Continuous watering of a structure during a fire may cause rapid cooling. This is particularly the case when
low-temperature components such as 300–350 ◦ C are used. Because such members are stiffer than those that have been heated, they
are more vulnerable to the damaging effects of stress produced by fast cooling [29]. Color changes of a concrete structure at various
ranges of temperature are presented in Table 3.
Experiments have shown that temperature rises with an increase in concrete strength because greater strength leads to better
density and thermal conductivity, allowing for faster heat transmission. Because these factors control the development of a moisture
clog zone, so the temperature distribution across the thickness of the walls is strongly reliant on the heated region as well as the
strength of concrete [30]. Furthermore, the output strength of the steel reinforcement reduces as the temperature rises. Concrete
spalling is an important component in lowering the resistance to fire when exposed to high temperatures [31]. Many techniques of
concrete testing in buildings are now in use [32]. The previous study provides a thorough overview of concrete spalling [33]. The
accumulation of the pores during heat promotes the breakdown. High-strength concrete is considered to be more susceptible to
pressure build-up because of its more brittleness than ordinary concrete. This reduces the fire resistance of high-strength concrete
compared to normal-strength concrete [31]. According to codes of practice, temperature increase causes strength deterioration in both
steel and concrete, depending on the type of aggregate and grade of steel [31]. In contrast with the rebound numbers decrease (LT/L0)
achieved in the tests, the compression force reduction (fc/fck) of the concrete at many cross-sectional depths takes the heating time
into assessment [34]. About the heat time at various depths of the cross-section, the decrease in concrete compressive strength is shown
in Fig. 4.

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Table 4
Classification of materials to combustible German DIN 4102 [38] and European EN 13501 [39].
Contribution to fire Minimal Small Normal Large
Non-combustible materials heavy combustible materials combustible materials Highly
combustible
materials
Classification DIN A1 A2 B1 B2 B3
of materials 4101–1
EN A1 A2 – s1, d0 B – s3, d2 C – s3, d2 D – s3, d2 E – s3, d2 F
13501–1

Material Gypsum, lime, Product as in Gypsum Phenolic Wood products Different types Products not
cement, Class A1, but boards with foam, gypsum having a of fiberboards, tested for fire
concrete, containing a different boards with thickness insulating
minerals, small amount (thin) different exceeding products, and
glass, of organic coatings, coatings (less 10 mm and a plastic products.
fiberglass, material. wood-based than those in density greater
ceramic, sand fire retarders. Class B). than 400 kg/
m3.

Table 5
Building codes, technical reports, and standards on the subject of fire and structures.
Document name Published Country/ Document Organization
year Region type

Code Requirements for Determining Fire Resistance of Concrete and 2019 USA Building Code American Concrete Institute (ACI)
Masonry Construction Assemblies
Appraisal of Existing Structures 2010 UK Technical Institution of Structural Engineers
Report (ISE)
Assessment, Design, and Repair of Fire-Damaged Structures 2008 UK Technical Concrete Society
Report
Fire Design of Concrete Structures–Structural Behavior and 2008 EU Technical International Federation for
Assessment Report Structural Concrete (fib)
EN 1992 1–2, EN 1993 1–2, EN 1994 1–2 2004 & 2005 EU Building Code Eurocode (CEN)
Structural Fire Protection 1992 USA Standard American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE)

3.3. Code based clauses on fire for assessment of RC structures

According to the textbook, the low-slender RC components in typical structures have a fire resistance of 50–60% [16]. The
Eurocode requirements for cross-sectional dimensions and axial reinforcement distance from the concrete surface can be used to create
RC members with a 4-hour fire-resistance [36]. Such codes, on the other hand, thought that steel reinforcement temperature was a
significant factor in strength deterioration. The Eurocode 2–2004 offers profiles for the temperature distribution throughout the slab
thickness for slabs, cross-sections for beams and columns based on the fire strength class for the load-bearing requirements of 30 or
60 min in standard fire exposure. It explains how to calculate mechanical behavior using basic techniques such as the 500 ◦ C isotherm
and zone techniques [31]. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 101, upgrading buildings will make them safer
for inhabitants. Fire safety activities, including structural fire resistance, detection, alarm, and extinguishing systems, are included in
the Nigeria National NBC evaluations of buildings in terms of safety. Fire safety requirements and evacuation techniques are examples
of general safety [37]. In Table 4 classification of materials to combustible German DIN 4102 [38] and European EN, 13501 [39] are
shown. A list of some building codes, technical reports, and standards on the subjects of fire and structures is shown in Table 5.

3.4. Application of petrographic technique for the fire damage assessment of structures

Petrographic studies support the identification of particular minerals, rock textures, coarseness, and relative or quantitative per­
centages of different components. The stone’s physicochemical characteristics and stage of degradation are also specified, in addition
to its precise typology [40]. The petrographic examination has been extensively utilized to assess the degree of fire damage to RC
components because it allows the direct study of microcracking and mineralogical changes. Fire-damaged masonry buildings made of
stone, brick, and mortar may also be subjected to petrographic analysis. Petrography allows for the precise identification of damaged
geo-materials, resulting in cost savings and improved safety assurance during construction repairs [41]. Another study by [42]
included core strength and optical microscope studies of fire-damaged concrete. It is obvious to collect samples from a concrete slab
that had been revealed to heat. Laser microscopy has targeted the morphology of aggregate, cement paste, cracks, and micro-voiding as
well, in concrete samples that have been exposed to fire. As a result of the physical state of the concrete sample and the microscopic
inspection, a petrographer can make a fair estimate of the minimum exposure temperature and its relative effect on the depth of
damage to concrete [42]. The existence of early-stage alkali-silica reaction (ASR) damage and distinct micro-cracking patterns in the

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Fig. 5. Sample T1, (a) Initial appearance, (b) Microscopy, (c) photomicrography [49].

Fig. 6. Pictorial view of two case studies: (a) J. D. Gomwalk House; (b) Murtala House [59].

reactive fine aggregate (RFA) and reactive coarse aggregate (RCA) specimens was verified by petrographic examination, which may
explain the linear resonance data discrepancies. The nonlinear resonance test findings for both RCA and RFA specimens were able to
identify the onset of ASR damage and showed a significant connection with ASR expansion for all specimens from various mix designs.
The findings show that the nonlinear resonance test has high sensitivity and may be used to quantify the ASR damage status of concrete
specimens without a baseline measurement [43]. As part of another study [44], the physical and chemical properties of historical
concrete buildings in the Dominican Republic were compared, as well as their usage and age (1917–1955). Buildings constructed by
American and Dominican engineers were studied, representing a full generation of construction history. Give details on the concrete
utilized during that period as well. They included X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy-Dispersive X-ray
Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP), petrographic inspection, and Visual Testing
(VT). The findings show that concrete composition changes with time. All of the samples, except one, exhibited the typical peaks of the
crystalline phases, i.e., quartz, albite, and calcite, in various amounts [44]. Under the Carl Zeiss Jenapol petrographic microscope, a
thin sheet of rock (approximately 30 µm) is seen (at such thin thicknesses, the rocks are transparent). Due to their optical charac­
teristics, this method enables direct examination of the mineralogy of a rock’s texture and composition. The difficulty of detecting
extremely small minerals is one of the technique’s drawbacks. Therefore, it is best used in conjunction with microscopic inspection and
X-ray diffraction. The exams are carried out on a large scale as per ASTM C-856. This technique was used to determine the degree of
compaction, paste matrix homogeneity, and cement dispersion, among other things. Chemical analysis findings are included in the
description of each sample as well as a comparative analysis. Sample T1 is made up of uniform-sized grains in various tones (cream,
dark grey, light grey) arranged in a light grey tone matrix (refer Fig. 6). The preparation is made up of numerous altered quartz and
feldspar crystals, some of which have mirmechitic textures, indicating that they are the result of acidic igneous rock breakdown. The
aggregate is semi-triangular and spherical, with no size categorization ranging from four or five millimeters to less than 100 µm. There
are no arid-alkali reaction halos or deformation fractures as shown in Fig. 6 [45]. The possibility of utilizing new deep learning
methods for concrete petrographic analysis was investigated by [46]. It was shown that the convolutional neural networks (CNN)
technique can segment concrete pictures without using phenolphthalein to color the cement paste. In summary, convolutional neural
networks (CNN) may be an effective tool for concrete petrographic study and good machine visual comprehension [46].

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4. Post-earthquake fires structural response and their important factors

The fact of post-earthquake fires has not been given enough attention over the years. Structures such as hospitals and schools,
which are designated as "important" in seismic codes because of their post-disaster function in providing services or refuge after an
earthquake, need more attention than ordinary structures do. Structures are more vulnerable to fire when they have been previously
damaged, according to the findings. Buildings that are exposed to post-earthquake-fire (PEF) are then recommended to strengthen
their fire resistance through the use of a post-earthquake-fire (PEF) factor. While the study only looks at a specific kind of structure
(important building, intermediate reinforced construction, five floors), it is anticipated that the findings will pave the way for more
research into this significant field [47]. The process of determining the remaining load-bearing capability of structural components
after a fire is a challenging task because of the various uncertainties linked with the many affecting factors. After a fire, new meth­
odologies need to be designed to determine the extent of the damage or the amount of residual safety that remains in a building. Such
methodologies are essential in order to facilitate and speed the judgment procedure after a catastrophe by giving accurate information
about the structure’s condition [48].
Reinforced concrete (RC) structures can withstand fire, but the damage and residual deformations that they sustain need proper
maintenance. The findings of the parametric study demonstrate that in contrast with the concrete heat conductivity and live loads, the
fire load density and opening factor have a substantial impact on the residual deformations of RC columns [1]. There are several RC
structures in existence that lack structural stability because of inadequate transverse reinforcement and bond length for longitudinal
bars in the beam-column joints, which were designed and constructed in accordance with previous seismic standards. These
non-seismic joints are susceptible to brittle shear failure under low-cycle reversed stress after fire exposure. Rebuilding the post-fire RC
frame structures is expensive, but if cost-effective and practical strengthening procedures are found, they may be reused by retrofitting
the joint panel zone. It has become more vital to evaluate and improve the seismic performance of post-fire RC joints during the last
several decades [49,50]. Structural restraints at the boundaries have an enormous impact on how steel columns respond to fire. The
equivalent static spring approach does not accurately reflect buckling and post-buckling response when modeling the influence of the
surrounding frame on an isolated column. In addition, numerical models that predict the fire performance of a full-frame column
match the patterns seen in real test results till failure, but these simulations do not always reflect post-failure performance adequately.
Hybrid fire testing can be utilized to capture adequate boundary conditions and rectify failure mechanisms during testing of isolated
components. Existing research suggests that hybrid fire testing may be unstable. This research shows that stiffness updates derived
from test specimen force-displacement response records at increased temperatures may be utilized to overcome stability difficulties. In
particular, the paper suggests that active boundary conditions are required in structural fire testing because an equivalent static spring
does not always accurately represent the impact of the surrounding frame on an isolated component during a fire test, and it dem­
onstrates that the force-displacement response record of the test specimen during HFT can be used in the form of a stiffness update to
ensure test stability [51].
The reinforced concrete columns exposed to natural fires are examined to see whether the risk of structural collapse exists during
the cooling period and the factors and situations that favor this undesired behavior are identified. The key processes for these delayed
failures are that temperatures in the center zones of the element can continue to rise long after the gas temperature has returned to
normal, and that concrete loses extra strength during cooling relative to when it is at maximum temperature. Short fires and columns
with a minimal slenderness ratio have been demonstrated to be the most problematic circumstances in terms of delayed failure. The
possibility of the column surviving the fire indefinitely rises as the gas temperature cools quickly. Regardless of how quickly the fire
was put out, the column is still at risk of collapse for many hours after the fire has been doused if the weight is sufficiently high [52].
When a fire breaks out in a structure after a seismic activity, it becomes more critical to understand the structural characteristics of
the building due to increased complexity after a fire event [53]. Buildings in metropolitan areas must be constructed in a way to ensure
a "safe and sound" environment during the design life of the structure. It is essential for buildings in metropolitan areas to be struc­
turally stable, and as a result, they are constructed to fulfill all applicable codes and requirements. The fire analysis revealed two kinds
of collapse mechanisms: global collapse and local collapse. While local failure happened in the beams, global collapse was mostly seen
in the columns, which experienced significant lateral displacement. Interestingly, although not unexpectedly, the majority of fire-only
assessments resulted in local collapse, while all FFE analyses resulted in global collapse [54]. The structures that are already damaged
partially by an earlier ground motion can collapse during a post-earthquake fire (PEF). The majority of earthquake-resistant building
standards and regulations neglect the potential of a post-earthquake fire, and as a result, structures constructed in accordance with
such standards and codes may be insufficiently strong in the event of a fire after an earthquake [55]. Researchers, fire engineers, and
assessment agencies are paying more attention to probabilistic analysis. In many cases, it is difficult to tell exactly which probabilistic
models should be used for a certain investigation. For PSFE, it is advised to employ both permanent and imposed load models, based on
past research and their context [56]. Thus, new codes and standards are required for evaluating the post fire response more critically.

5. Flaws in firefighting systems of RC structures

Fire in buildings presents major safety dangers, particularly when fuel sources are often used for the sake of building owners and
property residents. Despite advances in fire safety and prevention technology, fire disasters continue to be the greatest cause of death
and property damage in commercial buildings throughout the globe. Observations show that fire disasters in commercial buildings are
mostly caused by the use of substandard materials and defective electrical equipment [57]. Even in small compartments, substantial
spatial temperature gradients occur, according to an analysis of available compartment fire data [58]. As a consequence of the recent
fires in Nigeria, the fire safety problem is gaining momentum, especially in high-rise structures. In evaluating fire protection actions in

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Table 6
The relationship between the damage index and RC cracking [63].
Damaged 0 0.1 0.2–0.3 0.4–0.5 0.6–0.7 > 0.8
index

Description No Observable thin cracks Observable clear Concrete cover local Noteworthy concrete Reinforcing bars Buckling.
of damage on concrete surface cracks on concrete crush. Major cracks crush with Noteworthy loss to the
damage (crack surface (crack (crack reinforcing bar concrete core. Observable
breadth<0.2 mm) breadth = width=1.0–2.0 mm) revelation. Concrete perpendicular and/or lateral
0.2–1.0 mm) cover Spalling (crack deformation of the column.
breadth > 2.0 mm). Detectable settlement and/
or inclined of the building
Level of Zero I II III IV V
damage

high-rise buildings from the perspective of the inhabitants of the building and observation of two high-rise buildings as shown in Fig. 5,
the case study includes J. D. Gomwalk’s and Murtala’s homes in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. The J. D. Gomwalk House is a nine-story
building next to the Standard Building on J. D. Gomwalk Road. In the first quarter of 2011, a fire gutted the last floor, which housed the
African Independent Television and Ray Power Radio Station studios. The elevator system is no longer functional due to the lack of
appropriate maintenance and power instability in the state. A lengthy hallway within the structure leads to the emergency escape route
consisting of an overhead spiral step of 1.400 radii. Murtala Mohammed Way, on the other hand, is the location of Murtala’s home. In
this high-rise structure, there was never a fire. The features of both formations are comparable. These case studies show the strengths
and shortcomings of the structures with regard to fire safety. The lift system is no longer in operation because of a lack of adequate
maintenance and power volatility. As a consequence of a walkthrough inspection, the House of Murtala has specific advantages and
demerits with regard to building inhabitants and safety in case of a fire. The ventilation system is covered with fuel, which may be used
as a fire and smoke route in case of a fire. The findings of the occupant survey in the two high-rise buildings case study show a high
degree of knowledge for fire prevention procedures. Fire safety safeguards have still been limited in these buildings for active services
like fire extinguishers and firefighting services and inadequate passive fire safety design features. Only 9.3% of those polled thought
firefighting services were active. Most fires are caused by electrical faults, according to 42% of respondents, while 20.5% believe that
most fires are caused by electrical faults and the carelessness of the building inhabitants. High-level building workers may also be
helpful if they are better knowledgeable about fire safety and the workings of defense systems [59]. The fire detection system has been
inoperative due to a lack of regular testing and maintenance. Fire extinguishers are there and functioning, but most residents are
unaware of how to use them. Each level has a clear evacuation notice for the escape doors leading to the stairs outside the building in
the event of a fire. The height of the floors from the ground means that fire shovels are equipped on each level so that the water from the
main firefighters may be pushed through them. The hosepipes are lengthy enough to go to the far end of the passage, but owing to the
high maintenance costs, the systems are disconnected. The architect specified fire safety measures during construction and in the
building, but the plans were not coded and executed. They would have been effective if they had been kept in good working order at all
times [59]. A pictorial view of two case studies, i.e., J. D. Gomwalk House and a pictorial view of Murtala Houses are shown in Fig. 5.
When the fire takes place, the building and its inhabitants confront the challenges as follows. The situation of power supply is un­
reliable, making the buildings’ fire suppression equipment ineffective. The materials used to divide the sections of the structure are
flammable and easily consumed by fire. The building doors are not fireproof, allowing smoke to easily pass through. Because the
ceiling is made of asbestos and is flammable, a fire may spread from one special unit to the next. The fire detection system in the
building is not functional and must be replaced with a more contemporary system for efficiency. The inhabitants of the high-rise
buildings, i.e., Murtala’s house and J. D. Gomwalk’s house, both in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria, have a high degree of knowledge of
fire prevention procedures. Only 12% of the respondents claimed ignorance of specific fire safety problems in buildings, whereas 88%
said they knew about them. Furthermore, the respondents believe that fire safety methods should be a top priority for property
managers and designers, given the difficulty of evacuating people and property during a fire. The majority of them agreed that fire
safety is an important factor to consider when designing high-rise structures [59].

6. Fire damage related remedial safety measures adopted for RC structures

The process of burning is known as fire or combustion. It is a chemical reaction in which a material mixes with oxygen in the air and
emits energy in the form of heat, which is triggered by the presence of heat. In any given structure, fire requires a constant supply of
heat, fuel, and oxygen. As a result, the focus must be on these three factors, i.e., the common and constant supply of oxygen from the
environment, heat energy, and flammable materials. In the built environment, a fire incident is an unplanned or unanticipated
occurrence. Human mistakes, as well as the use of defective electrical equipment, are all causes of fire or sources of ignition in
structures [60]. The new design philosophy that has developed recently in structural engineering is structural fire engineering. Fire
safety design may be performed using active and passive fire prevention technologies. Most active systems activate themselves when a
fire is started. Examples of such systems include fire detectors, smoke control systems, and sprinklers. To minimize or postpone a rise in
the temperature of structural components, passive systems such as construction code limitations, gates, windows, and protective
materials are implemented in structures [31]. The description of the fire is a common element that underpins the comprehensive
supply of the fire protection plan for tall structures. The fire safety strategy cannot be adequately optimized and yet robust if the

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D. Qin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00843

Fig. 7. Relationship between fire resistance under elevated temperature keyword with other parameters: (a) Overall link with other keywords; (b)
Density visualization of all keywords.

necessary measures have not yet been taken. The findings of the Cardington experiments, as well as the following advancement of
finite element modeling, showed that structural systems need to be examined holistically to completely understand how they would
work under fire stress [61]. The preparation for a fire disaster involves action for the protection of property and to limit harm and
disruption, as well as action for post-disaster repair and early recovery. Fire disaster awareness covers the improvement of life safety in
case of a fire disaster. All common actions linked with fire disaster preparation are to build the planning procedures to guarantee
readiness, formulate disaster schemes, store resources for efficient response, and develop capabilities and competence for successful
disaster-related duties. The training and preparedness of fire disaster managers will have an impact on how they operate during and
after a fire. Efforts to prepare also seek to ensure that the resources and equipment needed to react successfully in the event of a fire
catastrophe are in place and that people who will understand how to utilize the equipment and resources are available [62]. Table 6
shows the connection between the fire damage index and the cracking behavior of RC structural components.
Electrical problems are the most frequent cause of fire outbreaks, according to the case study, which covers Murtala’s homes and J.
D. Gomwalk’s in Jos, Plateau, Nigeria. If the wires and fittings are correctly placed and supervised, this may simply be prevented.
However, despite attempts to limit the use of flammable materials in buildings and prevent ignition, the cause of certain fires cannot be
entirely avoided [59]. It is critical to conduct a fire-safety assessment to avoid the onset of a high-rise building fire in a timely manner
[64]. Some 11 parametric modules for fire safety analysis and risk assessment buildings were identified. The usage of these parametric
modules will improve the national fire safety engineering construction and construction process [65]. The findings also highlighted the
necessity for both designers and property owners to enhance their fire safety procedures. In high-rise structure design, strict adherence
to fire safety measures as stipulated in building regulations must be considered [59]. Cast-in-place solutions (Form and Pour or Form
and Pump), Shotcrete (Pneumatically-placed concrete), Trowel-applied Mortars (Thin section, non-structural repairs), and
Pressure-injection of epoxy resins into significant cracks for in-situ structural bonding. It should be noted that, regardless of selecting

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D. Qin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00843

Fig. 8. Relationship of reinforced concrete and elevated temperature keyword with other parameters: (a) Reinforced concrete;(b) elevated
temperature.

repair technique, the goal of the restoration is to return the RC asset to service in a manner consistent with the original design intent, i.
e., repair-in-kind [64]. Fire safety-related remedial measures are required to overcome the deficiencies of the firefighting systems in RC
structures. In the event of a fire, the building position provides for easy access to the firefighting apparatus. The building needs to
construct like a frame, which makes it hard to spread fire from one floor to another. The building is thus built that all escape routes on
each floor are indicated. The wall envelope is required to build with bricks that are poor heat conductors and make entering the fire
difficult. The building has huge openings that, in case of a fire, may serve as ventilation relief. The window opening onto the buildings
inside provides the staircase with natural light.

7. Science visualization of reinforced concrete structures under fire/high temperature

In scientometric assessments, academics utilize a process called "science visualization" to evaluate bibliometric data for a number of
purposes [66]. It highlights the difficulties that researchers experience when doing reviews manually and draws a connection between
keywords within a certain study field [67,68]. Data from Scopus was converted to a Comma Separated Values (CSV) file and then
analyzed using an appropriate program. Using VOS viewer (version 1.6.16), the scientific maps and visualizations were produced.
Visualization software known as the VOS Viewer is widely used and regarded as excellent in the academic literature [60–62].
Consequently, the VOS viewer was employed to achieve the goals of this study. In order to perform the analysis, VOS viewer was used,
with the "type of data" set to "build a map from bibliometrics" and the "source of data" set to "read data from bibliographic records". The
data consistency and reliability were maintained by importing the Scopus CSV file into VOS viewer and performing the analysis in just

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D. Qin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00843

a few easy steps. As part of the scientific mapping study, the most frequently occurring keywords were evaluated. The origins of the
often-appearing keywords were investigated as part of the examination of scientific mapping study. Scopus was used to construct the
bibliometric data for the present study on reinforced concrete structures under fire/high temperature. In November of 2021, the
Scopus database was searched using data from the previous decade. “Reinforced concrete structures under fire/elevated temperature”
was used as the Scopus search keyword. It is vital to employ keywords in research since they identify and represent the main features of
the study [60–62]. In this study, the "Co-occurrence" was taken as the "kind of analysis" and "all keywords" was picked as the "unit of
analysis" for that investigation. Fig. 7 depicts the correlation frequency of keyword networks, together with their connections and the
density that is connected to the correlation frequency of the keywords. In Fig. 7(a), the magnitude of the keyword node represents its
frequency, whereas its position shows its co-occurrence in publications. To further emphasize their importance in researching rein­
forced concrete structures under fire and/or extreme temperatures, the visualization reveals the aforementioned keywords to have
larger nodes than any other terms in the analysis. Some keywords are colored differently to show how often they appeared together in
different publications. In Fig. 8, the hues, red, green, yellow, and blue, represent four distinct groups that were detected. The density
concentration of keywords is shown in separate colors in Fig. 7(b). The colors are arranged according to their density, with red having
the greatest density and blue having the lowest. Using reinforced concrete and fire resistance as examples, the density visualization
demonstrates that these materials have increased density. This discovery will help future authors to choose keywords that will make it
simpler to access published data in a certain subject easier to find out more about. The overall linkage between fire resistances under
elevated temperatures keyword with other parameters based on last 10 years Scopus data are shown in Fig. 8(a). The density visu­
alization in Fig. 7(b) shows that the fire resistance of reinforced concrete structures is focused on considering various analysis pa­
rameters during the last decade. The linkage of reinforced concrete and elevated temperature keywords with other parameters are
shown in Fig. 8(a) and 8 (b). The linkage of keywords with bigger nodes indicates that the fire resistance of reinforced concrete under
elevated temperature is the most studied area with various parameters.

8. Conclusions and future suggestions

In this study, the damage assessment methods, post fire structural response and flaws of firefighting systems are discussed for
reinforced concrete (RC) structures after a severe occurrence of fire. Numerous important information for structural assessment of fire-
damaged buildings includes categories of building elements and materials, fire-initiated point, exposure condition, necessary data
required, the expected temperature of the fire, and time period of fire. Fire ignition can reach its peak level because of the limited
number of fire prevention equipment and other parameters. The research also highlighted the necessity for both designers and
property owners to enhance their fire safety procedures. In the design of high-rise structures, strict adherence to fire safety procedures
as stipulated in building regulations must be considered. The current study is a review of previous studies from the last decade related
to the fire damage assessment of RC structures. Also, some case studies have been reported in this work. The review results show the
popularity of surveys and case studies on fire damage related to RC structures. The essential contributing factors are collected that
correspond to the damage of RC structures due to fire. Electrical problems, faulty fire detection systems, and a lack of firefighting
equipment, and obstacles in emergency exits were shown to be the most frequent causes of fire.
Further study should be carried out in detail for the control of fire ignition and fire-related concerns of high-rise buildings. In recent
times, efforts have been made by building owners at various levels to prevent the emergence of fire in buildings but mostly failed. The
occurrence of fire most times is unavoidable due to human attitude to handling certain issues especially selection of materials for
building components. Following are some suggestions for RC structure high rise buildings to fight fire disasters and all these are
inactive and operational conditions. RC structure should have firefighting department and trained personnel adequately equipped to
handle fire emergence at its inception stage. At least three different types of fire suppressive devices should be installed in all RC
structures to automatically intervene in the event of fire. Installation of a fire hydrant around the high-rise building is essential. There
must be the availability of stock of full-face masks on every floor, to avoid the effects of fire and smoke in an emergency.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgment

This work was sponsored in part by Jilin Provincial Department of Science and Technology Project (20210601130FG).

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