I
o DESIGN PROJECTS IN
H
O KRISTIN POLIZZOTTO
Terv
ery often, some type of writing assignment
is required in college entry-level Human Anatomy and
Physiology courses. This assignment can be anything Irom
an essay to a research paper on the literature, focusing on
¿6 a faculty-approved topic of interest to the student. As edu-
cators who teach Human Anatomy and Physiology at an
urban community college, we believe it is important to pro-
vide students with an assignment that challenges not only
their knowledge of the subject, but also their imaginations
(McGraw, 2004b). To achieve this goal, we assign Design
Projects in Human Anatomy and Physiology.
Background
Kingsborough Community College, in Brooklyn,
New York, is one of six community colleges In The City
University oi' New York. In ihe Kingsborough Department
of Biological Sciences, a two-semester sequence of courses
in Human Anaiomy and Physiology is required of studenls
majoring in one of the Allied Health Science fields, such as
Pre-Physician Assistant, Pre-Physical Therapy, Pre-Nursing,
Pre-Occupational Therapy, and so on.
The first semester includes study of anatomical termi-
nolog}', basic chemistry, the metric system, the cell, tissues,
and the skeletal, muscular, nervous, and endocrine systems.
The second semester focuses on the digestive, cardiovascu-
lar, respiratory, immune, excretory, and reproductive sys-
tems. In each semester, one writing assignment is required
for successful completion of the course. The assignment can
be a review of the literature or an alternate of the instructor's
choosing. This is where we opt to assign a Design Project.
The First Semester
It has been our experience ihai first semesier students
of Human Anatomy and Physiology are often overwhelmed
with the volume and complexity of material they arc
required lo learn. Students sometimes express that the
material is "boring^' and dry. To add some spark to the class.
KRÍÍ77N Pouzzono (Krisün.PoUzzotto@kbcc-cuny.cdu) is ASSÍSÍÜÍIÍ
Pwjcssoi\ and M.ARV T. ORTIZ (monizi^kinsborough.edu) is Profeswr.
bolh in the Department oj Biological Sciences, Kingsborough
Community College, City Universify oJ New York. Brooklyn. NY
¡1235.
230 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 70, NO. 4, APRIL 2008
Human Anatomy |
& Physiology
MARY T. ORTIZ
we have assigned one of several design projects to challenge
our students and to help them get a handle on ihe course
conten t-
Design Project 1: New Organelle for the Cell
A portion of the course is devoted to the study of ihc
cell, the basic unit of life. The cell is examined in general,
and the structure and function of each organelle is studied
in some detail. Aside from traditional testing on this topic,
we wanted another way to ascertain whether our students
really understood the workings of the cell. Hence, our first
design assignment was born. The assignment is to design
a new and different organelle for the typical human cell,
The student must name his/her organelle, fully describe
its structure and function, how it interacts with other
organdíes of the cell, how ii will improve the cell, and what
potential problems this new organelle may impose on the
cell. An accompanying diagram of the new organelle and of
the organdie's location in the cell is also a requirement, as
well as each sludeni's opinion of the assignment.
Over the years, we have been taken aback by the creativ-
ity of our students. For example, one student designed the
"Michdohia." The student had a taste for beer, and thought
it would be wonderful if she could enjoy it without getting
drunk. This organelle had detoxifying properties to allow
cells to process beer and prevent the ill effects ol" alcohol.
Another student felt like he never had time to eat properly.
He thought ii would be wonderful if he, like plants, could
make his own food. So, he designed a chloroplast-iike organ-
elle 10 do the job.
Design Project 2: New System of
Measurement
Although this topic is not always included in Anatomy
and Physiolog)' courses, at Kingsborough (where this is an
entry-level course), students must comprehend the interna-
tional system if they are to understand standard physiologi-
cal data.
The metric system can be a challenging topic for stu-
dents who have spent their lives up to this point immersed
in the English system. An innovative approach to under-
standing the metric system is to assign a design project
where each student must create a completely new system of
measurement, inciuding uniis for length, mass and volume, and
explain how these units relate to the metric system with relevant
examples. In order for each student to complete this design proj-
ect, he or she must first understand the metric system. Initially, it
seems a monumental task for the students, but as they work on
their .system, they gradually find their understanding of metrics
increases. Allowing the students lo name their system (along
with the units involved^ to explain how they came up with their
ideas, and to indicate whether their system would be a better
replacement for existing systems, provides them with an oppor-
tunity for added creativity and fun. Many students name their
systems after themselves or someone they know. For example,
ihc hypothetical student John Doe may create the "Doe System
ol Measurement." The basic unit in his system may be the "doe,"
which is equivalent to the length of the student's index finger, A
certain number of "does" equals a "John," and a "John" is equiva-
lent to one meter.
Design Project 3: New Element
This design project is aimed at increasing knowledge of
basic chemistry, including the structure of atoms, and the role
of electrons in forming bonds. This project invoives naming a
"newly-discovered" element, describing ils physical properties
(melting and boiling points, state at room temperature, etc.),
and describing its chemical properties (atomic number and
mass, bonding properties, etc.). Part of this assignment involves
explaining how they came up witb tbe idea for this "element" and
providing their opinion of the assignment. Again, many students
tend to name their newly-discovered element after themselves. A
student named Jane Smith might name her element ''smithium"
and describe it with a boiling point of 0" C and a freezing point
of -100" C. Sbe should also include the valence of one atom of
her element, its affinity for bonding witb other atoms, and what
kind of bonds it is likely to form (eovalent, polar or nonpolar,
ionic, hydrogen). Understanding the behavior of atoms and
molecules is vital to understanding cellular physiolog)^ and this
project can help students to comprehend the necessary chemical
knowledge.
Design Project 4: Cell Survival in Various
Environments
In this design project, each student is given (assigned or
drawn by lottery) a hypothetical environment in which a generic
human cell will be placed, and tbe student has to decide if tbe
cell could survive in that environment, why or why not, and
if not, how the cell could be modified so that it might be able
to survive. Sample environments may inelude: mierogravity
(weigbtlessness), a soap dish, the tundra, in a refrigerator, in a
dry incubator, in a test tube of nutrients (proteins, lipids, carbo-
bydrates), in a greenbouse, on a kitcben stove, on tbe floor of a
bospital operating room, on a mountain top, on a windowsill,
on asphalt, or in seawater. Each of these environments presents
a unique set of hostile conditions that would make survival for
the cell difficult, if nol impossible. Most students realize tbat the
generic human cell could not survive on its own in their assigned
environment. The task then is to redesign the cell so that it could
survive. For example, in the case of ihe cell placed in seawater,
one suggestion was made to modify the cell membrane witb new
specialized channels lo prevent water loss in this hypertonic
environment. In the case of the cell placed in a tundra environ-
ment, it was once suggested that the cell membrane consist of
additional lipid layers or material to better insulate the cell from
cold temperatures. In each case, an understanding of general cell
biology is pre-requisiic for designing necessary changes to insure
survival-
Design Project 5: More Effective Joints
In the first semester of Human Anatomy and Physiology,
students spend significant time memorizing the names and
positions of bones and muscles. While the information is vital,
this task can be difficult and tedious. One way to motivate the
studenis is to have them evaluate the design of human joints.
For this project, students choose common joint injuries related
to sports or other human movement, such as a torn knee liga-
ment from skiing or a rotator cuff injury from playing baseball.
Instructors could provide a list or allow students to come up
witb their own ideas. After selecting an injury, students must
design a joint that would reduce the frequency of such injuries.
Each project should begin with a description of the type of
movement required for the selected activity (e.g., knee flexion/
extension, leg adduction/abduction). The student then describes
in detail a common injury sustained during this activity, and
proposes design features that may prevent or lessen damage
to the joint. Each project should also include a diagram of the
newly-designed joint, with any novel anatomical features named
appropriately.
This design project may benefit students in several ways.
First, as with any design project, the opportunity to be creative
and to engage with the material improves learning and retention
of the core concepts {Price. 1995; Shakes, 1995). Second, by
designing a new joint, students are encouraged to think about
how muscles, bones, nerves, blood vessels, etc. must work
togetber, ratber than to simply memorize each anatomical name
as a separate entity. Finally, the assignment engages students
by giving them tbe opportunity to integrate their interests (e.g..
medicine, nursing, physical therapy, sports) with the course con-
tent- This opportunity helps to create interest in a subject that
may otherwise seem monotonous.
The Second Semester
Design Project 6: New Organ System
By the time their final semester oí Human Anatomy and
Physiology has arrived, students have come a long way in their
understanding of the body. At tbis point in their academic
careers, they can be challenged with more sophisticated design
projects (Leventon, 2002; Constans, 2003; Langer & Tirrell,
2004). After having studied each of the 11 organ systems in some
detail, now is the time to present this challenge: Design a new
additional organ system for the human body. Each student must
name his/her organ system, briefly describe what it is and does,
fully describe its anatomy and physiology and include a diagram,
explain how it interacts with the other organ systems, indicate
whether it could actually exist and why, and provide his/her
opinion of the assignment.
Some of the many interesting ideas students have come up
with over the years include the following:
1. A Gill System
Tbis system provides gills for allowing breathing under
water to prevent drowning.
2. Weight Control Glands
As an addition to the gastrointestinal system, these
glands react when they sense the body is overweight.
They increase metabolism and work in conjunction with
DESIGN PROJECTS 231
 the th>Toid and adrenal glands to release enzymes and
hormones to reduce the superfluous adipose tissue.
3. The Pharmogenetic System
The organs of this system produce medications via
a process called "pharmogenesis." An organ, the M-
M (Medicine Maker), recognizes specific diseases and
the drugs to treat them, then produces these drugs to
combat the disease via specialized cells called "pharmo-
cytes."
4. Oven Man
The student who created this system did not like to cook.
She felt that if you could place food in your mouth, have
the necessary organs to cook it there and swallow it, her
life would be much easier!
5. Verde Integumentary System
This project was similar to the chloroplast-like organelle
designed by a student in the first semester (see Design
Project 1). One student designed a second skin sys-
tem, complete with cells containing chloroplasts. One
problem suggested with this new system was that other
people may have difficulty accepting a green human.
Design Project 7: Performing Effective CPR in
Microgravity
One of the authors has always had a fascination with
manned space flight. Microgravity, more commonly known as
weightlessness, presents a plethora of physiological obstacles
that humans must tackle to survive in space. In the absence
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232 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 70, NO. 4, APRIL 2008
of graWty, blood distribution changes, equilibrium is affected,
vision may be altered, visceral organs shift. These are just a few
of the many changes that occur.
Dealing with medical emergencies in space will be difficult,
to say the least. One cannot simply call for an ambulance to go
to the hospital. The emergency must be dealt with on the spot
in an alien environment. The prospects can be ominous indeed.
What if an astronaut goes into respiratory or cardiac arrest while
on a space mission? Keeping all of this in mind, we came up with
a design project to have the students find an effective way to per-
form CPR (cardio-pulmonary resuscitation) in microgravity.
As many students are not familiar with space flight or micro-
gravity, or may not yet be trained in CPR, it is necessary to pres-
ent the conditions of the problem in some detail. To accomplish
this, a mannequin is brought into class and a CPR demonstra-
tion is provided, along with an explanation of how and why CFR
works on Earth. It is stressed that gravity helps to play an impor-
tant role in the success of this life-saving technique. Design plans
and specifications for the U.S. Space Shuttle are also presented
to the class so that students may study the physical environment
and constraints. Printed reference materials are provided to eacli
student (Joels & Kennedy, 1988; Hazinski et al.. 2006).
Once students realize the difficulty in dealing with the prob-
lems of microgravity, tbey begin to integrate human anatomy
and physiology principles with their new knowledge ol CPR
and weightlessness in order to solve the problem. It presents a
real challenge, one that has a practical application and engages
problem-solving skills (Ottino, 2004).
Student Reactions & Feedback
when the design assignments are first presented to the
class, there is often an unusual silence. At first the students think
you're kidding, or that you Ye totally crazy. Invariably, one brave
soul will speak up and ask, "What do you mean by this? 1 don't
understand the assignment. Can you explain this to us? Can you
give us an example?" Many are overwhelmed and have no idea
where to start. However, encouraging them to have fun and to
be creative, along with some open discussion, will eventually gel
them thinking. Once discussion begins and the instructor pro-
vides an example, such as designing the anatomical structures
to allow a human to fly, students begin to realize that they can
use their own creativity to come up with an appropriate idea
(McCraw, 2004h). !t is useful to require the instructor's approval
of students' ideas so that they each come up with something
unique to work on.
This type of project requires some time for thought. Usually,
a month is sufficient for students to imagine and create a design.
One of the most difficult issues is that they won't find their ideas
in a book, ajournai, or on the Internet. This may be very alien for
ihem, although in terms of assessing students' understanding ol
a topic, it is useful to assign something that cannot be "found,"
but must come entirely from the students' own thinking and
analysis.
The benefits of this type of assignment have been described
through informal feedback from the students themselves dur-
ing both laboratory and lecture sessions. Most students express
positive attitudes toward the design project. They often say ihey
were initially put off by it, but that as they thought about it over
time, they actually enjoyed the experience, and gained a better
understanding of the relevant anatomy and physiology of the
real systems. Often students have commented that although at
first they thought ihe assignments were bizarre, they found the
experience really helped them. For example, the students had
to understand the role of each organelle in the cell to be able
to describe how iheir new organelle would interact with them.
Similarly, in order to integrate the function of a new organ sys-
tem, studenls would need to understand the function of existing
systems. In addition to encouraging study of each organelle or
each organ system as an independent entity, tbe design projects
encourage students to consider emergent properties of interact-
ing structures and systems. This higher-order level of thinking
underscores the value of a design project.
Project Evaluation
Typically, one design project is assigned in a semester and
is worth 10% of the course grade. The assignment is scored out
of 100 points, with the following grading rubric:
Tille page 5%
Abstract 10%
Diagram to accompany the text 15%
Main body 40%
{mcluding the anatomy and physiology of the organelle
or organ system, complete properties of the element,
details of the measurement system, etc.)
Discussion 20%
(including how the student arrived at the idea for the
design, problems tbat may have incurred witb the
design, tbeir opinion of the assignment)
Engiisb composition 10%
We have also found il helpful to require a first draft two
weeks after the initial assignment, wbicb is then returned to tbe
students witb feedback for improving the final draft.
Some Final Thoughts
Writing assignments arc incorporated into all of the biol-
ogy courses at Kingsborougb Community College, in conjunc-
tion witb tbe Writing Across tbe Curriculum program. Tbe goal
of incorporating writing in content courses is to promote orga-
nization, synthesis, and retention of the knowledge presented
in tbe course. Studies of coberent organization of knowledge,
content retention, and course grades bave sbown tbat writing
increases all of tbese measures of academic success (Rivard
ct al., 2000; Miynarczyk & Babbitt, 2002; Smitb et al., 2007).
Design projects in particular bave been sbown to improve
learning acbievements in courses such as calculus (Verner &
Maor, 2001).
An innovative approach to writing, sucb as a design proj-
ect, also offers students witb different learning strategies an
opportunity to demonstrate tbeir knowledge. For example,
students who struggle with multiple-choice exams but excel at
visual or tactile conceptualization may benefit from a creative
writing assignment of tbe type described bere. A combination
of assessment methods tbat takes into account many different
learning styles is most likely to help students be successful
in science (or any otber) courses (Felder &r Silverman. 1988;
Felder, 1993).
Creativity is a skill rarely developed in biology courses,
bul one ibat bas value (Price, 1995; Sbakes, 1995; Kessels
et al., 2006). Creative tbinking involves "extreme freedom of
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thought land] an empbasis on independent thinking" (Tbomas
Friedman, as quoted in McGraw. 2004b). We may not typi-
cally associate tbose ideals witb Introductory Human Anatomy
and Pbysiology, but creativity is vital in many emerging fields
in biology. For example, tbe skills learned in design projects
are directly applicable at the frontiers of biomédical research.
A few areas in whicb creative designing is essential are tissue
and organ engineering (Leventon. 2002; Constans, 2004), the
design of mlcroelectric devices tbat restore vision, bearing, and
movement (McGraw, 2004a), biomaterials research (e.g.. drug
delivery systems, medical devices; Langer & Tirrell, 2004), ar\d
tecbnology to assist the elderly in everyday tasks (Disbman,
2004).
In addition to capturing students' interest and helpirig
them learn ibe material better, design projects enbance cre-
ative tbinking skills. Creative ability may be inborn to a certain
extent, but all students can enlarge upon tbeir natural talents
by exercising tbeir imagmations. One may ask wbetber devel-
oping creativity is really critical in a course in buman anatomy
and pbysiology. While tbe course content is paramount, tbe
value of fostering creative tbinking skills sbould not be under-
estimated. Creative thinking and tbe application of memorized
facts to real situations enhance problem solving, and it is
difficult to tbink of a single career in tbe heakb sciences ibat
does not require strong problem-solving skills. Students wbo
continue on to graduate studies may gain a competitive edge
by sbarpening their creative tbinking skills. In order to produce
graduates wbo are innovative problem-solvers, students must
be given multiple opportunities to develop tbese skills. Design
projects offer sucb an opportunity.
DESIGN PROJECTS 233

Biology Association of Teachers of St. Louis
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Colorado Biology Teachers Association
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Empire State Association of Two-Year College
Biologists
Illinois Association of Biology Teachers
Illinois Association of Community College
Biologists
Indiana Association of Biology Teachers
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Teachers
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Teachers
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Association
The Naiiona] Association of Biology
Teachers thanks ils affiliate organizations
for their support &for their efforts to
further biology & life science education.
234 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 70, NO, 4, APRIL 2008
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