SOCIOLOGY

AND BUSINESS ECONOMICS

MODULE 2
Kritiman Prasad
Priyatham Rajaarya
Affan Shweta
Naehal
 INDEX
Communities
Urban and Rural Communities
Cities and Society
Social research
 COMMUNITIES
Different types of communities
Rural Communities
Urban Communities
Cultural Communities
Religious Communities
Scientific Communities
Tribal Communities
RURAL COMMUNITIES
Origin: Historically agrarian, rural communities have roots in farming and agriculture.
Growth: Primarily through natural population increase, rural communities have expanded due to
improved healthcare and technology.
Settlements: Scattered villages and towns located in agricultural areas, with homes typically
surrounded by farmland.

URBAN COMMUNITIES
Origin: Emerged with the growth of cities during industrialization and economic development.
Growth: Rapid urbanization due to migration from rural areas and natural population increase.
Settlements: Densely populated cities and towns with various infrastructures, commercial
centers, and residential areas.
CULTURAL COMMUNITIES
Origin: Formed based on shared cultural practices, traditions, language, or ethnicity.
Growth: Maintained through cultural preservation efforts and the passing down of traditions to
younger generations.
Settlements: Can be found worldwide, often concentrated in specific regions where the cultural
group has historical roots.

RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES
Origin: Rooted in religious beliefs and practices, these communities form around religious
institutions.
Growth: Through religious conversions, births, and missionary activities.
Settlements: Places of worship, religious institutions, and communities of believers located in
various parts of the world.
TRIBAL COMMUNITIES
Origin: Indigenous communities that have lived in specific regions for generations.
Growth: Traditionally, tribal communities grow through births and have close-knit social
structures.
Settlements: Often found in rural or remote areas, close to natural resources like forests and
rivers.

SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITIES
Origin: Formed around scientific research, education, and collaboration.
Growth: Through advancements in scientific knowledge, research projects, and academic
pursuits.
Settlements: Research institutions, universities, and scientific organizations located in various
countries, fostering collaboration and knowledge exchange.
 URBAN AND
RURAL
COMMUNITIES
 What are Urban Communities?
The term urban means in, relating to, or characteristic of a town or city.
"the urban population"

The characteristics of Urban settlements:

Urban settlements display diverse social, economic, ecological,

and spatial features, including location, size, and historical
development.

Urban settlements can have varying characteristics that depend

on local government policies, historical development, and
regional factors. These factors create distinct features in
different cities and neighborhoods.
 Characteristics
1. Social Characteristics:

- Population Diversity: Urban areas often have a diverse population

with people from various cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic
backgrounds.

- Social Services: Cities typically offer a wider range of social services

such as healthcare, education, and cultural amenities.

- Higher Education and Job Opportunities: Urban

centers tend to have more universities and job
opportunities, attracting young professionals and
students.

- Cultural Hubs: Cities are cultural hubs with theaters,

museums, and entertainment options.
 Characteristics
2. Economic Characteristics:

- Economic Activities: Urban areas are economic powerhouses with a

concentration of businesses, industries, and services.

- Higher Incomes: Urban residents generally have higher incomes

than those in rural areas due to more employment opportunities.

- Marketplaces: Cities are major marketplaces where

goods and services are exchanged on a large scale.
 Characteristics
3. Ecological Characteristics:

- Environmental Challenges: Urban areas often face environmental

issues such as pollution, congestion, and waste disposal challenges.

- Biodiversity: Urbanization can impact local biodiversity, but some

cities are actively working to promote green spaces and conservation
efforts.

- Resource Consumption: Urban areas typically

consume more resources and energy, which can strain
local ecosystems.
 Characteristics
4. Spatial Characteristics:

- Density: Urban areas are characterized by high population density,

with people living in close proximity to each other.

- Built Environment: Urban settlements have extensive

infrastructure, including buildings, roads, and public transportation
systems.

Zoning: Urban planning and zoning regulations

dictate land use, separating residential, commercial,
and industrial areas.

- Transportation: Urban areas require extensive

transportation networks, often leading to traffic
congestion.
 Urban Sociology
Urban sociology is a field of sociology that focuses on the study of urban areas, their
social structures, behaviors, and problems. It seeks to understand how cities and
urban environments shape and are shaped by the people who live in them. Here
are some key aspects of urban sociology:

1. Study of Urban Areas: Urban sociology focuses on understanding cities and urban
environments as dynamic social spaces.

2. Urbanization: It examines the process of urbanization, the growth of cities, and

the influx of people into urban areas.

3. Social Structures: Investigates social structures within cities, including

neighborhoods, communities, and hierarchies.

4. Social Issues: Explores urban social issues like poverty, crime, housing, education,
and healthcare disparities.
 Urban Sociology
5. Urban Planning and Policy: Influences urban planning and policy decisions by
providing insights into the needs and challenges of urban populations.

6. Cultural Diversity: Studies interactions between diverse cultural and ethnic

groups within urban settings.

7. Public Spaces: Analyzes how public spaces contribute to social interaction and
community cohesion.

8. Technology: Considers the impact of technology on urban life, including digital

advancements and smart city initiatives.

9. Environmental Concerns: Examines environmental issues in urban areas, such as

pollution and resource consumption.

10. Social Movements: Analyzes the role of cities as epicenters for social and
political movements.
 The relationships and interdependencies
between urban and rural settlements

Urban and rural settlements are interconnected through social,

ecological, and economic factors, creating complex and
multifaceted relationships.
The relationships and interdependencies
between urban and rural settlements

Social Relations and Interdependencies:

1. Labor migration: From rural to urban areas is motivated by the promise of better
job opportunities, higher wages, and improved living standards.

2. Cultural Exchange: The cultural practices of urban and rural areas influence one
another in a two-way exchange. Urban areas act as cultural and educational hubs
that impact rural traditions, while rural customs also affect urban areas.

3. Access to services: Rural populations rely on urban areas for access to crucial
services such as healthcare, education, and markets, which often require traveling
to urban centers.
The relationships and interdependencies
between urban and rural settlements

Ecological Relations and Interdependencies:

1. Resource Flow: Urban areas demand resources such as food, water, and energy,
often sourced from rural areas. This can lead to resource extraction and ecological
impacts in rural regions.

2. Waste Management: Urban areas generate significant amounts of waste, which

may be disposed of in rural areas. This can have environmental implications if not
managed properly.

3. Food Production: Rural areas are primary sources of agricultural products,

supplying urban areas with food. Urban-rural connections are crucial for food
security.
The relationships and interdependencies
between urban and rural settlements

Economic Relations and Interdependencies:

1. Economic Exchange: Urban and rural areas engage in economic transactions.

Rural areas supply raw materials, agricultural products, and labor to urban areas,
while urban areas provide markets for rural products and services.

2. Remittances: Migrant workers from rural areas often send money back to their
rural families, which can support the rural economy and contribute to
development.

3. Infrastructure Development: Economic development in urban areas often leads

to infrastructure improvements in rural regions, such as better roads, electricity,
and communication networks.
The relationships and interdependencies
between urban and rural settlements

Economic Relations and Interdependencies:

4. Tourism: Rural areas may benefit economically from tourism generated by

nearby urban areas, which can provide job opportunities and income for rural
communities.

The interdependencies between urban and rural areas are integral for a country's
economic and societal welfare. However, they also present challenges, including
resource depletion, environmental degradation, and social and economic
inequality. To ensure sustainable development, it's crucial to implement effective
urban and rural planning and policies that can balance these interdependencies.
 What are Rural Communities?

Rural refers to areas that are located outside towns and cities,
typically characterized by a smaller population, lower
population density, and vast expanses of undeveloped land.

Rural areas are often associated with agricultural activities,

natural landscapes, and a slower pace of life.

The specific criteria for defining rural areas can vary between
countries and regions, but they generally encompass areas
with limited access to urban facilities and services.
 Characteristics of Rural Settlements
Social Characteristics: Rural areas often have close-knit
communities where people know each other, and social
interactions are a significant part of daily life. Social ties are
strong, and traditional values and customs are often
preserved. Access to education and healthcare facilities might
be limited compared to urban areas.

Economic Characteristics: Agriculture and related activities

are primary economic drivers in rural areas. Farming, fishing,
forestry, and mining are common occupations. Small-scale
businesses and cottage industries also contribute to the rural
economy. Unemployment rates can be higher than in urban
areas, leading to seasonal migration for work.
 Ecological Characteristics: Rural areas usually have abundant
natural resources, including fertile soil, water bodies, and
forests. The environment plays a crucial role in the livelihoods
of rural inhabitants. Preserving ecological balance is essential
for sustainable agriculture and the overall well-being of the
community.

Spatial Characteristics: Rural settlements are characterized by

low population density and a vast expanse of land. Houses are
often spaced apart, and there is a prevalence of agricultural
land and natural landscapes. Infrastructure like roads,
electricity, and communication services might be limited and
less developed than in urban areas.
 Relations and Interdependencies between
Rural Settlements

Social Relations: Rural communities often rely on social networks for

support. Families, neighbors, and local community organizations play
vital roles in providing assistance during times of need. Social relations
also extend to nearby villages or settlements, fostering a sense of
regional solidarity.

Ecological Relations: Rural settlements are deeply interconnected with

their natural environment. Sustainable agricultural practices, water
management, and conservation efforts are crucial for maintaining
ecological balance. Changes in the environment, such as climate change
or deforestation, can directly impact the livelihoods of rural
communities.
 Economic Interdependencies: Rural areas often engage in
economic exchanges with nearby urban centers. Agricultural
produce, handmade crafts, and other goods produced in rural
areas are sold in urban markets. Additionally, rural areas might
rely on urban centers for manufactured goods and services,
creating economic interdependencies between these regions.

Rural Sociology
Rural sociology is a field of sociology that studies rural life, communities,
and the social, economic, and cultural aspects of rural societies. It
focuses on understanding the social structures, agricultural practices,
economic activities, and challenges faced by rural communities. Rural
sociologists examine topics such as social change, migration patterns,
poverty, education, healthcare, and the impact of policies on rural areas.
The goal of rural sociology is to provide insights into improving the quality
of life in rural communities and addressing the unique social issues they
face.
5) CITIES AND
SOCIETY
WHAT IS URBANIZATION?
Urbanization means more people moving from farms and
small towns to big cities. This happens because cities offer
better jobs and services. It makes cities bigger and changes
how people live, work, and the environment.

Urbanization greatly changes the landscape of previously

rural areas.

Dubai Waterfront in 1954

Dubai Waterfront Now

CAUSES OF URBANIZATION
Urbanization offers opportunities but also poses challenges
that require effective planning and policy measures.

1. Economic Growth: Cities drive economic activity.

2. Improved Living Standards: Better access to services.
3. Infrastructure Development: Urban growth requires
infrastructure.
4. Environmental Challenges: Pollution and habitat loss.
5. Social Changes: Altered lifestyles and family structures.
6. Rural Decline: Population and economic decline in rural
Excessive Traffic Seen in Urban Settlements
areas.
7. Housing Issues: Shortages and high costs.
8. Traffic Congestion: Urbanization leads to traffic
problems.
EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION
.

1. Population Growth: Strains resources, housing, and

transportation systems.
2. Environmental Impact: Pollution, deforestation,
biodiversity decline due to urbanization.
3. Economic Opportunities: Better jobs, higher incomes
draw urban migrants.
4. Social Diversity: Culturally rich, yet plagued by inequality
challenges.
5. Health Challenges: Pollution, sedentary living, limited
Pollution and Congestion In Cities
healthcare access.
6. Housing Shortages: Scarce housing, soaring prices
hinder affordability.
7. Transportation Issues: Traffic, infrastructure demand
surges in urban areas.
DEFINITION OF SLUM
A slum is a heavily populated urban informal settlement that is
unfit for living because it lacks access to basic sanitation, drinking
water, electricity and characterized by substandard housing and
squalor. While slums differ in size and other characteristics, most
lack reliable sanitation services, supply of clean water, reliable
electricity, law enforcement and other basic services.

The official definition of a slum as per Census of India is

"A Slum is a compact settlement of at least 20 households with a
collection of poorly built tenements, mostly of temporary nature,
crowded together usually with inadequate sanitary and drinking
water facilities in unhygienic conditions"
HISTORY OF SLUMS
Slums have risen dramatically since 1947. There were main two
reasons for slum development. One is Partition of India and the
other is Industrial revolution after independence.
Before 1950 slums were predominantly found around the
mills,factories etc. They were mostly industrial workers in one
room tenements. Health and Services provisions to these areas
rose as main issues.
Instead of going farther, the density of the slums started growing
in and around the cities. From 1950 to 1968 the number of slums
increased to 18%, in the 1970s they had a huge surge and by 1980
slum dwellers were half of the entire city's population.
SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
A socioe cological system is a concept that recognizes the
intricate relationship between society and the environment. It
encapsulates the idea that human activities, like urban
development and resource use, are intimately interconnected
with the natural world, shaping and being shaped by it.
These human ecosystems are marked by high population density,
economic vulnerability, and inadequate access to basic services,
while being situated in ecologically sensitive areas, potentially
degrading the environment. Slums interact with the wider city
through conflicts with authorities and resource scarcity, impacting
health, social cohesion, and resilience.
Effective urban planning and policy must embrace slums as
integral urban components, ensuring inclusive strategies to
improve living conditions, resource management, and resilience,
promoting sustainable development, and reducing inequalities in
the complex tapestry of the urban socio-ecological system.
GOVERNMENT APPROACHES
National Slum Development Programme (NSDP): Initiated in
1996, NSDP provided both loans and subsidies to states for
slum rehabilitation projects on the basis of their urban slum
population.
Valmiki Ambedkar Malina Basti Awas Yozana (VAMBAY):
Introduced in 2001, it focused on shelter for the urban poor,
with 20% of total allocation for community sanitation facilities
under the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) program
Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP): BSUP was an
important component of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Renewal Mission (JNNURM). BSUP aimed to provide basic
services to urban poor in 63 of the largest cities in India by
population
Integrated Housing & Slum Development Programme
(IHSDP): It was launched by GoI by merging the schemes of
NSDP and VAMBAY. The objective of the scheme is to provide
adequate Shelter and basic infrastructure facilities to the slum
dwellers in urban areas.

.
GOVERNMENT APPROACHES
Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the Urban
Poor (ISHUP): The Scheme envisages the provision
of interest subsidy to economically weak section
and Low income groups to enable them to buy or
construct houses.
Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY): Launched in 2013, the
scheme focussed on:
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana- “Housing for All
(Urban): Launched in 2015, the scheme seeks to
provide central assistance to implementing
agencies through States and UTs for providing
houses to all beneficiaries by 2022.
Slum areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, in
the year 1956:The act aimed at mechanical
improvement or complete eradication of slums. It
empowers the competent authority to declare any
slum area in accordance with the definition, look
into possibilities of improvement or eradicate
slums.

.
NON GOVERNMENT APPROACHES
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Community-Based
Organizations (CBOs) are essential players in addressing the
complex challenges posed by slums.
NGOs are independent, non-profit entities that operate at various
levels, from local to international, and focus on a wide range of
social and developmental issues. They often have the resources,
expertise, and connections to mobilize support and resources to
address slum-related challenges, from healthcare and education
to livelihood opportunities and infrastructure improvement.
CBOs, on the other hand, are grassroots organizations formed
and led by members of the communities they serve, making them
intimately connected with the needs and aspirations of slum
residents.
Both NGOs and CBOs play vital roles in slum development by
offering tailored solutions, advocating for residents' rights,
empowering communities to take charge of their circumstances,
and bridging gaps in access to essential services.
6) SOCIAL
RESEARCH
Types of Research:
1. Qualitative Research
2. Quantitative Research
3. Mixed Method of research
Qualitative Research:

Qualitative research focuses on exploring and understanding the underlying

meanings, motivations, and perspectives of individuals or groups.
It uses non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and open-ended
surveys, to gather rich, descriptive information.
It often employs methods like content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded
theory to identify patterns and themes in the data.
Qualitative research is typically used when the aim is to gain insights into people's
experiences, beliefs, and behaviors.
Quantitative Research:

Quantitative research aims to collect and

analyze numerical data to draw statistical
inferences and generalize findings to a larger
population.
It often uses structured surveys, experiments,
and statistical tools to gather data and test
hypotheses.
The data collected in quantitative research is often subjected to statistical
analysis to find correlations, patterns, and relationships.
Quantitative research is commonly used to measure and quantify phenomena
and is associated with a more objective and empirical approach.
Mixed Research:
Mixed research, as the name suggests, combines elements of both qualitative and
quantitative research within a single study.
Researchers use this approach when they want to gain a comprehensive
understanding of a research problem or when one type of data can complement the
other.
Typically, the researcher starts with one method (either qualitative or quantitative)
and then uses the other to validate or extend the findings.
Mixed research is especially useful for triangulating results, providing a more
holistic view of the research question.

Sources of Research Data

1. Primary Sources of Research Data
2. Secondary Sources of Research Data
Primary and secondary sources of research data are distinct in terms of their origin,
purpose, and the type of information they provide in the context of academic or
scientific research.
Primary Sources of Research Data:

Original Data: Primary sources provide original and firsthand data that has not been
previously published or interpreted by others. Researchers collect this data directly
from the source.
Direct Observation or Experimentation: Primary sources often involve direct
engagement with the subject matter. This can include experiments, surveys, interviews,
fieldwork, observations, or data collected specifically for the research project.
Unfiltered Information: Data from primary sources is raw and unfiltered, which means
it may require careful analysis and interpretation. It reflects the actual conditions,
experiences, or events as they occurred.
Examples: Primary sources include research surveys, interviews, laboratory
experiments, ethnographic fieldwork, diaries, letters, original manuscripts, eyewitness
accounts, and original photographs.
Credibility: These sources are highly credible as they represent unaltered, original
information. However, the quality of the data depends on the methodology and rigor of
the research.
Secondary Sources of Research Data:

Derived from Primary Sources: Secondary sources are created by someone other than the
original researcher. They involve the interpretation, analysis, or summary of primary data.
Interpretation and Commentary: Secondary sources often provide an analysis, critique, or
interpretation of primary data. They may present multiple primary sources together or
provide historical context.
Filtered Information: Information from secondary sources has passed through the lens of
another researcher or writer. It is processed and synthesized, which may make it more
accessible but also means that it's not raw or firsthand data.
Examples: Secondary sources include research articles, books, reviews, encyclopedias,
documentaries, literature reviews, and some types of reports. These sources provide an
overview or analysis of a particular topic.
Credibility: The credibility of secondary sources depends on the reputation and expertise
of the author or organization producing them. They can be valuable for summarizing and
contextualizing primary data but should be used in conjunction with primary sources for a
more comprehensive understanding.