Topic -

HISTORY OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE

ENGLISH BY ROHIT SIR 1

 Introduction

The history of the English language really

started with the arrival of three Germanic
tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th
century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the
Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea
from what today is Denmark and northern
Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain
spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic
speakers were pushed west and north by the
invaders - mainly into what is now Wales,
Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from
"Englaland" [sic] and their language was called
"Englisc" - from which the words "England"
and "English" are derived.

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 Concept 1

1. English is a language that originated in early medieval

England and is now widely spoken worldwide.
2. It got its name from the Angles, a Germanic tribe that
migrated to England from the Anglia peninsula in the Baltic
Sea.
3. English is closely related to Frisian languages, but its
vocabulary was in uenced by other Germanic languages like
Norse, as well as Latin and Romance languages.
4. English has evolved over 1,400 years, starting with Old
English, brought to Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the 5th
century.
5. Middle English emerged after the Norman conquest in the
late 11th century and was in uenced by French.
6. Early Modern English started in the late 15th century with
the introduction of the printing press and the King James
Bible.

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 Quiz 1
1. English is a language that was rst spoken in:
a) Ancient Rome
b) Early medieval England ✅
c) Ancient Greece
d) Modern-day Germany

2. What is the name of the Germanic tribe that gave English its
name?
a) Frisians
b) Saxons
c) Angles✅
d) Normans

3. Which sea's peninsula is associated with the name "Anglia"

from which English got its name?
a) Adriatic Sea
b) Baltic Sea✅
c) North Sea
d) Mediterranean Sea

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 Quiz 1
4. Which language signi cantly in uenced the vocabulary
of English?
a) French
b) Spanish
c) Norse✅
d) Italian

5. When did Middle English develop in England?

a) 5th century
b) 11th century✅
c) 15th century
d) 19th century

6. What technological development contributed to the

start of Early Modern English?
a) The discovery of electricity
b) The invention of the telephone
c) The introduction of the printing press✅
d) The development of the steam engine

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 Concept 2

1. English spread worldwide because of the British Empire's in uence from the 17th to
mid-20th centuries through media and the rise of the United States as a global power.

2. It became the leading language for international communication and is commonly used
in elds like science, navigation, and law.

3. English is the third most common native language, after Standard Chinese and
Spanish.

4. It is the most widely learned second language and is either an o cial language or one
of the o cial languages in nearly 60 countries.

5. More people speak English as a second language than as their native language.

6. English is the most spoken language in the United Kingdom, the United States,
Canada, Australia, Ireland, and New Zealand, and it's also widely used in some parts of
the Caribbean, Africa, and South Asia.

7. It is an o cial language of the United Nations, the European Union, and many other
international organizations.

8. English is the most spoken Germanic language, with over 70% of speakers from this
language family.

9. English has a vast vocabulary, and it's impossible to count exactly how many words it
has.
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 Quiz 2

1. What contributed to the worldwide spread of English from the 17th

to mid-20th centuries?
a) The rise of China as a global superpower
b) The in uence of the United States as a global power✅
c) The dominance of Spanish as an international language
d) The decline of the British Empire

2. In how many sovereign states is English either the o cial language

or one of the o cial languages?
a) Approximately 30
b) Nearly 100
c) Around 60✅
d) Over 150

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 Quiz 2
3. What percentage of speakers does English account for in the Germanic
language family?
a) 30%
b) 50%
c) 70%✅
d) 90%

4. In what capacity does English serve in the United Nations, the European
Union, and many other international organizations?
a) Uno cial language for internal communications
b) Co-o cial language✅
c) Language used for cultural events
d) Language used only during meetings

5. What makes it di cult to count the exact number of words in the English
language?
a) Lack of language experts
b) Constantly evolving vocabulary✅
c) Restricted access to dictionaries
d) Lack of interest in word counting

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 Concept 3
1. Changes in English Grammar: Over time, the grammar of Modern English
has evolved from a complex structure with rich in ections and exible word
order (Indo-European dependent marking pattern) to a simpler form with
fewer in ections and a more xed word order (mostly analytic pattern).

2. Reduced In ection: In the past, English had many word endings and
su xes to indicate things like tense and case. In Modern English, these
in ections have become less common, and word order plays a bigger role in
expressing meaning.

3. Use of Auxiliary Verbs: Modern English relies more on auxiliary verbs (like
"have" and "will") to convey complex tenses, aspects, and moods.

4. Passive Constructions, Interrogatives, and Negation: These linguistic

features are expressed di erently in Modern English through word order and
the use of auxiliary verbs rather than relying on in ectional changes.

5. Variation in Accents and Dialects: While English is spoken with various

accents and dialects worldwide, people can still understand each other easily
due to the common grammar and vocabulary shared by most English
speakers.

6. Ease of Communication: Despite the regional di erences in pronunciation,

grammar, and spelling, English speakers can communicate with each other
relatively easily thanks to the underlying similarities in the language's core
structure.
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 Quiz 3
Quiz: Evolution of Modern English Grammar

1. How has Modern English grammar changed from its older form?
a) It became more complex with richer in ections.
b) It adopted a more xed word order and simpler in ectional patterns.✅
c) It became less structured with no speci c word order.
d) It retained the same grammar as the older form.

2. What happened to the in ectional morphology in Modern English?

a) It became more complex with additional word endings.
b) It disappeared completely.
c) It became less common compared to the older form.✅
d) It remained unchanged.

3. How does Modern English express complex tenses and moods?

a) Through rich in ections.
b) By using auxiliary verbs and word order.✅
c) By using only word order.
d) By changing the basic sentence structure.

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 Quiz 3

Quiz: Evolution of Modern English Grammar

4. How are passive constructions, interrogatives, and negation

expressed in Modern English?
a) Through in ectional changes.
b) By using a di erent vocabulary.
c) By using word order and auxiliary verbs.✅
d) By adding pre xes to verbs.

5. Despite variations in accents and dialects, why can English

speakers communicate with ease?
a) Due to the use of the same vocabulary worldwide.
b) Because English has a simple grammar structure.
c) Because English speakers don't pay attention to di erences.
d) because of shared core grammar and vocabulary.✅

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 Concept 4

English is a type of language called "Indo-European," and it

belongs to a group of languages called "Germanic." The oldest
form of English is called "Old English," and it came from a group of
tribes that lived along the coast of the North Sea. These tribes
spoke di erent languages, and together they are known as the
"Anglo-Frisian" group within the larger "West Germanic" family.

Among the modern languages, the Frisian languages are the ones
that are most similar to English. Low German/Low Saxon is also
related to English. Sometimes, people group English, the Frisian
languages, and Low German together, calling them "Ingvaeonic,"
but not everyone agrees on this grouping.

As time passed, Old English changed and turned into "Middle

English," and then eventually into the form of English we use today,
called "Modern English."

The paragraph also mentions that speci c versions of Old and

Middle English developed into other languages related to English,
such as Scots and some old Irish dialects like Fingallian and Forth
and Bargy (Yola), which are no longer spoken today.

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 Quiz 4

1. What language group does English belong to?

a) Romance
b) Indo-European✅
c) Slavic
d) East Asian

2. Which group of Germanic languages is English a part of?

a) North Germanic
b) East Germanic
c) West Germanic✅
d) South Germanic

3. What is the closest living relative of Modern English?

a) Spanish
b) French
c) Frisian languages✅
d) Italian
 Quiz 4

4. Which of the following is a stage of the English language that came after Old English?
a) Classical English
b) Ancient English
c) Middle English✅
d) Prehistoric English

5. What are the extinct dialects of Ireland related to English?

a) Gaelic and Pictish
b) Fingallian and Forth and Bargy (Yola)✅
c) Welsh and Cornish
d) Norman and Breton
 Concept 5

English, like Icelandic and Faroese, developed on the British Isles in

a way that made it di erent from other Germanic languages spoken
on the European continent. Over time, English changed a lot and
became quite distinct from its continental relatives in terms of
words, sentence structure, and pronunciation. It is not easy for
English speakers to understand these other Germanic languages,
although Dutch and Frisian have some similarities with older forms
of English.

The history of the British Isles is unique because it experienced

many invasions from di erent peoples who brought their own
languages, like Old Norse and Norman French. These languages
had a strong impact on English, resulting in similarities in words
and grammar with other languages outside the Germanic family.
However, English remains distinct from all these languages, and
some experts have even suggested that it could be considered a
mix of di erent languages. However, most language specialists do
not fully agree with this theory and view English as a distinct
language with various in uences from other languages.

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 Quiz 5

1. Which language family does English belong to?

a) Romance
b) Germanic✅
c) Slavic
d) Asian

2. What are some languages that show strong a nities with English?
a) Italian and Spanish
b) Dutch and Frisian✅
c) Russian and Polish
d) Mandarin and Japanese

3. How did the development of English on the British Isles di er from continental Germanic languages?
a) It remained unchanged over time.
b) It became mutually intelligible with other Germanic languages.
c) It isolated itself from continental in uences.✅
d) It developed into a Romance language.

4. What are some languages that left a profound mark on the English language due to invasions of the British Isles?
a) Greek and Latin
b) Arabic and Persian
c) Old Norse and Norman French✅
d) Chinese and Korean
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 Concept 6
English is a type of Germanic language. This means it has a
common ancestor called Proto-Germanic, which is the original
version of these languages.
Germanic languages like Dutch, German, and Swedish share some
similar features with English, which indicates they all evolved from
the same ancestor.
English is also related to another language called Frisian, and
together they are known as Anglo-Frisian languages.
The oldest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, and
it existed between the years 550 and 1066 CE.
Old English developed from dialects spoken by di erent Germanic
tribes like the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain
around the fth century.
When these Germanic tribes came to Britain, their language became
dominant, replacing the languages that were spoken there before,
which were Common Brittonic (a Celtic language) and Latin (brought
by the Romans).
The name "England" and "English" come from the Angles, one of
the Germanic tribes that settled in Britain.
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 Quiz 6

1. What is the earliest form of English called?

a) Ancient English
b) Old English✅
c) Middle English
d) Modern English

2. English is classi ed as a __________ language due to its similarities with Dutch,

German, and Swedish.
a) Romantic
b) Slavic
c) Germanic✅
d) Celtic

3. Which Germanic tribes settled in Britain and contributed to the development of

Old English?
a) Gauls, Vandals, and Goths
b) Angles, Saxons, and Jutes✅
c) Vikings, Franks, and Lombards
d) Huns, Visigoths, and Ostrogoths
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 Quiz 6

4. What are some shared features of Germanic languages, including English?

a) Use of modal verbs and the division of verbs into strong and weak classes✅
b) Use of tonal accents and ideographic writing
c) In ection of nouns using gender and case endings
d) Syllabic writing system and logographic characters

5. Which languages did Old English replace when Germanic tribes settled in
Britain?
a) French and Spanish
b) Greek and Latin
c) Common Brittonic and Latin✅
d) Celtic and Germanic
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 Concept 7

Long ago, there was an old way of speaking and writing called Old English. It
had di erent styles of speaking, like how people from di erent places talk
today. There were four main ways to speak Old English: Anglian, Mercian,
Northumbrian, and Saxon.

Over time, the Saxon way of speaking, particularly the West Saxon version,
became the standard for writing. Famous stories like Beowulf were written in
this style. Another poem called Caedmon's Hymn was written in the
Northumbrian style.

Old English was quite di erent from the English we speak now. It had many
extra word endings and di erent word order. It was more like modern German,
and its closest relative was a language called Old Frisian.

In the past, people used special symbols for writing Old English, but later, they
started using the alphabet we use today. Back then, the alphabet had some
extra letters like "wynn" and "thorn," which we don't have in modern English.

So, Old English was a fascinating and ancient way of speaking and writing
that's not the same as our language today. It had more complicated grammar
and was harder to understand for us 21st-century folks.
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 Quiz 7

1. What were the four main dialects of Old English?

a) Anglian, Mercian, Saxon, and Frisian
b) Anglian, Mercian, Northumbrian, and Saxon✅
c) Anglian, Saxon, Kentish, and West Saxon
d) Anglian, Mercian, Northumbrian, and Frisian

2. Which dialect became the standard for writing Old English?

a) Anglian
b) Mercian
c) Northumbrian
d) West Saxon✅

3. In which style of Old English was the epic poem Beowulf

written?
a) Anglian
b) Mercian
c) Northumbrian
d) West Saxon✅
 Quiz 7

4. What was the earliest English poem, Caedmon's Hymn, written in?
a) Anglian
b) Mercian
c) Northumbrian✅
d) West Saxon

5. What did Old English have that made it di erent from Modern
English?
a) More in ectional endings and di erent word order✅
b) Fewer in ectional endings and xed word order
c) Fewer in ectional endings and more word order freedom
d) No in ectional endings and xed word order

6. Which language is the closest relative of Old English?

a) Modern English
b) Modern German
c) Old Frisian✅
d) Old Norse
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 Quiz 7

7. What symbols did people use for writing Old English

before adopting the Latin alphabet?
a) Runic symbols✅
b) Hieroglyphics
c) Greek letters
d) Phoenician letters

8. Which dialect gave rise to Modern English?

a) Anglian
b) Mercian✅
c) Northumbrian
d) West Saxon
 Concept 8

Long ago, people in England spoke a language called Old English. Around 1000 CE, they translated a
part of the Bible, Matthew 8:20, which showed how they used di erent word endings for di erent
things.

But as time passed, around the 8th to 12th centuries, Old English started changing into Middle
English. This happened because of the Vikings from Norway and Denmark. They came to England
and brought their language, Old Norse, with them.

The Vikings settled in some parts of England, like the area around York, and this led to intense
contact between Old English and Old Norse. As a result, some parts of England were more
in uenced by the Vikings' language than others.

For example, in the Northeastern part of England, they began using Norse words and grammar. But
later, after 920 CE, when another region called Lindsey was brought back under English rule, these
Norse features spread to other parts of England that hadn't been in such close contact with the
Vikings.

Some of the Norse in uences that are still present in English today include certain pronouns. In Old
English, they used to say "hie" for "they," but because of Norse in uence, they started saying "they"
instead.

Middle English continued to develop even after the Norman Conquest in 1066. By around 1450, it
evolved into a language that looked more like the English we use today, but the changes from Old
Norse had left their mark on the language.
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 Quiz 8
1. What was the language spoken in England before it changed into Middle
English?
a) Old Norse
b) Modern English
c) Latin
d) Old English✅

2. Middle English started to develop around which century?

a) 5th century
b) 8th century✅
c) 12th century
d) 15th century

3. What group of people brought Old Norse to England and in uenced the
language change?
a) Romans
b) Vikings✅
c) Anglo-Saxons
d) Normans
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 Quiz 8

4. Which region of England experienced the strongest in uence of Old Norse?

a) London
b) Northeastern areas around York✅
c) Southern coast
d) Midlands around Lindsey

5. What are some examples of Norse-in uenced pronouns that we still use in English today?
a) he, she, it
b) hie, him, hera
c) they, them, their✅
d) you, your, yours

6. When did Middle English roughly take its nal form, becoming more similar to the English we use today?
a) 900 CE
b) 1066 CE
c) 1200 CE
d) 1450 CE✅
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 Concept 9
In 1066, there was a big event called the Norman conquest, where the Normans from
France took over England. Before that, people in England spoke Old English, which was
a bit in uenced by the Norse language spoken by Vikings who settled in the region.

After the Normans arrived, they brought their own language called Old Norman, which
was related to modern French. The Normans were mostly rich and powerful people, so
they spoke their language while the common folks continued speaking Old English.

Because of this contact between the two languages, Old English changed and became
what we now call Middle English. The in uence of Norman on Middle English was
mostly in fancy areas like politics, laws, and important social matters. They introduced
many new words related to these topics.

As Middle English developed, it became simpler. This was likely because it had to nd a
way to blend the di erent grammar rules of Old Norse and Old English, which were
similar in some ways but also di erent in how they used word endings and stu .

For example, Middle English got rid of some word endings that showed things like
"who is doing the action" or "what the action is done to." These changes made the
language easier to use. The way words agreed with each other also became more
straightforward.

By the time of the Wycli e Bible in the 1380s, the language had changed quite a bit
from the Old English of the past, and it looked more like what we recognize as English
today.
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 Quiz 9

1. What was the signi cant event that occurred in 1066, leading to changes in the English
language?

a) The Viking invasion of England

b) The Anglo-Saxon settlement in England
c) The Norman conquest of England✅
d) The establishment of the English monarchy

2. Which language spoken by the Normans in uenced the development of Middle English?

a) Old Norse
b) Old English
c) Old Norman✅
d) Modern French

3. How did the Norman in uence a ect the English language during the Middle English period?

a) It led to the complete replacement of Old English with Old Norman.

b) It introduced a simpli ed in ectional system.✅
c) It resulted in the loss of all English words related to politics and laws.
d) It made Middle English more di cult to understand.
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4. Why did Middle English undergo simpli cation of its grammar and in ectional system?

a) To make it more similar to Old Norse.

b) To accommodate the language di erences between the elites and the lower classes.✅
c) To emphasize the use of the genitive case.
d) To make word order more exible.

5. In the Wycli e Bible of the 1380s, what passage re ects the changes in Middle English?

a) Genesis 1:1
b) Exodus 20:1-17
c) Matthew 8:20✅
d) Acts 2:1-4
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 Concept 10
By the 12th century, a form of English called Middle English had developed. It was
a blend of di erent languages, including Norse and Norman in uences. People
spoke Middle English until around 1500 when it started to change into Early
Modern English.

During the Middle English period, writers began to use di erent regional dialects
in their writing, and sometimes they purposely used speci c dialect features to
create certain e ects in their stories. Some famous works from this time include
Geo rey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales" and Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur."

The next period, Early Modern English, lasted from 1500 to 1700. During this time,
some signi cant changes happened to the language. One of the important
changes was the Great Vowel Shift, which a ected how people pronounced
certain vowels in stressed syllables. This shift caused the sounds of some vowels
to change, and as a result, many irregularities in spelling emerged.

Because English kept many spellings from Middle English and the Great Vowel
Shift happened, English vowel letters started to be pronounced di erently
compared to other languages. This explains why the same vowel letters in
English have very di erent sounds in comparison to the same letters used in
other languages.
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 Quiz 10
1.During which period did Middle English continue to be spoken until it
transitioned to Early Modern English?
A) 10th century
B) 15th century✅
C) 12th century
D) 17th century

2. What was the major linguistic event that occurred during the Early
Modern English period?
A) The Great Vowel Shift✅
B) The Norman Conquest
C) The Renaissance
D) The Industrial Revolution

3. What was the next period in the history of English after Middle
English?
a) Old English
b) Early Modern English✅
c) Norman English
d) Norse English

4. Which famous literary work was written in Middle English?

a) Romeo and Juliet
b) Beowulf
c) The Canterbury Tales✅
d) The Iliad
 Concept 11

English started gaining importance during the time of King Henry V, around 1430. The Court
of Chancery in Westminster began using English in its o cial documents, which led to the
development of a new standard form of Middle English called Chancery Standard. This
form of English was based on the dialects spoken in London and the East Midlands.

In 1476, William Caxton introduced the printing press to England, and he started publishing
the rst printed books in London. This helped spread the in uence of the Chancery
Standard and made it more widespread.

During the Early Modern period, which included the time of William Shakespeare and King
James I, English literature ourished. The Bible was translated into Early Modern English
during this time, speci cally the King James Version in 1611.

Despite changes in the language over time, Early Modern English still sounded di erent
from Modern English. For example, certain words like "knight," "gnat," and "sword" were
pronounced with consonant clusters /kn, gn, sw/, which is not the case in Modern English.

In the King James Version of the Bible, written in Early Modern English, you can see
examples of how the language evolved. For instance, the loss of case means that the
structure of sentences changed to use Subject-Verb-Object word order. Additionally, the
possessive form was often replaced by using "of," and there was an introduction of
loanwords from French (like "ayre") and word replacements (where "bird" used to mean
"nestling" in Old English). These di erences represent some of the distinct characteristics
of Early Modern English that might seem old-fashioned or peculiar to modern readers,
especially when reading the works of Shakespeare or the King James Bible.
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 Quiz 11
Question 1: During which historical period did English begin to rise in
prestige?
A) The reign of Henry V✅
B) The reign of Queen Elizabeth I
C) The reign of King James I
D) The reign of King Henry VIII

Question 2: What form of Middle English developed from the dialects of

London and the East Midlands?
A) Old English
B) Chancery Standard✅
C) Modern English
D) Early Modern English

Question 3: Who introduced the printing press to England in 1476?

A) William Caxton✅
B) William Shakespeare
C) King James I
D) King Henry V
 Quiz 11

Question 4: What major work was translated into Early Modern English during the
Early Modern period?
A) The Canterbury Tales
B) Beowulf
C) The King James Version of the Bible✅
D) Paradise Lost

Question 5: Which of the following was still pronounced in Early Modern English but
is not pronounced in Modern English?
A) "night"
B) "knot"
C) "knife"
D) "knight"✅

Question 6: What was the replacement for the non-possessive genitive form in Early
Modern English?
A) "in"
B) "of"✅
C) "for"
D) "to"
 Quiz 11

Question 7: Which language in uenced Early Modern English

with loanwords, such as "ayre"?
A) German
B) Spanish
C) French✅
D) Dutch

Question 8: What did the word "bird" originally mean in Old

English?
A) "wings"
B) "feathers"
C) "nestling"✅
D) " ying creature"
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 Concept 12
Spread of modern English
In the late 18th century, the British Empire played a signi cant role in
spreading the English language around the world due to its colonies and
global in uence. English became a truly global language, used in various
areas such as commerce, science, technology, art, and education. The
British Empire's colonies, including North America, India, parts of Africa,
Australasia, and more, adopted English as their language.

After these colonies gained independence, some nations chose to continue

using English as their o cial language to avoid favoring any one
indigenous language over others. In the 20th century, the United States,
along with English broadcasting by organizations like the BBC, further
accelerated the global spread of the language.

A crucial aspect of Modern English's early development was the

establishment of standardized rules for usage, which were promoted
through public education and state-sponsored publications. In 1755,
Samuel Johnson published a dictionary that introduced spelling and usage
norms. In 1828, Noah Webster published an American dictionary to create a
separate norm for American English. In Britain, non-standard or lower-class
dialects were looked down upon, leading to the widespread adoption of
prestigious varieties among the middle classes.
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 Quiz 12

1. What played a signi cant role in spreading the English language around the world in the late
18th century?
a) Spanish exploration
b) British Empire and its colonies✅
c) French dominance
d) Chinese expansion

2. Why did some newly independent nations choose to continue using English as their o cial
language?
a) English was easy to learn for their people
b) English was the only language spoken in those regions
c) To avoid political di culties in favoring one indigenous language✅
d) They wanted to copy British culture

3. Which dictionary introduced a standard set of spelling conventions and usage norms for
English?
a) Webster's Dictionary
b) Johnson's Dictionary✅
c) Shakespeare's Dictionary
d) Dickens' Dictionary
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 Quiz 12

4. What did Samuel Johnson's dictionary and Noah Webster's

American Dictionary aim to achieve?
a) Promote local dialects
b) Standardize American English✅
c) Replace English with other languages
d) Introduce slang words

5. Why did prestigious varieties of English spread quickly among the

middle classes in Britain?
a) They were easier to learn
b) Lower-class dialects were stigmatized✅
c) They were taught in schools only
d) The British government enforced their use
 Concept 13
In Modern English, we are seeing some signi cant changes in the way we use
words and grammar. One major change is that we are losing the use of di erent
word endings (called "cases") except in pronouns like he/him or she/her. Another
change is that the word order in sentences has become mostly xed, meaning
we usually place the subject before the verb and then the object.
One notable development is the use of "do" as an auxiliary verb, which is now
commonly used to form questions and negative sentences. In the past, this was
not as common, but now it's widely used. We also see this happening with the
verb "have," where "do" is increasingly used to help form questions and
negatives.
Another trend is the spreading use of progressive forms, like adding "-ing" to
verbs (e.g., "I am talking"). This is now being used in new ways and even in more
complex structures, like "had been being built."
Regularizing irregular verbs is also happening slowly, for example, using
"dreamed" instead of "dreamt." Additionally, we're seeing more analytical
alternatives to the old in ectional forms, like using "more polite" instead of
"politer."
British English is also being in uenced by American English, mainly due to the
strong presence of American English in the media and the global in uence of the
United States.
In simple terms, the way we use words and grammar is changing in Modern
English, with some old features disappearing, new structures becoming more
common, and American English playing a role in in uencing British English.
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 Quiz 13

Question 1: What is one reason for the loss of case in Modern English?
a) In uence of American English
b) Regularization of irregular forms Skip Q no 1 question data insu cient
c) Spreading use of progressive forms
d) Adoption of do-support in questions

Question 2: Which verb is increasingly using do-support to form questions and negatives in Modern English?
a) Have✅
b) Dream
c) Build
d) Use

Question 3: What is a noticeable change in the use of progressive forms in Modern English?
a) They are disappearing from the language.
b) They are now used only with pronouns.
c) They are becoming more common in new sentence structures.✅
d) They are replacing regular verbs.
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 Concept 14

English is a very popular language spoken by a lot of people around the world. In
2016, around 400 million people spoke English as their rst language, and 1.1
billion people spoke it as a second language.

English is one of the top three most spoken languages, after Mandarin and
Spanish. But when we count both native speakers and people who learned it
later, it might be the most spoken language globally.

People from all continents and major islands speak English. There are di erent
types of countries where English is used, depending on how it is used there.

Some countries, called the "inner circle," have many native English speakers.
They set the standard for how English is written and spoken internationally.

English is not limited to just one country, and it's not only spoken by people who
are descendants of English settlers. Many countries where English is not the
native language use it as an o cial language.

In today's world, English is the most important language for international

communication. When people from di erent countries with di erent native
languages meet, they often use English to understand each other.
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 Quiz 14

Question 1: How many people spoke English as their rst language as of 2016?
a) 100 million
b) 400 million
c) 1 billion
d) 1.5 billion

Question 2: Approximately how many people spoke English as a second language in 2016?
a) 500 million
b) 800 million
c) 1.1 billion
d) 2 billion

Question 3: What are the top three most spoken languages in the world?
a) Mandarin, Spanish, and English
b) English, French, and Spanish
c) Mandarin, English, and Arabic
d) Spanish, English, and Hindi
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 Quiz 14
Question 4: In which group of countries is English used as a native language and sets
the international standard for written and spoken English?
a) Outer circle countries
b) Expanding circle countries
c) Inner circle countries
d) Secondary circle countries

Question 5: Is English limited to just one country and only spoken by descendants of
English settlers?
a) Yes, it's limited to one country and spoken only by descendants.
b) No, it's spoken in multiple countries but only by descendants.
c) Yes, it's limited to one country but spoken by people from various backgrounds.
d) No, it's spoken in multiple countries and not limited to descendants.

Question 6: What is the signi cance of English as a global language?

a) It is the most spoken language by native speakers.
b) It is the o cial language of all countries.
c) It is the most spoken language in the world, combining native and non-native
speakers.
d) It is the only language used in international communication.
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 Concept 15
Braj Kachru created a model to classify countries based on how English is used
and learned there. He divided the countries into three circles.

1. Inner Circle: These are countries where English is the primary language
spoken by a large number of native speakers. For example, countries like the
United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, etc.

2. Outer Circle: In these countries, English is not the rst language of most
people, but it is widely used as a second language in schools, media, and for
o cial purposes. Many people in these countries learn and use English
alongside their native language. Examples include India, Nigeria, the Philippines,
etc.

3. Expanding Circle: In these countries, English is taught as a foreign language in

schools and is used mainly for communication with people from other countries.
It is not an o cial language, but many people see it as important for
international communication. Examples include China, Japan, Brazil, etc.

Kachru's model is based on the historical spread of English, how people in

di erent countries learn it, and the various purposes for which English is used in
each place. The circles can change over time as the use and in uence of English
evolve in di erent countries.
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 Concept 15

Braj Kachru (1932-2016) was a renowned linguist and scholar known for his
signi cant contributions to the eld of World Englishes. He was born in
India and later became a naturalized American citizen. Kachru was a
professor of linguistics and English at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, where he held the title of Jubilee Professor of Liberal Arts and
Sciences.
Kachru is most famous for his in uential model of World Englishes, which
categorizes the spread and use of the English language in di erent parts of
the world into three circles: Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle
(as explained in the previous response). His model provided a
comprehensive framework for understanding the diverse ways English is
used globally and helped challenge the notion of English as a monolithic,
homogenous language.
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 Quiz 15

1. What is the "Inner Circle" in Braj Kachru's model of English-speaking countries?

a) Countries where English is learned as a foreign language.

b) Countries where English is widely used as a second language.
c) Countries with large communities of native English speakers.
d) Countries where English is not used for o cial purposes.

2. Which circle includes countries where English is used in education, broadcasting,

or local o cial purposes despite not being the native language?

a) Inner Circle
b) Outer Circle
c) Expanding Circle
d) All of the above

3. In the "Expanding Circle," English is mainly learned and used as:

a) The o cial language of the country.

b) A primary language by a large community of native speakers.
c) A foreign language for international communication.
d) A regional language for speci c communities.
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 Quiz 15

4. What is the basis for Braj Kachru's model of the three circles?

a) The number of English learners in each country.

b) The historical spread of English in di erent countries.
c) The economic importance of English in global trade.
d) The availability of English language courses in schools.

5. Which circle may experience changes in membership over time?

a) Inner Circle
b) Outer Circle
c) Expanding Circle
d) All of the above
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 Concept 16

1. The main countries where English is spoken as the

rst language are Britain, the United States, Australia,
Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand.

2. South Africa also has a signi cant number of native

English speakers, even though it's not the majority
language there.

3. The United States has the most native English

speakers, followed by the United Kingdom, Canada,
Australia, South Africa, Ireland, and New Zealand.

4. In these countries, kids learn English from their

parents, and others who speak di erent languages or
immigrants learn English to communicate in their
communities and workplaces.
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 Concept 16

6. The number of people who speak English as a second

language or foreign language varies greatly, with
estimates ranging from 470 million to over 1 billion. Non-
native speakers of English are now believed to outnumber
native speakers by three to one.

7. In the "outer circle" countries like the Philippines,

Jamaica, India, Pakistan, Singapore, and Nigeria, there
are fewer native English speakers, but English is used a
lot as a second language in education, government,
business, and o cial interactions.

So, in summary, English is widely spoken in many

countries, and while there are more non-native speakers
than native speakers, it remains a crucial language for
communication and education in various parts of the
world.
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 Concept 17

In some countries like Poland, China, Brazil, Germany, Japan,

Indonesia, and Egypt, English is taught as a foreign language.
There are three circles to describe how English is used around the
world. In the "expanding circle," these countries are included
because they teach English as a foreign language. The di erence
between English as a rst language, second language, and foreign
language can be debated and may change over time in di erent
countries.

For example, in the Netherlands and some other European

countries, almost everyone knows English as a second language,
and about 80 percent of the population can use it. They use English
to talk to people from other countries and even in higher
education. Even though they don't use English for their
government work, their widespread use of English puts them
between the "outer circle" and "expanding circle."

What makes English unique is that many people who use it are not
native speakers but speak it as a second or foreign language.
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 Concept 18
English is a language spoken in many countries, and no single authority decides
how it should be used. Even though there are some di erences in how English is
spoken in places like the UK and the US, it's not like they're completely di erent
languages. When people speak on TV or the radio, they usually follow the
pronunciation of their country, but written news scripts are often in a standard
form of English that is widely accepted by educated English speakers all over the
world.

People from di erent English-speaking countries can usually understand each

other's broadcasts, and English speakers from various parts of the world can
understand radio and TV shows from di erent English-speaking places. There
are di erent styles of English, like formal and informal, with varying word choices
and grammar rules.

As English spread to countries outside of Britain, the di erences in how it was

spoken became less pronounced, and a more standardized form developed in
places like South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. In the United States, most
immigrants who didn't have British roots quickly learned English, and now the
majority of the US population speaks only English, even though not all the states
have o cially recognized it as their o cial language.
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 Concept 19

English is no longer limited to people of English ethnicity. It's spreading and

becoming popular in di erent countries for both internal use and international
communication. People learn English mainly for practical reasons. In Africa,
many English speakers form a community that brings together Africans from
various countries.

During decolonization in the 1950s and 1960s, former British colonies didn't
abandon English. Instead, they used it as independent countries with their own
language policies. For example, in India, people used to associate English with
colonialism, but now they see it as a means of economic progress. English is an
o cial language in India and widely used in media and literature, with India
publishing the third-largest number of English books globally. However, only a
few hundred thousand people speak English as their rst language in India, and
less than 5% of the population is uent in English. While some claim India has
the most English speakers, others believe the United States still has more.
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 Concept 20

English, often hailed as the world's rst global lingua franca, holds the distinction
of being the primary language in various spheres. It dominates newspaper
publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scienti c
research, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomatic
communication. Seaspeak and Airspeak, used for maritime and aviation
purposes, are based on English as per international agreements. While English
once shared scienti c research prominence with French and German, it now
reigns supreme in that domain. The Treaty of Versailles negotiations in 1919
elevated English to an equal footing with French in the realm of diplomacy, and
eventually, it became the dominant language during the formation of the United
Nations after World War II. Currently, English serves as the primary worldwide
language for diplomacy and international relations and holds o cial status in six
United Nations languages. Additionally, various global organizations, including
the International Olympic Committee, choose English as their o cial or working
language, even when most members aren't predominantly native English
speakers. In the European Union, while member states can designate any
national language as o cial, English practically functions as the EU's main
working language.
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 Quiz 20
1. What is English often described as?
a) The rst global lingua franca
b) The rst world language
c) The second most widely spoken language
d) The primary language in literature

2. Which domains does English dominate as the most widely used language?
a) Movie industry and music production
b) Newspaper publishing and book publishing
c) International politics and military a airs
d) Space exploration and technology development

3. Which two controlled natural languages are based on English as per international
treaties?
a) Earthspeak and Skyspeak
b) Seaspeak and Airspeak
c) Landspeak and Waterspeak
d) Skyspeak and Seaspeak
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 Quiz 20

4. In which eld did English achieve parity with French and German
in the past but now dominates it?
a) Sports and athletics
b) Scienti c research
c) Fashion and design
d) Culinary arts and cuisine

5. During which event did English achieve parity with French as a

language of diplomacy?
a) The signing of the Magna Carta
b) The Treaty of Versailles negotiations in 1919
c) The American Revolution
d) The formation of the United Nations
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 Quiz 20

5. How many o cial languages does the United Nations recognize?

a) Two
b) Four
c) Six
d) Eight

6. Which organization speci es English as its o cial or working

language, despite not having a majority of native English speakers
among its members?
a) United Nations
b) International Olympic Committee
c) Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
d) European Union (EU)
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 Concept 21

English is not the o cial language in most countries, but it's the
language that is most commonly taught as a foreign language. In the
European Union, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in
19 out of 25 member states where it's not an o cial language (excluding
the UK, Ireland, and Malta).

A poll conducted in 2012 found that 38 percent of respondents from

these non-English-speaking countries said they could have a
conversation in English. The next most commonly mentioned foreign
language was French, which could be used in conversation by 12 percent
of the respondents.

English has become very important in certain jobs like medicine and
computing, where a working knowledge of English is required. It has also
become crucial in scienti c publishing, with over 80 percent of scienti c
journal articles indexed by Chemical Abstracts in 1998 being written in
English. Similarly, 90 percent of articles in natural science publications
and 82 percent in humanities publications by 1996 and 1995, respectively,
were written in English.
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 Quiz 21
1. What is the most commonly taught foreign language in many countries?
a) Spanish
b) English
c) French

2. In how many EU member states is English the most widely spoken foreign language
(excluding the UK, Ireland, and Malta)?
a) 10
b) 15
c) 19

3. According to a 2012 poll, what percentage of respondents from non-English-speaking

countries could speak English well enough for a conversation?
a) 10 percent
b) 25 percent
c) 38 percent
 Quiz 21

4. Which language is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and
Ireland?
a) German
b) French
c) Spanish

5. In which elds has a working knowledge of English become a requirement?

a) Engineering and Law
b) Medicine and Computing
c) Marketing and Economics

6. What percentage of scienti c journal articles indexed by Chemical Abstracts

were written in English in 1998?
a) 50 percent
b) 70 percent
c) 80 percent
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 Quiz 21

7. Which language was the second most commonly

mentioned foreign language in the 2012 poll?
a) Chinese
b) Spanish
c) French

8. What percentage of articles in humanities publications

were written in English by 1995?
a) 65 percent
b) 75 percent
c) 82 percent
 Concept 22

Certainly! In simple terms, English is a special language that is used a lot by people from
di erent countries when they need to communicate with each other. For example,
business people from di erent countries use a simpler version of English called "Globish,"
which has about 1500 common words. This makes it easier for them to understand each
other.

The use of English all over the world has made some other languages change a bit, with
some English words becoming part of their vocabulary. This has caused worries about
some languages dying out and people being forced to use English. However, many people
still choose to learn English because they believe it will give them better job opportunities
and a better life.

While some experts think that English might change so much that di erent dialects
become like di erent languages, most people believe that English will continue to be a
common language that uni es people worldwide.

English is used in many countries as a way to talk to people from di erent places.
Because of this, it has become much more popular globally than any other made-up
language like Esperanto that was created to be an international language.
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 Quiz 22
1. What is the simpler version of English used among
international business people?
a) English
b) Globish
c) Esperanto

2. Why do many people around the world choose to learn

English?
a) Because it's di cult
b) Because it's fun
c) Because they believe it provides better job opportunities and
improved lives

3. What has the increased use of English globally caused in

other languages?
a) Language death
b) Improved vocabulary
c) Easier communication
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 Quiz 22

4. What do some scholars think might happen to English in the

future?
a) It will disappear
b) It will become a completely new language
c) It will continue as a common language that uni es people
worldwide

5. Why do some people have concerns about the in uence of

English?
a) Because it's too easy to learn
b) Because it's not widely spoken
c) Because it might lead to the disappearance of other languages

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 A Brief History of the English
Language
Recap with some important and extra points
 Introduction
1. all languages have long histories and belong to
related families
2. English is a member of the Indo-European
language family, which
includes Germanic languages (German, Dutch,
Norwegian, etc.) and Romance languages
(French, Spanish, Italian, etc.)
Before English:

The British Isles were rst occupied by prehistoric tribes

of megalithic people. They’re called “megalithic”
because of the complex arrangements of giant stones
or megaliths that they created. Stonehenge is the most
famous of the megaliths. Then, between 1500 and 500
BC, Celtic people arrived from continental Europe.
These tribes spoke Celtic languages, a branch of the
ancient Indo-European family of languages, of which
English is also a member. The southern Celts were
conquered by Latin-speaking invaders from Rome in 43
AD. Calling their colony “Britannia” (Britain) and its
capital “Londinium” (London), the Romans achieved
control of the regions now known as England and
Wales. By about 400 AD, they had to give up this
territory and withdraw to continental Europe as the
Roman Empire collapsed.
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1. prehistoric megalithic people: Stonehenge is the
most famous megalithic site
2. Celts: 1500-500 BC, spoke Celtic (an Indo-
European language, like English)
3. Romans: 43-400 AD, spoke Latin, controlled
England and Wales,
"Britannia" (Britain), "Londinium" (London)
4. Romans gave up control as their empire collapsed,
giving other groups an opportunity to invade England
Old English

It grew out of various dialects spoken by Germanic tribes: the

Angles (after which England is named), the Saxons, and the
Jutes, who started populating the British Isles in the 6th century.
These invaders from Denmark and northern Germany drove
many Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of England into Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland. Celtic languages are still spoken by small
minorities in these areas. Basic English grammar and vocabulary
derive from the Anglo-Saxon languages, but they were modi ed
by the Celts and by Scandinavian Vikings or Norsemen, who
began invading northeast England in the late 8th century. The
most famous literary work of this period, the epic poem Beowulf,
is basically a Norse saga or legend. The Old Norse language
seems to have been comprehensible to Old English speakers.
Old English would probably be at least partly understandable to
today's Icelanders, since Vikings also settled in Iceland, where
their isolation prevented the cultural contacts that transformed
English.

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Communication between Celtic, Norse, and Anglo-Saxon
people gradually led to a simpli cation of English. Most
European tongues use genders (masculine and feminine)
and in ection, changes in word form that show syntax (the
grammatical relationships between words), but in English
these changes were slowly lost. This process continued
during the evolution of Middle English until it became a
language whose syntax is indicated almost entirely by
word order. Old English survived until shortly after the
Norman Conquest of 1066, when Nordic people from
Normandy (northern France) took over England.
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1. grew out of Germanic dialects spoken by Angles (after which
England is named), Saxons, and Jutes, 6th c.
2. Celtic-speakers driven into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland,
where
Celtic languages are still spoken by minorities
3. basic English grammar and vocabulary modi ed by the Celts
and Scandinavian Vikings or Norsemen, 8th c.
4. simpli cation of English: gender and in ection (word form
changes) slowly lost, syntax indicated by word order
5. most famous Old English literary work: the epic poem
Beowulf, a Norse saga or legend
6. Old Norse understood by Old English speakers and probably
today's Icelanders, where Vikings also settled
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 Middle English
It was the product of Norman in uence. For almost 300 years,
speakers of French (a Romance language) controlled schools,
churches, and courts. French was the language of the king and
aristocracy, and English remained the language of commoners,
though each studied the other’s language and often
intermarried. Thousands of sophisticated French words were
absorbed into English. Technical words like “observe” and
“possess,” for instance, could be substituted for the simple
Germanic words “see” and “have.” The Catholic church also
contributed Latin and Greek vocabulary. English lost several
archaic letters: “ð” and “þ” were replaced by “th,” and “æ” was
replaced by “e.” The language changed radically. Late Middle
English- speakers could not have understood Old English, yet
written Middle English can be understood today with a bit of
e ort. Its greatest literary work is The Canterbury Tales by
Geo rey Chaucer.
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In the 14th century, the disease known as the Plague or the
Black Death killed nearly half the population of Europe and many
people in positions of power. As a result, English speakers were
allowed to rise from the working classes to ll leadership roles,
displacing French speakers. Con icts grew between England
and France, and battles ravaged both nations during the
Hundred Years War (1337-1453). In 1362, Middle English –
speci cally the dominant dialect of London – was chosen to
replace French as the language of government and trade. At the
coronation of King Henry IV in 1399, the ruler made an address
in Middle English. It was the rst time a monarch had spoken
English in public in 333 years.
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 1. Norman Conquest: 1066, England invaded by Nordic people from
Normandy (northern France)
2. Middle English the product of almost 300 years of Norman in uence
3. French king, French spoken in schools, churches, and courts,
English spoken by commoners
4. French words absorbed into English; ex: "observe" and "possess" for "see" and
"have"
5. Catholic church contributed Latin and Greek vocabulary
6. Several letters lost: "d" and "p" replaced by "th"; "æ" replaced by
"e"; English changed radically
7. the Plague or Black Death: 14th c., killed people in positions of power, English
speakers rose to leadership
8. con icts between England and France: the Hundred Years War
(1337-1453)
9. London's Middle English replaces French: 1362; King Henry IV makes rst
speech in Middle English: 1399
10. greatest Middle English literary work: The Canterbury Tales by
Geo rey Chaucer.
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 Modern English
It arose in the 15th and 16th centuries with the Great Vowel Shift, a fundamental
transformation in the pronunciation of vowels. For example, words like “house,”
“ ne,” and “same,” which sounded like “hoosa,” “feena,” and “sahma” in Middle
English, developed blended vowels or diphthongs and dropped the nal “e” sound.
Such words as “see” and “to” lost the sounds “say” and “toh.” English speakers also
stopped pronouncing hard Germanic consonants like the “g” in “night” and “light.”
Most scholars date Modern English from around 1500, when the invention of the
printing press and a ood of books permitted linguistic standardization. This
development occurred shortly before the Elizabethan period, in which English power
reached a high point. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the plays and poetry of
William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) set the standards by which all English literature is
judged.
The grammar and pronunciation of English have been essentially the same since
Shakespeare’s time, with a few exceptions. Gone are pronoun forms (“thou,” “thee,”
“thy,” and “thine” – meaning “you,” “your,” and “yours”) and corresponding verb
forms (art, dost, hast, shalt, wilt, etc). Also, a regularization of spelling has been
encouraged by universal education and the introduction of dictionaries. The rst
major English dictionary was published by Samuel Johnson in 1755, and the rst
dictionary of American English was compiled by Noah Webster in 1808.
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Modern English is subdivided into two phases: the Early
Modern Period, during which Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were
Anglicized by force; and the Late Modern Period, beginning
around 1800, when British conquests throughout the world
added tens of thousands of new words used by native peoples.
Colonists in North America, Australia and New Zealand, South
Asia, Africa, and other regions also developed their own
dialects of English. Since English has continued to adopt
foreign and technical words, it is thought to have the largest
vocabulary of any language in the world. The second most-
spoken language after Chinese, the most-used as a second
language, and the common language of science, medicine,
business, and the Internet, English is vital to international
communication.
1. the Great Vowel Shift: 15th and 16th c., transformed vowel pronunciation; ex:
"house," " ne," and "same," sounded like
"hoosa," "feena," and "sahma" in Middle English, developed diphthongs
(blended vowels) and dropped nal "e" sound; "see" and "to," sounding like
"say" and "toh," were modernized
2. consonants like "g" in "night" and "light" no longer pronounced
3. English grammar and pronunciation similar since this time, with exceptions;
ex: pronoun forms ("thou," "thee," "thy," and "thine" - meaning "you," "your,"
and "yours") and verb forms (art, dost, hast, shalt, wilt, etc) gone
4. invention of printing press and spread of books permitted linguistic
standardization: around 1500, shortly before Elizabethan period;
English power at high point; plays and poems of William Shakespeare
(1564-1616)
5. regular spelling encouraged by universal education and dictionaries; rst
major English dictionary published by Samuel Johnson in 1755; rst dictionary
of American English published by Noah Webster in 1808
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6. Modern English divided into Early Modern Period, when Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland were Anglicized by force, and Late Modern
Period, beginning around 1800, when British world conquest added
many words
7. colonists in North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Asia, and
Africa developed their own dialects
8. English has continued to adopt foreign and technical words and has
the largest vocabulary of any language
9. the second most-spoken language after Chinese, the most-used as
a second language, and the common language of science, medicine,
business, and the Internet, English is vital to international
communication
1. What are "megaliths," and what is the name of the most famous megalith?
2. When did Celtic people occupy the British Isles, and where is Celtic still
spoken?
3. What people conquered Britain in the year 43, and for about how long did
they occupy it?
4. Which tribes invaded Britain in the 6th century?
5. Where did the Vikings come from, and when did they start to invade
Britain?

Answers
1. giant stones / Stonehenge
2. 1500 - 500 BC / Wales, Scotland, Ireland
3. Romans/ 350 years
4. Angles, Saxons, Jutes
5. Scandinavia / the late 8th century
6. What is the most famous poem in Old English?
7. Where in the world might people be able to understand some Old
English today?
8. What did the Anglo-Saxon language lose as it was simpli ed into
English?
9. Which people invaded England in 1066, and what language did they speak?
10. Why did common people take over government positions during the
Middle English period?

6. Beowulf
7. Iceland
8. genders, in ections, letters
9. Normans French
10. Plague (the Black Death) killed leaders
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11. What languages added to the vocabulary of Middle
English?
12. What was the greatest work of literature during the
Middle English period, and who wrote it?
13. When did Henry IV become king, and why was the speech
he made special?
14. What major change created Modern English?
15. Why was Modern English able to spread so quickly?

11. French, Latin, Greek

12. The Canterbury Tales / Chaucer
13. 1399 / He spoke English
14. Great Vowel Shift / pronunciation changed
15. printing press, books, military power
16. Who was the greatest author of Modern English, and when was he born?
17. Who wrote the rst major English dictionary, and when was it published?
18. Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were Anglicized during the period of Early
Modern English? What does the word "Anglicized" mean?
19. What was added to English during the Late Modern period, and were did it
come from?
20. Which important elds use English as a common language today?

16. Shakespeare / 1564

17. Johnson / 1755
18. forced to learn, speak, or use English
19. new words, dialects / colonies (India, etc.)
20. science, medicine, business, Internet
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