ITC/EOS

BASICS OF FLIGHT
PLANNING
FARZANEH DADRASS JAVAN
2023
CONTENT CONTRIBUTION FROM DR. BASHAR ALSADIK
AIM OF THE LECTURE & MOTIVATION

• Provide students with the knowledge required for understanding

UAV image flight planning.
• Understand the influencing factors on designing a UAV flight plan
• Compute the elements of the flight planning parameters.
• Practice the design of UAV flight planning.

Motivation: The planning can help to achieve the UAV mission goals but
also help avoid restricted air spaces, keep track of flying height
restrictions, battery life, etc.

https://www.pix4d.com/product/pix4dcapture/
 CONTENT

• Introduction
• Camera settings
• Ground sample distance and scale
• Field of view
• End lap and Side lap
• Purpose of photography
• Weather and season consideration
• Flight planning computation

3
INTRODUCTION

• When you fly your UAV, you mostly flying it with a ‘mission’ in mind. Like to inspect a powerline or pipeline, do an
inspection of a lighthouse, or map and capture an area of ground for a survey.

• When using your UAV for surveying and mapping, it can be very helpful to plan out the area to be flown, the number
of flight paths, the number of photos, and the overlap between the images.
DEFINITION

• You want Autopilot (AP) to control your UAV directly so it follows the flight you planned (and potentially control the
camera orientation). AP should load flight commands and will typically require a GPS and an IMU that helps to
follow the flight plan in a controlled manner. So it is the complete system that enables your UAV to fly autonomously.

• Flight planning software will usually have a way to download (or transmit) commands to your UAV. This is ‘flight
control’ which is simply the device that will keep your aircraft stable.
CAMERA TYPES
• RGB: DSLR, compact, MILC
• Multispectral
• Thermal

(A) DJI Zenmuse X7; (B) MAPIR Survey3 (also

avaliable in multispectral option); (C) PhaseOne iXU-
RS 1000; (D) Sony ILCE-QX1; (E) senseFly S.O.D.A

UAV thermal cameras

UAV Multispectral cameras

CAMERA SETTINGS

Sensor Size:
• Larger sensors will have better light gathering ability at the same
resolutions while smaller sensors will need greater exposure times to
achieve the same effective outcome.
• For UAV inspections it is important to have a high-resolution camera,
with a larger sensor which allows to:
• Provide more details about any point of the inspected object.
• Increase image contrast to help getting better 3D models and point
clouds.
CAMERA SETTINGS
• Depth of field: Depth of field (DOF) refers to the areas of the
photograph both in front and behind the focus point which
remains ‘sharp’ (in focus).
• Aperture: Aperture refers to the size of the opening in the lens
that controls the amount of light reaching the sensor. The
relation between aperture and the focal length is called f-
number or
f-stop=focal length / aperture diameter

Adjust the aperture value helps to match lighting conditions to

effectively expose sensor and obtain the sharpest images.

http://www.canonoutsideofauto.ca/play/
FIELD OF VIEW FOV

• Preferable cameras will have a quick autofocus and short

focal length so when you are above 20m everything will
be in the infinity focus region.

• Shorter focal length lenses provide a wider field of view

FOV but offer less magnification. On the other hand,
longer focal lengths offer a smaller FOV, but provides
larger magnification.

MULTIPLE SENSORS' LENSLETS FOR SECURE DOCUMENT SCANNERS

GROUND SAMPLE DISTANCE GSD

• GSD is the pixel size on the ground. The smaller the 𝑓

GSD, the higher will be resolution of the image. 𝑓

• Increasing the flight height, the field of view and the 𝐻2

𝐻1
GSD increase. Then, the resolution of the image
decreases
• If your GSD is 5cm, then the accuracy of map or 3D
GSD - changed
model produced will be ≥5cm. Pixel - fixed
• Typical GSD for UAVs are few centimeters (from 1 to 5
cm)
GROUND SAMPLE DISTANCE GSD

• GSD is the pixel size on the ground. The smaller the 𝑓

GSD, the higher will be resolution of the image. 𝑓

• Increasing the flight height, the field of view and the 𝐻2

𝐻1
GSD increase. Then, the resolution of the image
decreases
• If your GSD is 5cm, then the accuracy of map or 3D
GSD - changed
model produced will be ≥5cm. Pixel - fixed
• Typical GSD for UAVs are few centimeters (from 1 to 5
cm)
GROUND SAMPLE DISTANCE GSD
• The interpretability of an image and the corresponding 3D point cloud are strongly related to the image resolution
(GSD)
Ground Sampling Distance→ pixel size on the ground

Radiometric resolution (8 / 16-bit) is another important parameter

END LAP AND SIDE LAP

• end lap PE (Along track) is the overlapping of successive photos along a flight strip and normally given in
percentage %
• UAV aerial photographic coverage of an area is normally taken as a series of overlapping flight strips.

𝐵: Air base or distance between

𝐵
exposure stations (cameras) of a
stereopair.
𝐺𝑥: ground coverage of one image in the
direction of flight. (assuming level ground)
End lap expressed in terms of 𝐺𝑥 and 𝐵
as:
𝐺𝑥 − 𝐵 𝐵 End lap
𝑃𝐸 = × 100
𝐺𝑥 𝐺𝑥
END LAP
• If stereoscopic coverage of an area is required, the minimum end lap is 50% However, to prevent gaps from
occurring due to crab, tilt, flying height variations, and terrain variations, end laps greater than 50% are used.
• >50% PE can ensure points to appear in 3 overlapped photos which is good for control.
• For these reasons' UAV images for mapping (3D modeling) purposes is normally taken with about 60% - 90% end
lap.

ΔH

Tilt

Loss of stereoscopic coverage Loss of stereoscopic coverage

END LAP

Loss of stereoscopic coverage

ΔH

Tilt

Loss of stereoscopic coverage Loss of stereoscopic coverage

END LAP AND SIDE LAP
side lap PS (across track) is the overlap of adjacent flight
strips and normally given in percentage. 𝑊

𝐺𝑦: ground coverage of one image in the direction

orthogonal to flight direction
Sometimes called swath width

𝑊: is the spacing between adjacent

flight lines
Side lap expressed in terms of
𝐺𝑦 and 𝑊 as:
𝐺𝑦 − 𝑊 𝑊 Side lap
𝑃𝑆 = × 100
𝐺𝑦 𝐺𝑦
SIDE LAP

• Side lap is required in UAV mapping to prevent gaps from taking place between flight strips as a result of drift, crab,
tilt, flying height variation, and terrain variations.
• UAV Mapping is normally taken with a minimum of 30% side lap up to 80%. This is helping to:
• Prevent gaps in coverage.
• Having better coverage means more complete DSM for producing true orthophotos in urban areas.
• For precise photogrammetric projects, the photos may be taken with 60%-80% side lap as well as 60%-80% end
lap to increase the redundancy in the bundle adjustment and make sure to 3D model all the objects.
SOLVED EXAMPLE

• The air base (B) of a stereopair of UAV photos is 18 m, and flying height (H) above average ground is 40 m. The
camera used in the imaging is Sony A7 III type with a focal length of 20 mm [see the specs. in the link]. What is the
end lap%?
Sony A7 specs: https://www.the-digital-picture.com/Reviews/Camera-Specifications.aspx?Camera=1194
Solution
𝑓 20𝑚𝑚 1
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = = =
𝐻 40𝑚 × 1000𝑚𝑚/𝑚 2000
23.8 𝑚𝑚 × 2000
𝐺𝑥 = = 47.6𝑚
1000𝑚𝑚/𝑚 𝐵
47.6 − 18
𝑃𝐸 = × 100 ≅ 60%
47.6
𝐻

𝐵 End lap
𝐺𝑥
SOLVED EXAMPLE

𝐻 = 40
Assume that the spacing between
adjacent flight strips is 50 m. What is the
side lap%?

35.6 𝑚𝑚 × 2000
𝐺𝑦 = = 71.2𝑚
1000𝑚𝑚/𝑚

71.2 − 50
𝑃𝑆 = × 100 ≅ 30%
71.2
PURPOSE OF THE UAV MAPPING MISSION

• When the UAV flight purpose is defined, the optimum camera/sensor and procedures can be selected.
• UAV mapping is desired to have good metrical and pictorial quality. Metrical quality is required for precise
measurements while pictorial for orthomosaics and interpretation/ classification.
• Metrical quality can be attained through sensor calibration and high resolution. Furthermore, with a wide-angle
camera or a large B/H ratio.
• For orthomosaics, relief displacements, tilt displacements, and scale variations produce significant degradations of
pictorial quality.
• The advantage of increasing the side lap is that more ground is covered near the center of photos. This reduces the
amount of relief displacement and occlusion by buildings and is therefore more useful in urban areas than rural.
 PURPOSE OF THE UAV MAPPING MISSION

𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 50𝑚𝑚
𝐻𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 200 𝑚

𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 25𝑚𝑚
𝐻𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 100 𝑚
𝑑𝑙 > 2𝑑𝑟

• The left photo was exposed at ½ flying height of the right photo. The
scales of the two photos are equal,

• however, because 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 is double 𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 , The right photo is more

desirable for orthomosaic construction because its scale variations
and image distortions due to relief, tilt, and flying height variations are
much less than those of the left photo.
21
 PURPOSE OF THE UAV MAPPING MISSION

𝑓2 = 25𝑚𝑚
𝐻2 = 100 𝑚
𝑓2 = 50𝑚𝑚
𝑑1

𝐻2=200m
𝑓2 = 25𝑚𝑚
𝑑2

𝐻2=100m
𝑓1 = 50𝑚𝑚 𝑓
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
𝐻1 = 200 𝑚 𝐻
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑1 < 𝑑2
22
PURPOSE OF THE UAV
MAPPING MISSION
• Different interests according to the use:
• Cadastral mapping
• High overlap and resolution
• High georeferencing accuracy

• 3d modelling
• High overlap and resolution
• Oblique images

• Crop monitoring
• Lower resolution and overlap
• Larger areas
• Use of multispectral camera if possible
WEATHER CONSIDERATION

• Clouds: in most cases, an ideal day for UAV photography is free from clouds
(< 10% cloud-covered). Large cloud shadows will obscure features on the ground.
• Wind: windy, turbulent days can create excessive image motion and cause difficulties in keeping the camera
oriented as required, in staying on planned flight lines, and in maintaining constant flying heights. Avoid flying with
wind speed >10 m/s especially for multirotor UAVs.
• The stability of the flight depends on the wind and the drone platform. Typically fixed-wing UAVs offer higher stability
than multirotor UAVs.
• Best days for photographing over industrial areas which are subject to smog, dust, and smoke occur after heavy
rains or during moving cold fronts which clear the air.
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC FLIGHT PLAN DESIGN
• There are three main types of flight plan design: Corridor mapping, 3D area mapping and circular/spiral mapping
around towers or point of interest.
AREA MAPPING FLIGHT PLAN DESIGN

• It is most economical to align flight lines parallel to project boundaries as nearly as possible.
• Once the camera focal length, photo scale, end lap, and side lap have been selected, the flight map can be
prepared.
• The following example illustrates flight map preparation for a rectangular project area.

Example
A project area is 400 m long in the north-south direction and 200 m wide in the east-
west direction. It is to be covered with UAV photography having a scale of 1:2000.
End lap and side lap are to be 60% for both. A 20 mm focal length camera Sony A7 III
is to be used. Prepare the flight map and compute the total number of photographs
necessary for the project?
FLIGHT PLAN EXAMPLE
• The flying path should be in the north-south direction to reduce the number of
flight strips.
• 𝐺𝑥 = 47.6 𝑚, 𝐺𝑦 = 71.2 𝑚
• Flight strips spacing 𝑊 = 0.4∗71.2 = 28.48 𝑚
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
• No. of flight lines= +1= 8
𝑊

• 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐵 = 0.4 ∗ 47.6 = 19.04 𝑚

• Add two images at the beginning and the end of every flight strip to ensure
sufficient coverage.
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
• No. of images per flight strip= + 1 + 4 = 26
𝐵

• Total no. of images = 26 ∗ 8 = 208

• Start the first flight line at the east boundary of the project area shifted by 13.92m
outside the borders and 14.56 m inside.
 SOFTWARE TOOLS FOR FLIGHT PLANNING/CONTROL

▪ http://www.skyimd.com/online-flight-planner-for-aerial-imaging-mapping-survey/
▪ https://www.pix4d.com/product/pix4dcapture
▪ https://ardupilot.org/planner/docs/mission-planner-overview.html
▪ https://heighttech.nl/flight-planning-software/
▪ https://www.djiflightplanner.com/
▪ https://solvi.nu/features
▪ https://www.sensefly.com/software/emotion/
▪ https://www.microdrones.com/en/integrated-systems/software/mdcockpit/
▪ http://uavtoolbox.com/
▪ https://www.ugcs.com/

28
ANY QUESTION?

FARZANEH DADRASS JAVAN

ITC/EOS