HNEE 105 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS PRINCIPLE

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TASK 1.1
An electrical circuit figure is shown below:

Converting the branch with 10v to a Norton equivalent network

Using Ohms Law
v
I1 =
R
10 V
I1 = =0.005
2kΩ
0.005=5 mA
For the branch with 6V
v
I1 =
R
6V
I1 = =0.002
3 kΩ
0.002=2 mA

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Combining the two source current

Now the networks and can be converted to a Thevenin circuit. The voltage across
MN =7 x 1.2=8.4 v

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The voltage across point OP=1 mA (0.001)x 600Ω=0.6 V

Combining thetwo Thevenin together

E=8.4−0.6=7.8 v
Total Resistance=1.2+0.6=1.8 KΩ
The Thevenin equivalence for both terminals is the figure below

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TASK 1.2
An electrical circuit figure is shown below:

Considering the effect of the 8-V source and replace other sources with a short and the
equivalent circuit will be as shown below:

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Each of the sources is resolved one after the other.

Current flows ¿ positive source E1 (8 v )

finding I 1 I 2 I 3

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 V
From Thevenin theorem I=
R+ r

8
I1 = =1.67 A
3+1.8

18 18
I2 =( 3+18 ) I =( 3+18
1 )1.67=1.5 A
I 2 =1.5 A

2 2
I2 =( 2+18 ) I =( 2+18
1 )(1.67)
¿ 0.1 x 1.667=0.167 A

Considering the effect of the 3-V source and replace other sources with a short and the
equivalent circuit will be as shown below:

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Current flows from E2 source (3v), the two circuit above are the same in the second circuit
the current flows in a reverse bias direction.

finding I 4 , I 5∧I 6.

V
Using the formula I=
R+ r
V 3
I 4= =
R+r 2+2.57
3
¿ =0.656 A
4.57
18 18
I5 = ( 3+18 ) I =( 3+18
4 ) ( 0.656 )
¿ 0.857 x 0.656=0.562 A

3 3
I6 = ( 3+18 ) I =( 3+18
4 ) ( 0.656 )
0.143 ×0.656=0.094 A .

When the circuit is super-positioned with the two sources E1 and E2

Then the resultant current in the 18 Ω resistor=i3 – i6

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 0.167−0.094=0.073 A

The p .d across it =0.073 x 18=1.314 v .

Current ∈E 1(8 v )=i1+i 5=¿

1.667+0.562=2.229 A

Current ∈E 2(3 v)=i 2+i 4=¿

1.5+0.656=2.156 A .

TASK 1.3
Transformers
As the word meaning implies a change in something or situation. In the case of transformers
as an electrical device is used to build up or step down current or voltage.

Its basic operation depends on inductance which means when a coil (primary) with an
electrical current passing through it is placed next to another coil (secondary) will induce a
voltage in the secondary coil therefore the voltage is transferred to the secondary coil without
physically connecting the tow coils together. So the transformer is used to transform power
from one part of the circuit to another without changing the frequency. In power systems
transformers are used in transmitting electricity for power station to substations. The power
station will transmit electricity at high voltage using a step-up transformers (because it is
more efficient to do so than transmitting high current) to the substation which will have
transformers that will reduce the voltage using a step down transformers. The figure below is
a typical transformer.

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 Figure of an electrical transformer

Types of Transformer:

 Step up Transformer and Step down Transformer: This type of transformer is

used to step-up or reduce power voltage in the transmitting and distributing power.

 Three Phase Transformer & Single Phase Transformer: both does the same job
but the three phase transformer is like having a three one phase transformers in one
unit thus the size is huge but they are more cost effective than the single phase.

 Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer & Instrument

Transformer: This includes current transformers and potential transformers which
are used for protection and as relays in power networks.

Two Winding Transformer, Auto transformers: In Auto Transformer, one single winding
is used as primary winding as well as secondary winding. But in two windings transformer
two different windings are used for primary and secondary purpose.

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(b) The properties of a given electrical transformer is given below:
N P =1200
N S =?
E P=200 V
ES =10 V
N P EP
=
NS ES

1200 200 V
= ,
NS 10

N S =60

Also with I S=2.5 A , I P=?

IS EP
=
I P ES

2.5 200 V
=
I P 10 V

2.5 ×10
I P= =0.125 A
200

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF A TRANSFORMER

The factors affecting the choice of a transformer are listed below:

o The environment in which the transformer will be operated

o The capacity of the electricity needed
o The accessibility of the location of the transformer
o The accessories of the transformer

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TASK 1.4

An electrical circuit figure is shown below

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 V =250 V

f =50 Hz

R=18 Ω

C=64.96 µF

L=79.58 mH

(a) Z =?

2
X L− X C ¿
R2 +¿
Z= √¿

1
X C= =2× π ×50 × 64.96× 10−6 =49.0 Ω
2 πfC

−3
X L=2 πfL=2× π ×50 × 79.58× 10 =25.0 Ω

25−49 ¿2
¿
182 +¿
Z=√ ¿

Z =30Ω

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(b) I =?

V =1 Z

V 250
I= = =8.3 A , I =8.3 A
Z 30

The phasor diagram of an RLC circuit is shown in the figure below.

Figure of the phasor diagram

X L −X C
θ=tan −1 ( )
R

θ=tan −1 ( 25−49
18 )
=−53.1 °

θ=53.1 ° lagging
(d) Z 1= X C =49Ω

Z 2=R+ X L= √ R2 + X 2L =√ 1 82 +2 52=30.8 Ω

Z1 I 49 × 8.3
I L= = =5.1 A , I L=5.1 A
Z 1+ Z 2 49+30.8

(e) The current IC across the capacitor can be calculated by denoting that:

I =I L + I C

I C =I −I L =8.3−5.1=3.2 A

I C =3.2 A

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(b) Simulation of the given AC circuit

Considering the RLC circuit shown in the figure below has been simulated on Multism
Software.

(c) Simulation of the current across the resistor

Considering the circuit shown in the figure below has been simulated using

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TASK 2.1

The characteristic resistance and the attenuation of a symmetrical T attenuator is deduced

with the properties below

R1=409Ω

R2 =101Ω

m=?

R2 101
m= = =0.247
R1 409

R0=R 1 √ 1+ 2m=409 √ 1+ 2(0.247)=500 Ω

1+0.247+ √ 1+ 2(0.247)
α= =10
0.247

Thus, the given attenuator should be used with a 500Ω load and source resistance. If this is
done, the attenuation will be equal to 10, which is equivalent to 20db.

409 101
Now, R 1= =10.9 Ω∧R 2= =10.1 Ω
10 10

Therefore

m=?

R2 10.1
m= = =0.247, mremains the same
R1 40.9

Therefore the attenuation will also be the same

It can be noted that R, is directly proportional to R1 . The value of m is still the same.

1
Therefore R0 equals to one-tenth of 500Ω; ×500=50Ω
5

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TASK 2.2

ATTANUATOR

An attenuator circuit is circuit purely resistive that consists of resistors. Which its job is to
attenuate (Reduce or weaken) a certain signal, basically it dose the opposite of an amplifier
circuit. The arrangement and the way the resistors are connected with each other reflect the
then name or what kind of section it is.

Applications of Attenuator

Fixed attenuator in circuits can be used to dissipate powers, reduce voltage as well as in
improving impedance matching. Attenuator pads or adaptors are used in measuring signals in
order to lower the amplitude of the signal by a known amount in order to enable measurement
or to enable measuring device from signal levels that could damage it. The most common
applications for coaxial attenuators in microwave systems are in transmitters and receivers.

The different configuration of an attenuator circuit is shown in the figure below:

The T and Π attenuators must be connected to a Z source and Z load impedance. An

attenuators performance is expressed by the number of decibels the input signal has
decreased per frequency decade (or octave). The general equation for K factor is given as:

dB
dB
K=antilog
20 ( )
=10 20 for voltage∨current

dB
dB
K=antilog ( )
10
=10 10 for power

Also in the network above

R1=R2 =Z ( K−1
K +1 )
Where Z is theimpedance

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 R3=2 Z
( K K−1 )
2

TASK 3.1

What is Fourier series?

Fourier series can be defined as a continuous series of trigonometric functions of a periodic

function or expansion applied in Fourier analysis. The figure below illustrates this.

A given complex periodic wave is denoted with the parameters stated below, which are:

Vs=1 sin 5000 t +0.5 sin 1000 t

R=100 Ω

C=2 µF

L=20 mH

Vrms=?

Effective (r.m.s) voltage

V2
√2
Vrms = V1
2

(√ ) 2
+(¿)²
√¿

0.5
√2
= 1 2
( )
√2
+(¿)²
√¿

= √ 0.5+0.125
= 0.79056

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 V r . m .s = 790.6mA

Effective r.m.s current

ω1 = 5000 rad/s

ω2 = 1000 rad/s

V = 1.0 sin 5000 + 0.5 sin 1000t

ω=2 πF

X L = 2πFL or ωL

X L1 = ω1 L = 5000 (20 ×10−3 )

= 100Ω

1 1
XC = =
ɯ1 C −3
5000 (2 x 10 )

= 100Ω

Ƶ1 = √ R ²+( X C−X L ) ²
= √ 100²+(100−100)²
= √ 100²
= 100

ω2

X L2 = ω2 L

= 1000 x (20 x 10−3 )

= 20Ω

1
XC2 =
ɯ2C

1
=
1000 (2 x 10−3 )

= 500

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 Ƶ2 = √ R ²+( X C 2−X L2 )²
= √ 100²+(20−500)²
= 490.13

V
i=
Ƶ

1
i1 = = 0.01 or 10mA
100

0.5
i2 = = 1.02 x 10−3 or 1.02mA
490.13

r.m.s current

10 1.02
i r .m . s =
√( √2 )
²+(
√2
)²

= √ 50+0.5202
=7.101mA

True power

P = i²R

Total power = P1000 + P5000

= i r .m. s ² R + i r .m. s 2 ² R

1 1
= ((1.02 × 10
−3
)x )² x 100 +((10 ×10−3 ) x )² x 100
√2 √2
= 5.05mWatts

Power factor

true power
P=
apperent power

5.05 x 10−3
=
iv

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 −3
5.05 x 10
= 0.1 1 0.1 0.5
x + x
√ 2 √ 2 √2 √2
=0.0673

= cos−1 (0.0673)

= 86.14°

(b) The parameters stated are given:

L = 400 x 10−3

R=5

C = 0.5 x 10−6

Fundamental value = 250v

3rd Harmonic value = 20v

Resonance with the 3rd harmonic mean that:

1
3 ω L=
3 ωC

1
ω =
√ 9 LC

(400 x 10−3)(0.5 x 10−6 )

¿
= 9 ¿
1
¿
√¿

= 745.36 rad/s

ɯ
Then the fundamental frequency F =
2π

745.36
=
2 x 3.142

= 118.6Hz

(ii) At the fundamental frequency, impedance Ƶ =

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 1
Ƶ 1 = R + j (L - )
ɯC

1
= 5 + j (745.36 x 0.4 - −6
745.36 x (0.5 x 10 )

= 5 + j (298.14 – 2683.27)

= (5 – j2385)

Maximum value of current i at the fundamental frequency =

V 1m
i 1m =
Ƶ1

250
=
2385

= 0.105A

Since the resonance occurs at the 3rd harmonics Ƶ 3 = 5Ω

Maximum current value at 3rd harmonic frequency =

V 3m
i3 m =
Ƶ3

20
= = 4A
5

Task 3.2
Determine the Fourier series for the periodic function of period 2π defined:

π π
1 1
a0 =
π
∫ πo f (x) dx =
π
∫2 1 dx + ∫π - 1 dx ] (due to
o 2
¿
symmetry)

1 π π
= [(1x ¿ 2 + (-1x ¿ π ]
π 0 2

1
= [(π) + {(-1π) – (-π)}] = 0
π

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(i.e the mean value)

2
an =
π
∫ πo f (x) Cos nx dx

π π
2 ∫2
= 1 Cos nx dx + ∫π - 1Cos nx dx ]
π o 2
¿

2 sin nx 2
π
−sin nx π
= [( ¿o +( ¿π ]
π n n 2

=
2
π
[( (sin π2 )n - 0) + (0 -
−sin ( π2 ) n )
n n

=
2
π
[
2 sin ( π2 ) n =
4
πn
(Sin
nπ
2
¿
n

Where n is even and an =0

4
Where n is odd, an = for n = 1, 5, 9
πn

−4
an = for n = 3, 7, 11
πn

4 −4 4
Hence a1 = , a3 = , a5 = -------
π 3π 5π

Then the Fourier series of the above waveform,

4 1 1 1
= f(x) = (Cos x - Cos 3x + Cos 5x - Cos 7x + -------)
πn 3 5 7

b) The Fundamental and third harmonic of the Fourier series has been drawn using Graphic
designer

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(c) Simulation Analysis of the Fourier series of the RLC circuit in Multism

TASK 4.1

LAPLACE TRANSFORM

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It is transforming a function from the time domain to the frequency domain. This is used in
analysing electrical circuits. This Laplace function will be in the form of an algebraic
equation.

Let f (t) be the function of t, time for all t ≥ 0; then the Laplace transform of f (t) , F(s)
can be defined as:

∞
F ( S )=∫ f ( t ) ∙ e−st dt
0

There are certain steps which need to be followed in order to do a Laplace transform of a time
function. In order to transform a given function of time f(t) into its corresponding Laplace
transform, we have to follow the following steps:

 First multiply f (t) by e−st , s being a complex number (s = σ + j ω).

 Integrate this product w.r.t time with limits as zero and infinity. This integration
results in Laplace transformation of f(t), which is denoted by F(s).

The mathematical expression for Laplace transform is:

Lf ( t )=F ( S ) ,t ≥ 0

∞
F ( S )=∫ f ( t ) ∙ e−st dt
0

The time function f (t) is obtained back from the Laplace transform by a process
called inverse Laplace transformation and denoted by L-1

−1
L [ Lf ( t ) ]=L−1 [ F ( S ) ]=f ( t )

TASK 4.2
Considering the parameters shown below:

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 di
L(IR)+ L(l )=L(V )
dt

V
It will be RL(i)+l[s L(i)– i(0)]=
S

V
i(0)=0, hence RL (i)+l s L(i)=
S

By rearrangingit

V
(R+l s) L(i)=
S

V
L ( i )=
s( R+ ls)

V
( i )=L−1 ( )
s (R+l s)

By using∂ fraction rule

V A B
Let ≡ +
s ( R+l s) s R+l s

A ( R+l s ) Bs
¿
s ( R+l s)

Hence V = A ( R+l s ) Bs

V
Whens=0,V =AR ¿ which A=
R

−R −R
When s= ,V =B ( )
l l

−V l
Then B=
R

−1 V
Hence L ( )
s( R +l s)

V Vl
L−1 ( − )
Rs R( R +l s)

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 1 1 1
¿ Laplacetransform rule =1 , e at = ∧e−at =
s s−a s+ a

R
Where a=
l

V
(1−e−at )
R

R
V −( )t
Thenthe current ,i= (1−e l )
R

(b)

Considering the parameters of the circuit given as shown in the figure below:

V =50 V

R=100 Ω

L=2 μH

t=2 ms

I =?

R
V −( )t
I = (1−e l )
R

100

I=
50
100
(
1−e
−
( 2 ×1 0 −6 )×2 )= 1 =0.5 A
10

I =0.5 A

(c) The L-C-R series circuit has the following parameters shown in the figure below:

V =10 V

L=2 H

C=60 µF

(i) When R=0

For the state of damping, the formula for the damping coefficient is deduced as shown below:

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 1 R2
ω=
√ − 2
LC 4 L

1
( i ) R=0 , ω=
√ LC

1
ω=
√ 2 ×60 ×10
−6
=707.106

( ii ) When R=350 Ω

1 3502
√ −
2 ×60 ×10−6 4 ×22
=701.672

( iii ) When R=283Ω

1 2832
√ −
2 ×60 ×10−6 4 ×22
=703.558

( iv ) When R=120 Ω

1 1202
√ −
2 ×60 ×10−6 4 ×22
=706.47

DISTINCTION 3

2 SIMULATION OF THE RLC CIRCUIT

Simulation analysis of the of the calculated results of the RLC circuit above

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(i) When R = 0

(ii) When R = 350

(iii) When R = 283

(iv)When R = 120

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References
MAHESHWARI, L., 2006. Analogue Electronics. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private
Limited.
R.L.L, N., 2006. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory. New Delhi: Asoke. K . Ghosh.
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