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'Loveable' mammals and 'lifeless' plants: how children's interest in common

local organisms can be enhanced through observation of nature

Article in International Journal of Science Education · May 2005

DOI: 10.1080/09500690500038116

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 Note: This is the accepted version of the manuscript

'Loveable' mammals and 'lifeless' plants: how children's interest in

common local organisms can be enhanced through observation of nature

Petra Lindemann-Matthies

Abstract

This study investigated which plants and animals Swiss children found most attractive and

evaluated the effect of an educational programme on children's preferences for species. More

than 4000 pupils (8–16 years old) from 248 classes participated in the study. Possible effects

of the programme were studied with the help of questionnaires using a pretest/posttest-design

with an experimental group that participated in the programme and a control group that did

not. Before the start of the programme most children found decorative or garden species

among plants, pets and exotic species among animals, most attractive. However, the more

wild plants and animals children noticed in their local environment and could name, the more

did they appreciate these organisms. Moreover, the more additional wild plants the children

noticed due to the programme, the higher was the increase in their appreciation of these

species. This supports the hypothesis that children may appreciate animals other than pets and

exotic species and even inconspicuous wild plants if they know them.
Introduction

How people perceive and value nature, in particular wildlife, has been extensively studied

(e.g. Kellert 1980, 1985, Schulz 1985, Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Kellert 1991, 1993a, 1993b).

Research has shown that the particular physical and behavioural characteristics of organisms

shape people's attitudes towards them (Kellert 1993c, Wandersee and Schussler 2001). People

judge the value of organisms by their beauty, usefulness, or rarity, and the visual

attractiveness of a species strongly influences their opinion of whether it should be protected

or not. These attitudes have been found both in adults (Kellert 1993a) and children (Trommer

1990, Ashworth et al. 1995).

Children like animals, especially large mammals that are similar to humans in appearance and

behaviour such as apes, monkeys, and pandas (e.g. Morris and Morris 1966, Bell 1981,

Morris 1982, Ward et al. 1998), or, in the words of Kellert (1985) 'loveable animals'. Children

often describe animals as organisms which are large, terrestrial, and quadruped (Bell 1981).

Several studies in the US, and one in Germany, have found that many adults also particularly

like large animals, especially those with considerable intelligence and the capacity for social

bonding (e.g. Kellert 1980, Schulz 1985, Kellert 1993a). In contrast, adults, but also children

tend to avoid invertebrates like insects and spiders because they are small and

morphologically and behaviourally unlike humans (Morris and Morris 1965, Morris 1982,

Kellert 1993b).

Across all age-groups children, but also adults, are more interested in animals than in plants

(Wandersee 1986, Flannery 1991, Löwe 1992, Wandersee and Schussler 1999). As a

consequence, children are better informed about animals than plants (Ryman 1974, Hershey

1996, Lindemann-Matthies 2002a), prefer to learn about animals in school (Baird et al.), and

are more concerned about their conservation (Greaves et al. 1993, Ashworth et al. 1995). In a

British survey almost all participating adolescents were able to name one or more endangered

2
animals, whereas nearly 40% could name no endangered plant at all. The 'plants' most

frequently mentioned were 'rainforest' and 'rainforest trees' (Ashworth et al. 1995, also

Greaves et al. 1993).

There are several, not mutually exclusive, explanations for the observed bias in children's

attitudes toward plants and animals. It has been suggested that children's fascination by

movement is responsible for their greater interest in mobile animals than in sessile plants

(Wandersee 1986, Kinchin 1999). In addition, animals can make eye contact, communicate by

sound, and can thus, in contrast to plants, interact with humans (Wandersee 1986). Moreover,

animals can learn, and exhibit behaviours that attract attention and are often fun to watch

(Morris and Morris 1966). In contrast, non-flowering plants or plants with inconspicuous

flowers and a homogeneity of green leaves, i.e. the majority of plants during most parts of the

year, do not pop out chromatically from the background, blend in with their surroundings and

make edge-detection difficult (Wandersee and Schussler 1999, 2001). As a consequence, both

children and adults tend to perceive animals as individuals, whereas plants, if they are

recognised at all (see Schneekloth 1989), are simply perceived as part of the habitat of

animals (Greaves et al. 1993, Hershey 1996) or, in the words of Kellert (1993c, p.50), as

'static and lifeless environment'. Such 'zoochauvinism' (Flannery 1991) might also explain

why there are hardly any studies that have investigated children's preferences for plants

(Scherf 1988).

In view of the alarming loss of biodiversity and the recognition of its value (e.g. Heywood

1995) it is essential to educate people about the value of the diversity of organisms, including

less attractive ones like the majority of plants and invertebrates (Kellert 1996). Children in

primary schools are an important target group, because young children are particularly

interested in living organisms (Berck and Klee 1992, Löwe 1992). However, 6-10 year old

children were also found to be the most exploitative, unfeeling and uninformed of all children

3
in their attitudes towards animals (Kellert 1985). Thus, the transition from first to fifth grade

would seem to be the most opportune time for emphasising affective, emotional concern for

living species (Kellert 1985; see also Palmer 1993, Chawla 1998).

Recently, educational programmes and materials have been developed in European countries

to foster an appreciation and understanding of biodiversity (Crisci et al. 1993,

Schweizerischer Bund für Naturschutz 1995, Cuche and Gigon 1996, Nagel 1997). These

programmes particularly address children's direct observation and investigation of local wild

plants and animals in the near vicinity of their schools. However, the effectiveness of such

programmes must be evaluated (Bennett 1988, Leeming et al. 1993, Stokking et al. 1995). At

present, hardly anything is known about the outcomes of biodiversity education. Previous

studies have concentrated on the effects of environmental education on pupil's environmental

knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour (see reviews in Hines et al. 1986, Langeheine and

Lehmann 1986, Leeming et al. 1993, Leeming et al. 1997) or on the effect of taxonomy

education on children's knowledge of local organisms (Pfligersdorffer 1984, Scherf 1985). In

an Austrian study, Pfligersdorffer (1984) showed that seventh graders who took part in a half-

day excursion to a forest and investigated plants and animals in their natural environment Obiamente,
demostrauta
daula gehio
learned more about forest organisms than students who received a theoretical two hour balioula
ikaskuntza
esanguratxu
classroom instruction on the same topic. In a German study with fourth graders, a three-hour ek entzute
utxek baño

classroom instruction about common local plants combined with a field trip was more

effective than a classroom instruction only (Scherf 1985). Moreover, the more plant species

children got to know, the more did they develop conservational attitudes. However, both

studies included only few classes and did not focus on possible changes in children's

preferences for organisms.

The aim of the present study was to investigate children's general preferences for plants and

animals, and to evaluate the effect of an educational programme called 'Nature on the way to

4
school' on their preferences for local species. More than 4000 children from 248 classes of

different grades (8-16 years old) participated in the study, which was part of a large project on

children's cognition of biodiversity in Switzerland (Lindemann-Matthies 1999). The main

questions explored by the study were: (1) Which plants and animals do children like best, and

which organisms are especially valued by children on their way to school? (2) Did the

educational programme 'Nature on the way to school' change children's preferences for

species? (3) Did the age and sex of the children influence their preferences for species and did

age and sex influence the effect of the programme?

Method

The educational programme

A focus of the 'European Year of Nature Conservation' in 1995 was to increase children's

awareness of plants and animals in their daily lives, and the promotion of interest in and

tolerance of local species. As a contribution the Swiss conservation organisation 'Pro Natura'

launched a new educational programme called 'Nature on the way to school' as an educational

supplement mainly for primary schools. The programme was designed to be implemented in

spring and summer (during the vegetation period). Between March and July 1995 more than

500 classes and 14000 pupils from all over Switzerland participated in the programme.

'Pro Natura' provided a brochure and a poster to help teachers and their pupils to investigate

nature and to take action in the area of nature conservation (Schweizerischer Bund für

Naturschutz 1995). The educational material gave instructions to teachers on how to engage

their pupils in active investigations of nature in the surroundings of the schools during normal

lessons, and on how to make observations during their daily walks to school. (Note that in

Switzerland primary school children usually live within walking distance of their school.) The

5
educational material included information on (1) the life of the sparrow, (2) snails, slugs, and

earthworms, (3) ladybirds, (4) insects on plants, (5) trees in the city, (6) climbing plants, (7)

life in cracks and crevices, (8) lichens and mosses, and (9) native and non-native plants

(Schweizerischer Bund für Naturschutz 1995).

Highlight of the whole programme was the so-called 'Nature Gallery'. In May 1995 the

children placed a picture frame around a plant (or, if possible, animal) that they especially

valued on the way to school (therefore the name Nature Gallery). They took a great effort to

carefully select the object, to frame it with an often self-constructed frame and to present

some information about their chosen plant or animal. The children were encouraged to stay

with their frames for about one week, explaining to other children, parents, passers-by, and in

some cases also to the media why they had selected these particular objects. Thus, the

children tried to increase the awareness of adults for species and their diversity, with the hope

to promote a behaviour that is compatible with the conservation of species.

The programme was flexible. Teachers were free to select suitable topics and methods for

their classes. A questionnaire filled out by the teachers (see below) provided information on

the actual activities undertaken during the programme. Teachers engaged their students in

hands-on activities outside the classroom like the observation, identification, and study of

plants and animals, and the 'Nature Gallery' (two thirds of all reported lesson activities).

Pupils collected natural objects and presented them in the classroom, made drawings of plants

and animals, and kept animals like snails, slugs, and earthworms in the classroom for further

observation. Some children kept diaries in which they wrote down their observations of

special plants and animals on their way to school.

Study design and treatments

All teachers who had ordered the educational material for the programme 'Nature on the way

to school' were asked to participate in the present study. Together with the material, they

6
received a questionnaire for teachers, a set of questionnaires for their pupils, a letter

containing an outline of the aims of the present study and detailed instructions on how to

carry out the evaluation. The anonymity of the participants was guaranteed, but in order to

match the corresponding questionnaires of classes and their teachers, each set of

questionnaires was marked with a number.

Possible influences of the programme were evaluated using a pretest/posttest-design with an

experimental group and a control group. The classes of the experimental group took part in

the programme, whereas the classes of the control group did not participate, but also filled in

the questionnaires. The necessity of a control group was explained to the teachers and they

were asked to select a matching class to serve as control group.

Teachers were asked to administer the questionnaires in the classroom. The pretest

questionnaires were completed just before the start of the programme, and the posttest and

teachers' questionnaires were completed immediately after the end of the programme. All

questionnaires for the children were identical except for a few additional questions about the

programme in the posttest for the experimental group.

The instrument

The pretest questionnaires for the experimental and control group and the posttest

questionnaire for the control group consisted of 18 items, and the posttest questionnaire for

the experimental group of 25 items. The items investigated children's perception of

biodiversity in everyday life and their preferences for plants and animals. The teachers'

questionnaire consisted of 13 items, which asked for the activities undertaken during the

programme, the number of lessons spent, and teachers' assessment of the educational material

and the activities undertaken. (A set of questionnaires is available in English from the author)

A panel of four experts in environmental education evaluated the content validity of the items

in the questionnaires. Based on their comments, the final items were formulated and tested in

7
a pilot study. To test whether all children understood the questions, individual children were

asked to describe the meaning of each item and to comment on the language (see

recommendations in Friedrichs 1990, Presser and Blair 1994). The instrument was then tested

in four classes in a primary school that did not participate in the programme. During the trial

run, the teachers were asked to review the questions and to comment on the format.

The children were asked in both the pretest and the posttest to name the plant and the animal,

respectively, they thought to be most attractive. They were further asked to list and name as

many of the plants and animals encountered on their way to school as they could. Children of

the experimental group that had participated in the 'Nature Gallery' were asked to name the

object they had framed and to explain why they had framed their particular object. Children's

preferences in the 'Nature Gallery' were of course constrained by the occurrence of organisms

in their local environment. To investigate the general preferences of children for organisms,

they were asked to name the object they would have liked to frame if they had the choice

among all plants and animals of the world. The children were also asked to write down their

age (in years) and sex, and the teachers were asked to indicate the time (number of lessons)

spent on the programme. The other items in the questionnaires are of no interest for the

present publication.

Response rate and respondents

The questionnaires were sent to 525 schools in Switzerland. The pretest questionnaires were

returned by 38%, and the posttest questionnaires by 31% of the schools. The data were

collected during a 5-month period (March through July 1995). Most of the pretest

questionnaires were returned by the end of April, and most of the posttest questionnaires by

mid June.

Only classes that participated in both the pretest and the posttest were included in the analyses

(248 classes from 146 schools). The experimental group consisted of 166 classes and the

8
control group of 82 classes. Because of bad weather or lack of time, some teachers did not

include the 'Nature Gallery' in their teaching. A total of 142 classes of the experimental group

participated in this part of the educational programme.

Although the teaching material was mainly designed for primary schools, some secondary

schools also participated in the programme. (Note that in Switzerland students start secondary

school as seventh graders.) The mean age of children in the participating classes ranged from

8 to 16 years, but the largest group was 10 years old. Children in the experimental and the

control group were of very similar age (10.6 years vs. 10.9 years, p = 0.39). The proportion of

girls was 51% in the control group and 49% in the experimental group. Data on the time spent

on the programme (number of lessons) were available for 132 classes.

Statistical analysis

The format of the questions on the children's most appreciated plant and animal was open.

Although only one answer was required, the number of responses varied. To avoid talkative

children weighing more than the laconic ones, only the first answer was used in the analysis.

Because of the hierarchical design of the study (classes in schools, children in classes), the

data on changes in species preferences were analysed by nested analyses of variance (Sokal

and Rohlf 1995). This type of analysis is necessary to avoid pseudoreplication, which is a

frequent problem in environmental education research (Leeming et al. 1993). The unit of

analysis for the effects of the mean age of children and of the educational programme was the

class, because the mean age of the children was known for each class, and the treatment

(participation in the educational programme) was applied to the individual classes. Individual

children in a class do not constitute independent experimental units, because they are all

taught by the same teacher and interact in various ways with each other. The effects of mean

age, treatment, and number of lessons spent on the programme were therefore tested against

9
the residual variation among classes, whereas the effects of the sex of the children and of the

interactions with this factor were tested against the residual.

Because of the hierarchical design, type I sums of squares were calculated (Scheiner and

Gurevitch 1993). All analyses were carried out with the programme SPSS for Windows 10.0

(SPSS Inc. 1998).

Results

Overall, about 50% of the children in a class appreciated a garden or decorative plant most,

whereas 26% especially liked one of the wild plants of Switzerland (table 1). Similar

tendencies were found for children's appreciation of animals. On average, more than half of

the children in a class especially appreciated a pet or an exotic animal, whereas 25%

particularly liked one of the wild animals of Switzerland. About 6% of children in a class

found no plant at all particularly attractive or were not sure about it, whereas only 1% of

children in a class found no animal particularly attractive or were not sure about it (see table

1).

[Insert table 1 about here]

There was a strong positive relationship between the type of organisms children noticed in

their immediate environment and their preferences for plants and animals (figure 1). The more

taxa of wild plants or animals the children in a class noticed, the greater was the proportion of

children in the class that especially appreciated one of these organisms (figure 1a, c).

Conversely, the more decorative or garden plants or pet animals were noticed by a class, the

higher was the probability that children particularly appreciated one of those organisms

(figure 1b, d). In contrast, children's appreciation of exotic animals was not related to their

10
perception of organisms on the way to school. The term taxon is used because the children

referred to plants and animals on different levels such as family, genus, or species.

[Insert figure 1 about here]

Children's preferences for different types of plants were not influenced by age or sex (wild

plants: p = 0.46 and p = 0.22; garden or decorative plants: p = 0.17 and p = 0.22). In contrast,

children's preferences for different types of animals were influenced by age and their sex

(table 2). The mean proportion of children in a class that especially appreciated pets decreased

with age. A higher proportion of girls especially liked pets (48.6% vs. 40.0%), whereas more

boys particularly appreciated one of the wild animals of Switzerland (27.7% vs. 21.6%) or an

exotic animal (16.3% vs. 10.8%).

[Insert table 2 about here]

On average, the posttest was carried out 7 weeks after the pretest. Participation in the

programme 'Nature on the way to school' changed the children's preferences for wild plants of

Switzerland (table 3). From spring (pretest) to early summer (posttest) a greater proportion of

children in classes of the experimental group than in those of the control group (11.4% vs.

2.6%) increased their appreciation of wild plants, in particular wildflowers. In contrast,

children's appreciation of decorative or garden plants, wild animals, and pets was not affected

by participation in the programme.

[Insert table 3 about here]

The residual variation among classes within schools was significant (see table 3). Because of

the hierarchical analysis, this result shows that there were differences among the individual

classes in preference for species that could not be explained by differences among the schools

or in the mean age of the children or by effects of the educational programme. These

differences may be attributed to differences among teachers.

11
Teachers spent between 1 and 60 hours of lessons on the various activities of 'Nature on the

Way to School'. On average a class received 17 hours of lessons. The number of lessons

taught had a strong effect on children's preferences for both plants and animals. The more

lessons a class received, the greater was the additional proportion of children that most of all

appreciated one of the wild plants of Switzerland, and, conversely, the lower was the mean

proportion of children that appreciated a decorative or garden plant (table 4a; figure 2a, b).

Moreover, the more lessons that were taught during the programme, the greater was the

additional proportion of children that most of all appreciated one of the wild animals of

Switzerland, and, conversely, the lower was the mean proportion of children that appreciated

a pet animal (table 4b; figure 2c, d). The number of lessons taught did not influence children's

preferences for exotic animals (p = 0.24).

[Insert table 4 about here]

[Insert figure 2 about here]

There was a positive relationship between changes in children's perception of local wild

plants due to the educational programme and changes in their preference for wild plants (table

5). The more additional wild plants the children noticed and thus could write down in the

posttest, the more did they change their appreciation for these plants (figure 3). In contrast,

changes in children's appreciation of garden or decorative plants, pets, and wild animals of

Switzerland were not related to changes in the number of taxa of these organisms noticed due

to the educational programme (p > 0.05).

[Insert table 5 about here]

[Insert figure 3 about here]

One main activity during the programme was the 'Nature Gallery'. In 144 classes of the

experimental group teachers included this activity into their lessons. During the 'Nature

12
Gallery' the children frequently framed dandelion and ivy, but also flowers they could not put

a name to (table 6). More than 50% of all objects framed were wild plants of Switzerland. The

children also tried to frame animals, although this proved to be more difficult than to frame

plants. The most frequently framed objects were anthills, spider nets, bird nests, and snail

shells. The proportion of children that framed one of the wild plants or animals of Switzerland

or a garden or decorative plant was similar in all age groups, and for boys and girls.

[Insert table 6 about here]

The children were asked to explain why they had framed their particular object during the

'Nature Gallery'. Most frequently, the children had chosen their object because they found it

beautiful (table 7). Typical answers included: 'because it is (very) beautiful', 'it is the most

beautiful plant (or animal) on my way to school'. Nearly as often the children stated that they

simply liked their chosen plant or animal. Typical answers included: 'because I like it (very

much)', 'I simply like it'. The children also framed objects because they liked their features.

They wrote, for instance: 'the colour of the flower is beautiful', 'the leaves have such a nice

colour', 'I like the shape of the flower'. A number of children felt that their particular object

was in an unusual place and thus framed it. Examples were plants growing out of walls or the

pavement, and animals living in cracks of walls. Typical answers included: 'because I found it

fascinating that grasses can grow in tarmac', 'I couldn't believe that trees can grow in cracks'.

Another group of children framed an object out of curiosity. They wanted to observe and

study it and wrote: 'it is great to watch the ants', 'because I wanted to study this plant', 'because

I wanted to learn the name of this plant'. Several children framed an object because they

wanted to draw the attention of other people to an inconspicuous plant or animal. Typical

comments were: 'because it is such an inconspicuous plant', 'normally people ignore ants, but

with my frame they are looking'.

[Insert table 7 about here]

13
Although the reasons for children's choices of objects during the 'Nature Gallery' were

diverse, particular objects were often chosen for similar reasons (table 8). Stinging nettles,

lichens and ants, for instance, were in particular chosen because children found them

fascinating and suitable objects to study. In contrast, typical garden plants like pansies and

tulips were never chosen out of 'scientific interest', but for their beauty or out of a general

appreciation. The most frequently framed plant 'dandelion' was often growing in unusual

places and for that reason chosen by the children.

[Insert table 8 about here]

If children could have framed all plants and animals of the world, their choice of objects

would have been different. Nearly two third of all chosen objects would have been animals,

especially wildlife from countries other than Switzerland like dolphins, tigers, and lions (table

9). Only 8% of the chosen objects would then have been wild plants of Switzerland.

[Insert table 9 about here]

Discussion

Several studies have shown that children especially like 'loveable animals' such as pets and

exotic mammals (e.g. Morris and Morris 1966, Morris 1982, Kellert 1985, Ward et al. 1998).

Similarly, among the most frequently appreciated animals in the present study were pets like

cats, dogs, and horses, and exotic species like dolphins, tigers, and lions. These species were

also among the ten most frequently mentioned organisms that children would have liked to

frame during the 'Nature Gallery'. There are several, not mutually exclusive explanations why

children prefer some species and do not like others.

(1) It has been suggested by evolutionary biologists that people's preferences for certain

species may be genetically based (Wilson 1984). Predisposition may therefore partly explain

14
children's liking for 'men-like' animals, i.e. fuzzy creatures with large round eyes, flat and

expressive faces, and the ability to sit upright, to skilfully handle objects with body parts and

to interact socially with humans (Morris and Morris 1966, Morris 1982, Katcher and Wilkins

1993) and, in contrast, aversion against others such as snakes and spiders which, in prehistoric

times, might even have been dangerous to humans (Morris and Morris 1965, Shepard 1997).

(2) Affection or dislike may also depend on the image of species, which people, influenced by

culture and tradition have generated by placing positive or negative attributes on organisms

such as the 'brave lion' (although a frequent carrion eater) and the 'cowardly hyena' (Katcher

and Wilkins 1993, examples in Shepard 1997). (3) Moreover, children's preferences for

animals may also be subject to fashion and strongly influenced by the presentation of

particular cute, anthropomorphic animal characters in the mass media (Hershey 1996), and the

use of large mammals as ‘flagship species' in conservation campaigns (Ashworth et al. 1995).

Preferences found in the present study are somewhat different from those found in a British

study, in which almost 40 years ago more than 4000 children aged 4 to 14 years were asked

about their favourite animal (Morris and Morris 1966). Then the most popular animals were

apes, monkeys, horses, bushbabies, and pandas, most of which were not among the animals

most favoured by Swiss children today. (4) Children may simply be ignorant of other, more

inconspicuous organisms in their immediate environment and thus of their (hidden) beauty,

appeal, or uniqueness. The results of the present study partly support this explanation (see

discussion below).

Across all age-groups, Swiss girls and boys differed in their preferences for particular

animals. More girls than boys particularly liked pets, whereas more boys than girls

particularly appreciated native and exotic wild animals. This is in line with previous studies

that have found a greater emotional affection of girls for large, attractive, primarily domestic

pet animals, and a greater interest in wildlife among male children (Kellert 1985, but see

15
Eagles and Muffitt 1990). In contrast to the results of other studies (Morris and Morris 1966,

Morris 1982) the popularity of pets decreased continuously with age in the present study.

However, neither age nor gender influenced Swiss children's preferences for plants. In the

pretest, most children found decorative or garden plants most attractive, i.e. showy, often

bright coloured plants which are readily to be seen in daily-life. Roses, for instance, were

particularly appreciated both in general and in the 'Nature Gallery'. In a German study

children also particularly liked roses and, more generally, appreciated plants for their flowers,

scent, and general beauty (Scherf 1988). Tunnicliffe (2001) observed in a Botanical Garden

that primary school children in Britain were mainly attracted by noticeable features of the

plants such as colourful flowers or conspicuous fruits. From a phylogenetical perspective it

has been argued that the observed preferences for brightly coloured flowers or leaves may be

related to the fact that bright colouring signalled food sources for people throughout

evolutionary time (Heerwagen and Orians 1993).

In the present study, only about a quarter of the children particularly appreciated one of the

wild plants or wild animals of Switzerland. This may be due to a lack of awareness of local

organisms, because children could obviously only name organisms as their favourite whose

names they knew. Alternatively, children may only have learned and remembered the names

of species they found attractive, or had direct experiences with. For instance, squirrels are

well liked and were noticed frequently on the way to school (Lindemann-Matthies 2002b).

However, although stinging nettle is disliked very much, it is one of the best known plants

among children, because encounters with this plant are painful (Scherf 1988). However,

several studies have shown that children’s everyday-life perception and knowledge of local

organisms is poor (e.g. Hesse 1983, Demuth 1992, Lock 1995). As part of a large research

study on the environmental knowledge of school leavers in Germany, more than 3000 tenth-

graders were asked to name eight native wildflowers, five species of native butterflies, and

16
five migrating and non-migrating bird species (Demuth 1992). About 20% of the pupils were

not able to name any species at all, and less than 14% could list the requested number of wild-

flowers and butterflies. Undergraduate students of biology in their first year did not perform

much better (Hesse 1983). Only 15% of the students, for instance, were able to name ten wild-

flowers native to Germany. When 12-14 year old pupils in Britain were asked what living

things they would expect to find near their school, few made reference to plants or

invertebrates (Lock 1995). This illiteracy is not due to a general lack of opportunity for

children to see plants or animals in their immediate environment, it more reflects the lack of

opportunities for children to study and identify local organisms (Lindemann-Matthies 2002b).

In the present study I found a positive relationship between children's perception and

appreciation of species. The more wild plant and animal taxa children noticed in their local

environment and could name, the more likely did they especially appreciate one of these

organisms. This supports the hypothesis stated earlier that children may appreciate animals

other than pets and exotic species and even inconspicuous wild plants if they know them.

Because children's preferences are often restricted to pets (Morris 1982, Kellert 1985) and

showy garden plants (Scherf 1988), an important aim of biodiversity education is to increase

children's awareness and appreciation of local wild plants and animals (Kellert 1996). This

was also a main objective of the educational programme 'Nature on the way to school'

(Schweizerischer Bund für Naturschutz 1995). The programme was successful. Children that

participated in the programme increased their appreciation of wild plants. In contrast, the

programme had no overall influence on the appreciation of wild animals. The average time

spent on the programme (17 hours of lessons) might have been simply too short to

significantly change children's strong preferences for pet animals. This is supported by the

fact that the more lessons a class received during the programme, the more was their

appreciation of native wild animals increased and that of pets decreased.

17
Children's responses to the programme provide further support for the hypothesis that

perception and preferences are closely linked (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989). The higher the

increase due to the programme in the number of wild plants that children noticed was, the

higher was the increase in their appreciation of these species. In view of children's strong

preferences for animals, this result is especially remarkable. The responses to the programme

'Nature on the way to school' show that with the help of inspiring educational approaches

children can become more knowledgeable and fond of local wild plants, although most of

them are rather inconspicuous. In Switzerland, only 4% of the 3000 higher plant species

occuring have bright reddish flowers and 9% are slightly pink. More than 30% of all flowers

are greenish-brown and 24% are white (Steiger 2003).

However, there are limits to what can be achieved by educational programmes. Asked which

organisms they would have liked to frame during the Nature Gallery, children still preferred

'loveable' animals, in particular mammals from countries other than Switzerland. A 'dande-

lion' can not compete with a lion! If children's preferences are indeed to a large extent

genetically determined (Wilson 1984), or are strongly influenced by cultural factors (Shepard

1997) and current fashion (Hershey 1996), biodiversity education can only aim to extend this

inherent appreciation to a wide range of organisms (Kellert 1996).

During the 'Nature Gallery' children particularly framed organisms because they appreciated

their general beauty, appearance, or simply liked them. It has been hypothesised that finding

beauty in nature is one major reason for people to preserve nature in its beauty (Trommer

1990, Ott 1993). However, some of the organisms most frequently framed by the children

were not primarily chosen for their visual attractiveness. Dandelion was mostly chosen

because it was growing in cracks or crevices, whereas stinging nettles, lichens and ants were

mostly chosen because children found them fascinating and wanted to study them. Children's

interest in stinging nettles, one of the most disliked plants (Scherf 1988) and ants, members of

18
one of the most disliked group of animals (Kellert 1985, 1993b) is encouraging. It has been

suggested that education in school should engender a greater appreciation of species other

than 'loveable ones' (Kellert 1993b), and that educational efforts might best focus on the

affective realm to raise emotional concern and sympathy for a broad range of species (Orr

1992, Mayer and Horn 1993, Kellert 1996). In the present study children's individualistic

choice of objects during the 'Nature Gallery' indicate that they developed a relation with a

particular plant or animal, and, in consequence, might become concerned about their well-

being. McVay (1993, p. 11) expressed his hope as follows:

'What would happen if every elementary schoolchild chose a creature, whether an ant, a

bee, cricket, dragonfly, spider, waterstrider, snake, frog, fly, beetle, or bat, to study and

report on repeatedly during his or her first six years of school? The capacity for

bioaffiliation in the rising generation would be boundless.'

In conclusion, the results of the present study are encouraging. Participation in the programme

'Nature on the way to school' increased children's appreciation of common local organisms, in

particular wild plants. The active search for plants and animals 'on the way to school', their

direct observation and investigation, and activities like the 'Nature Gallery' are successful

educational tools to help children to develop a relationship with local organisms, and to instil

concern about their well-being. Without knowledge of and relationships with organisms in

their local environment people might not notice what happens to them (Weilbacher 1993).

Primary school teachers should therefore be encouraged to engage their pupils more often in

the active investigation of local organisms outside the classroom and in small conservation

activities such as the 'Nature Gallery'. It has been suggested that school grounds or the near

vicinity of schools are excellent locations for children to experience nature at first-hand (e.g.

Feinsinger 1987, Harvey 1993, Feinsinger et al. 1997) which is supported by the results of the

present study. The programme 'Nature on the way to school' included a diversity of activities

19
and methods for outdoor nature education. Because the programme was flexible, teachers

could choose the number and length of activities, the most promising approaches for their

classes, and if necessary could modify them. As a result, there was a lot of variation in the

actual implementation of the programme and it is impossible to attribute the observed effects

on specific activities. Moreover, activities such as the 'Nature Gallery' are time-consuming

and it may not be possible to include them into normal education. Further research should

thus compare the effects of different, probably more conventional types of interventions on

children's interest in common local organisms. Whenever possible, study classes should be

randomly selected.

Although the educational material was mainly designed for primary schools and not for a

particular class level, children of the different ages benefited to a similar degree from the

programme. The positive effect of the educational programme increased with the number of

lessons taught, indicating that the efforts of teachers were rewarded. However, the

participating teachers in the present study are probably not representative of Swiss teachers in

general, and might thus represent a biased sample. It is likely that they are particularly

interested in nature education, because they voluntarily included the educational supplement

in their lessons. However, they may well have been representative of teachers actually making

use of programmes in biodiversity education, and thus be a representative sample for an

evaluation of the effect of such programmes. Studies have shown that teachers who feel a

personal obligation to help solve environmental problems more often engage their pupils in

local environmental activities (Bolscho et al. 1990) and may promote environmental concern

among their pupils (Palmer and Suggate 1996). Educational programmes such as 'Nature on

the way to school' may raise children's interest in common local organisms and lead to a

greater appreciation of species other than 'loveable ones'. They might thus represent a small,

but nevertheless important contribution to their conservation.

20
Acknowledgements

I like to thank all teachers and pupils for their time and effort in participating in the study, and

the Swiss conservation organisation 'Pro Natura' for their support. I also like to thank Diethart

Matthies for valuable comments on an earlier version of this article.

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Table 1: Plants and animals Swiss children found most attractive. The plant and animal taxa

were grouped into broad categories. For each group, the mean proportion of children per class

that had named the respective organisms is given + 1 SE (number of classes = 248) and the

most frequently appreciated organisms are shown in parentheses.

Group of taxa Mean proportion (%)

Plants

Garden or decorative plants (e.g. rose, tulip, daffodil) 50.3 + 1.2

Wild plants of Switzerland (e.g. dandelion, daisy, forget-me-not) 26.0 + 1.0

Plant (unspecified) 9.3 + 0.6

All plants 8.9 + 0.6

No plant or not sure about it 5.5 + 0.6

Animals

Pets (e.g. cat, dog, horse) 43.9 + 1.1

Wild animals of Switzerland (e.g. squirrel, deer, fox) 24.9 + 1.1

Exotic animals (e.g. dolphin, tiger, lion) 13.7 + 0.8

Animal (unspecified) 11.2 + 0.5

All animals 5.3 + 0.5

No animal or not sure about it 1.0 + 0.2

Table 2. Nested analyses of variance of the effects of treatment (participation in the

educational programme), age, and sex on the mean proportion of children per class that

especially appreciated certain groups of animals. The effects of school and age were tested

against the residual variation among classes. All other effects were tested against the residual.

Pets Wild animals of Exotic animals

Switzerland
Source of variation df MS F MS F MS F

School 145 582.69 1.19 552.39 1.06 388.59 1.63**

Age 6 1538.06 3.13** 608.58 1.17 170.44 0.71

Class 102 490.81 1.75*** 519.51 2.24*** 239.19 1.93***

Sex (S) 1 8386.56 29.84*** 4424.79 19.08*** 3561.32 28.79***

Age x Sex 6 259.32 0.92 223.65 0.96 52.55 0.43

Residual 235 281.06 231.90 123.69

Total 495

Note. **, p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Table 3: Nested analyses of variance of the effects of school, age, treatment (participation in

the educational programme) and sex on changes from spring (pretest) to early summer

(posttest) in the mean proportion of children in classes that especially appreciated wild plants

of Switzerland. The effects of school, age, treatment, and the interaction of age with treatment

were tested against the residual variation among classes. All other effects were tested against

the residual.

Wild plants of Switzerland

Source of variation df MS F

School 145 791.60 0.85

Age 6 920.69 0.99

Treatment 1 6524.59 6.98**

Age x Treatment 6 218.30 0.23

Class 101 934.67 2.10***

Sex 1 3.13 0.01

Age x Sex 6 896.19 2.01

Treatment x Sex 1 823.85 1.85

Residual 228 445.20

Total 495

Note. **, p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Table 4: Nested analyses of variance of the effects of the number of lessons spent on the

educational programme, age and sex on changes in the mean proportion of children in classes

that appreciated certain groups of (a) plants and (b) animals. The effects of age, number of

lessons taught, and their interactions were tested against the residual variation among classes.

All other effects were tested against the residual.

(a) Wild plants of Switzerland Garden or decorative plants

Source of variation df MS F MS F

Age 6 909.51 1.19 1346.77 1.62

Lessons (log) 1 23632.19 30.80*** 10090.92 12.13***

Age x Lessons 6 1408.67 1.84 1065.56 1.28

Class 129 767.26 1.74*** 832.17 2.07***

Sex 1 1302.61 2.96 39.83 0.10

Lesson x Sex 1 384.50 0.87 100.86 0.25

Residual 119 439.92 401.83

Total 263

(b) Pets Wild animals of Switzerland

Source of variation df MS F MS F

Age 6 253.96 0.64 243.37 0.41

Lessons (log) 1 2945.22 7.43** 5406.11 9.15**

Age x Lessons 6 905.06 2.28* 1064.60 1.80

Class 129 396.37 1.24 590.64 2.29***

Sex 1 23.47 <0.1 6.51 <0.1

Lesson x Sex 1 101.25 0.32 61.92 0.24

Residual 119 319.40 258.00

Total 263
Note. * p < 0.05, **, p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Table 5: Analysis of variance of the effects of differences from spring to early summer in the

mean number of wild plants noticed and of treatment (participation in the educational

programme) on the change in the mean proportion of children that especially appreciated wild

plants of Switzerland.

Wild plants of Switzerland

Source of variation df MS F

Difference in number of taxa 1 7064.92 19.67***

Treatment 1 2233.71 6.22*

Difference x Treatment 1 3459.35 9.64**

Residual 244 359.01

Total 247
Note. * p < 0.05, **, p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Table 6: Plants and animals that Swiss children framed during the 'Nature Gallery'. The plant

and animal taxa were grouped into broad categories. For each group the mean proportion of

children that framed the respective organisms is given + 1 SE (number of classes = 144) and

the most frequently framed organisms are shown in parentheses.

Group of taxa Mean proportion of children (%)

Wild plants of Switzerland (e.g. dandelion, ivy, maple) 51.1 + 1.5

Garden or decorative plants (e.g. lilac, rose, tulip) 15.5 + 1.0

Plants (unspecified) 16.2 + 1.2

Wild animals of Switzerland (e.g. anthills, spider webs, bird nests) 13.7 + 1.2

Other objects 3.5 + 0.5

Table 7: Reasons why children framed their particular object during the 'Nature Gallery'. The

answers were grouped into broad motivation classes. The mean proportion of responses + 1

SE is shown (number of classes = 144).

Grouped responses Mean proportion of responses (%)

Beauty 22.5 + 1.5

Liking 20.2 + 1.3

Features of the object 14.2 + 1.1

Unusual place 7.5 + 1.0

Fascination and interest 6.2 + 0.8

Desire to draw attention to inconspicuous object 5.4 + 0.9

Other reasons 15.9 + 1.1

No answer 6.1 + 1.0

Don’t know 2.0 + 0.3

Table 8: Reasons why Swiss children framed particular plants and animals during the 'Nature

Gallery'. The listed taxa were framed by more than 1% of the 2636 children. For each taxon

the most frequently given reason for framing it, and the proportion of responses is indicated.

A dash indicates that for a specific object none of the children gave that reason.

(continued on the following page)

Table 8 continued

Proportion of responses per object (%)

Taxa framed Beauty Liking Features Unusual Fascination
of object place and interest

Fir (Abies spec.) 43.3 —

Bugle (Ajuga reptans) 42.9 —

Daisy (Bellis perennis) 41.7

Tulip (Tulipa spec.) 33.3 —

Roses (Rosa spec.) 32.4

Buttercup (Ranunculus spec.) 27.5

Geranium (Geranium spec.) 27.5

Clover (Trifolium spec.) 23.1

Ox-eye daisy (Chrysanthemum leuc.) 40.0 — —

Birch (Betula spec.) 34.4

Ivy (Hedera helix) 29.9

Pansy (Viola spec.) 28.6 —

Maple (Acer spec.) 23.9

Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) 32.7 —

Linden tree (Tilia spec.) 29.0 — —

Hazelnut (Corylus avellana) 25.9

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) 26.1

Mosses (unspecified) 20.3

Ants (unspecified) 29.0

Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) 27.1

Lichens (unspecified) — 18.4

Table 9: Plant and animal taxa that Swiss children would have liked to frame during the

'Nature Gallery' if they could have chosen among all living things of the world. The plant and

animal taxa were grouped into broad categories. For each group, the mean proportion of

children per class that had named the respective organisms is given + 1 SE (number of classes

= 164) and the most frequently named taxa are shown in parentheses.

Group of taxa Proportion (%)

Exotic animals (e.g. dolphin, tiger, lion) 34.1 + 1.5

Wild animals of Switzerland (e.g. squirrel, ant, eagle) 17.7 + 1.1

Pets (e.g. horse, dog, cat) 13.1 + 0.9

Garden or decorative plants (e.g. rose, palm tree, tulip) 11.0 + 0.8

Wild plants of Switzerland (e.g. dandelion, daisy, forget-me-not) 7.5 + 0.7

All plants and animals of the world 4.1 + 0.5

Plant (unspecified) 5.2 + 0.5

Animal (unspecified) 4.2 + 0.5

Other objects (e.g. rainforest, dinosaur, the whole world) 3.1 + 0.4
Figure legends

Figure 1. The relationship between the mean number of (a) wild plants, (b) decorative or

garden plants, (c) wild animals, and (d) pet animals that Swiss children in a class noticed on

their way to school, and the proportion of children that particularly appreciated one of these

organisms. Number of classes = 248. One data point can represent more than one case. Linear

regression lines are shown. *** p < 0.001.

Figure 2. The effect of the amount of time (number of lessons taught) teachers spent on the

educational programme ‘Nature on the way to school’ on changes from spring (pretest) to

early summer (posttest) in the mean proportion of children in a class that appreciated (a) wild

plants of Switzerland, (b) decorative or garden plants, (c) wild animals of Switzerland, and (d)

pet animals. Data on the number of lessons taught were available for 132 classes. A data point

can represent more than one case. Linear regression lines are shown. *** p < 0.001.

Figure 3. The relationship between changes from spring (pretest) to early summer (posttest) in

the mean number of wild plants listed by classes of the experimental group and changes in the

proportion of children in a class that particularly appreciated one of the wild plants of

Switzerland. The experimental group (166 classes) participated in the educational programme

'Nature on the way to school'. A data point can represent more than one case. Linear

regression line is shown. *** p < 0.001.

 (a) Wild plants of Switzerland (b) Decorative or garden plants
100 100

decorative or garden plants (%)

Proportion of children favouring
Proportion of children favouring

r = 0.41*** r = 0.29***
80 80
wild plants (%)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Mean number of wild plants Mean number of decorative or
listed per class garden plants listed per class

(c) Wild animals of Switzerland (d) Pet animals

100 100
Proportion of children favouring
Proportion of children favouring

r = 0.48*** r = 0.29***
80 80
wild animals (%)

pet animals (%)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Mean number of wild animals Mean number of pet animals
listed per class listed per class

Figure 1
 (a) Wild plants of Switzerland (b) Decorative or garden plants

favouring decorative or garden plants (%)

100 100
Change in proportion of children

Change in proportion of children

75 r = 0.46*** 75 r = 0.36***
favouring wild plants (%)

50 50

25 25

0 0

-25 -25

-50 -50

-75 -75

-100 -100
0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100
Number of lessons taught (log-scale)

(c) Wild animals of Switzerland (d) Pet animals

100 100
Change in proportion of children

Change in proportion of children

75 75
r = 0.20*** r = 0.22***
favouring wild animals (%)

favouring pet animals (%)

50 50

25 25

0 0

-25 -25

-50 -50

-75 -75

-100 -100
0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100
Number of lessons taught (log-scale)

Figure 2
 Figure 3

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