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LECTURE NOTES-2
SOIL FORMATION AND SOIL TYPES;
On the basis of the geological origin of their constituent sediments. soil can be
divided into two main groups-those which owe their origin to the physical and chemical
weathering of the puent melts. and those which are chiefly of organic origin. 1'he latter
type are extremely compressible and their use as foundation material is best avoided. Of
the former group. soils which are a product of physical weathering or mechanical
disintegration. retain the minerals that were present in the parent rocks and are coarse
grained. Gravels and sands fall into this category. The agencies responsible for physical
weathering are the impact and grinding action of flowing water. ice. wind and splitting
actions of ice. plants and animals. As against this. Chemical weathering or decomposition
of rocks is caused mainly by oxidation. hydration. carbonation and leaching by organic
acids and water. Clays and. to some extent. silts are formed by chemical weathering.
Soil is formed by the process of weathering of rocks i.e. disintegration and
decomposition of rocks and minerals at or near the earths surface through the action of
natural or mechanical and chemical agents into smaller and smaller grains. The factors of
weathering may be atmospheric such as changes in temperature and pressure; erosion and
transportation by wind, water and glaciers; chemical action such as oxidation, hydration,
carbonation and leaching by water. The soils formed by mechanical weathering i.e.
disintegration of rocks by the wind, water and glacier bear a similarity in certain
properties to the minerals in the parent rock since the chemical changes which could
destroy their identity do not take place. Rocks are more altered by the chemical
weathering than mechanical weathering. In chemical weathering, some minerals may
disappear partially or fully and new compounds are formed. The intensity of weathering
depends on the presence of temperature and water. It is to be noted the 95 % of the
earth’s crust consists of igneous rocks and the remaining consist of sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. However, sedimentary rocks are present on 80 % of the earth’s
surface.
A deposit of soil material resulting from one or more of the geological processes
is subjected to further physical and chemical changes which are brought by the climate
and other factors prevalent subsequently. Gradually, with the passage of geological time

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profound changes take place in the character of the soil. These changes bring about the
development of soil profile. Hard minerals will be more resistant to weathering action,
for example, quartz present in igneous rocks. But prolonged chemical action may affect
even such relatively stable minerals resulting in the formation of secondary products of
weathering such as clay minerals illite, kaolinite and montmorillonite.
Generally three distinct strata or horizons occur in a natural soil profile i.e. A, B
and C horizons. The A horizon is rich in humus and organic plant residue. This is
usually eluviated and leached; i.e. ultrafine colloidal material and the soluble mineral
salts are washed out of this horizon by percolating water. It is dark in color and its
thickness may range from a few centimeters to a half meter.
The B horizon is known as zone of accumulation. The material which had
migrated from Horizon A gets deposited in this zone. This soil is very much chemically
active at the surface and contains unstable fine grained material. This is important in
highway, airfield construction and light structures. The thickness of the stratum is 0.50 to
0.75 meters.
The material in the horizon C is in the same physical and chemical state as it was
first deposited by the water, wind or ice in the geological cycle. The thickness of this
horizon may vary from a few centimeters to more than 30 meters. It is from this horizon
that the bulk of the material is often borrowed for the construction of large soil structures
such as earth dams.
On the basis of the origin of their constituents, soils can be divided into two large
groups , those which consist chiefly of the results of chemical and physical rock
weathering and those which are chiefly of organic origin. If the products of rock
weathering are still located at the place where they originated, they constitute a residual
soil. Otherwise they constitute a transported soil regardless of the agent which performed
the transportation
Residual soils which had developed in semiarid or temperate climate are usually
stiff and stable and do not extend to great depth. However, particularly in the warm
humid climates where the time of exposure has been long, residual soils may extend to
depths of hundreds of feet. They may be strong and stable but may also consist of highly
compressible materials surrounding blocks of less weathered rock. Under these

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circumstances they may give rise to difficulties with foundations and other types of
construction. Many deposits of transported soils are soft and loose to a depth of several
hundred feet and may also lead to serious problems.
Soils of organic origin are formed chiefly in site either by the growth and
subsequent decay of plant such peat or by accumulation of fragments of the inorganic
skeletons or shells of organisms. The term organic soil ordinarily refers to a transported
soil consisting of the products of rock weathering with a more or less conspicuous
admixture of decayed vegetable matter.

S.S.G.PRASAD CIVIL GMRIT