Art Today - An Introduction To The Fine and Functional Art (Art Ebook)

FAULKNER • ZIEGFELD • HILL
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Art Today
Frontispiece, following page. The church for St. John's Abbey, begun in 1952 in College-
Minnesota, exempHfies the Benedictine tradition that ". . at its best challenges us
.
ville,
forms which will be valid for centuries to come."
to think boldly and to cast our ideals in
front of the stained glass facade of the church.
A vigorous concrete "bell banner" stands in
Marcel Breuer, architect. (Photograph by Lee Hartley)

Art Today
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FINE AND FUNCTIONAL ARTS
FOURTH EDITION
RAY FAULKNER
STANFORD UNIVERSITY
EDWIN ZIEGFELD
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
GERALD HILL
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON

New York • Chicago • San Francisco • Toronto • London
February, 1966
COPYRIGHT 1941, 1949, © 1956, 1963
by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 63-7502
22754-0813
Printed in the United States of America
Preface to tlie
Fourtli Edition
ART TODAY was chosen as the title of this book because its emphasis is
on the many ways in which the arts aEect present-day living. The past few
decades have brought an astonishing increase of interest in the most diverse

phases of creative endeavor. It is reported that consumer spending on art has
doubled and private galleries and
in the last ten years; attendance at public
museums has set new records; and 15 million Americans are amateur painters
and sculptors. Cultural activities are supported by government, private foun-
dations, individuals, and business, the latter a uniquely twentieth-century
sponsor. Many corporations have leading architects design their buildings

and industrial designers shape their products. They may have extensive col-
lections of paintings to enhance their offices, murals and sculpture in recep-

tion areas, and their advertising may reflect an increased awareness of art.
The number of individuals creatively engaged, from the amateur weaver to

the architect and the most avant-garde painter, has therefore increased enor-
mously, and their products face us on all sides demanding critical appraisal.
This book, then, is an attempt to provide a basis for understanding and

evaluating the art that is being created and used now, the art of our own time
and culture.
By no means, though, do we turn our backs on the past. In fact, art from
all parts of the world and all periods has taken on new significance as a living
expression of the ideals of cultures that are remote from us in time or space.
As you look through the book you will see that many historic masterworks
are included because of their lasting significance. We believe that familiarity
with historic art not only gives great esthetic pleasure but increases our
understanding of contemporary trends.
Our approach is a direct outgrowth of experiments at the University of
Minnesota that explored ways of making various fields of human endeavor

meaningful to college students. In point of view, basic outlines, and many
V
vi - Preface to the Fourth Edition
details, Art Today based on a syllabus of the same name written by Ray
is
Faulkner and Edwin Ziegfeld, and published by the University of Minnesota.

But change in the arts is as much a part of our dynamic age as it is in science,
and we have made every effort to illustrate and discuss today's trends. We
have also tried to take advantage of what we have learned from using the
book as a text. In this we have been greatly helped by the comments and
suggestions of many teachers and students.
We are indebted to many more individuals and organizations for their
help than we can mention by name. The staffs of the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, the Museum of Modern Art, and American Craftsmen's Council
the
in New York City were especially helpful in providing illustrations

and
information. Artists, collectors, galleries, and commercial and industrial con-
cerns generously cooperated in our search for new materials. Once again,
Sarah Key Faulkner spent countless hours in discussing and solving the prob-
lems that always arise in a revision, and in clarifying tangled passages. To
these and many others we are indeed grateful.
R. F.
E. Z.
Stanford, California
New York, New York
January 1963
Contents
Illustrations ix
For the Reader xxi
Part I. THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN NEEDS

1. Art in the Home 3
2. Art in the Community 42
3. Art in Religion 85
4. Art in Industry 111
5. Art in Commerce 140
Part II. THE PROBLEM OF MATERIALS AND PROCESSES ,
Introduction 171
6. Wood, Metal, and Plastics 175
7. Ceramics and Glass 197
8. Fabrics 226
9. Printing and the Graphic Processes 243
10. Photography 265
Part III. THE PROBLEM OF ORGANIZATION

Introduction 295
11. Two Aims of Organization 299
12. The Plastic Elements: Form, Line, and Space 317
13. The Plastic Elements: Texture and Color 343

14. Principles of Design 372
viii Contents
Part IV. PAINTING, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE
Introduction 401
15. Painting 404
16. Sculpture 458
17. Architecture 493
Glossary 545
Index 559
Illustrations
Frontispiece. St. John's Abbey Church, Collegeville, Minnesota

Prehistoric cave painting, "Bison Cow"
The United Nations Secretariat Building
Chapter 1— Art in the Home

3. de Hooch: "Scene in a Courtyard before a Small House"
4. Apartment plan
5A. Apartment living room
5B. Apartment study area
6A. Apartment dining area
6B. Apartment bedroom
Techbuilt
8. house exterior
Techbuilt
9. houses, sketches
lOA. Techbuilt basic components
lOB. Techbuilt shell
IOC. Techbuilt panels and materials
11. Window units
14A. Techbuilt plans, unfinished house
14B. Techbuilt plans for house with young children
15A. Techbuilt plans for house with older children
15B. Techbuilt plans for two-family house
18. Sim position at noon in Chicago
22. Techbuilt house living room
23. Techbuilt house family room
26A. Taliesin North exterior
26B. Taliesin North living room
27. Taliesin North plan
28A. Johnson house exterior
28B. Johnson house interior
29. Johnson house plan
31A. Japanese house exterior
3 IB. Japanese house interior
33A. Arden house exterior
a.
- Illustrations
33B. Arden house interior

34A. Brush-Everard House exterior
34B. Brush-Everard House interior
38A. Church garden, owner's plan
38B. Church garden, landscape plan
39. Church garden terrace
40. Los Angeles house and garden
Chapter 2— Art in the Community

42. "Plan for an Ideal City"
44. Williamsburg, Virginia, plan
46A. The Governor's Palace, Williamsburg, Virginia
46B. The Governor's Palace garden
50A. Greenbelt, Maryland, aerial view
50B. Greenbelt superblocks
52. Arizona cliff houses
54. San Francisco Golden Gate Redevelopment, model
55. San Francisco Golden Gate Redevelopment, rendering
57A. TVA Kentucky Dam
57B. TVA Kentucky Powerhouse
59. San Francisco Golden Gate Redevelopment Plan
62. Existing and proposed plans for New York City
63A. Centric city plan
63B. Decentralized city plan
64A. Place de I'fitoile, Paris
64B. LeCorbusier's Voisin plan for Paris
67. Hilberseimer ribbon plan
69A. Bryant Park, New York City
69B. Central Park, New York City
71. Grand Central Parkway, New York City
of Tech-
74A. Auditorium and Chapel at Massachusetts Institute
nology, model
74B. Auditorium, MIT
75. Plans and sketches for Auditorium and Chapel, MIT
77A. United Nations Headquarters, exterior
77B. United Nations Headquarters Auditorium, interior
79A. University of Mexico Library
79B. Mural in TVA plant, Johnsonville, Tennessee
81. Milles: Peace Memorial, City Hall, St. Paul, Minnesota
82A. Winston: Play sculpture, Oakland, California
82B. Potlatch bowl
Chapter 3— Art in Religion

85. A Christ medallion
87A. Church at Sipoo, Finland
87 B.Church at Imatra, Finland
88. Church at Imatra, sketch
89A. The Bruton Parish Church, Williamsburg, Virginia
89B. The Mission St. Francis of Assisi at Ranches de Taos, New
Mexico
92. The Chapel at Leversbach, Germany
Illustrations XI
93. Model of Park Synagogue, Cleveland, Ohio

96. The Wayfarer's Chapel, Palos Verdes, California
97A. First Presbyterian Church, Stamford, Connecticut
97B. First Presbyterian Church, model
lOOA. Sphinx and Great Pyramid, Gizeh, Egypt
lOOB. African figure
101. "Coatlicue," Aztec goddess
103A. Praxiteles: "Hermes"
103B. Sculptured portal of Chartres Cathedral, France
106A. Giotto: "Bewailing of Christ"
I06B. Raphael: "Sistine Madonna"
107A. Rouault: "Christ Mocked by Soldiers"
107B. Lebrun: "Crucifixion"
Chapter 4— Art in Industry

111. General Motors Technical Center water tower
113A. Guatemalan hand-woven cloth
113B. Paul Revere teapot
115A. Chair, Shaker design
115B. Chair, early industrial design
118A. Designs for electric iron
II8B. Electric iron
120A. Italian harpsichord
120B. Grand piano
120C. Grand piano
122A. Package sealer
122B. Package sealer
122C. Package sealer
126A. "Barcelona" chair
126B. Saarinen chair
I27A. Juhl chair
127B. Chinese cane chair
129A. Components of unit furniture
129B. Wall hung storage, study, and sleeping units
131A. Winston: Silver pendant
Ceramic vase
13 IB. Fassbinder:
131C. Burton: Hand-blown glass vases and bottles
131D. Watkin: Fabric
135A. Watts Bar Steam Plant
135B. Sheeler: "Incantation"
137A. Mexican home factory
137B. New Bauhaus, Dessau, Germany
138. Generator room, Pickwick Powerhouse, TVA
Chapter 5— Art in Commerce
140. Rivera: Steel sculpture
143A. Lawn seed package
143B. Hairbrush package
144A. Kleenex packages, old designs
144B. Kleenex packages, new designs
145. Record albums
Illustrations
146A. Coordinated packages: paints

146B. Coordinated packages: Japanese product
148 A. Telephone poster
148B. Pontresina poster
148C. Airline poster
150 A. Type- face advertisement
150B. Perfume advertisement
151. Tea advertisement
152 A. Magazine cover, Holiday
152B. Magazine cover, The Journal of Commercial Art and
Design
152C. Magazine cover, Swiss Radio Association Annual
152D. Magazine cover, Limburg electrical works report
153A. Television news title
153B. Television show title
156A. The Millinery Shop at Williamsburg, Virginia
156B. Shop, Berkeley, California
The Camera
158A. V. C. Morris store, San Francisco, California, exterior
158B. V. C. Morris store interior

159A. Manufacturers Trust Company Building, New
York City,
exterior
159B. Manufacturers Trust Company Building interior
Wax Company, Racine, Wisconsin, exterior

162 A. Johnson
162B. Johnson Wax Company interior
Minnesota,
164A. Southdale Shopping Center, Minneapolis,
sketches
164B. Southdale Shopping Center interior
166 A. Fort Worth, Texas, sketch of over-all view
166B. Fort Worth, sketch of mall
Part II. THE PROBLEM OF MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

169A. de Swart: Wood shapes
169B. Koblick: Plastic panel
169C. de Swart: Aluminum panel
171. Silver reliquary
172. Sutton Scarsdale, Derbyshire, England, interior
173. Moholy-Nagy: Plastic
Chapter 6—Wood, Metal, and Plastics
175. Bronze pitcher

176. Nelson: Office-furniture group
178A. Oakwood: end grain, plain-sawed, and quarter-sawed
178B. Plywood samples
181A. American writing chair
181 B. Wegner: Oak spindleback chair
182. Juhl: Wood bowl
183. Fames: Chair
185. The George Washington Bridge, New York City
186A. Steps and tools in shaping hollow
ware
Illustrations - Xlll
186B. Rohde: Sterling silver pitcher

187A. Steps in shaping spoons
187B. Contemporary spoons and forks
190A. Chinese bronze ceremonial vessel
190B. Nelson: Firelighter
191A. Italian Renaissance grille
191 B. Metal bench
193A. Acrylic bowl and tray
193B. Acrylic chair
194A. Vinyl tumblers
194B. Nelson: Lamp shades
195. de Swart: Plastic sculpture
Chapter 7— Ceramics and Glass

197. Eighteenth-century Chinese vase
199A. Prehistoric Chinese jar
199B. Wildenhain: Bowl
202A. Kwong: Sculpture
202B. Forming a vase on a potter's wheel
203 A. Baggs: Jar
203B. Kwong: Vase
205A. Casting clay
205B. Diagram of jigger and jolley
206A. Delicate tableware
206B. Sturdy stoneware
208A. Chinese bowl
208B. Wood: Bowl
209 A. Grotell: Vase
209B. Arneson: Vase
211 A. Carved earthenware plate
211B. Painted earthenware plate
2I1C. Wedgwood earthenware plate
211D. Oriental porcelain plate
213A. della Robbia: "Prudence"
213B. Hubers: Jar
21 5A. Egyptian vase
215B. Venetian candelabrum
2I5C. Modern vase and goblet
218A. "Offhand" glass blowing
218B. Machine glass blowing
2 ISC. Examples of blown glass
219A. Pressing glass by hand
219B. Pressing glass by machine
219C. Machine-pressed glass
220. Sarpeneva: Vases
222A. Venetian glass beaker
222B. Contemporary Dutch glass vase
223. Liskova: Glass frog
224. Edenfalk: Glass bottle
225. Wood: Stoneware plate
XIV - Illustrations
Chapter 8—Fabrics
226. Weaving
228A. Eighteenth-century coverlet
228B. HaUman: Plexiglas wall hanging
229A. Tawney: Transparent hanging
229B. Fischer: Tapestry
231 A. Foiu-harness hand loom
23 IB. Plain weave
23 IC. Satin weave
231D. Twill weave
232A. Texturized Fiberglas
232B. Rayon satin weave
232C. Weave and cotton
of ricrac, metallic,
232D. Cleon: "End of Summer," rug
233. Structures of felt, woven, and knitted fabrics
234A. "Bobbin Cloth"

234B. Knitted synthetic yarn
235A. Molded plastic wall covering
235B. Wall covering of paper fiber and jute
237A. Eighteenth-century hand-blocked cotton cloth
237B. Girard: "Cut-Out"
238A. Fortisan curtain
238B. Cotton velvet material
239A. Crossbar plaid linen
239B. Hand-screened drapery material
240A. Eskolin: Cotton panel
240B. Ostrower: Print
241. Detail of a Japanese paper-making technique
Chapter 9— Printing and the Graphic Processes

243. Nolde: "The Prophet"
246. Printing details
247. Munch: "The Kiss"
248. Becker: "Woman of the Quarry"
248B. Deshaies: "The Insects Go Up"
250A. Casarella: "Blue Vein"
250B. Hokusai: "The Great Wave of Kanazawa"
252. Hayter: "Unstable Woman"
253. Cassatt: "La Caresse"
254. Rembrandt: "Christ Healing the Sick"
256. Daumier: "The Too-Hot Bath"
257. Perlmutter: "Boardwalk"
258A. Gwathway: "End of Day"
258B. Corita: "The Beginning of Miracles"
261A. Line cuts with repetitive textures
261B. Halftones, magnified
263. Kohn: "Lion"
Chapter 10— Photography

265. Kosinski: Photograph
266. Nadar: Surah Bernhardt
267. Lange: "Migrant Mother"
Illustrations -
XV
268. Similarities between human eyes and cameras

269. Illustration of lens concentrating the light
270. Illustration of the diaphragm of acamera
271. Illustration of focusing nearby and distant objects
272. Photographs illustrating how lighting alters appearances
273A. Landscape photographed on film not sensitive to color dif-
ferences
273B. Landscape photographed on panchromatic film
273C. Landscape photographed on infrared plate
275. Photograph showing effect of exposure differences
276. Daguerre: "The Artist's Studio"
277. Brady: "The Ruins of Richmond, Virginia"
278. Jackson: "Camp in Baker's Park"
279. Stieglitz: "The Terminal"
280. Stieglitz: Photograph of New York City skyscrapers
282. Abbott: Night view of New York City
283. Cartier-Bresson: "Abruzzi"
285A. Lauritzen: Photograph
285B. Splash of milk drop
285C. Airplane propeller revolving in a smoke tunnel
286A. Stainless steel grain structure
286B. Asparagine crystal
287. Photogram of abstract patterns
288. Siegel: "Lyric Singer"
290. Photograph of eroded rocks

293. St.Mark's Square, Venice
294. Tarascan female figure
295. Tynell: Lamp
297A. Shahn: "Wheat Field"
297B. Colescott: "Mach 5"
298. Kung: Landscape
Chapter 11— Two Aims of Organization

299. Sea gull, photograph
300. Automobile design changes
301. Bentley automobile
302A. Greek columns
302B. Gothic arches
302C. Ornament on Wainwright Building
304. Diverse shapes of electric bulbs
305. Mondrian: "Composition"
306. Single-celled plants and animals under microscope
307A. Child's painting: "My Playmates (Twins)"
307B. Siqueiros: "The Sob"
308A.-309E. Japanese crest shapes
310A. Kandinsky: "Circles in Circle"
31 OB. Kernel of corn
311 A. Davis: "Hot Still-Scape for Six Colors," sketch
31 IB. Davis: "Hot Still-Scape for Six Colors"
- Illustrations
3 ISA.Courthouse, Brooklyn, New York

313B. The Farnese Palace, Rome
315A. Eighteenth-century bedroom
315B. Twentieth-century bedroom
Line, and Space
Chaptei 12-The Plastic Elements: Form,
Architecture, New
317. Yale University's School of Art and
Haven, Connecticut, sketch
318. Optical illusions
The inner structure of a fish. X-ray
319.
320. Tomb figure, Wei Dynasty
1957"
322. de Kooning: "February
324A. Albers: "Sanctuary"
324B. Feininger: "The Gate"
325A. Albers: "Aquarium"
325B. Arp: "Automatic Drawing"
327. Chinese vases from the Sung Dynasty
328. Picasso: Drawing
329. Rivera: Brush-and-ink drawing
Abstractions: Action, Bondage, and
Humor
330.
332. Tugendhat House, living room
333. Upton House
336A. Noguchi: Coffee table
336B. Balconies, United Nations Building
337A. Highway system. New York City
337B. Microphotograph of wood
338. van Ruisdael: "Wheatfields"
339. Oris: "Landscape at Ceret"
340. Boat propeller
Texture and Color
Chapter 13-The Plastic Elements:
343. Natzler: Ceramic vases
345A. Wells:Handmade wool rug
345B. Kahn: Printed textile (two views)
347A. Bronze horse

347B. Hardy: "American Bison"
Microphotographs of wood and cast iron
348A.
348B. Vuillard: "The Interior at I'Etang-la-Ville"
351. Prism and spectrum

352. Three dimensions of color
353A. Color wheel
353B. Value scale
353C. Intensity scale
354. Black and white rectangles
Effect of background on value
scale
356.
358A. Leger: "The City"
358B. Kitchen
359A. van Gogh: "Rain"
359B. Living room
363. Monochromatic color scheme
364A. Analogous color scheme
'
Illustrations - xvii
364B. Complementarycolor scheme

364C. Double-complementary color scheme
364D. Split-complementary color scheme
364E. Triad color scheme
365. Teuad color scheme
367 A. Olivetti window and display room
367B. Olivetti display room
370. Rubens: "Descent from the Cross"
Chapter 14-Principles of Design

372. Chambered nautilus
374A. Firsthouse of Colonial derivation
374B. Second house of Colonial derivation
376. Taj Mahal, Agra, India
378. Leupin: Poster
380A. Calder: "Hanging Mobile," at rest
380B. Calder: "Hanging Mobile," in motion
381. Diagrams of basic types of balance
382.^. "The Great Buddha"
382B. Duccio di Buoninsegna: "Maesta
383A. Degas: "Grand Arabesque"
383B. Bellows: "Dempsey and Firpo"
386A. El Greco: "St. Francis in Ecstasy"
386B. Sargent: "The Fountain"
387. Diagrams of rhythmic devices: repetition, alternation, and
progression
388. Duchamp: "Nude Descending a Staircase"
390. Fine: "The Moment in and out of Time"
391. Smith: "Hudson River Landscape"
392. Hokinson: Cartoon
393. Air-wick advertisement
394A. Neutra: Living room
394B. Homasote living room
397. Kandinsky: "White on Black"

399A. Degas: "Frieze of Dancers"
399B. Amino: "Creature of the Deep"
399C. Photograph of lower Manhattan
401. "Two Polychrome Reindeer" from a cave in Font-de-
Gaume, Dordogne, France
Chapter 15— Painting

404. Marca-Relli: "Junction"
406. Hopper: "Early Sunday Morning"
408. van Gogh: "Starry Night"
413. Wood: "American Gothic"
415. Picasso: "Girl Before a Mirror"
418A. Maria Lani, photograph
418B. Kramstyck: Maria Lani
Illustrations
418C. Rouault: Maria Lani

418D. Matisse: Maria Lani
419A. Gromaire: Maria Lani
419B. Soutine: Maria Lani
419C. Kisling: Maria Lani
419D. Lurgat: Maria Lani
422A. El Greco: "View of Toledo"
422B. Monet: "La Grenouillere"
423A. de Kooning: "Door to the River"
423B. Congdon: "Venice, No. 1"
426. Marin: "Lower Manhattan"
429. Cezanne: "Mont Sainte-Victoire"
430. Chang: "The Evening Tolling of a Distant Temple Bell"
431. Wyeth: "Christina's World"
432. Michelangelo: "Adam"
434. Orozco: "Gods of the Modern World"
435. Burri: "Composition 8"
438. Harnett: "After the Hunt"
439A. Mont Sainte-Victoire, photograph
439B. Cezanne: "Mont Sainte-Victoire," oil painting
442A. Picasso: "Guernica"
442B. Picasso: Sketch for "Guernica"
442C. Picasso: Sketch for "Guernica"
443D. Picasso: Sketch for "Guernica"
443E. Picasso: Sketch for "Guernica"
447. Braque: "The Table"
449. Dubuffet: "The Cow with the Subtile Nose"
451A. Gottlieb: "Unstill Life"
45 IB. Tooker: "Sleepers 11"
452A. Perlin: "The Jacket"
452B. Miro: "Composition"
453. Pollock: "Number 27"
Chapter 16— Sculpture

458. Koenig: "Camargue X"
460A. "Hera Samos"
of
460B. Archipenko: "Walking"
462A. Butler: "Girl"
462B. Gonzalez: "Woman Combing Her Hair"
463A. Baizerman: "Aurora"
463B. Lehmbruck: "Standing Woman"
467A. Moore: "Reclining Figure"
467B. Moore: "Reclining Figure U"
471 A. Michelangelo: "David" (head)
47 IB. Romanesque head of Christ
472A. Flannagan: "Jonah and the Whale"
472B. New Ireland carving
474A. Verrocchio: "Madonna and Child"
474B. Grippe: "The City"
477A. Lipton: "Sanctuary"
Number 1"
477B. Rosati: "Interior Castle,
Illustrations - xix
479. Bronze altar head, Benin, Nigeria

480. Epstein: "Social Consciousness"
481. Schmidt: "Iron Sculpture"
482. Brancusi: "Bird in Space"
485A. Noguchi: "Integral"
485B. Lipchitz:"Man with a Guitar"
486 A. Nevelson: "Dark Shadows"
486B. Harwood: "Winged Figure"
488. Gordin: "Rectangular, Number 5"
Number 4"
489A. Gabo: "Linear Construction in Space,
489B. Roszak: "Spectre of Kitty Hawk"
491. de Creeft: "The Cloud"
Chapter 17— Architecture

493. Steel framework
494. Rockefeller Center,New York City
495. Comparative diagram of the size of the Great Pyramid of
Khufu and that of Rockefeller Center
497. Wainwright Building, St. Louis, Missouri
498A. Tribune Tower in Chicago, Illinois
498B. New York News Building, New York City
500. Lever House, New York City
502A. Seagram Building, New York City
502B. Seagram Building, night view
506A. Pardienon
506B. Model of the Parthenon
507. Plan of the Parthenon
508. Diagram of post-and-lintel construction
510. Diagram of round arch
511. Roman Aqueduct, Segovia, Spain
513A. St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, exterior
513B. St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, interior
515. Diagram of pointed arch

516A. Cathedral at Rheims, France, exterior
516B. Cathedral at Rheims, lateral view
517. Cathedral at Rheims, interior
518. Cathedral at Rheims, plan
519. Cathedral at Rheims, diagrams
520A. Pantheon, Rome, interior
520B. Hippodrome, Madrid, Spain
520C. Steel and concrete cage. Aluminum Company of America
521. Plan of the Pantheon
523A. The Chapel of "Notre Dame du Haut," Ronchamp, France
523B. The Chapel of "Notre Dame du Haut," interior
526. Diagrams of trusses
527A. St. Paul's Lutheran Church, Sarasota, Florida
527B. Taliesin West, Phoenix, Arizona

529A. Diagram of steel-cage construction
529B. Diagram of cantilever construction
530A. Lincoln Tunnel, New York and New Jersey
530B. Hangar at San Francisco Airport
XX - Illustrations
530C. Public Auditorium, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

532A. Mackinac Bridge, Michigan
532B. Livestock Judging Pavilion at Raleigh, North Carolina,
interior
533. Diagram of Mackinac Bridge, Michigan
534A. Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio
534B. Steel Hortonspheres, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
537. Plan of Idlewild Airport, New York City
538A. Pan American Terminal, Idlewild Airport, New York City
538B. TWA Flight Center, Idlewild Airport, New York City, ex-
terior
540A. TWA Flight Center, interior
540B. TWA Flight Center, interior
542. The Edgar J.
Kaufmann House, Bear Run, Pennsylvania
For the Readier
THIS book about art as it is related to people today.

IS a
Needing shelter and protection, we build houses, churches, and offices.
Finding it desirable to live in groups and to move easily from one place to
another, we develop community plans and means of transportation. And
we
design, make, buy, and sell thousands of objects that contribute to our
living.
But the houses we build are more than shells to keep out wind and rain,
automobiles are more than seats in self-propelled frames. We demand in
these, and in all of our other "useful" objects, an appeal beyond convenience
and utility.
Humanneeds are not limited to the practical. Since prehistoric days,

man has continuously sought ways to communicate his thoughts and feelings
through painting and sculpture, ceramics and textiles, and a host of other
creations.There are paintings and buildings arising from the desire to com-
municate religious aspirations. There is sculpture expressing the ideals of
communities of people living together. There are vases that came out of
someone's urge to make objects deeply satisfying in their shape and color,
inviting to the sense of touch, strong in the feeling of the clay from
which
they were made.
The field of art touches our lives at every point, is integral with all of
our activities. To limit art to masterworks of painting, sculpture, and archi-
tecture obscures the constant impact of all of the arts on our

actions. Art,
interpreted broadly, refers not only to a group of special products but also
to the manner in which any activity can be performed. There can be artistry
in gardening or woodworking, in furniture arrangement and table setting.
The primary purpose of this book is to make art significant in daily
living. Each of us is faced with the selection of many objects,
and the pleasure
these give depends largely on how well they are chosen. We also have such
Editor's Note. Illustrations are identified by the page number on which each one appears.
XXI
For the Reader
on
problems combining and arranging of furniture in a room, pictures
as the
too, we have opportunities to see sig-
a wall, or plants in a garden. Then,
sculpture, and beautiful handcrafts.
nificant buildings, great paintings and
understand them. All of
The pleasure these give us depends on how well we
expressing and enriching our own
these activities offer possibilities for
experiences of others. While our
personalities and for understanding the
a broad foundation of
emotional reactions are of great value, we also need
knowledge of why art is pro-
knowledge on which to base our judgments,
all the esthetic considerations that
duced, of what and how it is made, and of
go into its production and appreciation.
arises out of human needs, these deserve
primary considera-
Because art
recognized, the effort to meet it raises several
tion. But when a human need is
they be best
questions: What materials are most appropriate and how can
organized? Hence, the first
used? How will the form, color, and texture be
three parts of this book are:

The art problems that arise in the home, community, religion,
industry, and commerce, and ways of solving them are consid-
ered in Chapters 1 through 5.
Part II. THE PROBLEM OF MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

The possibilities and limitations of materials-wood, metal,
are
clay, glass, and others-and the processes by which they
in Chapters 6
transformed into art objects are discussed
through 10.

The and principles of design, the expressive quali-
basic aims
suggestions for evaluation are
ties of form and color, and
through 14.
among the matters emphasized in Chapters 11
related to the other two.
Each of these three basic problems is intimately
of home furnishings, a con-
For example, in the selection and arrangement
of furniture, the suitability of
the
sideration of the uses of each piece
materials, and the design of each piece
(when seen by itself and in relation
We will, however, understand them
to its setting) are closely interwoven.
on one aspect at a time.
better by concentrating
find a large place in the

Although architecture, painting, and sculpture
of these arts receives special
three parts of the book, the great significance
first
consideration in the concluding chapters:

For the Reader - XXIU

The specific problems faced by painters, sculptors, and archi-
tects in transforming raw materials into works of art are
examined in Chapters 15 through 17.
Art is many-sided subject and can be approached in many ways. You

a
can read and talk about it, see and appreciate it, or produce it. Each of these
acti\'ities contributes to the depth and breadth of your understanding. True
art appreciation is more than knowing the names and dates of important
artists and their works. It involves attitudes, emotions, and personal prefer-
ences as -ivell as kno^vledge. It is our hope that this book will be a catalytic
agent in helping you to react ^vith your oi\ n mind and spirit to the visual
richness that surrounds you, and that it also ^vill stimulate you to make your
environment a better one in which to live.
"He doesn't know anything except facts."

(Drawing by James Thurber. Copr. © 1936 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.)
human needs in diverse ways.
art has satisfied a multiplex of
For thousands of years
painting on the wall of a cave, ^hows the ar .try
aTL. "Bison Cow" (c. 12,000 B.C.), a over the animals
to give hunters mag.c power
of prehistoric men who painted images
Museum Modern Art, New York)
needed for food. (Frobenius Collection, the of
wh^
United Nations Secretariat (1952) in New York Cuy^
OppoTteA^lL wall of the
contemporary
mirror, encloses a structure in which
reflect it. environment like a gigantic
men study worldwide conditions. {Courtesy of UNATIONS)
PART I
Tlie Problem of
Hximaxx INeedls
The love for homes and home life in
seventeenth-century Holland is por-
trayed in Pieter de Hooch's "Scene in
a Courtyard before a Small House."
(Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)
1 - Art in tlie Home

WITH MORE THAN one million people still living in caves and un-
counted others in substandard dwellings throughout the world, the problem
of providing everyone with a good home is far from solved. Some idea of the
importance we attach homes can be gained from the amount of money
to
we spend on them. The total value of all homes in this country has been
estimated at more than 250 billion dollars, and approximately one million
new homes are built each year. But our homes are significant far beyond
their dollar cost. They are seldom at the masterpiece level that is remem-
bered in art history, but almost everyone tries to give his living quarters
some individuality and grace. In creating a home environment, even if we
3
4 - Art in the Home
furniture in a rented room or hanging a
pic-
are limited to rearranging the
dealing with a phase of art of great conse-
ture or two on the walls, we are
quence today.
A SMALL APARTMENT
the first home that we can really call
For many of us a small apartment is
our own. As such it has a special
meaning and special problems. The first
has adequate and well-arranged space to
step is finding an apartment that
important, the apartment
make home life pleasant and convenient. Equally
individualities in furnishing it. There are
should allow us to express our
choose and money for furnishmgs is
seldom many apartments from which to
arrange furniture thoughtfully and
usually limited, but we can select and
5A and B, and 6A and B illustrate one of
use color imaginatively. Figures 4,
problem.
the many ways of solving this everyday
apartment has approximately 400 square feet of floor space, which
The
to rent nor maintain. Two
is adequate for two persons but neither costly
conveniently near the entrance door.
closets and a compact kitchen are
dining. The square dining
Beyond these is an L-shaped space for living and
area opens spaciously into the living
room yet maintains its own identity.
of meals. A bed-
A "pass-through" from the kitchen simplifies the serving
there is clearly defined space
room and bath complete the apartment. Thus,
life. Group living, which
includes con-
for the three major phases of home
or television programs, entertain-
versing and casual reading, enjoying radio
is centered in the living room
but
ing friends, and playing quiet games,
Preparing and serving meals takes
spreads easily into the dining alcove.
kitchen and adjacent dining space. Sleeping
and dressing are
place in the
provided for in the secluded bedroom and bath.
Even a modest apartment, it sensibly

planned, can be furnished for con-
venient and pleasurable living. (Illiis-
irations reproduced by permission of
Woman's Day Magazine. Copyright
May, 1959.)
The plan provides thoughtfully ar-
ranged areas for preparing and eating
meals, study and social activities, and
sleeping. The pattern of circulation is
excellent.
.>, * "^ ^ , *
'1'
(A) Above. The conversation center of the living room has comfortable seating arranged
around a table nearthe windows.
(B) Below. A place for concentrated work is adjacent to, but somewhat separated from,
the group-living area.
^
6 - Art in the Home
(A) Left. The dining area is in an

alcove near the kitchen. Scenic wall-
paper increases the apparent spa-
ciousness. A Venetian blind or draw
draperies could be used to separate
this area from the living room.
(B) Beloiu. The bedroom is treated

broadly and simply. The wall with
the windows echoes without exactly
repeating the living room wall.
A Small Apartment -
7
This average apartment has been made into a good temporary home
with simple, inexpensive furniture. For use and for visual pleasantness
the living room furniture is organized into three groups. The major group
brings together a sectional sofa arranged in a semicircle, a round coffee table,
and an end table that supports a tall lamp. This group is dominant be-
cause of its importance in the occupants' living, the large size of the sofa,
and the intricate structural pattern of the coffee table. The second group
coordinates three chests, a projecting desk, bookshelves, and a chair for study
or office work, letter writing, or household accounting. A lounge chair, an
end table,and another lamp compose the third, definitely subordinate group.
\'enetian blinds, draperies, and a table-height radiator enclosure plus cabi-
nets unify the wall with windows and the furniture near it.
The dining room has a round table supported by a central pedestal
that minimizes the tangling of diners' and table legs, four chairs reminiscent
of the faithful old Windsor chair, and a chest conveniently placed directly
under the serving counter. In the bedroom the bed, the dominant piece of
furniture, is supplemented by two chests and a chair, and here again the
window wall is organized into a useful, unifying composition.
The organization of space and furniture demonstrates some basic princi-

ples of home planning and furnishing. First, the amount of space that
people need and can afford was calculated. Second, it was subdivided into
areas of appropriate size, shape, and location for different activities. Third,
circulation paths were planned to minimize steps as well as interference
with home activities.
Efficiency, though, is far from the only goal, for a home ought to stimu-
late the eyes, hands, and spirit. Several factors make this apartment visually
satisfying. Each object unhesitatingly expresses its purpose and materials,
and that is one good preliminary step to^vard beauty. Then there is the
basic unifying idea of straightforward simplicity to be seen in the pre-
dominantly uncomplicated shapes and plain surfaces. But monotony is
avoided by introducing variety where needed: the coffee table, the radiator
grilles, and the desk chair have subtly related, intricate patterns; the glisten-
ing white lamps are forceful contrasts; and the two framed prints in the
living room as well as scenic wallpaper in the dining alcove add their own
special interest. Finally, the rooms have a feeling of balance, rhythm, and
emphasis, characteristics without which there is little hope of lasting appeal.
Color and texture contribute to the apartment's livability because they,
too, were purposefully planned. The chief color in the living-dining area is
a warm, cheerful apricot that compensates for the apartment's limited sun-
shine. Light and neutral on the walls, this color becomes richer on sofa.
S - Art in the Home
coffee table, draperies, and the study-area furniture. The lounge chair and
the wall color but much grayer. This
one-color scheme
rug are tan, related to
is enlivened with contrasts. white ceiling increases apparent spaciousness

A
the room. Black chairs,
and reflects light from the white lamps down into
the prevailing light, warm
dining-table legs, and picture frames key up
bright green occur in leaves and a chair cushion.
In
colors" Bold accents of
is the dominant color area, but
the bedroom, an emerald-green bedspread
color featured in the living room,
the draperies and rug repeat the apricot
are stark white and black.
while the radiator enclosure, chests, and headboard
felt, goes from the vigorous
texture
A full range of textures, to be seen and
of the coffee table to the polished

smoothness of the lamps. Between these
extremes are the decisive parallelism of the

Venetian blinds, the crisscross
and ribbed surfaces of
weave of the radiator grilles, and the varied nubby
upholstery, rug, and draperies.
With inexpensive furnishings these rooms were made comfortable and

recognized and
attractive. Man's everyday physical and spiritual needs were
fulfilled. No matter what the form of
art-a modest home or an inspiring
place of worship, a garden bench or a community

mural-human needs and
interests deserve first consideration. The human needs is vast. The
range of
pots and pans, chairs and apartments may be a

minor art problem,
design of
pleasant. The
but if well designed, such objects make everyday life more
that offer us profound
creation of paintings, sculpture, and architecture
The Techbuilt Houses -
9
Techbuilt houses combine econo-

mies of prefabrication with equally
desirable flexibility and individual-
ity- Carl Koch and Associates, archi-
tects. (Courtesy of the architects)
Opposite. Composed and simple
in basic shape, Techbuilt houses
have a coherence, and
"quality,
freshness of design" that is pleasing
and enduring.
^^'^^r~77<^
Right. Whereas typical two-story
dwellings are often awkwardly
raised on foundations, Koch's
houses are lowered into the ground
and pleasingly related to their sites.
spiritual experiences calls for a complete understanding of man's higher

endowments, great imagination and skill. There are enormous differences
between teacups and cathedrals, yet both can justly be included in the field
of art.
THE TECHBUILT HOUSES

In the early 1950's when architect Carl Koch and his associates started the
creative research that led to the Techbuilt houses, their aim was to design
houses that made "special sense to middle-income families." The flexibility
of the plans, the individuality of the interiors, and the handsome exteriors,
illustrated on pages 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 22, and 23, are exceptional. Unlike
custom-built houses that are designed for individual families and specific
sites, the Techbuilt houses were designed to appeal to many potential cus-
tomers, to be appropriate for many climates and sites. In searching for a

solution, the architects considered many facts and factors relating to costs,
structural systems, and appearance. Although it seems almost impossible to

reconcile all of these, the architects succeeded in combining economy and
individuality with an ingenious system of prefabrication.
All of the space that will be required eventually is enclosed in the in-
itial building of the house because merely enclosing space is compara-

tively inexpensive. The space needed at first is completely finished.
Then, when more space is needed and funds are available, some or all
of the remainder is finished.
Two-story houses,* which are often high and boxy-looking, can be made
to fit comfortably into their setting. In essence, what Koch did was to
• Although some Techbuilt houses have only one story, those with two stories make the
most significant contributions.
10 - Art in the Home
Roof Panels
The construction of Techbuilt

Floor Panels
houses is ingenious and efficient.
(Courtesy of the architects)
Wall Panels
(A) The basic components of the

structure can be delivered to the
site on one truck.
Wall Panels End Panels
Beams, Girders, Trim, etc
Gird (^) ^'^^ ^'^^'^ '^^'^ ^^ *^' "P ^^

two men in lour days.
(C) Roof, floors, and walls can

be surfaced with whatever materials
4x4 Post
the owner thinks appropriate. Win-
Bracing
dow sections can be placed where
they serve best.
The Techbuilt Houses - 11
build a basement and an attic without the usual intervening floors

(Fig. 9). Houses in cold climates need foundations three or more feet
below ground level, and it costs very little more to excavate all of this
area and use the foundation to enclose the lower part of the ground
floor. Rooms below grade are warmer in winter and cooler in summer,
and modern technology can easily dispel the cold dampness of old-
fashioned basements. Attics are mostly wasted space, but if the walls are
raised five or six feet and adequate windows installed, the space be-
comes comfortably livable. The net result is that the side walls need be
only ten feet above the ground, which is little if any higher than that
of single-story dwellings.
Construction systems in which the exterior walls plus widely spaced
posts and beams hold the house up give remarkably flexible interiors
that can be altered to suit changing family needs or different families.

The inside space can be partitioned with lightweight, easily changed
walls, storage units, folding doors, or screens. This is possible because
only four posts break the space in an area that measures 24 by 36 feet.
Entrances and stairways, furnaces and fireplaces, plumbing and kitchen

equipment are expensive to move, and for this reason (as well as for
convenience in living) the central portion of a house is their logical
location. This leaves both ends, or almost two-thirds of the enclosed

space, completely flexible.
The major components of a house— walls, roof, floors— can be made in a

factory and shipped to the siteon one truck (Fig. lOA). In two days
four men can put these in place, and from then on all of the other
work can be completed regardless of weather.

Licenses to fabricate the panels are granted to manufacturers in many
parts of the country, while such items as doors and heating equipment
are economically purchased in wholesale quantities. By such means
transportation costs are reduced.
Prefabricated window units allow great freedom of choice. (Aluminum Window Manu-
facturers Association)
DOUBLE-HUNG
SINGLE-HUNG
CASEMENT AWNINa JALOUSIE VERTICAL SLIDE PROJECTED HORIZONTAL SLIDING
So far. this sounds very much like the typical, tiresomely standardized
from true. Perhaps most important is the

factory house, but this is far
arrangements. The four-foot-wide
choice of at least sixteen different room
wall panels, which are solid or opaque,
with doors, or with varied wm-
the owner's prefer-
dow arrangements, can be selected and placed to suit
Finally, the owner has complete
ences in relation to his needs and his land.
interior and exterior walls
freedom in choosing the materials and colors for
Thus,is not a completed, unalterable
this
"package" but,
and for the roof.
converging components that builder
in the architect's words, "a system of
and owner complete at their discretion."
geography,
We can now consider the Techbuilt houses in terms of use,
community, materials, individuality, and beauty, which are interrelated
piece of architecture for both

problems determining the effectiveness of any
use and delight.
Use
then, the physical, psycho-
Houses are built for people to live in. Obviously,
logical, and spiritual needs of a
family should indicate the forms and ma-
builders, and prospective homeowners
terials of a home. How architects,
the statement of the problem.
wish that the solution were as simple as
is
Comfortable Shelter. prime requisite of homes is protection from

A
excessive cold and heat, wind and dust,
rain and snow, insects, and intruders.
physical shelter and also comforting
Walls, roofs, and floors give necessary
psychological enclosure and privacy. Nowadays, walls can be thin but
strong and weatherproof, and made of opaque, translucent, or transparent
materials. Windows can be large or small, insulated against heat or cold.
houses are protective shelters made pleasant and com-

The Techbuilt
of large areas of glass that give
fortable through the intelligent placement
refreshing outlooks and
well-balanced light and cooling cross ventilation,
openings into groups, which
convenient access to the outdoors. Organizing
has resulted in unbroken
replace the many small openings in older houses,
furniture, visual spaciousness in the interior, and a
coherent
wall space for
exterior. houses are heated by inconspicuous, finned baseboard radia-
The
tion that gives even temperatures and
does not interfere with furniture
placement.
Areas for Living. people have to live in one-room huts or apart-
Many
planned for entering and
ments, but most of us appreciate segregated areas
circulatingthrough the house, relaxing and entertaining, cooking and eat-
The Techhuilt Houses -
13
ing, sleeping and bathing, and outdoor activities. Storing our possessions is
also a real problem. Organizing these areas is probably the most important
single aspect of home design.
Today we differentiate between two approaches to the planning of

space. Closed plans divide the space into sharply separated rooms. When
heating was difficult and low building costs permitted many rooms for
specific purposes, closed plans functioned well. They still retain the notable
advantages of giving privacy and minimizing the disturbance of conflicting
activities. Open plans, which have fewer floor-to-ceiling partitions, mini-
mize the separateness of areas used for relaxation and entertainment, eating
and cooking. Broad openings, partitions and storage dividers of less than
ceiling height, and folding or sliding doors are some of the devices that re-
late one part of the house to the others. Because open plans give a greater
sense of spaciousness and permit more flexible use of actual space, they
gained favor as houses became smaller and heating was improved. The Tech-
built houses, as well as the Wright and Johnson houses (Figs. 27 and 29),
exemplify current practices. The Japanese house (Fig. 3 IB) shows that
"modern" open planning has been enjoyed for centuries.
Relaxation and entertainment suggest large spaces and furnishings
adaptable to varied situations, and on this factor the Techbuilt houses rate
very high. In Fig. 14B an L-shaped living-dining space permits many differ-
ent furniture arrangements to suit the family, the occasion, or the season.
Nearby, but distinctly separate, is a "family room" for noisy activities.
Other alternatives are shown in Figs. 14 A, 15A and B. In all of these,

space can be divided by screens, folding doors, or free-standing storage
cabinets. In mild weather sliding doors can be opened to unite this space
with the outdoors.

Cooking suggests a specially ventilated area near space for eating, but
the preparation of food does not have to be walled off from the rest of family
life. In many Techbuilt houses, the kitchens are secluded from halls and
dining space by walls, but they open into the family room over a counter
(Fig. I4B). This not only facilitates serving informal meals in the family
room but gives those in the kitchen a pleasant outlook and opportimity to
supervise children's play.
Eating areas can easily be varied. The family room has been mentioned,
but it is only a few steps to the terrace adjoining it. The dining space is
appropriate for more formal meals, and the whole living-dining space is
well suited to buffet suppers.

Bedrooms suggest privacy, good ventilation, and quiet. Typically, all
bedrooms are on the upper floor away from other activities (Fig. I4B),
but children's and adults' bedrooms can be on separate floors (Fig. I5A);
The space enclosed by a Tech-

built house can be organized
to meet the family's needs and
easily altered as the family
pattern changes.
upper floor
(A) When a family is small,

only part of the house needs
to be completed. The unfin-
ished room on the lower floor
could be used for storage or
play; the living-dining room
is a lofty two-story space.
(B) For a family with young

children, ample space for upper tloor
group activities is provided on
T
and for privacy
the lower floor
and quiet on the upper floor
of the 1920 square-foot house.
DINING
FAMILY ROOM
u 8il&
12a lb -^
KITCHEN n
LiJi LIVING ROOM
12 1 24
The Techhuilt Houses - 15
(A)The 2304 square feet in

thisplan have been organized
to minimize the frequent con-
flicts between older children's
and adults' activities. On the
lower floor the children's bed-
rooms are close to the family
room. The upper floor is
planned for the generally
quieter activities of adults.
(B) When the children have

.pper floor
^^^^ ^p_ ^ jj^yjg ^^^ jjg
converted into a two-family
dwelling.
in this way each age group has privacy and easy access to its relaxation
space. The bedrooms are large enough to double as studies or retreats.
Bathrooms can be placed to suit each family's needs, as shown in the
plans. It is desirable to have at least one centrally located on each level
(Fig. 14B), in addition to any accessible only through the bedroom

it serves.
Laundry equipment located near either the kitchen or bathroom, to

consolidate plumbing, is also well placed in terms of convenience.
Stora-ge is a major concern today when we have many things to be put
away Convenience indicates that objects be stored near

in limited space.
where they are to be used and that each object be easily available. Techbuilt
houses have adequate cabinets in kitchens and closets in bedrooms. Other
rooms have ample space for movable storage units, which in most models
is supplemented by a special room for
putting accumulations out of the way.
Finally, the enjoyment of outdoor activities-garden'mg, entertaining,
and just relaxing— is a function of the way a house is related to its setting
and the manner which the landscaping is planned. With their intimate
in
relation to the ground, long low lines, and banks of windows and sliding
doors, Techbuilt houses are off to an excellent start. Garages, terraces, and
balconies can extend the house into the landscape (Figs. 8 and 22) in
one or more directions. Lawns, shrubs, and trees as well as flowers and
fences— whatever the owner wishes— can complete the composition.
Circulation. Short, pleasant routes from one part of the house to others
are desirable, but excess space in hallways is an extravagance in construc-
tion cost, upkeep, and occupants' energies. This important aspect of home
planning is beautifully handled in the Techbuilt houses. Look at the plans
and notice compact but adequate, well-lighted entries, midway be-

that the
tween the two levels, lead directly to small halls on both floors. From these
one can get to any room without walking through another room. Little
space devoted to circulation alone, but greater convenience is hard to
is
imagine. The principles of efficient, economical circulation are these: keep

the plan compact; put functionally related areas adjacent to each other; and
arrange furniture out of traffic's way.
Furnishings and Equipment. These transform the architectural shell

into a livable home. Beauty and individuality in furnishings are discussed
later in the chapter, but the possibilities for the arrangement of furniture
and equipment in a house are important considerations in terms of use.
In Koch's plans the rooms are large enough to take needed pieces of furni-
ture with some space to spare. Most rooms are dead-end rooms, with doors
in the corners and windows grouped, leaving uninterrupted and usually al-
ternative Avail spaces to accommodate large furniture groups. Thermostati-
cally controlled heating and cooling units automatically keep the rooms
at comfortable temperatures. Artificial lighting is planned for maximum
flexibility, efficiency, and pleasantness. Kitchen and bathroom equipment in-
corporates the latest advances in these fields.
In summary, the purpose of a house, in terms of use, is to provide
an environment for convenient, gratifying home life. Thus our first criterion
for domestic architecture— obvious but often forgotten— is:
The building {with its furnishings and equipment) should meet the
human needs for which it was designed.
Geography
In the past, geographical factors strongly affected home design. The Ameri-
can Indians of the Pacific North^vest made sturdy houses of wood; those of
the Southwest built of adobe brick. The nomadic Plains Indians depended
on lightweight, easily transportable tepees made of poles and buffalo skins.
Each group used native materials to shape distinctive dwellings that were a
direct outgrowth of its mode of living in relation to the climate, the build-
ing materials, and the character of the landscape.
Today architectural concepts spread rapidly over the world. Building
materials, new and old, can be transported far from their point of origin,
and much work that was done on the site is now done more efficiently
in factories. New heating and cooling equipment together ^vith improved
insulating materials make the interiors of houses relatively independent of
the weather outside. These factors markedly lessen the differences among
houses in varied geographical settings. Thus, contemporary architecture
has less regional character than does most historic work— but this does not
mean that the same house is equally good everywhere.
These trends are illustrated in the Techbuilt houses. Soon after they
were developed they were seen on television by some twenty million people
and many others read about them in magazines and books. The interest of
many families in different geographical sections was aroused, Avhich was
exactly the challenge that the houses were designed to meet. Only the basic
shape and structure are standardized. Local materials suited to the climate
and site can be used for all and exterior surfaces. Windows of
interior
various sizes and shapes can be placed where wanted. The interior can be
arranged in many ways.
So far we have discussed geography in regional terms, but specific sites
are equally important. What is the shape and size of the lot? Is the land
flat or rolling? Are there trees, a lake, or a good vie\v? Which points of the
compass should the major rooms face?
Here, again, the adaptability of the Techbuilt houses permits fitting
them to almost any piece of land. The typical two-story plans fit sloping
ground most naturally, and this is fortunate because there are many sloping
lots that often confuse builders. On flat lots the excavated earth can be
hauled away used to sculpture the land around the house.

or, far better,
Because these Techbuilt models are two-story, they cover comparatively

little land. Because they are low, they do not visually crowd
small parcels of
ground.
Orientation. Relating a house to the sun, wind, and views is important
desirable to
in home design. Generally, in the Northern hemisphere, it is
have the inajor rooms face south and east and to concentrate windows on
these sides. The winter sun, lower in the sky, sends
gains are numerous. The
warmth and cheer deep into the house, but an overhanging roof keeps
the high summer sun from the ^vindows (Fig. 18). Cold winter winds are
kept at bay. Outdoor living areas can be integrated with their interior
counterparts (Fig. 22). Entrance and stairway, storage and bathrooms can
be placed toward the north and west. This is easy to achieve with Techbuilt
plans (Figs. 14A and B, 15 A and B), which can also be oriented quite dif-
ferently for special situations.
From this discussion emerges the second criterion:
The house should be suited to its setting and climate.
iMriL
Winter and summer sun position at noon in Chicago. In winter the sun is low and
stays well south of due east and west. In summer it is high and its arc is we 11 to
the
north. {Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Co.)

Community
Homes are usually parts of communities, seldom isolated dwellings. This
brings additional problems and potentialities. Building ordinances usually
regulate some factors to insure safe construction, adequate window area,
percentage of land covered, and location of house on lot. A few commimities
go further by prescribing minimum size and cost, occasionally even exterior
desion. In most situations, however, each man has free choice to have his
home look the way he wants it to. Usually he wants his home to be pleasantly
related to the general character of the community, but herein lies a difficulty.
The community may be a jumble of pseudo-Colonial jostling pseudo-Tudor,

imitation French Provincial arguing with Hollywood Spanish. It may be
simply block after block of nondescript houses, or it may proclaim that

creative thinking stopped a century or so ago. What can architect and home-
owner do?
The architects began designing Techbuilt houses with no fixed pre-
conceptions of what the exterior design should be. This was not because
exterior design is unimportant, but because exterior design at its best ex-
presses the structure of a building, what goes on and the period in

inside,
which it is built. The simple rectangular shape and low pitched roof were
a natural consequence of the problem— giving middle-income families the
space they need and can afford in an economical but esthetically satisfying
form. By happy circumstance plus the architects' creative ingenuity, what
the community sees— the exterior design— was immediately liked by eminent
architects and the house-buying public. It is a frank statement of twentieth-
century, prefabricated dwellings that, with no compromise or imitation,

have the enduring quality of older homes, especially those in New England.
As we continue our study, it should become increasingly evident that

every art object was created in a period of time, a place, and a social order.
Significant art expresses all of these without hesitancy or flamboyance. From
this comes our third criterion:
The home should express the time and place in which it was created.
Materials
The and beauty of a home are directly related to the selection

usefulness
and handling of the materials from which it is built. Were it not that
Chapters 6 through 8 deal with materials and processes we would discuss
those used m the Techbuilt houses at greater length.
Wood, our most economical and versatile material for homes, is
still
the primary material. The beams running the length of the house and sup-
porting the second floor and roof attest its strength. Roof and wall panels,
made of plywood sheathing or grooved plywood siding bonded to insulated
wood frames, are remarkably strong for their weight and thickness. Wood
siding can be used on the exterior and sometimes on the interior as well.
Steel, which is much stronger and more expensive than wood, is used for the
posts that support the beams. Brick is a logical material for fireplaces and
can also be used for walls and floors, making these as durable as they are
handsome. Throughout these houses each material has been employed with
sympathetic understanding of its nature. None has been assigned tasks for
which it was unsuited, nor have its special qualities been hidden.
Our fourth criterion, then, is:
The materials should be appropriately chosen and handled.
Individuality
In an age marked by standardization and conformity, individuality runs

the risk of being stifled, but the urge to be one's self comes out strongly
in home planning and furnishing. A satisfying home goes beyond mere
physical shelter to become intimately related to its occupants. This includes
such factors as family size, financial and social status, way of living, and
tastes and preferences. Although family size and income are the most
obvious determinants, others deserve equal consideration. For example,
families that entertain large groups often or enjoy such active relaxation as
dancing may need larger houses than do those who enjoy smaller groups and
quieter activities.
In addition, every person has a right to a home that expresses his per-
sonality. It may be through favored colors, shapes, or textures; pictures on

the wall; or plants in the garden. It may be through interests or hobbies,
which merit as much space and equipment as the pocketbook permits. The
photographer wants his darkroom, and the weaver his loom. Others are
gratified by planning and cooking meals, arranging flowers, reading, or en-
joying music.
Techbuilt houses allow families great freedom to make the houses
really their own. The space within the shell can be divided to suit its
owners. It can be kept open or closed into separate rooms and, as family
patterns change, reorganization of the space is relatively simple. There is
wide choice in the materials that surface walls, floors, and ceilings. The
whole house, or any part of it, can be as formal or informal as desired. Al-
though this discussion has been limited to the two-level Techbuilt models.
the ideas pioneered in these have been expanded to include one-story houses,
custom designs, vacation houses, and even college dormitories and commer-
cial structures. In sum, Techbuilt houses can be personalized in innumer-
able ways— not only when they are built but in the years ahead.
Thus our fifth criterion is:
The home should state its owners' preferences and interests.
Beauty
Does the matter of beauty really come last? Is it not the first consideration?
Unquestionably, beauty is a major goal of most artists, but especially in

architecture seldom the primary preoccupation in the beginning stages.
it is
The first, consciously intellectual steps in designing Techbuilt houses were

such technicalities as how families want to live and of economical ways of
meeting these needs. Countless sketches were made and the most promising
were rehned for greater beauty and, also, for efficiency. But even though the
architects did not concentrate on beauty at first, their long experience in
finding esthetically energizing forms led them, perhaps intuitively, to favor

some possibilities above others. The true artist, whether builder or carver,
never denies that he is a whole man— his feelings for the usable, the rational,
and the emotional are all deeply involved in his creations.

The final Techbuilt plans have an innate coherence. This is firmly
established by the regularly spaced posts and beams and by the consistent
four-foot module (or unit of measurement) on which the entire house is
based. This framework, visual and structural, integrates without shackling
the whole concept. All rooms are harmoniously rectangular, but notice how
they differ in size and proportion. Some rooms are securely enclosed while
others open freely into adjacent areas. These qualities, rooted in the life
the house will shelter and in the structure that makes it secure, have been
emotionally vitalized far beyond utilitarian specifications.
Spirited living is forecast by the interiors that make moderate space
seem large. Notice in the living room (Fig. 22) how well the furniture
relates to its background and to the space it occupies. This came from de-
signing interior space for furnishings, then selecting pieces with character
and placing them so that they can be appreciated. Walls, ceiling, and floor
are broadly treated. Floor-to-ceiling glass opens one side of the room to the
terrace. Walls of tan grasscloth and brick painted white show to advantage
the painting and the worth-looking-at outlines of the furniture. The floor
of used brick, which continues into the terrace, is accented with a rug made
from strips of blue and beige carpeting. The white ceiling is restfuUy plain.
The interiors of Techbuilt houses lend themselves to individualized treatment.

Above. Antique and modern furniture are happily combined in this distinguished
room. The window wall and the continuing brick floor bring indoors and outdoors
together. {Photograph by Ernest Silva. Courtesy of Living for Young Homemakers.)
Opposite. A rough brick fireplace, wood walls, and durable furnishings make this
family room pleasantly informal. {Photograph by Alder/nan Studios. Courtesy of Better
Homes and Gardens.)
Although not stiffly formal, this room is distinguished. The room

family
(Fig. 23)— in another Techbuilt house— emphasizes the natural colors and
textures of red brick and red-brown cypress to suggest warm, informal group
living. No dull conformity vitiates this space, any more than it did the living
room discussed above. The rectangular cabinets and sofa fit compactly
against the avails- but the -svire-framed chairs stand free as lively, sculptural
accents.
In these rooms, paintings, sculpture, and accessories make their unique
contributions. Since prehistoric times man has found spiritual satisfaction in
painted or carved expressions of significant human experiences. So universal

is this human need that it is difficult to find a home devoid of this oppor-
tunity to escape from daily routine. Painting and sculpture can

be intense
their creators.
focal points that express our individuality as well as that of
Today many and sculptors are creating moderately
painters, print makers,
priced work \vith homes, rather than museums, in mind.
The exterior design of Techbuilt houses grows directly from the plan
and the system of construction. The gently sloping roof, which extends be-
yond the walls, relates the structure to the landscape. Windows and doors,
organized as large units, contrast effectively with the opaque walls. Verticals,
horizontals, and diagonals create a lively interplay of friendly differences

Unaffectedly strong
that coalesce in the steady rhythmic unity of the module.
shelter it pro-
and simple, yet friendly, it extends the promise of the secure
vides.
Beauty defies exact definition, explanation, and prescription, but

there
are someelementary factors that contribute to the comeliness of Techbuilt

houses. The design of the whole and of each part is harmonious with and
expressive of use and materials. All of the parts belong together, but
its
rhythmic relation-
they are not monotonously repetitious. Satisfying balance,
the whole com-
ships, and appropriate dominance and subordination mark
position. Perhaps most important, the houses
seem to have an inner vitality
that is invigorating.
Thus, the sixth criterion becomes:
The home should be beautiful.
satisfy today's needs

Techbuilt houses are called "modern" because they
progress. They put to good
directly and take advantage of technological
use what has been learned in the past, but they
do not imitate earlier work.
designed from the
Following a basic principle in architecture, they were
inside out: the exterior developed from the interior, which in turn grew
today's approach to architec-
out of contemporaneous needs. In referring to
tural style Allan Temko has written: "The
fundamental premise of this
style, of course, is that it is not a formal

style at all, but an ever self-renewing
aspirations in a
expression of mankind's complex needs and unprecedented
technological age."
practice of starting
Diametrically opposed to this direct approach is the
to design a house or select furniture by
choosing a "style" from the past.
the
To call such work "traditional" betrays a serious misunderstanding of
evolution of
a history that is marked by continuous
history of architecture,
new forms appropriate to changing conditions. The magnificent achieve-
ments of and furniture deserve our highest admiration

historic architecture
to their cultures and that can
as works of art that were vital contributions
serve us today as sources of stimulation, inspiration,

and delight. If we truly
appreciate them, we can only be embarrassed to see them imitated and
home, or
burlesqued in climates and communities where they are not
at
slavishly adopted as status symbols.
THE HOMES OF TWO ARCHITECTS

express
When an architect designs a home for himself, he has opportunity to
his convictions without compromise. Although
he must face the basic prob-
can be highly indi-
lems common to all domestic architecture, his design
the designers of most
vidual. This is quite unlike the situation faced by
succession of tem-
apartments, which must be acceptable if unexciting to a
tenants, and it differs from the exacting task that
confronted Carl
porary
in designing the Techbuilt houses. The homes discussed below were
Koch
unadulterated, two
designed by two influential architects and represent,
major trendsin contemporary American architecture with which they are
identified: Organic Architecture and the International

Style.
The Homes of Two Architects - 25
Frank Lloyd Wright's Home Near Spring Green, Wisconsin

Taliesin North * (Figs. 2GA and B, and 27) is a noble complex of buildings
set just below and partially encircling a hilltop in rolling, wooded farm-
land. It"supremely natural." f With deep reverence for nature, Mr.
is
Wright chose his materials and shaped his home so that "it was not easy to
tell 'ivhere pavements and walls left off and ground began." Local stone, laid
by country masons with "the quarry as a pattern," reaches out to form
garden courts and rises in the lower walls of the house and the massive
chimneys. "This native stone prepared the way for the lighter plastered con-
struction of the upper wooden walls. . . . And the lines of the hills were the
lines of the roofs . . . the plastered surfaces of the light wooden walls, set
back beneath broad eaves, were like flat stretches ofsand in the river below
and the same in color, for that is where the material that covered them
came from." Exterior wood was treated to give the "color of gray tree trunks
in violet light," and the shingled roofs were allowed to weather a natural
gray.
This is a northern house in a land where spring brings a profusion of
wild flowers and Avinters have their special beauty. Mr. Wright said, "I
wanted a home where icicles by invitation might beautify the eaves. So there
were no gutters. And when the snow piled deep on the roofs and lay drifted
in the courts, icicles came to hang staccato from the eaves. ." . .
The exterior, however, is but a prelude to the interior where one can
experience for himself what Wright meant when he wrote, "... architec-
ture spiritually (virtually) conceived as appropriate enclosure of space to be
lived in. . . . The enclosed space ... is the reality of the building. . .
."
Floors and walls of wood or the same stone seen outside and the great fire-
places that are integral with the structure shelter and secure the occupants.
But there is no feeling of tight, boxlike confinement because, "... in the
constitution of the whole, in the way the walls rose from the plan, and the
spaces were roofed over, was the chief interest of the house. . . . The rooms
went up into the roof, tentlike, and were ribanded overhead with marking
strips of waxed soft wood. The house was set so that sun came through the
openings into every room sometime during the day. Walls opened every-
• Taliesin is a Welsh term

means "shining brow." It is referred to as "North" (or
that
sometimes as "East") to distinguishfrom Taliesin West in Arizona. Begun in the 1910s as a
it
home for Mr. Wright's mother, it was expanded into a home for the Wright family, a studio,
a farm, and a school of architecture. Only a portion of the Wrights' living quarters, which date
back to 1925, is discussed here.
fThis quotation and those that follow are taken from Frank Lloyd Wright's statements
as published in An American Architecture (New York: Horizon Press, 1955); and The Natural
House (New York: Horizon Press, 1954).
The Homes of Tivo Architects - 27
Taliesin North (1925—), Frank Lloyd Wright's home in Wis-
consin, is rugged architectural poetry.
(A) Opposite, above. Architecture and landscape are joined
in the predominately horizontal masses through which a great
stone fireplace rises. {From An American Architecture, pub-
lished by Horizon Press, Inc., Nezu York 10, N.Y.)
(B) Opposite, below. Each surface that encloses the living
room is clearly defined by material, shape, and direction, but
all participate in a magnificent fugue of "interweaving ele-
ments, indicating a flow of volumes from one to the other."
(Photograph by Bill Hedrich, Hedrich-Blessing)
Right. The plan of the living room shows how Mr. Wright
destroyed traditional boxlike confinement.
where to views as thewindows swung out above the tree-tops. ." Talie- . .
sin, literally and spiritually, rises "out of the ground into the light."
Although this house has well-planned circulation and areas for living,
ittranscends such practical matters in fulfillment of Wright's philosophy of
Organic Architecture. In dictionary phraseology, organic means, "Possessed
of a complex structure coinparable to that of living beings; . . . forming a
totality in \vhich the relations of the parts involve relations to the whole,"
and "forming a complex, self-determined whole." In Taliesin North the
visible forms are so completely integrated with
the specific purpose of the building
the materials from which it is coiistructed, and
the eiwironment of which it is a part
that the structure develops a life pattern of its own.
Philip Johnson's Home at New Canaan, Connecticut
Diversity is characteristic of today's architecture, as can be seen by compar-

ing the home that architect Philip Johnson designed for himself (Figs. 28A
and B, and 29) with Taliesin North. Johnson's house is as precise (and beau-
tiful) as a mathematical formula, as logically conceived as a philosophic dis-
course, a lyrical study of the relationships of space and materials.
No typical house planned for a family, this structure is a bachelor's
audacious experiment in living with nature. It is a transparent prism poised
a few inches above the ground. In the approximately 1800 square feet of
glass-enclosed space, zones for different activities are barely suggested by
three fixed space-dividers— but there are no walls as such. The food-prepara-
tion space is separated froin the dining and living area by nothing more
than a walnut cabinet three and one-half feet high. Between the area for
sleeping and that for living is a walnut storage wall six feet high. The only
interior element that goes from floor to ceiling is a brick cylinder ten feet
The Homes of Two Architects - 29
Architect Philip C. Johnson's house (1949) in New
Canaan, Connecticut, is notable for its precise,
geometric form and space that characterizes the
International Style in architecture. (Photographs
by Ezra Stoller)
(A) Opposite, above. Clarity of structure, beauty
of proportions, and meticulously refined details
give the exterior a serenely calm beauty.
(B) Opposite, below. The interior is shielded
from the elements by the roof and the glass walls
but otherwise is part of the landscape.
K I T C H E
Right. The plan of the Johnson house shows ex-
treme simplicity of design coupled with rare sensi-
tivity forspace and form. A comparison with the
plan of Taliesin North reveals how differently
rectangular shapes can be handled.
in diameter that secludes the bathroom and opens into a fireplace. The
"living room" is furnished with five pieces of impeccably beautiful furniture
resting lightly on a white wool rug that, in turn, seems to float at anchor
on the polished brick floor. Its boundaries are intimated by an unframed
painting suspended from an iron stand and by a large plant. The plan is
indeed as open as are the walls of the house.
We have been looking at this house, though, out of its full context, for
it is but one of three rectangles on a large tree-bounded estate. The other

units are an unwalled platform for sculpture, and a guest house as securely
enclosed with brick as the main house is open with glass. Differing from
each other in every respect save basic shape, these three imits complement
each other and the space in which they exist. Man-made landscaping is
limited to a beautifully tended lawn. In its twentieth-century machined

precision, this house contrasts as strikingly with its simple natural setting
as the beautifully sculptured, formal Parthenon (Fig. 506A) contrasted with
its rocky eminence. In neither did the architects try to harmonize the
structure with its surroundings. The transparent walls, however, let one
see not only into Johnson's house but through it to the landscape beyond;
and in places they mirror the trees and the sky. Thus, the house and its set-
ting are intimately related in a way that is distinctly different from Taliesin
North and is new in the story of architecture.
This house represents a phase of contemporary architecture known as

the International Style. Study of it and other examples, such as the new
Bauhaus (Fig. 137B) and the Tugendhat house (Fig. 332), shows that this
style, which has influenced much significant contemporary architecture,

emphasizes volume and space rather than mass, openness and flexibility
rather than fixed enclosure. Regularity, precision, and simplicity are key-
notes. Regularity comes from repetition and standardization of predomi-
technology. Sim-
nantly rectangular forms. Precision comes from machine
is unnecessary.
plicity is achieved through the elimination of everything
that
It is a restrained but intense understatement

that grows from the philosophy
of "less more." Interest comes from the total composition of space and
is
materials and works
enclosing planes, which are sparingly accented with rich
of art.
implies, the International Style developed out of
wide-
As its name
from local
spread twentieth-century technology and ideals rather than
architecture" that aims
traditions or geographic environments. It is a "world
coordinate basic, generalized human needs and the
techniques of stand-
to
attempt to create
ardized industrial production. Philip Johnson made no
design and furnishings
the informality and "naturalism" inherent in the
Wright and Techbuilt houses. Nor was he concerned with such
factors
of the
economical heating and cooling. But he achieved what he
wanted-a
as
formal, precise, highly disciplined design of great clarity.

Which of these houses do you prefer? Both are worth study and respect;
each illustrates a trend in contemporary architecture.
THREE HISTORIC HOMES

To broaden our horizons, we now look at three homes from varied cultures.
fitness to its purpose, expression of its cultural and geo-

Each exemplifies
beautiful in
graphic environment, and adroit use of materials. Each is its
own terms.
A Japanese Home
(Figs. 31A
Evolved over several centuries, the traditional Japanese house
sheltered openness.
and B) is serenely calm and has a remarkable feeling of
simple and clear, yet intricately complex in details and
space
It is basically
standardized mod-
relationships. Like Techbuilt houses, it is designed on a
woven mats measuring about three by six feet not only cover the
floor
ule:
regularity allows the
but determine the building's proportions. This basic
composure. Slid-
designers to introduce variety and surprise without loss of
relate it to the garden.
ing panels flexibly subdivide interior space and
house
The natural colors of wood, plastic, and woven reeds further tie the
natural setting and produce a singleness of effect amid variety. The
to its
size and shape of each unit is so beautifully in scale with the occupants
that a truly great harmony is achieved. It is no wonder that many contempo-

in Japanese buildings.
rary architects have, found inspiration and guidance
31
A Museum of
traditional Japanese house built by native craftsmen in the garden of the
Modern Art, New
York, shows the unsurpassed awareness of materials and structure,
space and texture that have evolved through centuries of building with wood. Sliding
Shoji panels enable the occupants to open the house to the landscape or securely enclose
the interior. Similar mo\able panels, subtly varied, also flexibly subdivide the space
(Photographs by Ezra Stoller)
inside.
(A) Above.An impeccable sense of order unites dixerse, asymmetrically disposed ele-
ments that suggest a flexibility and change quite unlike the static finality of the Dutch
exterior (Fig. 3).
(B) Below. In the interior, the continuing lines of the exposed structure, broad open-
ings, and refined details produce a feeling of spaciousness that far transcends the actual
dimensions.
1'*'^ -'littirr --ii-nft..=^^giL.'t

Mary Aiden's Home

mother (Figs. 33A and B) typifies the smaller
The home of Shakespeare's
contrast to the refined lightness
dwellings of sixteenth-century England. In
boisterously vigorous, heavy,
and flexibility of Japanese homes, it is almost
but too, consistently reveals its structure
and materials, inside
and solid, it,
oranamental,
and out.Heavy wood timbers form the structural, and also
timbers and
framework. Plaster-covered masonry fills the spaces between
the
Everything conspires to make
provides a strong contrast of color and texture.
the house a secure haven against the
environment. Large-scale beams, a
room-heating fireplace, heavy furniture, and small

windows make the rooms
promises protection
seem even smaller than they are. The exterior, too,
against weather and marauders.
Judged by our standards, cramped, dark, poorly ventilated, and
it is
difficult to heat, yet it functioned

efficiently when judged by sixteenth-
contemporary American
century standards of living. Its relationship to
stagecoaches and our latest
houses is similar to that between Elizabethan
rough-
automobiles. Even today, though, it has a consistently heart-warming,
hewn an undeniable beauty and that tells us much
integrity that gives it
about the period in English life and architecture

when medieval traditions
were oiving way to Renaissance ideals.
A Dwelling from Colonial Williamsburg

economic, reli-
From 1699 to 1779, Williamsburg was the governmental,
declined during the
gious, and social center of the Colony of Virginia. It
a quiet college town and country seat
Revolutionary War, and remained
begun in the 1930s. It now stands as a museum of
an
until restoration was
eighteenth-century American capital.
The Brush-Everard House (Figs. 34A and B) now looks much
as it
and less vigorous, than Mary Arden's

did in 1750. It is far more refined,
more formal than the Japanese or Techbuilt houses. The
cottage, and it is
unpretentious yet dignified. The simple, economical shape estab-

exterior is
reinforced by the cornice mark-
which
lishes a strong horizontal feeling,
is
well as by the horizontal lines of the

ing the juncture of wall and roof as
sidina and shingles. Vertical doors, windows,
and dormers are a lively con-
reflect the prohibitive cost of
trast.°The small-paned, shuttered windows
protection against cold. Their pleasing
large panes of glass and the need for
sha°pe and orderly placement show
deep concern for proportion and regu-
central position,
simple doorway gains prominence through
its
larity. The
dark color, and brick platform.
Three Historic Homes - 33
Mary Arden's house at Wilmcote,

near Stratford, England, illustrates
the straightforward, functional use
of forms and materials that con-
tribute to the rugged, informal
beauty of sixteenth-century archi-
tecture. (Courtesy of the British In-
formation Service)
(A) Above. The heavy timbers not
only support the structure but make
a strong visual pattern.
(B) Below. Heavy and dark, but
warm and safe, the interior is quite
differentfrom that of Philip John-
son's home.
The Brush-Everard House,

Williamsburg, Virginia, shows
the simple yet dignified quality
of eighteenth-century American
architecture and furniture.
(Courtesy of Colonial Williams-
burg, Inc.)
(A) Above. The exterior is
noteworthy for its sureness of de-
sign and subtlety of proportion.
(B) Below. A handsome fire-
place, beautiful and comfortable

furniture, and appropriate paint-
ings and accessories recall a sta-
ble, assured era.
Furnishing One's Home -
35
The handsomely designed and richly furnished living room more than
fulfills the promise of gracious living suggested by the exterior. The archi-
tectural background is as decisively rectangular and clearly defined as is
the exterior. A logical center of interest, the centered fireplace projects into
the room. Its importance is underlined by the sensitively shaped moldings
and its soft green color, ^vhich differentiates it fiom the oak floor and the
white plaster walls and ceiling. Notice, though, that its color extends onto
the wall at the left and carries around the room in the cornice ^vhere walls
and ceiling meet. The furnishings bring diversity of many sorts. Draperies
and upholstery are bright cherry red, a color that is echoed in the Oriental
rug. Mahogany chairs and tables are gracefully and comfortably curved.
Intricate pattern, color, and shape are introduced in the rug, tea set and
other decorative objects. Views into other worlds are offered by the paint-
ings. The Brush-Everard house is consistent yet diversified, as was the spirit
of the age. It stands today as a unified expression of eighteenth-century liv-
ing in Virginia.
The integrity we have seen in these contemporary and historic homes

comes when art grows directly and naturally from its whole environment.
The Colonial builder was never troubled by the problem of what "style"
to build in— he built in what we now call the Colonial style because he was
building a house for Colonial family life. Although the art from different
historic periods may seem to have little in common, each is invariably a
direct, sincere expression of the life of its time and place. Fortunately, we,
too, are creating an art of our own.
FURNISHING ONE'S HOME

Selecting and arranging furnishings is not complicated if notions of peri-
ods, fads, and tricks are swept away. While we are sweeping the cobwebs
away, we might as well rid ourselves of a misconception inherent in the
phrase "interior decoration" because this strongly reminds us of that worst-
of-all definition of architecture— "the decoration of engineering." The prob-
lem is to furnish, rather than to decorate, space for living. There are no
trustworthy, ready-made solutions. Common sense and imagination plus
sensitivity to human needs, to form and color, and to materials are the
requisites.
Some day you will probably be faced with the problem of furnishing
one room or a whole house. Here is one way of tackling it.
Decide What Activities Will Take Place in Each Area
put. Answer such questions as
Analyze the uses to which each space will be
in the room? Relax? Read? Talk?
Listen
these: What will you want to do
to music? Study? Each activity

makes its special demands. The more com-
the better your chances of
prehensive and detailed you make this analysis,
getting a truly appropriate room.
List the Furnishings and Equipment Each Activity Requires

seat and a light-but a con-
Casual reading, for example, necessitates only a
helps. Serious and prolonged
venient place to keep your reading materials
chair, very good light,
reading or study indicates a really comfortable
freedom from and perhaps a desk. Conversation, games, eating,
distractions,
and hobbies each has its own special requirements.
sleeping, dressing,
Consider the Basic Character of Your Whole Home and

of Each Room
working, there would
If lifewere merely a matter of eating, sleeping, and
for qualities beyond the strictly
be no need for art. But we have a deep need
practical. What kind of home makes
you feel most truly yourself? Formal
reserved, spacious or enclosing? Check
your
or informal, stimulating or
room you enter during the next month or so. What are
responses to every
for realism and also for
your reactions? This is the time for self-analysis,
have read about so far seems to
dreams. Perhaps none of the homes you
fulfill all of your desires. That is
natural, for you ought to create (with the
your own environment for living. Keep your

dreams-
assistance of experts)
but give them a practical base.
That Are Genuinely Appropriate to You

Select Furnishings
Remember, though, a future as well as a present! Spur-of-the-

that there is
the items that are

moment decisions can be risky. It is wise to begin with
character and beauty. Do you
most important in terms of use and cost,
smooth, sturdy or delicate,
want your furnishings predominantly rough or
repetition as well as discomforting
plain or ornamented? Avoid tiresome
variety If you know exactly where
you are going to live for some years,
carefully
select each object with that space
in mind. If you do not, think
Then there is color-rich
about furnishings that will fit other situations.
contrasting or harmonious? Such factors are
or pale, high-keyed or muted,
discussed in Chapters II through 13.
Planning the Landscape - 37
Arrange Furnishings for Comfort, Convenience, and Attractiveness
The importance that you attach to each phase of your life should affect
both your purchases and arrangements. If reading is a major interest, con-

centrate on good conditions for reading. Music, gardening, or cooking may
be your concerns. Or you may be more engrossed with the joy of space or
the exhilaration of color than with any specific activity. Again, it is a matter
of putting human needs first. But in your selections and arrangements,
think also of balancing whatever you have, of placing your possessions so
that they relate rhythmically to each other, and of giving each object its
just emphasis. For specific help on this matter you will want to study
Chapter 14.
Did we indicate that this problem is basically simple? Basically, it is.

To be sure, you cannot become a master by reading a few pages in a book,
but, as you proceed further with your observations, you will learn more
about which forms, colors, and textures lead to desired effects. If you analyze
each room to determine what produces its pleasantness, or lack thereof,
you will build your vocabulary of home-planning and -furnishing ideas.
Finally, as you try your hand at arranging what furnishings you now have
and observe your friends' reactions to the results, you will learn by experi-
ence, which is still a reliable mentor.
PLANNING THE LANDSCAPE

The landscape around Philip Johnson's home (Fig. 28), as simple and
restrained as is the building, consists of a spacious lawn, a gravel-surfaced
dais for sculpture, and a natural greenbelt of trees and shrubs that screens
the house from road and neighbors. In contrast, the garden of Mary Arden's
house (Fig. 33A) is a picturesque profusion of flowering plants, trees, and
vines in harmony with the informality of the architecture and stone wall.
Clearly, it is a garden for a climate in which flowers prosper and for persons
who enjoy horticultural pursuits. Quite different from either of these, the
garden of the Governor's Palace at Williamsburg (Fig. 46B) is as formal as

the building to which it belongs. It is a garden to be admired from the
Palace windows, to be walked through, and to be carefully maintained.
These three gardens only hint at the diverse paths open to the garden
designer.
The Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Spaniards extended their houses
into the gardens as true outdoor living rooms enclosed by the house, avails,
and arcades. Pools and fountains, sculpture and plants provided visual de-
"Tboo House onJrw-
"tos:
in
and beautiful (1950s). {Courtesy of Thomas D. Church,

Even a small city lot can be livable
landscape architect) , . •
but is a con-
(A) Above, left.owners' first sketch plan indicates what they wanted
The
£usinE assemblage of unrelated elements. , . ,
{B) Above, right. Landscape architect

Thomas D. Church integrated the varied ele-
ments into a coherent unity.
opposite. A paved terrace of decisive, ingenious shape provides low-upkeep space for
outdoor living.
herbs and their

light. Medieval Europeans protected their beds of roses and
monastery. The artists of
arbored walks with the strong walls of castle and
nature with broad walks and
the Italian Renaissance opened their gardens to
richly embellished walls,
shady groves, but related them to their houses with
fountains, and pavilions. The Japanese, with
consummate
balustrades,
trees and shrubs,
artistry, created subtle compositions with picturesque
rocky waterfalls and pools, bridges and tea houses.
The English, who
"jumped the fence and discovered that all nature was a garden," developed
landscape based on the theory that "nature abhors
a straight
the naturalistic
line." The inspiring history of gardens is the story of man's delight in nature
and of his achievements in adapting nature to his needs.
provide space for outdoor

Because most contemporary gardens aim to
home design are directly applicable. Figures 38A
living, the principles of
can extend a tract
and B, and 39 show how well-designed outdoor space
for
house built on a small lot. The owners wanted many
things-facilities
children's play; a service

outdoor cooking and eating, adult relaxation and
in their preliminary
yard and tool shed; and some lawn and flowers-and
prepared by Thomas D.
plan pieced these together haphazardly. The plan
Church has the same elements, but they are purposefully organized in a
handsome design.
In terms of use, these are the major differences.
The isolated terrace facing the hot afternoon sun was moved to make
it directly accessible from and sheltered by the house. It terminates in
an outdoor living room with built-in and movable furniture and a roof
against the elements.
The service yard, cutting garden, and tool storage were relocated to bring
them close to kitchen and carport. A low hedge hides the inevitable
clutter without sharply dividing these areas from those for group living.
The picayune stepping stones, which made both walking and lawn
maintenance difficult, were replaced with ample pavement encircling
the house and lawn.
The esthetic differences are equally important.
All of the elements were brought into a decisive, cohesive organization

that unifies the whole property.
The ingenious combination of curved, diagonal, and straight lines gives
a remarkable sense of spaciousness and introduces a variety that makes
each visit to the garden a new and rewarding experience.
Each element is of a size and shape appropriate to its purposes. Notice
especially the generous, welcoming driveway and walk, the narrow paths
around the house and lawn, and the ample rear terrace.
lot, architect Aaron Green erased the

lo increase the spaciousness of a small Los Angeles
living space
dividing line between house and garden, blending the two into a delightful
{Photographs by Maynard Parker. Courtesy of House
Beautiful.)
(1955).
is the first step, fol-

In designing a landscape an analysis of our needs
the list of needs
lowed by a decision as to the general character we want. If
should be given to en-
emphasizes comfortable outdoor living, attention
protection from
closure forprivacy and protection from wind; overhead
and snow; and furniture that is comfortable and weather
sun, wind, rain,
resistant. Other such as gardening as a hobby, might lead to a
interests,
landscape deserves as
quite different program. Whatever the goals, the
thoughtful planning as does the house and its furnishings.
The topic of art in the home is no one could hope to

so large that
little more than act as
exhaust the material on it, and this chapter can do
on in the future.
an introduction and suggest activities that can be carried
First, observe sharply and discriminatingly
the houses that you see every
sold in your local stores, the houses, furniture

and ac-
day, the furniture
and advertised in magazines and newspapers. Think
of
cessories discussed
them in terms of home life today, and apply to each the criteria stated in
this chapter.
Second, look in the follo^ving sections of this book for further ideas
about color, design, and materials that apply to the home. Part I, with
its emphasis on human needs, serves as a foundation for the more intensive
study of materials, form and color, and design. See how many direct applica-
tions to your own home you can make of the facts and principles in
Parts
II and III.
Third, read some of the many stimulating books on this subject to

broaden and deepen your understanding, to sharpen your discrimination.
For general background:
Art and Life in Arnerica: Oliver W. Larkin (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1960).
A penetrating study of the development of American art, including the
home.
The Art of Home Landscaping: Garret Eckbo (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956).
Clear, concise, and authoritative.
At Home with Tomorrow: Carl Koch (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1958).
An account of the Techbuilt house and the experiences that led up to it.
Builders' Homes for Better Living: A. Quincy Jones and Frederick E. Emmons
(New York: Reinhold, 1957).
Ranges from the "planned environment" to the "building business."
Creative Gardens: James C. Rose (New York: Reinhold, 1958).
A series of case studies of successful gardens.

Elements of Interior Design and Decoration: Sherrill Whiton (Philadelphia:
Lippincott, 1956).
Thorough, detailed discussion from the professional decorator's point of
view.
Gardens Are for People: Thomas D. Church (New York: Reinhold, 1955).
Landscape designs by a leader in the field.

Inside Today's Home: Ray and Sarah Faulkner (New York: Holt, Rinehait and
Winston, 1960).
A book dealing with the major phases of home planning and furnish mg.
The Japanese House and Garden: Tetsuro Yoshida (New York: Praeger, 1954).
One of many well-illustrated treatises dealing with such factors as climate,
attitude toward life, and gardens in Japan.
The Natural House: Frank Lloyd Wright (New York: Horizon Press, 1954).
A lively statement by our greatest designer of houses.
The Second Treasury of Contemporary Homes: Editors of Architectural Record

(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959).
Well-selected contemporary homes illustrated and discussed.
Handsome in geometric regularity.
its
a seventeenth-century "Plan for an

Ideal City" was prompted by the needs
for military defense.
3 Art in tlxe Coiximunity

-
COMMUNITIES, WHICH RANGE from small isolated settlements to
vast cities, are made up of individuals with some common interests and some
kind of communal government. The remote, fast disappearing farm com-
munities were housed in small groups of buildings, with a blacksmith shop
in a corner of a barn, root cellars for the storage of fruits and
vegetables
raised on the land, and houses to shelter a few families. Here

were, as the
need arose, the barbershop, hospital, bakery, and tailor shop. Only occa-
sionally were there journeys to town to trade and barter for the few essen-
tials not produced on the farms. Although these communities ^vere to a large
extent self-sufficient, they were dependent on the vagaries of nature
for
their well-being.
42
Williamsburg Again: The Community - 43
In striking contrast is New York City, a metropolis of around eight

million persons. To get from home to work most New Yorkers depend on
subways, busses, trains, ferries, and elevators. They rely on the milkman
to bring cream for the morning coffee, the gas or electric company to pro-
vide heat for cooking, the telephone to facilitate their talking to business
associates or friends. Each person— the busman, the milkman, the tailor,
the barber— renders his own specialized service. A single hitch in this vast
complexity, such as an electric power failure for even a few minutes, affects
hundreds of thousands of these interdependent persons.
Between the extremes of small communities and gigantic metropolises
are communities of many sizes. These may be villages or cities held together
under one governmental organization; or they can be sections within a town,

neighborhoods within a larger community, the members of which are joined
by similar interests and ideals. Also they may be much larger than a metro-
polis, extending for hiuidreds of miles and even crossing state boundaries,
as does the Tennessee Valley Authority. They may in fact be world-wide,
as is the United Nations. Communities generate art problems similar to
home, but they are much broader

those of the in scope and larger in scale.
Through public buildings, city and regional plans, parks, painting, and
sculpture, each community has magnificent opportunities to take care of its
practical concerns and to express its ideals.
WILLIAMSBURG AGAIN: THE COMMUNITY

In the eighteenth century, Williamsburg covered approximately a square
mile of land with about 300 houses and a resident population of around
3000 people. When the assemblies and courts were in session, as many as
4000 more came to stay in the taverns and inns. Some came on governmental
business, others to see the newest fashions from London or to be amused by
and horse races,

fairs lotteries, cockfights, and other diversions. Merchants
and came to
planters transact business and craftsmen brought products to
the market. Colonel Spotswood boasted that his supper guests at the Gov-
ernor's Palace numbered and Governor William Gooch said: "The
400,
gentlemen and ladies here are perfectly well bred, not an ill dancer in my
government."
Out of the busy life of eighteenth-century America came the commu-
nity of Williamsburg. Common goals banded the citizens together to pro-
duce arts that expressed their actions, philosophies, and ideals. The builders
of Williamsburg were English colonists imbued with the eighteenth-century
attitudes of the mother country. Since their way of living and the geographi-
cal conditions resembled those in England, they adapted the architecture
44 - Art in the Community
The plan of Williamsburg,

Virginia,is a modified grid-
iron with blocks of varied

sizes and shapes, appro-
priately dominant loca-
tions for important build-

ings.
in their native country to the

conditions and materials
they had known
style of the period,
of America. The entire community was designed in the
the style that the inhabitants of

Williamsburg had helped develop and
that expressed their mode of living.
The Plan of Williamsburg
Williamsburg was planned with impressive dignity

and good sense (Fig. 44).
noble thoroughfare 99
Duke of Gloucester Street, the main avenue, is a
the east end it is terminated by the
feet wide and almost a mile long. At
the most important
Capitol, which, as the major public building, was given
At the west end it forks into main roads to Richmond and James-
position
this strategic intersection stands the
College of William and
town, and at
major thoroughfare is lined
Mary. Between these two public buildings the
important residences. Parallel
with other community buildings, shops, and
for residences. Be-
to Duke of Gloucester Street are several narrower streets
farms providing the food for
yond these-in the eighteenth century-were the
the community. Between the College
and the Capitol is Palace Green, a
Governor's Palace and providing
broad lawn extending two blocks to the
of the Colony's most important politi-
a dignified approach to the residence
cal personage.
simple, and its rectangular pattern resem-
The plan of Williamsburg is
most American cities. There are, ho^vever, im-

bles the gridiron pattern of
pleasant, distinctive character:
portant differences that give Williamsburg a
their importance; the blocks vary in
the widths of streets vary according to
buildings have impressive locations. Thus
the
size and shape; and the chief
Williamsburg Again: The Community - 4S
streets in this Colonial capital were not merely traffic arteries but played
their part in giving the city a simple grandeur that typifies eighteenth-
century living. For its purpose and its time, the plan was both beautiful and
useful.
The Governor's Palace
The Governor's Palace (Fig. 46A) is orderly, dignified, and impressive. It
tells you at once that it was more than an ordinary home, that it was the
official center of hospitality for eighteenth-century Virginia.
How was this achieved? Many factors contribute. First, its location at
the end of Palace Green gives it a distinguished setting. Second, its size
makes it imposing, for it is much the largest home in Williamsburg. Third,

it is handsomely framed by the two flanking
buildings and by the curved
forecourt wall leading up to the richly ornamented gate. Finally, the main
building is masterfully designed. Symmetrical and precisely ordered, it is
saved from monotony and stiffness by the rightness of its proportions and
the grace of its detail. The building is a simple rectangle which gains stabil-
ity and repose through its horizontality. The roof is a truncated pyramid
that serves as a transitionbetween the lower portion and the cupola. The
verticality of the windows, chimney, and cupola tempers the dominant
horizontality. Subtle progressions give vitality to the window shapes and

placement: the windows diminish in height from the first floor to the third
floor and the distances between them increase from the center to the ends.
Both of these devices direct attention toward the central doorway. Re-
ornament enriches the total composition.
strained, judiciously placed
The design of the building suggests comparison with musical practices
of many eighteenth-century European composers who favored the "Theme
and Variations." They would begin with a simple tune of their own, or a
well-known popular song or hymn, and then without disturbing a hair in
their powdered wigs treat the original tune in many and varied ways.
Williamsburg architects handled architectural forms in a similar way. No-
tice, for example, how the truncated pyramid is repeated and varied in the
roof of themain building, the dormers and chimneys, and the roofs of the
two smaller structures. Echoing and varying an important shape bestows
importance on the basic shape and helps unify the design, a fact also well
known to contemporary architects and composers.
Just as conversation in the glittering drawing rooms was
characterized
by gracefully turned phrases, delicately poised innuendoes, correctly bal-
anced sentences, so too was the architecture marked by gracious proportions,

delicately molded ornaments, exquisitely carved brackets and
balustrades,
The Governor's Palace and Garden at Wil-

liamsburg have a gracious regularity typical
of much eighteenth-century design. {Photo-
graphs by F. S. Lincoln)
the
(A) Above. The symmetrical exterior of
spacing
Palace is enlivened by the measured
of windows, the delicate detail of cornices
and cupola, and the curved wall of the fore-
court. Red brick, white trim, and

gray slate
of sky
roof contrast pleasantly with the colors
and foliage.
(B) Left. The formal garden behind the
Palace is in harmony with the architecture,
echoing and emphasizing the geometric
shapes of the building.
Williamsburg Again: The Community - 47
and airy cupolas. Throughout Williamsburg the graceful design and the
adroit use of ornament are so effective that today, as we look at the whole
community, we are transported across the intervening centuries to that
age in ^vhich reason and functionalism underlay imaginative yet ordered
beauty.
The Governor's Garden
The Governor's Garden (Fig. 46B) carries the precision, formality, and ele-
gance of the Palace into the landscape. It, too, is basically rectangular, but
the diagonal hedges echo the roof lines and the rounded shrubs recall the
cupola. The Garden, like the Palace, expresses the love of orderly and
elaborate surroundings of people who wore powdered wigs and lacy jabots.
In the eighteenth century the effect of the garden, standing in such

startling contrast to the wild forests a few miles away, must have been
breath-taking. We can wonder how the Indian chief felt when he walked
its formal paths, how the wilderness-worn traveler felt when— with a mem-
ory full of tangled forest and jagged rock— he first saw the mathematical pre-
cision of the clipped shrubs. The garden belonged not only to the Governor
and his family, but to Williamsburg, to the Colony of Virginia, to Colonial
America: it served home needs, it impressed local visitors, it refreshed trav-
elers, it reminded the colonists of their mother country, and it convinced

the Indians that the palefaces were no fools. It was truly a community
garden.
The community of Williamsburg needed other public buildings, in-
cluding the Capitol, Courthouse, and Bruton Parish Church (Fig. 89A). Each
was planned with the same fundamental ideas that molded the Governor's
Palace, and they have much in common: simple, rectangular forms of red
brick as a foil for the refined white ornamentation; cupolas and spires;
formally placed openings; windows with small panes of glass; and restrained
ornamentation.
As we now look upon restored Williamsburg, we find it beautiful. But

yesterday cannot be lived over again. Today is here always; and today, the
present, we must express if we are to achieve communities of lasting distinc-

tion, of real meaning, and of maximum use and benefit. Williamsburg
did
all that when it was built. It still has distinction-but its

meaning is of the
eic^hteenth century, not of the twentieth; it is suited to Colonial life, not to
ours. It though, well worth our study, not as something to copy or imitate,
is,
but as a handsome solution of a community problem.

48 - Aft ^" the Community
CONTEMPORARY COMMUNITIES
the changes in our country have
Since the days of Colonial Williamsburg,
civilization was concentrated on the
been phenomenal. At that time our
business and our cities were
Atlantic coast. Agriculture was our major
few and small. The nineteenth century
brought tremendous expansion of
population; equally significant was
our geographical boundaries and of our
of cities. Twentieth-century changes have
been
the growth of industry and
population doubled, and our cities bore the brunt
equally spectacular. Our
the increase was more than 22-fold); and
of the increase (in Los Angeles,
million to over 70 million. In
our labor force increased from around 29
skyline (the tallest buildmg
1900 New York City did not have its famous
only in the homes of prosperous
was 29 stories), electric lights were common
city dwellers, and telephones
were few. Radios for home use came in the
respects, though, transportation
1920s and television in the 1940s. In many
developments have had the most profound effects
on community life. Trol-
Air-
ley cars replaced horsecars and
in turn are being replaced by busses.
city, elevators take us to the
planes and fast trains speed us from city to
buildings. In 1895 only four automobiles
were registered in this
tops of tall
million.
country. In 1900 there were 14,000, but by 1940 there were 31.5
trucks crowded our streets and high-
In 1960 a total of 70 million cars and
ways.
What are the results? Cities have mushroomed, but very often without
expert planning. Minimum thought has
been given to appropriate locations
for industrial, commercial, residential,

and recreational areas. Overcrowded
and overburdened transportation systems have
made city life a gTim
slums
experience for many.
look at what happened and

Quite recently we have taken a long, sober
improvement. Housing is a major
have taken many creative steps toward
types of solutions. These are:
problem, and we shall look first at two major
areas, such as Greenbelt; and
planning new communities in sparsely settled
illustrated in the Golden Gate-
replacing city slums with good housing, as
Tennessee Valley
way Redevelopment Project. Then we shall look at the
planning.
Authority, an example of integrated regional
Greenbelt, Maryland
Washington, D.C., is one of
Greenbelt, located at Berwyn, Maryland, near
1930s by the Federal Government to
three similar towns planned in the
provide a good environment for home and
community life. The character
in the following statement.
of these communities is described
Contemporary Communities - 49
The new communities be "greenbelt" towns, so called because each

will
of them will be surrounded by a broad girdle of

park and farm land. A
greenbelt town is simply a community built on raw land, in which evei7
which traditional lines between town
acre is put to its best use, and in the
and country are broken down. To the city worker it offers a home in health-
his job. To the small
ful country surroundings, yet within easy reach of
offers better facilities and a steady
farmer living in the greenbelt area, it
market within a few hundred yards of his own fields. For both of them,
it combines the conveniences and
cultural advantages of a city with many
has been
advantages of life on the land. Such a union of town and country
made possible by technology, transportation improvements and a host of
other factors. We need only to make use of the tools which are lying at
hand.*
The greenbelt towns were boldly and deliberately planned for

human
"greenbelt" concept their most
^^•elfare and enjoyment. Although the is
distinctive quality,some other aspects deserve attention. They were planned

for families in the below average income level
with the wage earners work-
suburbs, a kind of "bedroom
ing in nearby cities. Thus, they are commuter
from
community." The wage earners must travel some distance to and
feature that few regard as desirable but \vhich many
undergo for
\vork, a
the advantages ofsuburban home life. Although this seems like a twentieth-
Cyrus of Persia in
century idea, an excerpt from a letter written to King
559 B.C. proves otherwise. "Our property
seems to me the most beautiful
in the world. It is Babylon that we enjoy all of the advantages

so close to
and
of the city, and yet when we come home we are away from all the noise
dust."
greenbelt communities differ sharply from typical
suburban de-
The
architects and
velopments in that many experts-city planners and landscape
engineers, painters and sculptors, educators and sociologists-cooperated on
the plans that were completely developed in
advance of any construction.
quiet peace, nor will
There are no industrial fumes, no noises to break the
the towns expand so that their advantages are lost.
carefully studied
Greenbelt gTew from a fundamental idea that was
in Washington.
from all angles. First came a survey of housing conditions
that important
Were there sufficient, adequate houses for the citizens of
city? The answer was no. Then came a
search for available, suitable land-
have some open country
near enough for easy commuting but far enough to
parcel of ground cut up into
advantages. The planners did not want a small
a gridiron subdivision with wasteful streets,
narrow lots, randomly located
schools and parks, and with no breathing
space around it. They wanted a
possible, protected
community designed for the best living economically
by a permanent greenbelt of farms and woodlands.
Administration, Washington. D.C.
• From Greenbelt Towns, Resettlement
BE.
to meet con-
The entire of Greenbelt, Maryland, was designed in the 1930s
community
(Photographs courtesy of Farm Security Admimstratton)
temporary needs.
(A) Above. The plan is organically related to the
topography and the lives of the
minimize noise
(B) Dwellings are arranged in economical superblocks that
Below
automobile The homes face parks and are near woodlands.
nd the dangers of
and traffic.
Years ago an Englishman named Ebenezer Howard pioneered the
"garden city" movement. Distressed by the conditions in which he found

English factory workers living and rearing children, he advocated smaller
commimities planned from the beginning for a limited number of well-
placed industries and a limited number of dwellings. Growth was not to
proceed unchecked, since that always led to the congestion common to ill-
planned cities. Each garden city was planned and

to grow to a healthy size,
then, if necessary, a new one separated from the original by farm or wood-
lands would be started. Greenbelt would delight Ebenezer Howard, were
he still living, because it incorporates many of his ideas, especially the sur-
rounding belt of farm lands.
At Greenbelt the rural setting provides space for the National Agricul-
tural Research Center, one of the world's greatest farm laboratories. Here
scientists develop new crops and new farming methods that contribute
enormously American economy. The use of every foot of the original

to the
16,000 acres was planned by experts, and for the first time since Maryland
was settled, the soil is being used scientifically to increase its fertility.
Figure 50A shows the community plan, which handsomely fits both the
topography and the citizens' needs. The layout resembles a horseshoe. Shop-
ping and recreation areas bordering on the lake
facilities, a theater, schools,
are organized as a community center. Residential areas radiate from and

encircle this center, which is convenient to but segregated from them.
Curving streets fit this topography more efficiently than would the customary
checkerboard pattern. In addition, they discourage excessive speed, add
visual interest, and give residential sections a pleasant domestic character.
Arterial thoroughfares go around, not through, the community.
The first plans for Greenbelt called for sixty-six miles of streets; the
final plan has the same number of dwellings but only six miles of streets.
Planning not an expensive luxury! This striking saving was effected by

is
"superblocks." As shown in Figs. 50B and 64B, superblocks are much larger
than ordinary city blocks: instead of twenty or thirty dwellings in each
there may be two hundred served by a relatively small amount of pavement.
Streets are costly to build, expensive to maintain, and dangerous to cross.
Much of this land might far better be used for parks, as in Greenbelt.
The advantages of superblocks go far beyond dollars-and-cents economy
because they provide opportunities for infinitely better living. In Greenbelt
two gains stand out: almost all dwellings face on parks and are served by
streets with minimum traffic.
Traffic on residential streets is reduced to a minimum by designing
them as cul-de-sacs (dead-end streets with turn-arounds at the ends). Garages

are grouped around courts off the

roadways and near the homes they serve.
shopping, or the theater
In Greenbelt, one can walk to and from school,
within the superblocks.
conveniently, safely, and pleasantly on footpaths
highways intersect, underpasses have
At the few points where footpaths and
to their homes
been Children have ample safe, open space adjacent
built.
for outdoor play.
The architects, too, solved their problems well. The residences are
they not detached
multi-dwelling structures. Why, one might ask, are
apartment buildmgs are
homes? These are the reasons: row houses and
dwellings use
much less expensive to build, heat, and maintain. Grouped
light, air, and views superior to
land advantageously-each living unit has
those in many subdivisions, and the land saved is developed
single-dwelling
within walking distance
as parks. Multiple housing also brings more families
of schools, churches, stores, and recreational areas.
The interiors of the buildings were planned for
maximum livability
as straightforward ex-
at moderate cost, and the exteriors were designed
interiors. Architects, home economists,
and industrial de-
pressions of the
simple, comfortable, durable setting
signers joined their talents to develop a
inexpensive.
for modern living that was surprisingly
center serves shopping, educational and
recreational
The community
helter-skelter mixture of stores and traffic,
the harmoniously re-
needs No
Multiple dwellings have a long history, for

men in many situations have found it de-
and 1400, the Ind.ans .n what .s now
^rab e to build communal homes. Between a.d. 1100 m
the bases of cliffs and on easily defended heights
Irizona built apartment houses at
The Canyon de Chelly. (Coiirlesy of National Park Service)
lated shops and theater are grouped around a paved and planted court
a pleasant view of the lake beyond. Nearby yet
separated from
that affords
the shopping center is the school with its playgrounds extending to the lake.
Greenbelt stands courageous and stimulating adventure in shaping

as a
an environment for well-rounded living and in preventing many

of the ills
the
our cities. Almost no community in our country has escaped
that beset
blighting effects caused by unplanned growth and speculation.
For almost a
century we assumed that we were dealing with an unlimited amount of land
and limited population. Both assumptions were ill-founded.

a
Now we
and that our population
know that there is no more land to be discovered
is increasing rapidly. Making this
land serve the people is a primary con-
building of new, "satellite" communities, though, is only one
way
cern. The
of attaining this goal.
Golden Gateway Redevelopment, San Francisco

often
As grow, large areas of land desirably near the heart of the city
cities
outdated structures
deteriorate to substandard conditions. Replacing the
a second way of improving community living. Usually
and street layout is
buying the property in several or many city blocks, demolish-

this involves
ing the structures, and creating a new organization of land and buildnigs.
until
To most of these projects have been primarily residential and,
date,
recently, were designed for a restricted income
group-low, middle, or high.
Many have been monotonous, barren, almost brutal blocks of masonry
implicit human use.
grandiosely arranged in space for which there is no
Ideally, they increasepopulation density but not city congestion, for they
near their places of
encourage people to live in well-lighted housing units
work, education, and worship.
section of San Francisco, comprising 19.7 acres of
land adjacent to
A
the city's financial core yet with magnificent
views of the bay, had become
invited nine groups
decrepit. The San Francisco Redevelopment Agency
proposals for using this land.
of architects, builders, and financiers to submit
many
The design of the winning team (Figs. 54 and 55) is remarkable in
*
respects:
and Emmons in association

•The design experts consisted of architects Wurster, Bernardi,
architects Belluschi and Schwartz, and landscape
with De Mars and Resy. with consultation by
The redcveloper group consisted of Penni Land
architucts Sasaki, \Valker and .\ssociates. Inc.
Crocker Henderson, Hilp & Rhodes,
and Development Company, Fleischacker Company, Jennie
A. Magowan, Morrison-Knudsen Company, Inc., San Francisco Investment Company.
Robert
Frederick C. Whitman, and Brayton Wilbur.
The pioposed Guldcu Gale Redevelopment (1960) near San Francisco's financial center
{Courtesy of
combines varied types of liousing witli parks, stores, and an office building.
San Francisco Redevelopment Agency)
rectangularity of
Above. An aerial view of the architects' model shows that the basic
has been acknowledged but humanized by many open spaces and the in-
the city's plan
formal placement of buildings.
the groupmg of
Opposite. When viewed from normal eye level, one sees how well
courts and parks avoids
high-rise apartment buildings and two-story town houses around
regimented monotony.
Pedestrian and vehicular traffic are completely separated by concentrat-

convenient
ing pedestrian areas two stories above street level on top of
garages.
area of 3.4 acres at the corner nearest the financial center was
zoned
An
a "monument
for a twenty-five story office building that is described as
of important and significant quality."
The 16.3 acre residential area is Seven buildings, human in

diversified.
scale and character in spite of their twenty-two stories, are

widely spaced
for good views. They contain 2174 apartments, which range

from "effi-
offered by
ciency" to two-story, four-bedroom units. Further variety is
106 two-story town houses, each with its private garden. All types of
neighborhood shops necessary to any residential area are centrally lo-
cated on the ground level.

Only 20 percent of the residential area is covered by buildings. This
leaves ample space for park and recreation areas ranging from small
formal courts to a block-size, wooded park surrounded by shops.
Murals, sculpture, and fountains will enrich the parks and exteriors
of the buildings.
The retention of the grid street pattern on which the city is built pro-
vides a readily understandable pattern of vehicular circulation and does

not segregate this area from the rest of the community.
The Redevelopment Agency's hope that this project would "provide San
Francisco with distinguished architecture" and the Architectural Advisory
Panel's wish for a plan that would "make the greatest contribution to an
environment for the totality of human experience— physical, cultural and
spiritual" have at this stage been realized.
Tennessee Valley Authority
The Kentucky Dam and Powerhouse (Figs. 57A and B), gigantic as they
are, only hint at the size of the largest, most comprehensively planned devel-
opment in the United States. Regional planning is the phrase used to de-
scribe large-scale planning of this sort. The Tennessee River, whose valley
lies North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, Alabama, Mis-

in the seven states of
sissippi, Kentucky, and Tennessee, has been transformed from an uncon-
trolled and frequently destructive force into a chain of lakes reaching from
the Southern Appalachians 700 miles to the Ohio River. Twenty-one dams
hold spring floods in great reservoirs to develop electricity and to create
navigable waterways for inexpensive transporation. To accomplish this, 1 13
million cubic yards of concrete, rock, and earth— 38 times the cubage of the
Pyramid of Khufu in Egypt (Fig. lOOA)— were put in place. The most appar-
ent results are the massive dams and powerhouses from which power lines
carry electricity over the countryside; but these are only symbols of the im-
pact TVA has had.
The purpose of the TVA is simple: to put a river to work for the peo-
ple. Its astoundingly varied results include new houses, and fresh paint on
old ones; electric water pumps in backyards, and refrigerators in houses;
new private industries, and the revival of some gone into decay; less tax
delinquency, and more money in the people's hands; new public-library
service, more hospitals, and better schools; improved methods of farming and
reforestation of valleys. In sum, a new release of human and natural energy.
Important as this is, the TVA would not find its place in an art book
were it not that city and regional planners, architects, landscape architects,
and sculptors cooperated with experts in all branches of
designers, painters,
contemporary technology to produce forms expressing the concept of a river
working for people. The Kentucky Dam and Powerhouse testify that TVA
architects rose to the challenge. TVA architecture is not "decoration of
engineering," nor is it naked, accidental, or unrefined. It is rather a truly
monumental, forthright expression of great natural resources harnessed for
the benefit of people.

Do not think for a moment that all TVA architecture is as monumental
as the powerhouse. Each type is suited to its specific purpose. The houses,
many of which are prefabricated, are pleasantly domestic. Schools and com-
munity centers are friendly, informal structures at home in their geograhical
settings. Highways permit speed, parks invite relaxation. In short, the forms
express their functions. The designers of land and buildings have given
the citizens imaginatively conceived, functional space for their activities.
Appropriately, they have enriched this space with photo-murals, paintings
(Fig. 79B), and sculpture.
57
The TVA Kentucky Dam and Powerhouse

(c. 1935) express the monumental grandeur
of our attempts to utilize natural resources
by controlling a formerly wayward river.
(Courtesy of Tennessee Valley Authority)
(A) Left. An aerial view shows a portion
of the reservoir, 184 miles long, and the dam
that stores water, lessens danger of floods,
and creates power.
(B) Below. The shape of the Powerhouse is
as strong as the force of the river and the
great electric power generated within the
structure.
CITY PLANNING
make group living satisfying and effi-
Cities are living organisms created to
planning far more than
and we have become acutely aware that city is
cient,
regardless of topography or land
laying out identical rectangular blocks,
use.The chief concern of today's planners is with the lives of men.
The basic problem in city planning is the organization of land, streets,
science large in scale and
and buildings for group living. It is an art and
planning not only expresses
complex in nature. As with other art forms, city
produces it, but continuously affects the thoughts
and feel-
the culture that
we know, tends to foster undesirable
ings of people. Dwelling in slums,
home is not healthy, and
pauerns of behavior. Having smog invade one's
nerves. Well-planned communities pre-
fighting traffic jams is hard on one's
paintings or great architecture,
vent such evils-and they do more. Like
they raise the spirit of man.
in an
When cities were small and changed slowly, they developed
equally true of New England villages
orderly, organic, creative way. This is
and Italian hill towns. But simplicity vanished
when city growth became al-
society and the startling popu-
most malignant with the industrialization of
lation increase during the past two
hundred years. Prior to the nineteenth
persons lived in a community with a
century less than one out of every ten
out of every three persons do,
population of 5000 or more. Today almost two
nine out of ten will live in
and it is predicted that within a few decades
sizable communities. Some cities are
doubling their size every decade, and
large cities will be from five to ten
trends indicate that by the year 2000 our
downtown districts traffic is barely able
times their present size. In some
even though streets consume one-third of the land. The dispiriting
to crawl
equally serious. Fortunately, experts and
com-
drabness of many cities is
this situation creatively. The problem

has two
munity groups are facing
major aspects-land use and circulation.
Land Use
residential, community, com-
There are four general types of land use:
usually have zones for these varied
mercial, and industrial. Communities
land uses so that conflicts are minimized.
first chance at the most desirable,
health-
1. Residential areas deserve
noise, smoke and industrial fumes,

ful land that is free from unnecessary
neighborhoods with homes for
and congestion. Dividing this land into
with schools and recreational areas near
their
several hundred families,
creates a good environment
centers, and with appropriately located churches,
City Planning - 59
The land in the Golden Gateway Redevelop-

ment is sensibly zoned. Areas lor different
pinposes are separated from each other but

not so greatly that time is wasted in getting
from one to another. At the top of a portion
of the plan is a large park. The middle block
has two high apartment buildings and rows
of two-story houses above a shopping arcade.
The third block has a large office building
facing an open plaza, a coffee shop, and a
swimming pool.
for family living.Having convenient local shopping centers and access to

transportation makes them efficient. This suggests superblocks, as in Green-
belt, that are penetrated by roads for local traffic only and that are separated
from one another by thoroughfares. The size of these blocks is iinportant.
Ideally, they should be large enough to support an elementary school but
not so large that neighborliness is lost. From 600 to 1000 families make a
good neighborhood. More acreage ^vill be required if these superblocks are
planned for single-family houses than if they are designed for apartments.
2. Community areas vie with residential areas for choice sites. In addi-
tion to the small community areas that should be part of each residential
neighborhood, cities require sites for city halls, libraries, schools, audito-
riiuns, parks and other recreational areas to serve several or all of the neigh-
borhoods. Today the major public buildings are often grouped as civic
centers in landscaped settings near the center of the community. Branch
recreational areas are most con-
libraries, high schools, parks and other
Wherever they are located^
venient when distributed throughout the city.
spirit o£ their cu.es and
sensitively the
community areas ought to express
citizens.
be a source of pride to their ,, , ,i , •
neighborhood, regional,
Commercial
3. areas are of three general types:
and central "downtown" districts.
needs of nearby families

. NeiMorhood centers that serve the day-to-day
adjacent
grocery and drugstores immediately
are superseding the corner
for commerce usually at or
near high-
to homes. Located on land zoned
stores and
intersections, these at their
best are unified groups of
way
areas.
tree-shaded, off-street parking
offices with ample, even
has resulted
a new development that
centers (Fig. 164B) are
. Rcional
toward suburban living.
from density in city centers, the trend
traffic
transportation.
as the chief means of
and the use of family automobiles
downtown commercial sections, on a
They are small-scale versions of pedestrian
laroe parcel of land in the
midst of suburbia, with attractive
one big depart-
malls and huge parking areas.
Grouped around at least
shops, restau-
are a variety of specialty
„,ent store and a supermarket
they make
rants service stores, banks,
and offices. When well planned,
instead of a tiresome chore.
shopping a delightful experience
of concen-
sections have the great advantag^
. DoZtoum commercial
seriously
trated, diversified shopping
and business areas, but are often
to revitalize a
enlightened proposal
A daring and
congested with traffic.
Worth is illustrated in Fig. 166A and B.

central area in Fort
into two categories called

"heavy" and "light."
4 Industrial areas fall
factories usually associated
with noise,
Heavy industries include the large
Until their undesirable aspects
can be ehminat^d
smoke' and railroad yards.
nuisances that ought to be
convenient to but segre-
they remain necessary
and commercial zones. A minimum
es-
gated from residential, community,
Light industries,
sential is locating them on
the leeward side of a community.
as
contrast, are relatively clean
and quiet plants for such enterprises
in When
assembling electronic equipment.
processing photographic film or
close to rest-
land, they can be conveniently
well designed and on sufficient
dences with no deleterious results.
differ in function and deserve

some
Although these four types of areas
tins separa-
have in many instances carried
separation from each other, ...
almost normal for
tion to an inefficient,
monotonous extreme. It has become
from their work m spite of the
time-
many persons to live at some distance Hilber-
burden on transportation systems.
consuming inconvenience and the
City Planning - 61
seimer's plan (Fig. 67) for an integrated community demonstrates that

areas tor disparate activities can be set apart from one another without
great distances between them.
o
Circulation
When one realizes that more than 70 million automobiles are driven more
than one billion miles every twenty-four hours on our network of well over
3 million miles of road, the critical seriousness of the circulation
problem
becomes apparent. And the problem is as complex as it is big.
Even in horse-and-buggy days there \\ere roads that differed in size and
purpose, as did those in Williamsburg. Between towns there were main roads
fi-om which branched minor ones. But traffic was light, quiet, slow, and
comparatively safe. Intersections were not hazardous. When Greenbelt was

built, all of this had changed. City-to-city highways were routed
around the
town carried most of the traffic, and
town, a few major streets within the
thouoht was given to pedestrians as well as to vehicles. Most of our cities,
tiowever, were laid out when traffic was a minor concern.
Street patterns can be put into four categories:

Gridiron plans are a typical solution, and they have a long, but
1.
Greeks, and
not continuous, history. Extensively used by the Egyptians,
Romans, they were so uncritically revived in the nineteenth century that
little thought was given to alternatives. Their distinguishing characteristic
two sets of parallel streets at right angles to each other. Figures 62
and
is
64B show and have monumental gran-

that gridiron plans can be efficient
small blocks
deur, or they can wastefully and disjointedly chop land up into
separated by many streets. Williamsburg, too, illustrates another of the
Their major asset is clear-cut, easy-to-
many ways of handling this type.
understand orderliness. Too often, though, they have been nothing more
of equal
than a rigid application of a cut-and-dried formula with all streets
width and all blocks of the same size and shape. When ruthlessly imposed on
such hilly sites as Duluth or San Francisco, the result would be laughable
\vere it not so expensive and dangerous.
Radial patterns are characterized by streets radiating from one or
2.
radial streets
more centers as illustrated in Paris (Fig. 64A). Usually, the
are important thoroughfares and are combined with a gridiron pattern.
Such plans tend to make traffic direct, to give impressive settings for monu-
ments and buildings, and to provide interest and variety.
3. Ring plans (Fig. 63A) are found

in cities where successive edges of
a growing city are marked by circular boulevards, much like the growth
Existing (left) and proposed (right) plans

for a section of New York City.
The pro-
posed plan reduces street area, increases
public open space, provides through-traffic
and gives dead-end streets for
arteries,
residential sections.
replaced old
rings of a tree. In some European cities these boulevards have
as Detroit and Greenbelt
walls moats, or canals. In such American cities
The distinctive characteristic is a
they were originally laid out as
streets.
series of streets in concentric rings.

street patterns follow no set rules or predetermined pat-
4 Organic
human need and topography indicate.
terns Streets are placed where
arterial streets are com-
Curved and straight, wide and narrow, dead-end and
as in Greenbelt. The differences between a
bined for efficiency and beauty
are illustrated in the proposed
re-
stereotyped and a functional approach
City (Fig. 62). The new design
greaUy
design for a section of New York
thoroughfares from local traffic
reduces street area, clearly distinguishes
reduces
streets, and adapts block size and
shape to the use of the land. This
productive use, and provides
cost and hazards, leaves more land for
traffic
the basic pattern for good living.
City Plans: Centralized and Decentralized

land should be served
How many persons living and working on how much
of the basic questions in city
planning
by one major city center? This is one
and in the past, have expressed
and one on which experts and laymen, today
varying points of view.
City Planning -
63
Centric is the name given to those plans (Fig. 63A) in which all de-
velopments are centralized around a single major center regardless of the

community's size. \V'hen a new commimity is begiui, no one can predict
accurately its future size— iniless, as in Greenbelt, definite limits on its
growth are set.
Most of our communities are centric. At one end of the scale are the
small centric commimities— New England villages centered around their
commons, Williamsburg built around Duke of Gloucester Street, and
Greenbelt almost encircling its commimity and commercial center. When
communities remain small, either by chance or by intent, so that distances
from the center to the edges are short, centric plans fimction well. At
the other end of the scale are the vast metropolises centered on their
commercial and industrial districts. In these, even though the popidation
is densely concentrated, distances become great and traffic congestion at
the center becomes awesome. Sunlight, fresh air, and open gxeen spaces
are usually at a minimum.
In bygone days when moats and walls gave effective military protection,
when transportation and commiuiication between communities ^vere poorly
developed, and when cities by today's standards were small, concentration
around one center offered conspicuous advantages. And it still has its good
points. In New York City, for example, one finds in the few square miles
of the central district an almost fantastic concentration of varied business
and cultural opportiniities packed tightly together— and served by an almost
hopelessly tangled and congested transportation system.
Some planners, believing that great concentrations of population at

soine city centers are inevitable or even desirable, envision an intensifi-
cation of present patterns— even larger skyscrapers to bring more people
(A) Left. Centric city plans tend to focus on one major center. Street patterns can be of
any type: this example combines radial and ring streets.
(B) Right. Decentralized city plans (right) reduce concentration by having a number of
centers. They, too, can have varied street layouts.
with an imaginative concept of how

An existing section o£ Paris contrasts markedly
another section of this city could be replanned. r ,
•
, j.
in the center of which stands
i
Above Twelve streets radiate from the Place de Vttoile

(A)
the Arc de Triomphe. Buildings are
crowded and traffic congested, but it is human m
association. (Courtesy of French Government
Tourist
scale, rich in diversity and historical
congestion by concentrat-
^%?Below. LeCorbusier's bold Voisin plan (1925) would relieve
widelyspaced buildings set in parks, and by providing
ing work space in monumental,
wide traffic thoroughfares.
City Planning - 65
to the center— but with tremendously improved transportation and with

more open space. This sounds like a paradox, but Le Corbusier, a Swiss
architect and planner, has shown how the apparent contradictions can
be reconciled. In his "Voisin" Scheme of 1925 (Fig. 64B), he made a bold
proposal to open up a large area near the center of Paris \\ith efticient
transportation and tall buildings. "Our city," he urote, "which has crawled
on the ground until now, suddenly rises to its feet in the most natural
uay." Six hundred acres of a jumbled, unhealthy, inefficient section would
be transformed into a sparkling and orderly Commercial City. Some adja-
cent areas would be rebuilt with multifamily residential units.
Circulation would be handled by an efficient supersubway system and
by broad, widely spaced streets. The subway, with stations under each sky-
scraper and with a central station far exceeding in size and efficiency any
yet built, would carry passengers quickly, safely, and economically. Roads
would be planned on a large-scale gridiron pattern: their widths varying
from 150 to 400 feet and spaced 1200 feet apart. (The present streets in
this section are from 20 to 35 feet wide and the distances betAveen them
range from 60 to 150 feet.) A new east-west thoroughfare would reduce

traffic on the once daringly wide but now congested Champs Elysees shown
in Fig. 64A. Quite as important as the provision for streets and subways
is the fact that ample residential areas conveniently adjacent to the com-
mercial zone would greatly reduce the need for home-to-work transporta-
tion.
Sixteen enormous skyscrapers would rise 600 feet from the centers of
the superblocks carved by the roads. Each of these glass-\valled, cruciform
towers would accommodate from 20,000 to 40,000 employees. Although
the population density in this section was far too great in 1925 with the
existing plan, the "Voisin" Scheine would increase it fourfold. In the exist-
ing plan, buildings cover fiom 79 to 80 percent of the land. In the new
scheme, buildings cover only five percent of the land and the remaining
95 percent would be given over to boulevards, parking areas, and parks.
Thus, it would be a 600-acre garden city providing a healthy, pleasant
working environment for a great many persons. \'isually it would be an im-
pressive, but somewhat overwhelming, twentieth-century organization of
voids and solids, of man, architecture, and landscape.

Le Corbusier did not expect that the "Voisin" Scheme would be carried
out in its entirety, nor did he regard it as the final solution. His primary
aim was to raise the level of city-planning discussion from what he terms
"silly little reforms" to reasonable, twentieth-century standards and
princi-
ples. Among important principles to which it gives attention are these: de-
congestion of city centers even though population is increased; conccntra-

tion of the population in tall, widely spaced buildings; improvement of

transportation; and a great increase in parks and open spaces. Some of these
principles are embodied in the United Nations Headquarters (Fig. 77A).
In South America, a number of new cities have been planned from the
beoînningf alone; these lines. The "Voisin" Scheme has been selected from
the many and varied proposals formulated by Le Corbusier because it
carries centralization and standardization to a logical yet inspired extreme.
Decentralized plans (Fig. 63B) are advocated by those who believe
that continued centralization is neither feasible (we never seem able to

catch up with traffic demands) nor desirable (there is a growing reaction
against living in large cities and also against commuting long distances to
work). They propose complete, independent communities that would not

be allowed to grow beyond an optimum size, often defined by walk-to-work
limits.
Although such communities could be spotted more or less at random,

they are more efficient if related to one another by a broad band of transpor-
tation. This is often called ribbon, or linear, planning. As early as 1882
the Spanish writer Soria y Mata suggested expand along trans-

that cities
portation routes so that, for example, Cadiz might be at one end of the
road and St. Petersburg at the other. In many parts of our country this
type of growth has been proceeding naturally along highways leading out of
large citieswhere communities once separated by natural greenbelts are
stretching out until they merge. Unfortunately, in most instances, lack of
planning has merely lined the highways with hamburger shacks, filling sta-
tions, and small stores behind which gridiron streets have been ruthlessly
impressed on the land. These have almost nothing in common with the con-
cept discussed below. Ribbon plans have several advantages: expansion can
proceed almost indefinitely by establishing new units, but each unit remains
an identity limited in size; open space for farms and gardens and for light
and air is adjacent to more densely settled sections; and much of the traffic
within each unit can be pedestrian.

A generalized ribbon plan developed by planner Ludwig Hilberseimer
is illustrated in Fig. 67. The plan has four continuing bands of land
zoned for different uses. The backbone is a broad traffic artery for auto-
mobiles and trains that runs through a continuous greenbelt from one com-
munity to the others. Industry lines the leeward side of the traffic artery
so that smoke and fumes will not blow into the other areas. On the wind-
ward side is a ribbon of parklike land for commercial and community

activities. Beyond this are the residences, facing dead-end streets, and the
schools, surrounded by ample space yet convenient to the homes. Each com-
City Planning - 67
highway
In this idealized ribbon plan (1945), a landscaped railroad and an arterial
separate industrial areas (at the left) from shopping facilities, residences, and schools
topography and community factors would undoubt-
at the right. If actually carried out,
edly lead to a less rigid,monotonous street pattern. {From The New City by L. Hilber-
seimer, courtesy of Paul Theobald)
munity is limited in size and permanently separated from others by farms,

fields, and forests. A rectilinear plan is illustrated, but
the communities
can have any shape and character indicated by specific local conditions.
Few communities fall exclusively into either of these types of city plans,
even the rare ^vholly new communities being laid out today, because the
plans necessarily have some features in common.
The planning and replanning of our cities is an art that is never
finished. As ways of living change, the planning of our cities must change,
and experts need the help of well-informed citizens to make and keep cities
desirable places in which to live and work. One of the most important
aspects o£ city planning, which is frequently overlooked by planners in-
volved with efficiency, economy, and large-scale schemes, is our very deep
need for cities that make us feel at home. For good living we need open
and architecture that are humanly scaled. We need the

flavor and
spaces
and planting,
warmth of display windows and street furniture, color
shelter and vistas, old and new buildings.
Above all, people should feel that
they, not the grandeur of the plan nor
the monumentality of the buildings,
reality of the city's existence. The planners

of the Golden Gateway
are the
downtown Fort Worth (discussed in Chapter 5)
Redevelopment and of
kept these factors in mind.
Parks and Parkways

enjoyment are
For good community living open spaces planned for people's
essential. Three different kinds of outdoor areas
in or near New York City
are illustrated in Figs. 69A and B, and 71. The first is a small, intensively
developed city park; the second is a much larger, informal park; and the
third is a parkway.
blocks in
Bryant Park occupies the remaining space of the two city
midtown Manhattan not covered by the New York Public Library. It
gives
lunch hour
workers in this area a pleasant spot to stroll or sit during
their
and view from the surrounding buildings. Shoppers can come

a refreshing
Also it provides the
here to cool their feet and collect their thoughts.
seventeenth- and
Public Library with an impressive setting. Derived from
eighteenth-century European gardens and parks, Bryant Park has a charm-
"Old World" quality. Its design is strictly formal and sym-
ing, urbane,
For-
metrical. central axis divides the space into two identical halves.
The
mally designed flower beds border the central lawn,
which is framed by pre-
cisely patternedrows of trees. Because such parks are usually small and
the space is paved-turf
located in densely populated sections, much of
Seats, pro-
would not stand the wear and tear of large numbers of people.
sycamore trees, are orna-
tected in Bryant Park by the shade of large
land forms, even
mental and useful parts of the design. In such parks the
man's intensive use as are the
the plants, are as consciously shaped for
building materials in the nearby architecture.
markedly different
Large parks, such as Central Park, generally show a
and, consequently, they are
character. Nature becomes the guiding light
natural features of inter-
informally naturalistic. Such parks often include
buildings, are dominant. Lawns
est-lakes, hills, or rocks-and these, not
and meadows are diversified in shape and are bounded by bays and prom-
ontories similar to those seen in the countryside.
They are a refreshing
as it stands at
relief from a man-dominated environment. Central Park
the result of a hundred years of planning and effort. Initially
present is
Vaux, American pioneers
planned by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert
City Planning -
69
Parks and park\va\^ iii llll)^t large communities ,ii. ..died in size and character as is
demonstrated by examples from New York City. (Cuiiilesy of Nezo York City Park De-
partment)
(A) Above. Bryant Park is a small, formal open space in a congested commercial dis-
trict.
(B) Below. Informal in design, Central Park is an outdoor haven of 840 acres in a
city that has 81,000 persons per square mile.
in the naturalistic school of landscape design, the park has been con-
tinuously developed with few deviations from the original concept. Much
larger than most city parks. Central two and one-half miles long and
Park is
about one-half mile wide and has 32 miles of winding footpaths. Although
it is atypical in size, its effect on American park
design has been profound.
Probably no large park in this country has escaped some influence from
bring rural atmosphere into urban surroundings.
this early effort to
Parkways are a new development fostered by widespread automotive

transportation. They can be thought of as elongated parks with highways
in the center— as humanized expressions of our desire to travel rapidly in
pleasant surroundings. One of the most noticeable differences between a

parkway and an ordinary thoroughfare is the parkway's belt of planting, for
the parkway designer's concern does not stop with getting a paved
surface
for rapid automotive traffic. Otherwise, parkways raise the same problems
as do ordinary highways. Traffic lanes have to be well separated or at least

safety, and
clearly designated. Curves must be long and well banked for
adapted to the topography. Complex over-and-under passes, bridges, clover-
leaf intersections, and other devices are needed to prevent
traffic snarls.
The result: new forms and new esthetic experiences. The precisely engi-
neered curves are seldom rigidly geometrical and confining, but have the
free, continuing, developing character of growing

organisms. As can be seen
contrast strongly
in the photograph of the Grand Central Parkway, they
with rigid gridiron planning. They bring men, machines, and nature to-
gether in an esthetically exciting, twentieth-century way.
These three parks and parkways illustrate three fundamentally different

approaches to design. Bryant Park illustrates the highly ordered, symmetri-
cal formality that characterizes the Governor's Palace
and Garden at Wil-
liamsburg as well as most Classical art. Central Park shows the naturalistic
informality characteristic of Romantic art. The Grand Central Parkway

exemplifies an approach not easy to describe briefly: it is controlled but
formal nor
not rigid; free flowing but not wayward or haphazard; neither
it uses
informal. The basic concept from which it grows and the forms that
express natural forces without imitating natural forms. Organic is

probably
the best word to describe although "free-form" and "biomorphic" could

it,
also be used. It is an increasingly important approach to

contemporary de-
sign in all fields of art, as illustrated in Figs. 50A, 62, 77B, and
82A.
City Planning - 71
Grand Central Parkway is a sinuous, multi-lane highway well separated from smaller
roads that lead to recreation areas. Its free, organic form contrasts strikingly with the
Strict gridiron subdivision in die foreground.
COMMUNITY ARCHITECTURE
Valley
When we considered Williamsburg, Greenbelt, and the Tennessee
each was consistent with the
Authority, we noted that the architecture of
in which new build-
whole development. Often, however, the environment
integrity, and the architects are then
ings will be placed has no distinctive
confused mediocrity of their
challenged to create designs that rise above the
the architects of the two
surroundings. This was the situation faced by
groups of buildings discussed below.
Institute of Technology
Auditorium and Chapel, Massachusetts
of Technology was founded
In the century since the Massachusetts Institute
a number of architectural styles have
swept the country, and this campus,
like many others, has a motley collection of buildings. Thus, when architect
associates were asked to design a new
auditorium and
Eero Saarinen and his
chapel (Figs. 74A and B,long search for appropriate forms

75A and B), a
began. Saarinen pondered such questions as these:

Does a chapel have to be
light reflected
ob°ong and have windows? Might not a cylinder, iUuinined by
security of religion
through water and from a skylight, better express the
have to be angular
through its feeling of enclosure? Does an auditorium
most of them are? Is it necessary to succumb to the
and wedge-shaped as
designing? Is the typical
rectangular rigidity of "T-square and triangle"
column-and-beam construction the most economical and appropriate way of
enclosing a large space? The answers to these questions convinced him that
so complex and the possible
the functions of contemporary architecture are
many forms should be considered before a
building forms so varied that
final choice is made.
solution to every problem
Rejecting the "cult of the cube" as the best
look" and also be a
and believing that "each building must have its own
of the older buildmgs
"good neighbor," Saarinen observed that a number
with a thin-shell concrete
featured domes. Why not enclose the auditorium
dome? Intensive studies indicated that this would be the strongest and least
expensive construction, and historical architecture (of which Saarinen kept
enclosures are uniquely
himself constantly aware) attests that dome-shaped
satisfying and bring the audience into
close contact with the stage. The
final design was a dome that spans

160 feet and is an exact one-eighth of a
the dome is but three and one-half
sphere. Resting lightly on its three points,
feet above the ground. Pro-
inches thick at its highest point, which is 50
portionally it is thinner than an egg shell.
primarily
The main auditorium has 1238 seats and, although planned
a theater, with
equally satisfactory for music. Underneath
is
for lectures, it is
The interior colors are lively. Under

200 seats, for dramatic performances.
Community Architecture -
73
the blue-gray ceiling, white acoustical panels float like clouds and direct the
sounds to the listeners. The seats are upholstered in black fabric, but their
backs are enameled in six shades of blue, green, and violet.
The brick chapel rests on low arches in a pool of water. Above the
skylight is an aluminum bell tower created by sculptor Theodore Roszak.
Inside the chapel one feels the ^varm enclosure of undulating brick walls
laid in varied patterns and the mystical quality of light coming from above
and below with no distracting glare. Above a white marble ceremonial table
is a golden metal screen, designed by Harry Bertoia.
Equally important is the open plaza that is an integral part of the total
composition. It provides an orderly, spacious setting for the buildings and

becomes a large outdoor living room not unlike the many magnificent piazzas
in Italy. Completely free from automotive traffic, it is a pedestrian's paradise
raised above a large parking garage.
In coping with our everyday art problems we often wish for the skills
of professional artists. Rest assured, however, that in spite of their ability
and experience, experts struggle as hard if not harder than laymen. Seldom
do significant works of art emerge fully developed from flashes of inspira-
tion. Usually they come from hard thinking, creative insights, many trials,
critical evaluations, and persistence. The few small sketches of the MIT
auditorium reproduced here give little hint of the intense, prolonged design
process. Saarinen has been known to use more than 170 feet of tracing paper
in one evening's work. His winning design for the United States Embassy
in London grew out of 2000 drawings. In planning his approach to another
competition, he declared that it was very simple. All that they had to do was
to make 100 studies of each combination of elements and select the one of
greatest merit. This would be followed by 100 studies of each combination
of the combinations!
As any major design project, there were hundreds of problems to be
in
solved: materials and construction, heating and ventilation, lighting and
acoustics, and costs. Then, too, the reactions of many diverse groups— the
Board of Regents, the faculty, the students, the alumni, and architectural
critics— had to be considered. Getting such a venturesome project approved

isno small task. Eero Saarinen had learned many lessons from his eminent
father of which one of the most important is, "Always design a thing by
considering its context— a chair in a room, a room in a house, a house in an
environment. . .
." His philosophy is summarized in his statement, "Archi-
tecture is not just to fulfill man's need for shelter, but also to fulfill man's
belief in the nobility of his existence on earth. Our architecture is too hum-
ble. It should be prouder, more aggressive, much richer and larger than
we see it today. I would like to do my part in expanding that richness."

>fr**"*^'
Massachusetts Institute oi 1 ccluiology

The Auditorium and Cliapel (1952-1955) at tlic
asymmetric composition of architecture and open space.

are the major elements in a bold
Eero Saarinen and Associates, architects. (Cowr/ei). o/ (/ie arc/»(('c(i) , ,. . ,
the domed concrete Attditonum each

Ta) Above The cylindrical brick Chapel and
curved forms, accentuated by triangular paving pat-
preserves its own identity, but their
wh.ch
terns bring them into unison. The
windowless Chapel, resting on arches through
persons
reflected from the surrounding moat, is a quiet, introspective retreat for
light 'is
a billowing,
°\b) fi'it.. Barely touching the ground at three points, the Auditorium is
glass-walled shell-an airy, welcoming structure for large public events.

Community Architecture - 75
Many possibilities were explored before the final solution was reached. {Courtesy of the
Architectural Forum)
'^mt^KmmmM^sm
One of the first schemes {top), in which both From the beginning Saarinen wanted the Auditorium
buildings were domed, pro\ed too expensive. to be based on fluid, structural forms. An early sketch
In the next stage {center) the plaza was made {top) had a dome supported on side. An-
stilts at one
larger, and a tall tower became a strong verti- other trial shows a four-pointed dome held
{center)
cal accent. A later scheme {bottom) retained above the ground by buttresses. A later sketch {bot-
the enlarged plaza, discarded the tower, and tom) retains the four-pointed dome, but the supports
introduced a rectangular chapel. are buried in the ground.
76 - A.rt in the Community
United Nations Headquarters
Desio^ning an architectural environment for the world organization of many

nations was one of the most complex tasks ever assigned to a group of archi-
tects. They were faced not only with the usual problems of use and construc-
tion, but with the unique challenge of making the buildings monumentally
symbolic of a world community. The shown in Figs. 77A and
results are
B. Analysis of the problems led to a design composed of three structures:

the tall, thin Secretariat at the left; the domed General Assembly at the
right;and the horizontal Conference Building linking the two.

The Secretariat has been described as a "vast marble frame for the
world's two largest windows." It is a 39-story slab only 72 feet wide and 287
feet long. The narrow north and south walls are unbroken planes of marble.
On the east and west, two glass curtain-walls 544 feet high and 287 feet wide
have been made from 5400 panes of blue-gxeen glass that at times look like
gigantic reflecting mirrors. The basically simple rectangularity of this struc-
ture can be understood by people from all over the world.
The General Assembly, in which sweeping curves predominate, is
radically different in form. Resembling the shape of a tarpaulin supported
by four posts, the roof swings down to a low point near the center from
which a low dome over the central circular auditorium rises. Only the
rectangular end walls relate this structure to its rigorously geometric neigh-
bors. The interior of the auditorium is a bold, sculptural space in which
verticals and and curves are united. It is the world's
horizontals, diagonals
first meeting room to be surrounded by press, radio,

and television booths
and to use all available architectural and mechanical devices for control of
air, light, and sound. But these utilitarian complexities
take their place
quietly in an architectural composition that imbues its occupants with a

sense of the dignity of man.
The Conference Building is a five-story structure stretching 400 feet
along the East River. In terms of use, it provides numerous rooms for official
conferences and lounges for employees. Visually, it becomes a base for the
towering Secretariat and a transitional link between it and the General
Assembly.
These buildings have been praised and condemned. Some critics admire
their pure, sensitively proportioned dignity. Others regard

them as in-
humanly monumental and cold. Be that as it may, one can hardly help re-
specting their orderly beauty and their vigorous yet peaceful quality.
They
concepts
represent another example of the International Style, and the basic
underlying their design are among those vigorously championed by Le
Corbusier.
Community Architecture - 77
The United Nations Headquarters in New York City (1950) shelters an extremely com-
plex world organization in three differentiated buildings. AVallace K. Harrison, Director
of Planning. {Courtesy of UNATIONS)
(A) Above. The tall Secretariat is a monumental rectangle of glass and marble; the
low General Assembly Hall (right) has cur\ed walls and a roof through which the dome
of the auditorium asserts itself; the Conference Building is a horizontal structure linking
the other two buildings together.
(B) BelouK The Auditorium has walls leaning inward and curving to the back of the
hall. Two abstract murals by Fernand Leger enliven the space.
COMMUNITY MURALS
Prehistoric painted community murals and carved statues as a neces-
man
that he did this before he
sary part of his Uving, and evidence indicates
Since those early days
gave much attention to the making of useful objects.
sculpture that
many people have enriched their buildings with murals and
accomplishments.
record significant events or vivify group ideals and
In our century a renewed interest in community

murals has been spear-
Diego Rivera, Jose
headed by a group of Mexican artists that includes
Gorman. They saw
Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Juan O'
themselves, their history,
that their people needed to know more about
their potentialities. In a series of heroic
programs, they covered the
and
public buildings with deeply moving murals.
There was
walls of many
precedent, for the Mexican love of richly decorated
sur-
abundant historical
faces antedates the Spanish conquest. Thus, when the new University of
was natural that "artists" should make their con-
Mexico was planned, it
tributions not as decorative afterthoughts but as

part of the total concept of
architecture. O'Gorman not only designed the

Library (Fig. 79A) but did
The south wall is a "symbolic and pictorial
the mosaic murals as well.
memorialization" of the Spanish Colonial period. Intricately
woven together
built over an ancient pyramid,
are the arms of Charles V, a Christian church
stones, many of which came from
and astronomical symbols. Varicolored
related to the
the building site, create a vibrantly glowing surface strongly
technique and
lava beds on which the University stands. The stone-mosaic
the figures and symbols are deeply rooted in
Mexican art history, but the
rather, a new development of an old tradition
result is not imitative. It is,
today.
that makes the mural truly belong to the Mexican people of
reception lobby of the
Kermit Ewing's mural (Fig. 79B) in the public
to the manifold ac-
Johnsonville steam plant is an exciting introduction
complishments of the Tennessee Valley Authority. It
would take a lengthy
trip to see as much mural presents. Combining photographs with

as this
representative and abstract painting, Ewing has

produced a kaleidoscopic
series of vivid details, fascinating to explore.

But it is no mere assemblage
carefully because it communicates
of casual glimpses. Each part was chosen
organized into a vividly expres-
a specific and important idea, and all were
sive whole. Striking contrasts of bold colors
and shapes intensify the theme
brisk and sweeping. Prismatic
of "construction and power." Rhythms are
program. As with O'Gor-
shapes convey the many-faceted character of the
toward which every shape
man's mural, this one grew from a basic idea
portrays the excitement of twentieth-century
and color contribute. It
Community Murals - 79
(A) Above. The Library of the University of Mexico, completed m 1953, is boldly en-
symbolically depicts the Spanish-Colo-
hanced with Juan O-Gorman-s mosaic mural that
nial period. (F/!0/og7ap/i &)' IFayne .-Jjjdreiw)
(B) Below. Kermit Ewing's mural in a TVA

steam plant is a kaleidoscopic expression of
machines working together. {Courtesy of the Tennessee Valley Au-
men. buildings, and
thority)
mechanization in the United States as clearly as the Library mural depicts
the colorful history and character of Mexico.
murals has a specific, local significance because each is

Each of these
related to a specific time and place. But as withmomentous art, their

all
significance extends far beyond their immediate locale. They belong not
of the people
only to the community in which they were created but
to all
in their countries, even to the world.
COMMUNITY SCULPTURE
Paul, Minnesota, erected a new city and county
Some years ago the city of St.
building. At the end of the entrance hall, a dramatic rooin with a light
the city de-
floor, black marble walls, and a warm-colored metal ceiling,
to peace.
cided to erect a statue as a World War I memorial but dedicated
The artist commissioned to create the statue was Carl Milles, a Swedish
sculptor living in America.
statue (Fig. 81), over thirty feet in height, represents
an Indian
The
chief smoking a pipe of peace. The material is Mexican onyx, slightly
with the black

translucent and creamy in color, which contrasts dramatically
Indian war-
background. Many people on seeing it could not reconcile the
chief with the idea of peace, and it does, at first thought, seem unusual.
Milles, in answer to this paradox, stated that one of the sources of this
conception was an incident in his early experience when he heard an Indian
Oklahoma deliver a moving oration on peace to his gathered

chieftain in
tribe. Subject matter, of course, is only a part of a basic idea. In this case
the idea of peace was the important force back of the

making of the statue,
and the carving of the figure of an Indian chief was the form that
it took.
Any number of other subjects might have been used. Milles expressed peace
emphasized
by an intelligent handling of form, color, and texture strikingly
solemn and
by the background. Movement in the statue is upward to the
angry, or
calm face-aloof, impassive, detached-by no means warlike,
furious. The position of the arms also emphasizes

poise and dignity. In
forceful sculpture, each and every part of it builds into the total pattern.
Each form expresses the spirit of the whole. Milles has given an organiza-
and quieting shapes surmounted by a countenance
tion of orderly, pacifying,
whose imperturbable expression is a fitting climax to this monumental
controversy arose
work. When the finished work was unveiled, an intense
groups took
over the appropriateness and beauty of the statue. Citizens'
sides and passed judgments. The furor reached
such proportions that work-
ers were stationed near the statue to jot down the comments of the visitors.
Community Sculpture • 81
Carl Milles' Peace Memorial (1936) in the

City Hall of St. Paul, Minnesota, is an im-
pressive example of contemporary commu-
Cranbrook Acad-
nity sculpture. {Courtesy of
emy of Art)
"My! Ain't it big!" "What's the idea of having a warrior stand for
peace?" "A waste of taxpayers' money." "It is the most noble statue I've ever
seen, and I've been through all the galleries of Europe." "It expresses peace;
deep reverence." "The onyx is so warm and inviting that you want to touch
it." "I have never seen a statue more perfectly related to its background."
Hundreds of comments above were gathered. They indicated
like the
almost all possible reactions, from anger and annoyance to almost ecstatic
approval. Some people seemed upset because of the fear and distrust of some-
thino- new. Some were intrigued with the material; others with the statue's
size; others with its basic conceptions.
This controversy was typical of what may happen when a significant

piece of community art is unveiled to the public. One that is forward-look-
ing, a contribution to and a milestone in art, may meet with antagonism
because it may be in advance of the taste of many people who will pass judg-
Useful sculpture makes a welcome contribution to community

life.
(A) Above. Robert Winston's play sculpture,

30 feet long and nicknamed "The Mon-
offers children in Oakland, California, an
opportunity to enjoy the "feel" of good
ster,"
sculpture. (Courtesy of the sculptor)
Indians of the Pacific Northwest Coast adapted their
artistic
(B) Below. The Kwakiutl
wooden bowl used to serve the many guests
skills to carve and paint this fourteen-foot
Rasmussen Collection, courtesy of Portland Museum of Art)
at Potlatch feasts. {From the
Conclusion - 83
ment on it. Herein lies one of the great problems in community art. It ought
to express the community— but not in a thread-bare way. Art, like science,
has most vigor ^vhen it goes ahead, but forward-looking art is seldom ac-
corded the enthusiasm that comparable progress in science receives. There

is, community, in an attempt to please
therefore, a tendency for art of the
as many people as possible, to be a dull, spiritless compromise. Worth-while
art of the community, and in all other fields as well, should lead and educate
rather than being innocuous repetition of what most people already know
and feel.
Not community sculpture is created solely for spiritual inspiration,

all
as you can see by looking at Figs. 82A and B. For centuries, children
have enjoyed climbing over rocks, and mounds, but only recently have
logs,
a few sculptors appreciated the possibilities in playground equipment that

has esthetic value. Notable, too, is the fact that this new play sculpture
tends to stimulate children to a more creative type of activity than do the

typical ladders, rings, and slides. Whether or not the "Potlatch Bowl in
Human Form" aroused the Kwakiutl Indians to creative feasting is not
known, but it is our guess that a community feast served from this 14-foot
carving would not be quite the same as one served from an iron kettle.
Both the play sculpture and the Potlatch Bowl bring the esthetic and prac-
tical together in a vital union.
CONCLUSION
How does the art of the community differ from the art of the home? Being
the expression of a larger group, it is less individual, less personal. It repre-
sents a city, not a family. The buildings house many persons and serve
functions that are many and complex. To express this, the architect makes
them impressive in design (United Nations Headquarters), the city planner
gives them important locations (Governor's Palace, Williamsburg) and pleas-
ant surroundings (Greenbelt). Since public buildings represent the spirit
of the community, they transcend purely utilitarian requirements. Rich
and sculpture embody the ideals and traditions of the
materials, paintings,
community. Future historians, prying into what will then be the past, will
use these buildings, this art, as a basis for understanding the present civiliza-
tion. Will our buildings impress them as original, creative, and vital, or as
weak and imitative?

Look at your own community, critically yet appreciatively. When was
the city laid out? Is the plan functional? Where could it be improved?
Look at your own public buildings. When were they designed-and by
whom? In what "style" were they built? To what extent do they express the
community? To what extent do they function efficiently? Is there evidence
of a changing attitude?
Thenlook at housing conditions. Are there shuns? If so, what has
caused them? Are the new residential sections thoughtfully laid out? Are
the apartment houses well designed?
Finally, look at the paintingand sculpture that belong to your com-
munity. \Vhere is it? Is it appreciated today? As always, study your own
situation, become familiar with all of its aspects, and then see
what you
can do to improve it.
Community art has a long history. Of the many books which have
been written about it, the following are suggested:
The City in History: Lewis Mumford (New York: Harcourt, 1961).

A brilliant history of the struggle tomake cities serve man.
The City of Tomorrow: Le Corbusier (London: Architectural Press, 1947).
An exhilarating statement by one of the foremost planners of our age.
Creative Playgrounds and Recreation Centers: Alfred Lederman and
Alfred
Trachael (New York: Praeger, 1959).

A report on new, imaginative approaches to the design of recreational space.
The Exploding Metropolis: Editors of Fortune (New York: Doubleday, 1958).
A brilliant criticism of some current phases of city planning.
History Builds the Town: Arthur Korn (Chester Springs, Pa.: Dufour, 1953).
discussion of the effect of social structure on city planning from early
days
A
to the present.
The Nature of Cities: Ludwig Hilberseimer (Chicago:

Theobald, 1955).
Clear, informative treatment of factors, principles, and results.
The Stones of Florence: Mary McCarthy (New York: Harcourt, 1959).

An evocative appreciation of a city noted for its art.
Sweden Builds: G. E. Kidder-Smith (New York: Reinhold, 1957).
A handsome volume showing domestic architecture in relation to other types.
Town and Square: Paul Zucker (New York: Columbia, 1959).

Very thoughtful discussion of past and present city design.
Towns and Buildings: Rasmussen (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard, 1951).

S. E.
Charming and penetrating discussion of the relationships between city plan-
ning and architecture.
A Christ (German, eighth
medallion
century) made enamel on
of cloisonne
copper seems strikingly modern. (^Cour-
tesy of the Cleveland Museum of Art.
Purchase from the J. H. Wade Fund.)
3 Art in Religion
-
TWO FINNISH CHURCHES, illustrated in Figs. 87A and B, overtly but

deeply embody religious feelings and activities. Although radically different
in appearance, these churches have much in common. They are in similar
geographical settings, their builders are of the same blood, and the religious
creed is the same. Further, each has a bell tower and space in which to wor-
ship.
\V' hy, then, are they so different? Chiefly because they ^vere built more
than 500 years apart, and in that half millennium there have been drastic
changes in ways of living and of building. The fifteenth-century church at

Sipoo, simple in basic shape and ruggedly solid, attests an uncomplicated,
rigorous faith. Its massive walls and steep roofs staunchly resist the elements.
85
86 - Art in Religion
varied in texture, create
Hand-chiseled stone and rough shingles, irregularly
the rugged picturesqueness that
sometimes comes with handcraftsmanship.
tallow candles. The
Soft light comes from small windows and flickering
bell ringer throws the weight of
his
single bell will sound only when the
and then leaps into the air
whole body against the short length of rope
with the rope as it huge mass of bronze into ponderous mo-
slowly sets the
tion.
lithe, resilient, and com-
The twentieth-century church at Imatra is
materials,
plex. It, too, defies wind and snow but with contemporary forms,
shapes, dynamically held to-
and construction techniques. Many diverse
as an educational and social
gether,indicate the church's manifold functions
center' as well as a place of worship. A slender bell tower rises audaciously
ground behind it. Precisely
above the large low building that hugs the
that are enlivened by an
smooth surfaces envelop intricately elegant forms
unexpected, but functional, placement of
windows. Ample light comes
from large windows and electrical illumination.

The chimes are mechani-
cally operated.
Having looked from two points of view-design and
at these churches
aspect-human needs.
materials-we now turn to the most important
Finland were predominantly
Five hundred years ago the people of
farmers who worked long hours six days a week.
On Sunday they planned
spend their day near the church, their
community center. Early in the
to
special Sunday clothes. Then
morning the entire family arose and put on
across the lakes, the older
most families ivalked to church; some rowed
people were drawn to church in stout wagons.
They gathered in the church
oTOunds, and the menfolk talked of weather
and crops and their animals.
other about butter
The women exchanged news of their families, asked each
and weaving and cooking. The younger men and
women formed groups of
their own.
the distant tardy that the
Presently the bell would ring out to remind
to begin. The people moved towards
the doors of the
were about
services
welcome his parishioners while he
church and the minister stepped out to
glanced down the paths to seeaway the late ones were. But there
how far
meditation.
was no haste; Sunday was the day for rest and
still chiefly
Finland is a fast-moving, complex nation. Although
Today
has many industries and an active commerce served by an
agricultural, it
The church at Imatra stands near a paved

efficient transportation system.
participate
road. The parishioners come not only to seek salvation but to
in many cultural and social events all through the week.
geography and
The comparisons become lively. We can rule out
cli-
products, in these
mate, race and creed: although these powerfully affect art
Art in Religion - 87
Religious architecture changes with the spirit of the age. {Courtesy of Finnish National
Travel Office)
(A) Above. A fifteenth-century church at Sipoo, Finland, has massive forms of rugged
stone masonry expressive of a rural handcraft society.
(B) Below. Built in 1956, a church at Imatra, Finland, acknowledges the machine age
without becoming rigidly mechanistic. Alvar Aalto, architect.
By planning the space in his Ima-

tra church with organic freedom
instead of conventional ideas,
Aalto solved a complexity of
practical demands in a fresh ex-
citing manner.
..life ,.î
that is sharply differ-

examples they remain constant. It is the time element
ent. It has changed the tempo of the
people and their activities. In five
has become a swift,
hundred years a slow, plodding, simple community
direct, and energetic one.
Now look again at the two churches. People walked slowly to the
older one, coming from many directions along
narrow paths. To the
other they come directly, swiftly on well-paved highways. The stark white
and black of the new church and the striking tower command attention
and volume is readily perceived. The

quickly, the bold interplay of line
more detailed, invites close inspection, and cannot be fully
old church is
appreciated unless one almost stands still. Each of these edifices expresses
tempo of period.
man's religious aspirations in the its
TWO HISTORIC AMERICAN CHURCHES

most conspicuous
Although the passage of time accounts for some of the
ideals, other
differences in the forms through which men
express their
climate, and geography.

significant determinants are rooted in traditions,
Virginia,
The Bruton Parish Church (Fig. 89A) built in Williamsburg,
and in materials
belongs in general character, in basic form and detail,
89
Two eighteenth-century Ameri-

can churches decisively reflect
their markedly diff:erent cultural
and geographic environments.
(A) Left. The Bruton Parish
Church (1710-1715) at Williams-
burg, Virginia, was in harmony
with the other buildings, the cli-
mate, and the citizens of that
Colonial community. (Courtesy
of Colonial Williamsburg, Inc.)
(B) Below. The Mission St.
Francis of Assisi (1772-1816) at
Ranches de Taos, New Mexico,
is typical of the Spanish-Ameri-
can culture of the southwestern

United States. (Trans-World Air-
lines)
to eighteenth-century Williamsburg, a community discussed in the pre-

ceding chapters. Because this community was integrated, the church has
muchîn commonwith the homes and public buildings nearby. Symmetrical
masses of red brick enhanced with classical details
stamp it as emerging
setting that
from the same English architectural tradition and geographical
buildings in its
produced the Governor's Palace. It differs from the other
steeple, tall windows, and cruciform plan, which
give it one kind of religious
character.
The Mission Francis of Assisi (Fig. 89B) built in Taos, New Mexico,
St.
is also an American Colonial

church, but it grew out of Spanish traditions
In converting
and a geographical environment quite unlike that of Virginia.
missionaries needed to
the Pueblo Indians to Catholicism, the Spanish
zealous priests were
build churches. Although not trained as architects, the
fortress-churches of Mexico.
familiar with religious structures, especially the
were no artisans who
In New Mexico labor of any sort was scarce, and there
land was thinly vege-
could work stone or wood skillfully. The semi-arid
tated, the light had unfiltered brilliance, and
the scale of the landscape was
tremendous. Mud was plentiful and stone could be had,

but timber was
scarce.
Out of these conditions grew the churches of New Mexico. Their mas-
sively thick, almost unbroken walls look defensive, for there was need for
of heat, cold, and
defense against marauding enemies and against extremes
light. Literally raised from the earth,
the Mission church was made of
materials and
adobe (sun-dried mud) bricks and wood. It illustrates how
construction techniques affect architecture. Walls
could be no higher than
be no wider
was with unreinforced adobe brick, and the building could
safe
roof. The length was
than the length of timbers available to support the
such strict limita-
determined by the size of the congregation. But even with
tions, there was freedom to create a structure with spiritual significance.
The resultwas a new kind of architecture organically developed from

did the
rigorous conditions but fulfilling all of its functions as admirably as
Bruton Parish Church. It has its own beauty of simple masses, strong and
decisive, yet enlivened by a sensuous, handmade quality.
FOUR CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES

Today prodigious technological advances enable us to create architecture
worship
with an independence of spirit previously impossible. Four places of
show that sympathetic respect for cultural and geographical environment,
for function and materials can be revealed in manifold ways.
Four Contemporary Religious Structures -
91
The Chapel at Leversbach (Fig. 92) grew out of the philosophy of

Rudolf Schwarz, a German architect who believes that nothing inside or
outside a church should detract from the service. The interior should pro-
vide for the liturgy a background so stark, so shorn of ornate and material
things that there is nothing in the space but the "divine Action and Pres-
ence." His churches express a strong grasp of the essentials of the Catholic
belief in holy mysteries that demand preparedness to face eternity and a
tense ^vill to refuse distractions. The village teacher at Leversbach, who

helped plan the church and then watched the parishioners at work building
it, summed up their reactions to Schwarz' concept:
I was prepared for anything, even to lose my job in the village which I
loved so much. So long as we planned, all seemed well, because few people
can really understand plans and charts. And everybody was glad that some-
thing was being done. They expected something which would some-
. . .
how be different, although nothing so startling and altogether different as

this chapel yet I had never concealed from them our real intentions.
. . .
I always told them that the chapel would be something strange to them.
When the walls rose, there was giowing resistance. People from other
villages came and ridiculed those walls without windows and pinnacles.
In the evenings, half the village stood there with distrusting looks. He who
knows people realizes that they are afraid of nothing so much as the un-
usual, the strange, the new, the different. . . . Many expressed wishes for
vaults, a steep roof, steeple, organ loft. We ruled these out easily by point-
ing to their considerable expense. We told them why we wanted the priest
to stand among the people during his confession, why we had the windows
at the altar, why only one room with a "real" sanctuary in this little
chapel. . . But while we (Architect Schwarz and I) saw already the beauti-
.
ful and noble proportions, the touching simplicity, the "essentiality," they
noticed only the crude, the raw, the empty. But in the meantime, however,
they have lived in the chapel, have worshipped there, and now they object
if they have to go to another.*
A leap a third of the way across the world brings us to the design for
the Cleveland Park Synagogue (Fig. 93) that architect Eric Mendelsohn
discusses below.
The Cleveland Park Synagogue is, in fact, a community center, sheltering

the three activities of a contemporary congregation:
the house of worship— the House of God,
the school for the education of the children— the House of the Torah,
the auditorium for the assembly and recreation of the adult members— the
House of the People.
• This quotation is from the Architectural Forum, January, 1939.

Four Contemporary Religions Structures - 93
Contemporary religious buildings offer great opportunity for indi\idualized statements.

Opposite. The Chapel (1939) at Leversbach, Germany, was designed by Rudolf Schwarz.
Built of local materials by local workmen, it belongs to its surroundings and congregation.
The angular interior frankly exposes its vigorous construction, directs attention to the
altar.(Courtesy of Father H. A. Reinhold)
Above. The model of the Park Synagogue (1947), Cle\eland, Ohio, shows a fluidity
of mass in accord with its site and varied functions. Eric Mendelsohn, architect. {Courtesy
of the architect)
The wedding-chapel close to reception-room and club-rooms, the adminis-

tration with library and board-room are additional though essential facili-
ties for the proper working of the Center. To combine organically these
various functions in accordance with the climate, to create a well-working
plan, an economical structure, and a symbolic appearance was the final
aim of the architect.
The and densely wooded— demanded and,

Site at his disposal— 30 acres, hilly
at the same time, facilitated a bold approach. Along the small axis of the
site and across its highest elevation runs a clear stream in a 20-foot deep
ravine forming with its branch a peninsula. This fan-shaped peninsula,

clearly visible from the highway— the main approach road— seemed to be
predestined to carry the Temple Area with assembly, foyer, temple proper,
choir-room, chapel, garden-court, and amphitheater which is cantilevered
out over the tip of the promontory.
The only available space large enough to carry a School for 1000 pupils was
across the ra\ine to the North of the peninsula providing, as it does, the
needed North-South exposure for the classroom-wings.
As the Administration has to serve both major parts of the building: Temple
Area and School Area, a bridgelike structure over the ravine seemed to be
the most natural device.
factual material with which the
These were the practical considerations, the
however, are not separated in our
architect had to work. Facts and ideas,
interact at the moment the building
program is studied
art. They start to
and the site visited.
needs of the client and, at the

For the Building Program discloses the
final
of the third dimension.
same time, exerts the intellectual possibilities
field of action on which his

crea-
All three dimensions form the architect's
creative act is the integration of what
tiveact has to be performed. This
study of his specific object, and
of
he knows from experience and detailed
total solution of the problem.
what he sees in his imagination as tectonic-as
attitude whether the
And it only a gradation in substance and mental
is
industrial, a commercial or a sacred
project to be solved is a residential or
building.
work's success depends on the finished

building fulfilling its purpose
The
on being a flower which
on its structural and economical soundness, and
Architecture.
did not exist before in the garden of
The Cleveland Park Synagogue complex architectural project

is a
There are many spe-
handled with imaginative freedom and individuality.
concrete, hemispherical dome that
dominates
cific excellences-the Temple's
and produces a serene space for
the group through its shape and height
flexibility of the folding walls between
the Temple,
religious ceremony; the
need indicates;
as the
Foyer and Assembly, which can be opened
or closed
But these details should
and the well-lighted classrooms around courtyards.
design, with its forms ingeniously
not distract our attention from the total
site, forcefully expressmg
and rhythmically integrated with a challenging
It has a dynamic sense of
move-
the purpose of the whole and of each part.
that are characteristic of twentieth-
ment, an openness and a flexibility
century architecture.
preceding church
TheWayfarer's Chapel (Fig. 96) differs from the
and to focus the worshiper's
and temple. Whereas they tend to be enclosed
the church, the Wayfarer's Chapel
opens it-
attention on the services inside
neither accident nor whim. Its form grew
self to its surroundings. This is
modern building techniques,

specific religious beliefs, a spectacular
site,
from
and architect Lloyd Wright's creativity.
Built by the followers of Emanuel Swedenborg, the Chapel exemplifies
way that would have been impossible when
he
his reli-ious beliefs in a
Central in his philosophy is the
was writing in the eighteenth century.
intimate relation of the world of nature
and the world of man's spirit. In
translating this concept into architecture,
Wright has made the sea and the
Four Contemporary Religious Structures -
95
sky, the plants and the rocks part of the services as they were in the first
sermons by the sea. To accomplish this he has filled most of the Chapel's
wails and the roof with glass held in place by rigid frames of redwood. On
a dramatic rocky promontory overlooking the Pacific Ocean in temperate
southern California, this bold use of glass is indeed appropriate. Eventually,
a sheltering grove of redwood trees will not only temper the light and the
temperature but will echo in their trunks and branches the structure of the
building. Triangles repeated in the plan and the elevations symbolize the
Trinity, and they also make the Chapel far more dynamic than would more
static rectangular shapes.
When the members

of the First Presbyterian Church in Stamford, Con-
necticut, finallyoutgrew their old Romanesque-revival structure, they felt
that their new building ought to be one \\'ith lasting spiritual signifi-
cance. Architect Wallace K. Harrison (who also was in charge of desienino-
the United Nations Headquarters and Rockefeller Center, illustrated in
Chapters 2 and 17) began thinking about the great European cathedrals.
Why not, thought Harrison, bring together the luminous magic of stained
glass and the technological attainments of our period?
The result (Figs. 97A and B) is a large church that seats 800 wor-
shipers in "an enormous envelope of stained glass" as high as a six-story
building and 135 feet long, completely uncluttered by structural supports.
The steel-reinforced concrete frame, only eight inches thick and without
buttresses or columns, was perfected by structural engineer Felix Samuerly.
Gabriel Noire, the great stained-glass maker of the city of Chartres, pro-
duced 20,000 pieces of amber, amethyst, emerald, ruby, and sapphire colored
glass that are embedded
in the concrete frame. This is an intricate structure
without a single right angle. In plan and in profile it resembles a fish, an
ancient symbol for Christ. Although related to Gothic cathedrals, it is a
valid, twentieth-century statement of man's need for churches that give a
"sense of the presence of the Almighty."
How differentfrom one another are these places of worship! The

churches atSipoo and Taos are ruggedly compact structures, tied to their
sites by local materials and craftsmanship and by appropriate forms. In the
Bruton Parish Church we see a refined and restrained statement of Enslish-
American eighteenth-century philosophy. The Leversbach Chapel demon-
strates that local craft traditions are still alive,
but it is clearly a product of
Great complexity of functions and forms are vigorously unified
this century.
in the Cleveland Park Synagogue, which is akin to the Imatra church. In

These churches acknowledge the

inspiration of Gothic architec-
rather
ture but capture the spirit
that
than copying the details of
notable style.
Left. The Wayfarer's Chapel

Califor-
(1951) at Palos Verdes,
nia, brings architecture
and na-
ture with transparent

together
Lloyd Wright, architect.
walls.
(Photograph by Julius Shulman)
extensive use o
First Presbyterian Church,
the Wayfarer's Chapel and the
beauti ul remmd us
that are at once strong and
glass and structural systems
are of our time
of medieval architecture,
but their spirit and execution
any of these buildings is superior
m
every way to
It cannot be said that
justified in having his own P-f--^^-/^/^;-
the others, but each of us is
for the
and temples,
tectural historyabounds with magnificent churches
religious. In Chapter 17.
examples
dominant edifiL of the past have been
further open our eyes to the od larat
from France, Greece, and Italy will
architecture. It is clear that no
smgle arclntectura
ing diversity of religious as
human need so universal and multiform. Differen
form can sitisfy a
as sacred centers.
respects, they were all built
these buildings are in specific
such specific
designers brought into umson
In each the creativity of the
environment with
and temporal and geographical
factors as religious beliefs
ideals of beauty.
contemporaneous building techniques and
Four Contemporary Religious Structures - 97
(A) Right. For the First Pres-

byterian Church (1957) in Stam-
ford, Coniiectitut, architect \Val-
lace K. Harrison created a lofty
interior illumined by walls of
stained glass to give a sense of
spiritual exaltation. (Photograph
by Joseph W. Molitor)
(B) Below. The roof plan and
side elevation of the First Pres-
byterian Church show the com-
plex structural design that allows
the interior to be free of sup-
ports. (Courtesy of Progressi\e
Architecture)
RELIGIOUS SCULPTURE
human head on which the ears are as high as a man,
When sculptors carve a
skyscraper, size
and when builders construct a tomb as high as a 48-story
alone makes the results imposing. If, however, such
monuments are to have
as their hugeness
enduring significance, their forms must be as powerful
Great Pyramid of
demands. The men who created the Sphinx and the
Gizeh in Egypt (Fig. lOOA), understood well the magnitude
of this
Khufu at
challenge and produced monuments that have become symbols of per-
Christ, the Pyra-
manence. Completed about 2600 years before the birth of
the most slowly
mid and the Sphinx are magnificent expressions of one of
has ever known.
changing religious-social-political systems the world
was built
The pyramids were built as tombs, and the Great Pyramid
to protect the mortal remains of the
Pharaoh Khufu. The largest of the
measures 755 feet on
Egyptian pyramids, it covers about thirteen acres,
Colossal blocks of limestone,
each side, and was originally 480 feet high.
some weighing thirty tons, were quarried with metal tools across the river,
ferried over on rafts, and then laboriously
hauled up ramps to their final
ten years
position. It estimated that this stupendous achievement took
is
for three small chambers deep

of labor on the part of 100,000 men. Except
to them, the Pyramid is a
in the interior and the narrow passages leading
cubic yards of stone.
solidmass of masonry calculated to contain 2.5 million
attests to the great importance that
Such prodigal use of labor and material
essential to protect the
the Egyptians attached to afterlife. Believing
it
attain that goal. The

mummies of their rulers, they spared nothing to
it is one
pyramidal form was chosen from all of the feasible shapes because
Originally the
of the most durable architectural forms that man knows.
sides were smoothly surfaced with stone,
and then its strict, unadorned
of nature around it.
geometry was in compelling contrast to the forms
has been lost, its un-
Even now, although some of its precise simplicity
equivocal order and intense restraint command
attention.
Pharaoh Khafre
The Sphinx is probably an idealized portrait of the
of a lion to sym-
who was Khufu's son. It joins a human head to the body
bolize the godlike wisdom and strength of the princely priest who ruled
Carved partly from livmg
both the religion and politics of his country.
is immediately awe-inspirmg
rock and partly from stone hauled to the site, it
because of its colossal size (140 feet in length
and 65 feet in height). Its
less from its bulk than from
the
lasting significance, however, comes far
massive forms. The head has a timeless majesty, a grave
grandeur of its
us how deeply were motivated by mtense

its creators
eloquence that tells
of the Pharaoh
belief. Reproducing in exact detail the physical appearance
Religious Sculpture - 99
was not their aim. Their mission was to communicate the spirit personified
by their ruler, and the material chosen for their message was stone. This
naturally led to generalizing and perfecting the features, to imbuing them
^vith dignity, and to giving them an architectonic quality in keeping with
the mass of stone from which they were carved. Both in size and in character
the Sphinx, like the Pyramid, is magnificently at home in this vast desert
setting where it stands as one of the world's most monumental religious
sculptures.
At first glance the Ancestor Figure (Fig. lOOB) seems to have little in
common with the Sphinx. The nineteenth-century Ancestor Figure is only
24V2 inches high and was made from perishable wood. It emerged from a
dissimilar religious-social pattern and geographical environment. Its in-
tended setting is a small, dim hut on a mountain plateau covered with

coarse grasses and scattered trees. Whereas the Sphinx asserts bold confi-
dence, the Ancestor Figure is somewhat withdrawn.
Further study, though, discloses significant similarities. Both were
deeply motivated by religious beliefs profoundly concerned with the con-
tinuity of life. There is no
In both, the forms are compact and tightly knit.
twisting, turning, or suggestion of imminent movement. They do not in-
vite strict comparison with natural forms because their creators felt no
urge toward literal imitation: the size and shape of each part were de-
termined by the importance each part held for the idea expressed. In short,
they are universalized abstractions of human figures.
The Ancestor Figure came from an agricultural community in which
a cult of the dead is bound up with the continuity of family life. Death
is regarded as a transformation of life into another kind of "being," that
continues in this world. The souls of the departed wander uneasily until
they find an appropriate abode. Then, in their statuettes, they settle down
as "living" members of the family, often occupying a place of honor in the
family's home. In return for little sacrifices, they can be asked for advice
and may permit the use of their power.
With this background we can look at the form and materials of the
statue. The sculptor's basic intent was to embody in his work the feeling
of his group's religion and to make visible their conception of the world
and the qualities of their social order. Because he was not making a literal
portrait, he could adapt forms from older statues or from any aspect of
nature, yet he was held within the bounds of tribal taste. The carver
selected a piece of green wood and worked, through successive stages, from
large masses down to intricate details. The head, which held the all-im-
portant soul and mind, was emphasized through size and elaboration. Torso
separated in ti^me by 4500

Religious sculptures from Africa,
distinguished by a depth of feeling and conv.ct.on
lars' are
characteristic ofprofound religious art.
(A) Above. The Sphinx
and the Great Pyramid of k lufu
have long stood as symbols of
(9600 B.C.) at Gizeh, Egypt,
individuality was less impo
-
"eligious permanence in which

idealism. (Courtesy of HanuUon
tanf than generalized
small ancestor figure of

carved wood from
^^'7i)leit A
in the Sudan achieves monumental in-
the Dogon tribe
natural forms to their geometric
tensity through relating
the Museurr, of Prun.twe AH)
equivalents. {Courtesy of
of Earth and Death con-

opposite. "Coatlicue," Goddess
the Aztec religion which was
veys the awesome power of
thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries.
a'its height from the
Anthropologtc, Mexico)
\courtesyot Museo Nactonal de
30
because they were
and limbs were simplified and made comparatively small
of secondary consequence. The shape of the
log from which the statue was
released is clearly shown in the outline of the

whole sculpture and echoed
arms, and legs. The strict parallelism of vertical
and
in the neck, torso,
them together. All of this leads to a quiet but
horizontal forms knits
strangely vital gravity. Many modern sculptors and painters have been
attracted by the powerful design of African
Negro sculpture, but the real
vivid communication of
power comes less from the formal design than from
birth to the forms so com-
spiritual ideas and emotions. The spirit gave
pletely that the work achieves a life of its

own. How different this is from
art in which there is little or nothing

beyond a decorative arrangement of
form, space, and color.
a statue of "Coatlicue," the Aztec

Goddess of the earth
Figure 101 is
of "death, as well as of man, who played the

combined role of creator
and
portray in stone, for it
and destroyer. This was not a simple concept to
sculptural unity
demanded that hope and fear be brought together in a
Until about 1325
much as they were reconciled in the Aztec way of life.
they settled on the site of Mexico
the Aztecs were migratory hunters. Then
conquered all of Mexico but had
City and in two centuries had not only
of
developed an astonishing civilization. To us,
their religious sacrifices
thousands of captives, even of children, seems

inhumanly brutal. But m
out of destruction, and slaughter, therefore,
was
their faith new life came
necessary.
of andesite, a granite-
This sculpture was carved from a massive block
suit it well to the subject
like stone whose gray color and mottled texture
it is surmounted by a
matter. Standing a little more than eight feet high,
make a necklace from which a
fearsome tusked mask. Hands and hearts
snakes form the skirt. All of this
skull hangs as a pendant, and twisted
details. That such is not
might have been a conglomeration of unrelated
several compositional devices: strict
the case results from the skillful use of
of each part to the whole; and
bilateral symmetry; rhythmic relationship
emphasis on the important units through size
and depth of carving. The
rectangular outlines that recall the
figure is also unified by the simple,
that
first shape of the block of
stone and by its over-all tactile quality
touch it, were it not for the subject matter.
When
would make one want to
itwas serving its "Lady of the Skirt of Serpents" must have

religion, this
savage intensity and powerful
had great emotional impact. Even today, its
forms cannot be taken lightly.
statue carved by
"Hermes with the Infant Dionysus" (Fig. 103 A), a
than the Sphinx,
Praxiteles around 350 b.c, more than 2200 years later
Two examples of religious sculpture from Europe give further

evidence of the degree to which specific theologies affect the
portrayal of human figures.
(A) Above. "Hermes" by Praxiteles exemplifies the human-
istic philosophy and religion of Greece in the fourth century
B.C. Emphasis on physical beauty through softly rounded, well-
proportioned forms is lifted above the materialistic by a serene,

spiritual idealism. (University Prints)
(B) Right. The "Kings and Queens" from the west portal
of Chartres Cathedral were done in the twelfth century a.d.
Ascetic, elongated angularity, strikingly different from the full-
bodied, easy grace of "Hermes" translates into stone the Chris-
tian ideals of medieval France. (University Prints)
great
of divinity. In contrast to the
is a warm, humanized interpretation
of the Ancestor Figure, "Hermes is
of the Sphinx and the small
size
size
or
than Unlike the Egyptians, African Negroes
life size.
iust a little larger
what they believed. To under-
Aztecs the Greeks wanted to understand
of men and women
stand their gods they conceived them in the image
gods,
beautiful. They believed that their
but somewhat larger and more
with their daily lives and frequently
although invisible, had great concern
that
visited them. And like peoples
throughout the world, the Greeks felt
through images. Their interest in man
their deities could be approached
to formal order led to such
as themeasure of all things and their devotion
works as this. . ,
gods, and in this statue he

Hermes was herald and messenger of the
who was the giver andof the grape
holds on his arm the infant Dionysus,
expression serene and
its wine. His pose is relaxed and graceful and his
austerity, no lowly
detached There is no great of inner spirit, no regal
fire
There is, instead, a transcendent idealization

supplication or intense fear.
effect the fine-grained, creamy.vhite
total
of physical beauty. In the
part, and it has been carved
with
polished marble plays an important
done in coarse
if you can, this statue
The greatest virtuosity. Imagine,
grained wood! It is in material care-
limestone, mottled granite, or coarsely
communicate an idea. In addition
and sensitively handled to
fully selected
gives us into Greek ideals of the
to its beauty and the insight this statue
of interest because it is the only existing statue
fourth century B.C., it is
the great Greek sculptors.

believed to have been created by any
of
the brutal
physical beauty of "Hermes" and
In contrast to the sensuous
"Kings and
coiled force of "Coatlicue" is
the spiritual idealism of the
Cathedral (Fig. 103B). These
Queens" on the west portal of Chartres
ancestors of Christ and carved
between 1 145
statues, representing the royal
medieval sculpture away from the
and 1170, mark a turning point in
toward the realism of fully developed
intense asceticism of earlier periods
every way from "Hermes.
hey
Gothic sacred art. They differ in almost
1
compressed.
are unrealistically tall and slender,
and their bodies are tightly
complex architectural composition,
They are an integral part of a large, lime-
are carved from opaque, gray
while "Hermes" is freestanding. They
stone rather than creamy marble.
These are the most obvious differences,
has
others. In "Hermes" emphasis
but let us look at some of the many
features,
with its placid, generalized
been placed on the whole body;
so with the
just share of attention. Not
the head gets no more than its
large and
"Kings and Queens," in which the heads seem conspicuously
and somewhat individ-
rest of the figures,
more boldly carved than the
Religious Painting - 105
ualized in features and expression. The treatment of the bodies is just
the reverse— in the "Kings and Queens" the draperies fall in abstract folds
that no more than hint at what they cover; in "Hermes" there is a full,
unabashed exposition of a supple, muscular figure, and cloth that is heavily
modeled in realistic, three-dimensional curves. This is but one evidence
of fundamentally different ideas and, accordingly, different organizations:
an easy, graceful curvilinear treatment of forms-in-space as opposed to a
strict, formal rigidity. These variances are, of course, the result of two
religions that had relatively little in common.
RELIGIOUS PAINTING
The "Bewailing of Christ" (Fig. 106A), painted by Giotto in the Arena
Chapel at Padua, Italy, is one of Christianity's most powerful paintings.
Seldom has there been such mastery of expressive form and color, such
directand vital portrayal of passionate grief. After six and one-half cen-
turies, this fresco retains its immediate and its sustained impact. Why?
Because Giotto was one of those rare persons capable of deep understand-
ing of humanity and able to express this understanding with technical
mastery. The figuresand the composition as a whole are hard hewn and
angular, heavy in their downward movement. Notice that all of the im-
portant action takes place in the lower half of the panel and that the
body of Christ lies near the bottom. Mourners grouped in two asym-
metrical, rectangular units frame His body and express through their bodies
as well as their faces their irreparable loss. No extraneous details distract
from the tragedy, for Giotto knew full well the power of simplicity. Al-
though the composition is masterful, it properly plays a secondary role to
the purpose of the painting— a convincing presentation of a Biblical story.
The "Sistine Madonna" (Fig. 106B) was painted by Raphael in the early
years of the sixteenth century, approximately two hundred years after
Giotto's "Bewailing of Christ." In contrast to the earnest, spare severity
of Giotto's work, the "Sistine Madonna" combines a tender and lyrical
treatment of the faces with a monumental, symphonic composition of

curves. Basically triangular, the design begins its upward sweep in the figure
at the left, swirls around Christ and the head of the Madonna mo-
for a
mentary pause, and then returns through the figure at the right to the two
cherubs at the base. Because both Giotto's and Raphael's paintings came
from the Roman Catholic religion and both are Italian, they have an under-
lying similarity. Yet there are many differences. In the earlier one, the forms
are direct and forceful, show an angular, architectural sense of weight and
Two paintings done in Italy approximately

two centuries apart illustrate the manner in
which art of the same religion and same
country changes.
(A) Above. Giotto's "Bewailing of Christ"
(1304-1306) is a direct, forceful expression of
intense grief, realized through means not un-
like those in the sculpture on the portal of
Chartres Cathedral. {University Prints)
(B) Le/L Raphael's "Sistine Madonna"
(1515 or 1516) has an opulence of form
and
to that
a mildly sweet physical beauty similar
found in Praxiteles' "Hermes." {University
Prints)
107
Examples of modern paintings in

which the artists have presented
fundamental religious concepts
in fresh but timeless forms.
(A) Georges Rouault's
Left.
"Christ Mocked by Soldiers"
(1932) combines the brilliant col-
ors of stained glass with intense
expressionism. (Courtesy of the
Museum of Modern Art, New
York)
(B) Below. Rico Lebrun's
"Crucifixion" (1949-1951) elicits
our compassion by its deeply felt
sincerity,our wrath by its shock-
ing contrasts. (Courtesy of Syra-
cuse University)
solidity, and are tightly knit into compact groups. In the "Sistine Madonna"
the forms are much and have a gentle, flowing quality quite unlike
softer
is more open and ex-
anything in the earlier painting, and the composition
sides of human
panding. Its appeal is to the more tender and sentimental
nature. These differences, to be sure, arise in part
from the differences in
reflect the great changes
the personalities of the two painters, but they also
in social and religious thought that took place
from the fourteenth to the
sixteenth centuries in Italy.
our discussion of religious painting with two modern

ex-
We close
(Fig. 107 A) and
amples, Georges Rouault's "Christ Mocked by Soldiers"
the few modern
Rico Lebrun's "Crucifixion" (Fig. 107B). Rouault is one of
Christian
painters has been able to re-present the great ideas of the
who
faith in twentieth-century forms. His paintings
were built up slowly, often
colors overlaying one
over a period of years, from patches of rich, glowing
remind
another and then reinforced with black outlines. Inevitably they
one of stained-glass windows. The compositions are strong, simple, and
sincere. Thus his paintings have an immediate appeal of color and design,
subject matter.
but they go far beyond that in their deep penetration of
Notice the infinite compassion and resignation conveyed
by the curved
Christ; the coarse mockery of the
of soldiers leering over His
figure
shoulders.
Wrath at man's inhumanity to man, today and in the past, compelled
has said, "The
Rico Lebrun to lay bare the horror of the "Crucifixion." He
'The poetry
awesomeness and cruelty should be in the forms themselves.
should be in the pity.' There is no end to horror and pain." Slashing
. . .
diagonals, strident color contrasts, and tortured forms build up to violent
With the exception of Christ, all of

movement and a sense of destruction.
dehumanized to portray the evil that is within them. Christ
the figures are
emaciated, and His face is hidden so that he symbolizes all people who are
is
lonely and rejected. Thus Lebrun denounces the past and the present in one
paintings is for enter-
painting of shattering intensity. Neither of these two
fundamentals and
tainment or decoration. They show deep concern with
with communicating them vividly to us.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGIOUS ART

It istime to ask: what are the characteristics of religious art?
What binds
the sensuous marble
together the humble wooden idols of African Negroes,
Ages? The paint-
gods of the Greeks, the spiritual sculpture of the Middle
ings of Giotto, Raphael, Rouault, and Lebrun?
The Finnish churches, the
Characteristics of Religious Art - 109
chapels at Leversbach and Palos Verdes, the Parthenon, and the cathedral
at Rheims? The sacred buildings, sculpture, and paintings in your own
town?
Religion is a realm of life through which man attempts to fmd meaning
for existence, to express his beliefs and ideals, and to relate himself to
his fellow men, his universe, God. Because the arts of religion
and his
grow from a search for relationships, one of their most significant character-
istics is that they belong to a group, seldom to an individual. In fact, one
of their prime purposes is to hold the group together in harmony. Thus,

they are very closely allied to the arts of the community, symbolizing as
they do the thoughts and feelings of kindred souls. Also like the arts of
the community, the arts of religion are idealistic expressions of what
humanity strives to be, not merely representations of what it is. Their role
is to inspire, to elevate, to lead the observer on to better thoughts and
actions.
Unlike typical educational practices of teaching almost entirely through
facts, sacred arts teach through our senses and our emotions as well
as our
minds. Seeking to arouse, to stimulate, to inspire, they appeal to man's

sensitivities through the rich, vivid color of stained glass, fresco, or oil paint;
through the restless, aspiring arches and buttresses of a Gothic cathedral,

or through the delicate perfection of a Greek temple; through the stark,
dynamic forces and tensions of a modern church; through the attenuated,
spiritual figures of the Gothic cathedral or the non-realistic idols of African
Negroes.
So that this appeal shall not be transitory, religious art, like religion
itself, invariably seeks to express ideals and feelings that have qualities of
permanence and to express them in a way that will have lasting interest.
No contrast could be sharper than that between the sacred arts, which hold
significance for centuries, and posters and advertisements, which last for a
short time only. All of the great religions-Christianity, Judaism, Moham-
medanism, Buddhism-have persisted so vigorously because they arouse
in their followers awe and wonder and faith through emotions so deeply
rooted that no worldly rulers have final power against them, even though
many have attempted to uproot them. Religious art, dealing with ultimate
purposes, values, and goals of life, involves not only this life but life in
the hereafter. In this way it approaches the infinite, the timeless. And
naturally in dealing with such unknowns and unknowables as the after-
life, it becomes mystical and divine, greater than man, and therefore awe-
inspiring. These qualities have made religious art the most powerful art,
the most significant in the march of history.
know more about religious art, any art history book

If you wish to
will help. In particular:
Henry Kamphoefner
Churches and Temples: Paul Thiry, Richard Bennett, and
(New York: Reinhold, 1954).
religious structures.
Beautifully illustrated analysis of contemporary
Fashions in Church Furnishings: 1840-1940: Peter F.

Anson (New York: Mac-
millan, 1960).
and dec-
discussion of the slowly shifting changes in church
fashions
Good
orations.
A Handbook of Greek Art: G. M. A. Richter (New York: Phaidon, 1959).
An exceptional account of all major phases of Greek art.

A History of Western Art: John Ives Sewall (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1961).
religious art.
Especially penetrating treatment of medieval
DeWald (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Italian Painting: 1200-1600: Ernest T.
Winston, 1961).
Detailed discussion of Italian painting.
Liturgical Arts (New York: Liturgical Arts Society).
A lively, forward-looking quarterly on contemporary religious arts.
Century: fimile Male (New

Religious Art from the Twelfth to the Eighteenth
York: Pantheon, 1949).
Covers the "great" periods of European Christian art.
The Sculpture of Africa: Eliot Elisofon (New York: Praeger, 1958).
Carefully selected examples beautifully photographed and reproduced.
The Story of Art: E. H. Gombrich (New York: Phaidon, 1960).

Enlightening discussion of many examples of religious art.
Twenty Centuries of Mexican Art (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1940).
An excellent survey of a powerful art of the Americas,
much of which is
religious.
Eero Saarinen's stainless steel water
tower at the General Motors Technical
Center (1956) symbolizes the esthetic
concern of today's designer. (General
Motors Corporation)
'4z - Art in Industry

THE BED YOU SLEEP IN, the breakfast dishes you eat from, the chair
you sit in, the automobile, train, or airplane you ride in— in fact, many of
the objects that make our lives easy and pleasant belong to the arts of in-
dustry. Looking at the illustrations in this chapter and at those in Chapters

6, 7, and 8 gives but a limited idea of the variety of products available today.
Much better is a trip to local department stores or a glance through one
of the large mail-order catalogues. Never before have so many things been
available to so many persons, for a machine civilization can produce at a
rate undreamed of by craft societies.
Today's world is a vast network of cities and towns, farms and mines,
interlaced with a Aveb of split-second communication and swift transporta-

111
112 - Art in Industry
Italian glass, and
tion.Australian wool, Egyptian cotton, Japanese ceramics,
Scandinavian steel stand next to products from our
own country. From a
we enjoy, and from our
hundred corners of the world come the objects
own we
corner go the products build or process or grow. In this world of
manufacture and distribution we eat, sleep, and produce our kind much as
many aspects of livuig have

man has done from the beginning of time. But
has changed along with them. The
changed, and our way of producing art
to mass machine production has
shift from individual handcraftsmanship
upsetting-changes in art
caused one of the most significant-and initially
history. But before considering these
changes and present-day machine art
hand products in a culture less
and handcrafts, let us observe the making of
complex than our own.
HANDCRAFT CULTURES
Self-contained, handcraft communities are not numerous these days, but
which craftsmen working
some still exist. In Guatemala there are villages in
simple machines supply the
with primitive looms, potter's wheels, and other
objects needed in the community.
textiles, utensils, and most of the other
they are sold or ex-
These are used by the families who make them, or
is not consumed in the
changed in the local market. Little is produced that
area.
their art products
These simple communities are highly integrated and
order that produces them. The
are as direct and unaffected as the social
sturdy cotton textile (Fig. 1 13A) from a remote
Guatemalan village is typical.
It is a carrying cloth-for carrying
bananas, beans, and babies. Humble m
abstract human and animal
purpose though it is, the cloth is enriched with
figures are a continuation of a tradition
developed in this
figures. These
weavers in this locality follow
village over the centuries. All of the other
markedly similar patterns. be sure, each weaver infuses his work with
To
variations, much as the singer of
subtle, often hardly noticeable individual
as with folk songs, these are
folk tunes makes the songs his own. But,
but have been improved
patterns that not only have stood the test of time
eliminated and strengths em-
over long periods. Weaknesses have been
phasized until the results are "right." Although no
two textiles are identical,
they are almost standardized.
they conform so closely to one another that
theme. When
They are comparatively minor variations on a traditional
a thoroughly satisfactory design has
been achieved, there is, at least in
simple cultures, littleimpetus to change. Of course, if there were no change
into monotonous, stereo-
at all, the vitality of the design would soon ebb
repetition. At the other extreme, change
without real need leads to
typed
senseless fads and fashions.
113
In handcraft societies, articles made

by the local craftsmen usually repre-
sent slowly evolving traditional
types.
(A) Lejt. A hand-woven Guate-
malan cloth (1936) of traditional de-
sign enlivened by the irregularity of
weaving and the varied treatment
of the figures.
(B) Below. A silver teapot made
by Paul Revere in eighteenth-cen-
tury Boston exemplifies the refined
craftsmanship and subtlety of design
possible in more advanced craft so-
{Courtesy of the Metropoli-
cieties.
tan Museum of Art)
The enriched beyond simple utilitarian require-

fact that this textile is
expressed his need for

ments is important. Throughout the world man has
this kind of enhancement of life.
Even when merely keeping alive demands
have found time and enthu-
almost all of a people's energy, their craftsmen
see and to touch. Sometimes
siasm to make their everyday objects good to
this enhancementcomes directly from the material: the sensuous beauty
and texture of clays and glazes; or the grain and
of silk or wool; the color
color of wood. At other times it grows directly out of the process, as m
are other types of enrichment:
the patterns produced in weaving. But there
the figures in the Guatemalan textile were
put there consciously and pur-
posefully for esthetic stimulation and satisfaction.

deserves attention-the
other aspect of this Guatemalan textile
One
that are character-
charm of irregularity, the appeal of the "human touch,"
products. The figures are not always aligned and
some are
istic of many craft
yarns are of uneven thickness and in some
places
larger than others. The
have
the weaving is tighter than in others. In short, the textile does not
machinelike regularity.
But much craftwork is precise and disciplined. In the eighteenth cen-
craftsmanship reached a high
tury in our country, to cite but one example,
as can be seen in Paul Revere's
level of technical and artistic perfection,
1I3B). It, too, came from a long tradition but one in
silver teapot (Fig.
which meticulous refinement was of great importance.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

many parts of the world, by the Industrial Revo-
All of this was changed, in
which got well under way in the nineteenth century. The
advent of
lution,
threw thousands
power machinery and the consequent technological changes
met with strong opposition
of craftsmen out of work and, understandably,
early stages, was
from them. One of their arguments, well founded in the
traditions
that the machine destroyed individuality and beauty. Certainly,
as old as man were almost swept away.
make objects cheaply, and
The industrialists' first consideration was to
with minimum
this was achieved by producing them in large quantities
machine as quickly as a crafts-
labor. A hundred spoons could be made by
their former
man could make one, and they could be sold for a fraction of
of the early stages. Through long
price. But cheapness was the only virtue
their traditions, craftsmen had be-
years of work with their materials and in
accepting the machine,
come competent designers; but, by fighting instead of
as pro-
they left without a master. Design degenerated; and ornament,
it
took place. In the handcrafts, because ornamenta-

fuse as it was senseless, its
Industrial Design - 115
Extremes in nineteenth-century American design mark these two chairs.

(A) Left. Furniture designed and handcrafted by Shaker groups is remarkable for its
straightforward honesty and satisfying proportions. {National Gallery of Art. Index of
American Design)
(B) Right. Floridly curved and ornamented, a chair with centripetal springs and a rail-
road seat was patented for machine production. (American Chair Company)
tion took time andwas thoughtfully used. Not so with the machine.
skill, it
Any object could be covered with curlicues in a few seconds. And because
it was so fast and
ornament became an obsession (Fig. 115B). It was in-
easy,
discriminately applied to everything; it became the symbol of "art"; and,
worse, it was often used to disguise cheap materials and poor workmanship.
Contemporary trends toward severe simplicity are in part the last vestiges of
a reaction against nineteenth-century abuse of enrichment.
Gradually conditions changed. Manufacturers found that quality, as
well as quantity and cheapness, were important. In achieving quality they
needed help, and a new profession was created.
INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
Industrial design, the design of objects for machine production, is an in-
tegration of art, engineering, and merchandising. Although its foundations
go back to prehistoric man's first attempts to better his life by shaping tools
and equipment, industrial design as we know it today was born in the
1920's. Its beginnings were hesitant and superficial. "Art" was "applied" to
machine-made objects in a superficial "styling" of external appearances by
Often amounted to little more
persons who had "good taste" or "flair." it
or tablecloths, simplifying
than suggesting different colors for bath towels
the appearance of typewriters by covering the working parts, or giving furni-
ture more pleasing proportions. By mid-century, though, it had become a

major factor in our industrial economy. Only a few decades ago, no more
skills of professional de-
than a handful of objects had benefited from the
that has not been influenced,
signers. Today there is little on the market
has become a field as com-
directly or indirectly, by them. Industrial design
community planning, and, like them, it is a serious
plex as architecture or
human needs to products
business that works from the inside out, from basic
many fields pool their skills in the design
that satisfy those needs. Experts in
automobiles.
of everything from tableware to the shapes of
problems? The
How do industrial designers approach and solve their
informa-
way in which one industrial designer handles a problem has been
tively discussed by a leader in this field, Raymond Loewy.* The hypotheti-
that of a conservative manufacturer of

ice
cal case history he describes is
cream freezers who for twenty-five years had successfully sold the same model
manufacturer had seriously cut into his sales.
-until a new freezer by a rival
and called Mr.
Then he recognized the need for an experienced designer
Loewy in to help. Loewy set up a four-stage program:
The first step is fact-finding, a process that has two phases. One is
1.
be redesigned and com-
the getting of full information on the product to
parative information on the major competitors.
Although the client can
sales booklets
readily supply the designer with some of the data, such as
independent investigation is in order. The
and sales records, additional
first-hand information from
designer's representatives go into the field for
dealers and they also take several freezers into their shop for
and salesmen,
studied, but the
thorough comparative testing. Not only is the product
packing boxes, sales
whole promotional procedure is scrutinized-wrappers,
literature, and even the company's stationery
and trademark. The other
fact-finding phase is getting all the pertinent
information on the manu-
mechanical facilities for production and on his key personnel.

facturer's
this, a task force from the designer's office visits the client's factory to see
For
available, and, equally important, to become well ac-
what equipment is
quainted with the personnel's experience, skills, and attitudes.

2. As the second step, designing begins
with many preliminary sketches
which literally
and models. This is a period of creative exploration during
limit-but appearance
hundreds of drawings may be made. The sky is the
Because the fact-finding program dis-
is by no means the only consideration.
York; Simon and Schuster, 1951).

• Raymond Loewy, Never Leave Well Enough Alone (New
Industrial Design -
117
closed, among many other points, that the current freezer looks and is bulky
and heavy, alternative materials and manufacturing techniques are checked
with the company's Engineering Department. Then comes the time for
judging the many sketches and selecting the three or four that hold the
greatest promise. Models of these are made and attractively displayed for a
meeting with company officials. Discussions may last only a few hours, or
they may go on for several days. As a result of this conference, the designs
are revised. Again models are made, but this time they are finished to look
exactly as though they were ready to be used. These are studied in detail
from all points of view, even to the taking of photographs to see how well
the product will show up when printed or televised in advertisements.
Again there is a conference between designer and client and further design
revisions.
3. The third step is making and testing of working models. From

the
accurate mechanical drawings, the company produces by hand a few work-
ing models. These are used as they would ordinarily be and checked on such
factors as ease of operation and maintenance, cleanability, and noise. Also
they are abused to the extreme: dropped, knocked, scratched, and subjected
to extreme temperatures. If they stand up well, final drawings lead to the
necessary changes in the manufacturer's plant and program. When the first
units are manufactured, the designer checks everything again but is now
able to pay special attention to such details as finish, color, trademark, and
packaging. Then full-scale production begins, and the freezers are soon
in the distributor's hands.
4. Promotion is the fourth step. Hotel ballrooms or convention halls
are rented in the larger cities and celebration parties are organized. After
refreshments, speeches, and music, the new product is dramatically un-
veiled to buyers from representative stores. Then the arts of advertising call
it to the attention of the buying public, and it succeeds or fails in terms of
how millions of potential purchasers react to it.
Although no two designers go about their work in exactly the same way,
all of them make intensive preliminary studies. And they create many pre-
liminary designs, as illustrated in the steps behind the creation of a new
electric iron (Figs. I18A and B). This design, too, went through many stages
before it reached its final form. Although the design of a very simple object
may take only a few weeks, the design of a new automobile often takes
several years.
What are the major problems in industrial design?

1. There are those centering around the manufacturer. If his is a
large long-established concern, he has a big investment in his factory, in his
Elecinc Company)
Designing an electric iron involves many steps. (Gt'iieial
design possibilities are explored in sketches, day and plaster studies,
(A) Above. Several
and a finished model. , . , , c û^
careful study in the placement ot the
,
IB) Beloxo The final design shows the result of

handle, and an over-all integration of use
control knob, the hand-fitting contours of the
and beauty.
sales organization, and in the public's confidence. Change, although neces-
sary, involves risk and expenditure of funds; an automobile manufacturer
may spend up to 300 million dollars before the first ne\v models of his car
are on the market. This is not to be taken lightly, and it is easy to see why
some manufacturers are conservative. The owner of a company is usually
where he is because of business acumen, not because he is sensitive to art.
2. Then there is the public. Finding out what will please the public
is a serious problem because the public is the final judge. Various kinds of
surveys must be conducted, trends must be charted, and predictions made.
The public likes the ne^v, and it also likes the familiar! Thus, with a few
exceptions, change is slow. Seldom is the designer able to go as far as he
would like; he has to be satisfied with what Loewy calls "the most advanced
yet acceptable."
3. Finally, there is the designer, \vith the problems that center about
his work. It is his task to bring together his own esthetic and social ideals,
the consumers' tastes, and the manufacturer'sAvill sell. At best ideas of ^vhat
the merger becomes a genuine integration, at worst a weak compromise.
Designers' ideals are varied: some aim merely to make life easier and more
comfortable, while others believe that their mission is to commimicate the
essential truths of our age. Although few of them merely pander to the
common denominator of public taste, they cannot tiun their backs on

society. In the words of Alvin Lustig, a designer of note, "the very fact of
being a designer implies a conviction that one iniderstands society's ideas
and has the ability to give them form." The designer can do this only
when he is sensitive to esthetic qualities, familiar with materials and manu-
facturing processes, and sympathetic to the needs of his fellow men.
Three Musical Instruments
What should a musical instrument look like? Admittedly this is far less
important than the soimd it produces, but still it is There is not

a factor.
much lee^vay, however, in the design of most instruments, and not much
impetus toward change. Thus, violins made by Stradivaritis, the great
Italian violin maker of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, look very
much like those produced today. Not so with the piano and its ancestors.
Although the varying lengths of the strings are usually reflected in the
shape of a grand piano, the case and its supports can be designed in many
ways, as the instruments in Figs. 120A, B, and C demonstrate.
From eighteenth-century Rome comes the harpsichord supported by
Tritons, a vivid expression of the Baroque spirit which swept over Europe
in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Far removed from any-
Three musical instruments of

markedly different design char-
acter.
(A) An eighteenth-century Ital-
ian harpsichord that is a trium-
phant example of Baroque exu-
berance. {Cotirtesy of the Metro-
politan Museum of Art)
(B) A robust nineteenth-cen-

tury grand piano shows some-
what more restraint even though
tlie forms are richly and vigor-
ously carved. (Steinway and
Sons)
(C) In this twentieth-century

piano, industrial designer Walter
Dorwin Teague relied on essen-
tial, unornamented forms and
handsome materials in his search
{Stein-
for simple, classic beauty.
way and Sons)
Industrial Design -
121
thing we would— or could— do now, it embodies the Baroque urge for vivid
excitement, heavily modeled and contorted forms, and dynamic movement.
Sculptor and cabinetmaker put their talents together to create a sumptu-
ously rich experience— too rich, perhaps, for many today who seem to ask
for nothing more than simplicity, but it is a magnificent statement of its
place and period, an environment not suited to timid souls. We, too, seek
dynamic movement in many of our art forms, but ours is seldom if ever as
full-bodied and ingeniously complex as this harpsichord.
The second instrument is a piano from the middle of the nineteenth

century, and it represents the best trends of that period. By no means was
all of the furniture lumped together under the heading of Victorian as
handsomely designed as this piece; nor was it all as bad as we sometimes
think. In this example, the grain of the wood is adroitly used, and the
vigor of the carving is sensitively and sensibly integrated with the shapes
and purposes of the parts and of the whole. If the appearance of an object
should be a first promise of what it does, this piano succeeds. It looks as
though music would almost come by itself. Certainly it would put both
performer and listener in a responsive mood.
The third instrument is from our own day, and it is about as simple as
possible. Representing the latest (as yet) step away from the exuberant
vitality of the Baroque, it is restrained and self-contained to the point of
severity. Nothing from the basic shape. Even the pleasant grain of
distracts
the wood is but a quiet murmur on uninterrupted surfaces. Some would

say that it represents the mid-twentieth century's quest for essentials, for
forms that gain their beauty from intensely single-minded clarity and pre-
cision. Others might say that it is impoverished, that it shows little creative
vigor or vital enthusiasm. In basic character, it is comparable to the John-

son house (Fig. 28A) or the United Nations Headquarters (Fig. 77A); it
typifies one of the dominant characteristics of this age: all possible simplifi-
cations to mitigate the complexities of modern life.
Three Package Sealers
Figures 122A, B, and C show three stages in the design of package sealers.
Covering a time span of only twenty-three years, they show how rapidly
and radically the shape of some objects has been changed by the industrial
designer. The function of the package sealer is simple: to dispense strips of
gummed paper used in wrapping packages. With the exception of two mov-
able parts— the frequently used handle and the infrequently used knob
to control the length of the strip— the mechanism can be enclosed. Obviously
the handle should be the dominant visual element, and it should be pleasant
These three package sealers show the

rapid change in design brought about by
demands for efficient and visually simple
forms in industrially produced objects.
{Egmont Arens)
(A) A model produced in 1918 somewhat
resembles a fanciful has exposed
bug,
working parts and tape, and almost con-
ceals the all-important lever.
(B) The 1932 design encloses the mecha-

nism, but the lever is still hard to see.
The angular shapes, once thought to be
efficient and genuinely expressive of
ma-
chine-made art, were antagonistic to the
people who used this object.
(C) The 1941 model, designed by Eg-

mont Arens, has been "humanized."
Rounded forms that protect machinery
and tape lead eyes and hands to the parts
mini-
used by the operator and expose a
mum of dirt-catching crevices.
to the user's hand. But there are other factors to consider. Package sealers
are small objects generally used in places where there is noise, some degree
of hurry and apparent confusion, and more than the usual amount of dust.
From these three models it is easy to pick the best, but let us look
at each in turn. The 1918 model is a lively looking little contraption laden
^vith the decoration associated with the nineteenth century. There appears
to be no real reason for its frisky shape, unless perhaps its demanding, busy
eagerness might stimulate its user to greater activity. Compare it with the
fust fivo musical instruments, in which the shape and ornament are not only
harmonious with the purposes of the object but are spirited and vital in
themselves. From several points of view, the package sealer leaves much to
be desired: the florid curves and trite ornament are unrelated to the object's
use; the complicated design would only add to the complexity of a pack-
age-wrapping atmosphere; and the working parts are exposed to dust and
invite minor accidents to its users' hands.
The 1932 model is simpler, and it is also homelier. Even though the
curves of the earlier model are neither appropriate nor inspired, they at
least make it look friendly. The mechanistic shapes of the second, however,
make one feel as though it should be operated by a mechanical robot, not
a human being. More of the parts are enclosed, and this is efficient, but the
angular eye-fatiguing and dust-catching forms almost look as though they
were designed to trap and bruise the human hand. Once thought to be
forthright expressions of a machine age, these shapes now seem clumsy and
inhuman. Machines, after all, have no character other than that given them
by their builders, and their produce is for us, not for machines, to use.
The last design is composed of two harmonious, interlocking forms and
an easy-to-use, comfortable handle that invites you to press it down. In fact,
the whole design suggests not only that it would fit your hand but that you
would enjoy running your hands over it. This is indeed desirable in an
object that is meant to be handled, and it distinguishes the last model from
the earlier ones. How would you describe these forms? To us they look like
humanized rectangles. The corners are rounded, and not all of the pairs of
sides are parallel. These modifications provide easy transitions from one
part to another— transitions that bring a smoothly flowing quality. The

effect is far less sharp than that which would have come from unaltered
rectangles, and it is less wayward and whimsical than curves alone might
have made it. One feels that underneath the sculptural roundness lies the
structural certainty of the right angle. This both strengthens the forms when
seen by themselves and relates them to the rectangularity that characterizes
most offices and their equipment. Although we know that in a lively culture
1941 package sealer has not been superseded more than

no form is final, tfie
twenty years later.
emotionally
The harpsichord-and-piano sequence brought us from the
harpsichord
charged, turbulent, sculptural quality of the eighteenth-century
of the nineteenth-cen-
through the vigorous yet controlled ornamentation
of today's design. The package
tury instrument down to the calm simplicity
sealers, too, show a trend toward restraint.
Notice that the last piano and the
last package sealer, different as they are

in purpose, size, and material, have
common. Now we will look at four chairs which il-

more than a little in
lustrate some of the diversity in design today.
Four Contemporary Chairs
The primary purpose of chairs is simply to offer us opportunity to relax

the vertical and the
our muscles in a bodily position somewhere between
horizontal. The design of chairs, however, is complex.
There are many dif-
and degrees of relaxation and, consequently, many
shapes that
ferent kinds
chairs can have. These shapes can be fabricated
from diverse materials put
together in a seemingly inexhaustible variety of ways.

Look at the chairs m
that each one has its own in-
Figs. 126A through 127B and you will notice
definite kind of physical
dividual expressive character. Each promises a
reactions in us. Be-
comfort and in turn calls up a fairly specific chain of
promise of comfort, each chair arouses emotional and
esthetic
yond this
needs, but not limited to
feelings, related to what it will do for our bodily
that alone. In short, they are works of art.
"Barcelona" chair, so named because it came to world-wide atten-
The
tion at the Barcelona International Exhibition,
was designed by Mies van
in 1929. It still stands without peer among the
thousands of
der Rohe
has one
modern machine-made chairs. Its polished stainless steel frame
removable leather cushions
simple and one reverse-curved member, and the
leather. Not only are the shape and ma-
are supported on straps of saddle
terials exquisitely beautiful, but the
workmanship is, and must be, perfect.
exemplifies its
more," a belief that de-
designer's philosophy of "less is
It
confused with
mands a hard, intense search for essences and should not be
the too-prevalent notion that modern simplicity
comes through mere elimi-
only to esthetic impoverish-
nation. The latter more often than not leads
of the Barcelona chair
ment. As with most great works of art, the character
not or rigid. It is elegant
not easy to describe. Although formal, it is stiff
is
but not ostentatious. And it is precisely perfect without boasting of this
quality. It is indeed a "classic."

Industrial Design -
125
Eero Saarinen's lounge chair is "biomorphic," a word coined to de-
scribe contemporary art forms related to life, phenomena, or living
vital
organisms. Thus it is the opposite of mechanistic. This chair's shell is of
plastic covered with foam rubber and upholstery textile, and it is supported
by a metal frame. Its shape suggests one made by a child who sits in a
snow bank and moves his head and arms around. The high back, broad
arms, and movable cushions result in very nearly complete sitting comfort.
Its dominant characteristic is the soft, enveloping enclosure that invites
one to sink in and settle down. It is neither casual nor formal, but some-
where between the two. Although large, its potential bulkiness is mini-
mized by the shell's thinness, the continuing curves, and the slender legs.
The two chairs at which we have looked were designed for machine
production. Now we turn to two that give clear evidence of their hand-
craft origin. Figure 127 A is an armchair designed by the Danish architect and
furniture designer Finn Juhl, and although it is now factory-produced in
this country, its character is that of a handmade object. Notice that in it,
as in the "Barcelona" chair, the parts are clearly articulated (distinctly and
systematically expressed). This is most noticeable in the separateness of the
structural frameworks and the upholstered cushions. Perhaps this is be-
cause both designers are architects who have a deep respect for structure
and who rely on exposed structure more than on surface treatment for total
effect. In Mies' chair, however, legs, seat, and back are continuous, while in
Juhl's chair the uprights and the horizontals are clearly differentiated. An-
other difference is the sculptural character of Juhl's frame. The parts shrink
and swell in response to their position and function, while in Mies' chair
they are consistently thin. In part, of course, this is because wood suggests
such shaping more than does metal. That explains why Juhl chose wood.
He chose the material that would lead naturally to the forms he had in
mind and then respected the nature of the material. Although machines
can produce these shapes, they had been made by hand long before man
dreamed of mechanical reproduction.
The fourth chair (Fig. 127B) is one of the many designs handmade by
native craftsmen in the Far East. As is the case with the familiar Windsor
chair, its designers are unknown. Through the experience of several gen-
erations of craftsmen working with materials they knew well, its design
evolved naturally. The result is a truly remarkable achievement. A frame-
work of lightweight bamboo is ingeniously structured for strength and then
wrapped with split cane. Seat, back, and sides are woven cane. Not only is
this chair shaped to fit the sitter's body, but it responds resiliently to differ-
ent positions. Although its structure is quite evident, it is less emphatically
distinct than that in the Danish chair because the back, seat, and sides are
Chairs can assume many shapes to meet spe-

cific human needs and tastes as
well as to ex-
press materials and processes.
(A) Left. The "Barcelona" chair, designed

by Mies van der Rohe in 1929, has a timeless,
classic beauty. {Knoll Associates)
chair
(B) Below. Eero Saarinen's lounge
(1948) was designed to promise
and to pro-
Asso-
vide complete physical comfort. {Knoll
ciates)
(A) Above. Finn Juhl's gracefully sculp-

tured chair {c. 1950), developed from tradi-
tional handcraft techniques and forms, is
now factory produced. [Baker Furniture, In-
corporated)
(B) Right. A cane chair, handmade in the

Far East, combines comfort, light weight,
and low price with a pleasing and enduring
design. (Calif-Asia Company)
128 - Ai"t 2^ Industry
humble and unpretentious, its design

literally woven into it. Its character is
unself-conscious and unaffected.
that modern design is

The diversity of these four chairs demonstrates
the minds and hearts of three profes-
not stereotyped. The chairs come from
and from
sional designers,born in Germany, United States, and Denmark,
made, respectively, of steel
unschooled Chinese craftsmen. Their frames are
and leather; steel and plastic; wood; and
bamboo and cane. They express
Which
lean elegance, luxurious comfort, sculptural grace, and casualness.
appeals to you most strongly?
Contemporary Industrial Design
What are the salient characteristics of

contemporary design?
Never before has mankind had so many
Diversity is the most obvious.
materials and ways of processing them at his
command, and this challenges
designers. Never before has there been
such widespread buying power and
such freedom of choice.

simple in design. Because
In spite of these differences, most objects are
to become an unobtrusive back-
of their simplicity, individual objects tend
Unity and harmony outshadow variety and
contrast,
ground for people.
a perplexingly com-
perhaps as an expression of our quest for integration in
areas, and minimum ornament
plex epoch. Smooth surfaces, colors in large
emphasize basic forms.
surface. Look
Implied motion or activity often underlies simplicity of
again at the electric iron or Juhl's chair. belong to a dynamic age. While
We
movement as in the Baroque harpsi-
we do not often seek such vehement
chord, neither do we derive pleasure from objects that look inert.
Of the many approaches to form, two are dominant. One is geometrical,

units in Figs. A 129 and
as can be seen in the modular furniture and storage
or units of measurement. Work-
B. These pieces are based on modules,
ing on this system, a manufacturer can
make many pieces of furniture from
dimension-
a relatively small of parts. Because the storage units are
number
in many
ally coordinated, purchasers can arrange and rearrange them
shapes also occur in
orderly, space-saving combinations. Strictly geometrical
most dinnerware and cooking utensils.
shapes, such
The second approach leads to sculptural or biomorphic
sealer as well as in Saarinen's and Juhl's
as we have seen in the last package
chairs. These humanized shapes,
reminiscent of our own bodies, can be al-
responses.
most infinitely varied, and their naturalness arouses sympathetic
129
r^f T
^
I
Standardized, modular furniture and equipment bring economy and unity.
(A) Above. A few standardized parts can be combined into a number of interchange-
able units of furniture. Gerald Luss. designer. (Lehigh Furniture Corporation)
(B) Below. Wall hung storage, study, and sleeping units can be assembled as desired,
provide compact, cflicitnt room design. [Herman Miller Inc., Special Products Division)
many products are designed to create new needs
In the race for business,
needs the public is aware of. This situation
rather than to satisfy those
to
of a highly specialized nattire
and much equipment
causes many tools
enforced obsoles-
frequently leads to built-in or
be produced. And it also
automotive, ne^v models are put out each
cence In many fields, such as the
examples,
clothing and home furnishings are
year Other fields, of which
twelve-month period. To keep
may' introduce two or more new lines in a
number of possible improvements may be in-
sales high, only one of a
making a large number of products
corporated at any one time, thereby
obsolescent, every year.
seem old-fashioned, if not exactly
machine-made products will reveal that

today's
Even a casual survey of
for example,
possible generalization. There is,
there are exceptions to every
stoves and refrigerators, but
the
comparatively little variety in kitchen
accentuated
"marginal differentiation, are
slight differences, referred to
as
there are
in advertising. Although
many textiles and wallpapers are simple,
intentionally designed
also many with rich patterns.
And a few products are
ptit on the
to have long, useful lives.
Look carefully at the new models
and note the ways in which they differ
market during the next few years
from their predecessors.
THE HANDCRAFTS TODAY

machine, the handcrafts have turned
Seemingly doomed to extinction by the
that they
roots so deep in human nature
out to be hardy perennials with
mid-nineteenth century the pro-
give every indication of persistence. By
unemployment
tests
machine products, the disastrous
against the ugliness of
ex-
of craftsmen, and the cities
made ugly by factories and uncontrolled
us English
Revival. William Morris,
pansion led to the Arts and Crafts
reformer who envisioned an integrated
founder was an idealistic social
beauti-
society well-housed, working
under good conditions, and producing
as a whole, the movement
ful handmade objects for everyday use. ^'iewed
production had too many advantages
was unsuccessful because machine
sympathetic use
to be abandoned. But it
focused attention on good design,
making something with
of materials,and the gratification that comes from
one's own hands. r ^
and amateur
i
levels From
Today the handcrafts flourish at professional
objects (Figs. 131 A B,
the hands of skilled craftsmen
come many handsome
of public taste, these
C and D). Not aimed toward the common denominator
conceived and
one-of-a-kind works can be
individualized and experimental,
age threatened by stereotypes
and con-
developed without compromise. In an
The Handcrafts Today - 131
Contemporary handcrafts add immeasurably to the richness of everday living.

(A) Upper left. Bob Winston's pendant, cast by the lost-wax process, is a minia-
silver
ture piece of sculpture, strongly three-dimensional and organic in form. {Courtesy of the
artist)
(B) Upper right. John Fassbinder's hand-throvvn ceramic vase is strong and simple in
basic shape, delightfully enriched with podlike ornament. (Courtesy of the artist)
(C) Lower left. Hand-blown glass vases and bottles by John Burton combine colors and
shapes with an audacious spontaneity. (Courtesy of the American Craftsmen's Council)
(D) Lower right. Rosalind Ray Watkin's handwoven hanging of moss, yucca, and cotton
holds irregularity in a strong structural design. (Courtesy of the American Craftsmen's
Council)
expressions are highly valued. ^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^
formity these singular
as ^^
handcrafts on industrial desxgn.
too. is the influence of ^^^^^^^^^^
new
provide an ineKpensive way to explore
crafts
]uhl-s chair. All of the
to machine production.
be adapted
5He;,s that may later
'"" '"""'^
And rlhould no. o'riook .he pe.son.. --'-;°"
.vi.h .hdr own '>-<>' ,^»^;^-^
ge. Ln. making scne.Mng en.nel,
have
Morris had in mmd, he would undoubtedly
not exactly what William which are
accompUshments,
bl ^lealedthe amateur craftsman's
wUh
and to our individual economy.
boons to our mental health
and the ha-^c^f^ have

Now that the machine has been domesticated
our service, auu i>

y t-
one on
however,
no is
that dictates what it should do. This issue,
of its own think?
not complete agreement.
What do you
which there is
THE PROBLEM OF SELECTION

money on the arts
considerable amount of your
Inevitably you will spend a problem is to select
the most pressing
n^Tndustrv For you, the consumer,
The Problem of Selection - 133
table— and desirable when it meets new needs or takes advantage of new
developments— novelty in and of itself has little virtue. Or suppose that
the clerk says, "This chair (or teapot) is an exact duplicate of one used by
Martha \\'ashington. Doesn't it take you right back to Colonial days?"
Whether it does or not is less important than whether you like, or do not
like, the design of the object. Is it beautiful and useful? Does it suit your
needs? These are the questions to ask yourself.

Fads and fashions follow one another as fast as promoters can force
them. Sometimes they emphasize newness, sometimes oldness. Neither new-
ness nor oldness is a sound criterion. Living in an age marked by restlessness
and uncertainty, we are surrounded by change. It has been remarked that
we are "galloping consumers" eager to be off with the old and on with the
new, and our period has been described as a "Kleenex culture" in which just
about everything is disposable. There is more than a grain of truth in each
of these phrases, and they immediately make us wonder if there are forms
of lasting value. Certainly, very few everyday objects have had continued,
widespread appeal. There are a few exceptions, such as the Windsor chair
(Fig. 181 A). Because of its sound structure, pleasing and comfortable shape,
and the many modificatiojis to which it lends itself without losing its iden-
tity, this chair has had a remarkably long continuous existence since its de-
velopment in the eighteenth century. A few patterns in dishes and silver
have lasted for a number of years, but there are very few textiles that have
been continuously produced for longer than twenty years. Often revivals,
such as that of eighteenth-century furniture, make it appear that these

forms have lasted through the centuries. We know, though, that eighteenth-
century designs were all but forgotten in the nineteenth century.
Distinguishing between objects of lasting interest and those of fleeting
appeal requires serious thought and continuous study, but it yields high
dividends. Before you purchase— even better, before you start looking— de-
cide exactly why you want the object. Then think about when, where, and
how you will use it. After that it is easier to decide which object will be
best. While looking through stores, magazines, or catalogues, ask yourself
the following questions about any object that interests you. How well does
it perform its utilitarian functions? How pleasing are the form, color and
texture? How and how well have they been
suitable are the materials,
handled? Make all the comparisons you can on all factors. Study and apply
the discussion of material and processes in Part II as well as the chapters
in Part III of this book. Always, though, remember that you are the pur-
chaser, you are the one who is going to have to live with what you buy,
and you are the one to be satisfied.
134 -Art in Industry
INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE
phenomenon as significant as the Industrial Revolution should bring
a
A
new architecture. And it did. At first this new architecture was
as ugly as
but no longer true, as looking at the

the products issuing from it, this is
Watts Bar Steam Plant (Fig. 135A), one of the Tennessee Valley Authority's
beauty regarded as a
structures, will show. It has a very real beauty, if is
harmonious relationship of functions, forms, and materials.

Marked by de-
an abstract expression, not a
cisive simplicity and vigor, the exterior is
inside. The severity of the tre-
literal description, of the power generated
horizontal
mendous rectangles of gray-brown brick is punctuated by long
light. In strik-
hooded openings for ventilation and bands of glass brick for
with gray asbestos and
ing contrast is the lofty coal conveyor, sheathed
that carries fuel
boldly supported by a handsome steel-girder framework,
of lights and darks, the play
to the top of the plant. The clean-cut pattern
other lead to a design of
of forces, movements, and directions against each
great power and clarity.
always un-
Although the exteriors of industrial architecture are almost
opposite. The American
complicated, the working parts are often quite the
Sheeler has stated with a truly masterful orderliness
and
painter Charles
some of this complexity in "Incantation" (Fig. 135B). This
painting
lucidity
is well named: the intricate interplay
of thick and thin, large and small,
cylindrical and rectangular, vertical, horizontal,

and diagonal shapes does
dominant character-
weave a spell or charm. These illustrations show two
istics of most contemporary industrial
architecture: massive forms of monu-
diversity.
mental simplicity and smaller forms of intricate
step in a long line

Naturally, contemporary industrial architecture is a
of evolution. In many cultures, part of the
home was the "factory," as is
craftsman does his work in
illustrated in Fig. 137 A. Here a humble Mexican
wife and children. Living
one corner of his front porch with the help of his
circle may sound
and working under one roof in the midst of one's family
and beautifully integrated to us in the midst of our
delightfully simple
there is sufficient well-
hurrying from one place to another. And when
with its convenience and
lighted and well-ventilated space, the home-factory
points for the craftsman. But with rare exceptions
it
low overhead has its
isnow an unsatisfactory makeshift.

1800's made
The rapid introduction of machine production in the early
it imperative for men to work
collectively. Factories were built rapidly-
women, and children
and with minimum regard for the workers. Men,
and ventilation were
were crowded together with machines. Heat, light,
Industrial Architecture -
135
New powerful forms expressive of their

purpose have evolved in industrial
architecture. Their freshness and in-
tegrity liave inspired painters.
(A) Above. The Watts Bar Steam
Plant, built for the TVA
in the 1930s,
is a vigorous expression of the power
the plant produces. (Tennessee Valley
Authority)
(B) Right. Charles Sheeler's painting

"Incantation" (1946) is a compelling
statement of the purposeful and or-
derly complexity of industrial archi-
tecture. (In the Brooklyn Museum Col-
lection')
Working days, even for
nînimal. Noise, dxrt, and ugliness were everywhere.
hours. Pathetically ut.le atten^pts to
"i^ren. ran to twelve or fourteen
historic ornament
these factories by appliquemg
•'beautify- the exteriors of
the Gothic. Romanesque
or Renaissance
_ClassicIl coltunns. a touch of have
smoke screen. The art could
arches-were only an architectural
"engineering" with a chisel.
been stripped from the quite
depends on efficient workmen
Then to step up production, which
as much as on better
machinery, engineers began to
design ^-^^^'^^
the early structures were
forward buildings. Although
illuminated and ventilated.
Countless expert ^f^.^^^^^
they were at least adequately construc"or.
advanlge new possibilities in architectural
L nts took full
of
and steel arches made possib^
new kinds of concrete
Lei posts and girders,
large rooms with few interrupting

supports or walls. ^-P---^ .^
function f^^
and
The engineer, with his interest in
permitted large windows.
a much-needed lesson.
structure, taught the architect
The Bauhaus in Dessau, Germarry.
L;
architects were ready to learn.
Walter Gropius to house a
"revolution in art
(Fig 137B) was designed by
design rs
workshop, painters, architects,
n this combination school and -^h^
to educate young artists
ô-
and craftsmen worked side by side
were basic shape, materials,
and structure
a.e Their primary concerns
artists learned
handled until the prospective
n;t decoration. Materials were new poten-
numberless
their characteristics, and their experiments revealed
was enormous.
tialities The effect on industrial art. in particular,
the philosophy that guided the
The design of the building expressed
one unit of the building has wah
school. Sometfmes called the "Glass Box."
light and a sense of spa-^^^^^^^^^^^^
almost entirely of glass to give abundant
not because it
finished in 1926. attracted world-wide attention,
When it
for examp
glass-walled building (London's Crystal Palace
was the first
because it, more than any of
its
antedated it by seventy-five years) but
sense of architectural design
pr de ssors. achieved a thoroughly satisfying
since has surpassed the
bold yet sensitive con-
Tglas and steel. Nothing architec-e-
Style in
of the International
"cttn of this early example architecture.
industrial and commercial
In example that profoundly affected
structural devices.
Today we experimenting with materials and
are still
humanizing
Chapter 17. We are also
some of which are discussed in
shapes of rooms and machines
and their surfaces are being
Xie The
ôo.y^^^^^r^
Bright colors are replacing
Ide stimulating a'nd satisfying. and green create
refineries, red, blue, yellow,
in. browns and grays. In some
employees sense
est vl atmosphere. Not
only do these colors affect the
warn of poten-
him do his job. Bright colors
of w U-being, but they help
Industrial Architecture -
137
Two contemporary workshops, each functional in its environment.

(A) Above. A home factory in Cuernavaca, Mexico, showing the potter working outside
his home with a primitive foot-power potter's wheel.
(B) Below. The epoch-making new Bauhaus (1926) in Dessau, Germany, was
designed
to house a school which brought art and industry together again as they were in the
past.
(University Pmits)
..iillllPS
iiL.^-
138
the generator
In the Pickwick Powerhouse, mighty
and impersonal machines dominate
the most believable symbols of power that
room as well they might, for they are among
Valley Authority)
this age has produced. {Tennessee
in dark spots. Used according

tialdanger, pale colors improve visibility
clues as to what each part does.
Art and
to a code, they give immediate
useless frills, even by the
hardheaded
beauty are no longer regarded as
officials of industry. , .
architectures aim
Beinc at the utilitarian end of the scale, industrial
toward economical output,
is efficiency. Design and construction are shaped
efficiency and economy differ
from those held a century
but our ideas of
Industrial Architecture - 139
ago. Instead of concentrating solely on machine efficiency, we think of

human economy, which brings profit and satisfaction for all in the long
run. What functions must be served by the building, and how best can
it be planned for people as well as for machines? The industrial architect
must analyze and solve his problems with skills as rigorous as those of a
physicist.
The field of industrial design has an extensive literature:
Bauhaus: Herbert Bayer (Boston: Branford, 1952).

Lively, well-illustrated account of an influential twentieth-century approach
to art.
Buildings for Industry: Editors of Architectural Record (New York: McGraw-

Hill, 1957).
A comprehensive collection of modern industrial architecture.
Chairs: George Nelson (New York: Whitney, 1953).

The di\ersity of chairs is well illustrated and described.
Decorative Arts (New York: Viking); Idea (New York: Wittenborn); and In-
dustrial Design in America (New York: Farrar, Straus).
Three annual publications that present excellent surveys of current work.
Designing for People: H. Dreyfuss (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955).
Emphasizes human needs in industrial design.
The Index of American Design: Erwin O. Christensen (New York: Macmillan,
1950).
Survey of American crafts.
Industrial Architecture: James F. Munce (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961).

Excellent technical treatise on new developments.
Industrial Design: Harold Van Doren (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954).

Detailed presentation of product design and development.
Introduction to Twentieth Century Design: Arthur Drexler and Greta Daniel

(New York: Doubleday, 1959).
Excellent, well-illustrated account of modern industrial design.
Mechanization Takes Command: Siegfried Giedion (New York: Oxford, 1948).

A penetrating discussion of the history and theory of mechanization.
Never Leave Well Enough Alone: Raymond Loewy (New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1951).
An entertaining account of how one industrial designer works.
Shaping America's Products: Don Wallace (New York: Reinhold, 1956).

Informative case studies of craftsmen and industrial design procedures.
I
Jos6 de Rivera's abstract steel sculpture
(c. 1954) is the trademark of a corpo-
ration manufacturing textile yarns. (©

A.E.C. Courtesy of American Enka Cor-
poration)
5 Art in- Commerce

COMMERCE, THE LIFELINE OF INDUSTRY, gives producers a means
of getting their products or services across to us, the consumers. It is a fast-
changing competitive field of selling and buying in which artists make

notable contributions.
The basic problem of the arts of commerce is to express a product,
service, or idea so that observers are impressed. Yet we know that express-
ing something so that others can experience it is fundamental in all the
arts. Musicians compose symphonies or dance tunes and then hope for ap-
preciative audiences; dramatists write plays for the public to see and hear;
and painters express their ideas in form and color and then show their
140
Packaging and Display -
141
work. At the root of all art is expression for the benefit and satisfaction of
others. In short, art is expression and communication.
But the special problems of the commercial arts differ from those
of the other arts because the aims are different. Whereas the arts of the home
are aimed toward pleasant home life, the arts of commerce are directed
toward effective selling. And while the arts of the community and of reli-
gion—great architecture, sculpture, and painting embodying social and

spiritual ideals— are created to induce respect and contemplation, the com-
mercial arts are calculated to be so attention-demanding and self-evident that
even the uninterested passer-by or reader will pause and get the point with-
out study. The aim of commercial art is to sell the mass outpouring of high
speed machines to as many buyers as possible. It is accomplished by captur-
ing attention, holding attention, and making a forceful impression.
Businessmen as well as commercial artists know that the problem of
selling is integral with the design and packaging, display and advertising
of their products. Form and color, appropriately organized, stimulate pur-
chases. Designing the product, as discussed in the preceding chapter, is the

first step. Then comes the creating of suitable containers and effective dis-
plays, of interest-arousing advertisements, and of appropriate architecture.
PACKAGING AND DISPLAY

Only a few decades ago grocery stores were a confusion of barrels, bins, and
bags exposing peas, beans, brown sugar, and coffee to all Avho came in.
Counters and shelves were lined with boxes and tubs, most of them wide
open, holding soda crackers, dried primes, and pickled herring. You asked
for a pound of soda crackers: the grocer reached into the cracker box,
measured out a pound, and stuffed them in a brown paper bag— but not
before handling them several times. You knew little about the quality
because you did not know the brand. And your trust in the grocer's scales
was all you had to go on to insure your quantity.

Today a great many products are sold in packages. Why? For the con-
sumers, well-designed packages are readily identifiable, increase the delight
of purchase, add some visual attractiveness to shelves and cupboards at
home, and offer the pleasure of "opening a new package." All of this reaches
a high point in products packaged as gifts (Figs. 146B and 150B). In morea
material vein, packages can assure purchasers of the standard quality and
quantity of their protected contents, and they simplify the handling, storing,
and using of the many things brought into the home. Merchants also ap-
preciate the fact that packages are convenient to handle and store, take less
time on the part of the sales force, and can improve a store's appearance.
142 - Art in Commerce
are potent selling
Manufacturers have learned that distinguished packages
advertisements, and on tele-
factors-in stores, in newspaper and magazine
vision.
not simple and easy. The designer usually begins
Package design is
shape, materials, weight, and cost. And within

with restrktions of size,
these restrictions it is produce a container that will fight its own

his task to
market shelf. In one sense, his
battle for attention on an overcrowded
prospective purchaser what is
package is a small-size poster that tells the
is three-dimensional and,
therefore,
inside But unlike a poster, a package
144B). Also it is seldom seen
must tell its story from any angle or side (Fig.
up with a number of identical packages and it
in isolation: it will be lined
self-service
will be adjacent to competing products. The rapid increase of
of packaging (and related
supermarkets has placed squarely on the shoulders
advertising) much of the selling burden
formerly carried by salesmen.
Packages, at their best, attract immediate

and favorable attention while
imparting general and specific sales messages.

One effective approach is a
picture related to the package's contents.
The labels on many canned or
you immediately-and more effectively than words-
frozen vegetables tell
what to expect inside. But some products, such as cake mixes or lawn seeds,
treatment. With these, package designers
do not lend themselves to such
the end result, as in Fig. 143 A. A con-
often tempt the buyer with a picture of
covers most of the box. Its grass-
vincingly realistic representation of a lawn
color is accentuated by a band of orange
around the bottom. Five
green
blue-green oval proclaim the
words printed in very bright orange on a
size, shape, and material are sim-
product and who made it. Even though its
distinctive to cap-
ilar tohundreds of other packages, this one is sufficiently
urge, and be easily remembered.
ture attention, arouse the buying
lend themselves to transparent packaging, an
ideal solu-
Some products
tion because the purchaser can see
what he is buying and yet know that it
handsomely designed plastic hair-
has been protected. The package for the
purchase. Little more could be
brush in Fig. 143B invites attention-and
asked for such alluring luxuries
asked for hairbrushes, but much more is
restrictions of cost, size, and weight are of
as perfumes. For these, the typical
elegance. Of all of the con-
minor concern. Paramount is the expression of
tainers for perfume, none surpasses the
one illustrated in Fig. 150B, the
timelessness seldom found in packaging.
classic simplicity of which has a
suited to pictorializa-
products, such as disposable tissues, are not
Many
design is often the best solution. The
tion For these a distinctive abstract
history of one company's packages, of
which over six billion have been
sold can be seen in Figs. 144A and B.

The 1924 and 1925 packages, legible
Packaging and Display - 143
Packages and containers that express or

reveal their contents simplify shopping.
(A) Left. A package of strong, simple
design that convincingly pictures the end
result of the contents. (O. M. Scott and
So7is Company)
(B) Below. Transparent containers re-
veal yet protect their contents. (Owens-
Illinois Glass Company)
1925 1926
1924
1929 1938
1928
Chanees in taste are quickly reflected inpackage design. ., ,
in a fourteen-year per.od. The sixth

design.
(A)'Ibove. Six different designs were used
for twenty years.
o£ outstanding quality, was retained
design by Saul Bass came in several colors. -"1^ -^
(B) B./ou-.^The 1960 ^f.-''-
K.
the top or any side by the distinctne
pattern when stacked, and was identifiable from
(© 1960 by KImberley-Clarh Corporation)
KLêrsJE^Xl ml^
mml
"f^'i
~
\
1
\
M
i
'-
m
j0
Packaging and Display -
145
w-mMmSiMw^
provocative percussion
•
• • •
•
• •••
••••••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••
Even the simplest geometric shapes, it sensitively selected and arranged, constitute an in-
exhaustible source of expressive designs. {Command Records)
but dull, were superseded by the weakest of the seven designs— the company's
name is concealed in a loose arrangement of unrelated shapes. Visually the
1928 attempt is strong and straightforward, but the product's name is not
on the side most commonly seen in stores. This was partially remedied in
1929. In 1938 a "classic" evolved. A bold organization of rectangles that
acknowledges the box's shape forms an immediately recognizable and es-
thetically satisfying pattern. The brand name is clearly visible on the top
and four sides. Its time-tested value as a brand signature was terminated by
a package that was said to be "consumer tested and proved . . . modern,
decorative . . . greater acceptance in all rooms of the house . . . especially
appealing to women." The 1960 box is subtle, marked departure from
but its
an established image led in 1962 to an eighth design, which is an elaborated

version of the 1938 package. We cannot predict the future!
Well-designed record albums can be potent silent salesmen, and the
"abstract" nature of most music makes nonrepresentational design espe-
cially suitable (Fig. 145). The idea of Provocative Percussion is expressed by
an emphatically active and unexpected design. Ten large squares placed at
different angles, organized into four major groups and linked by nine small
squares, produce a staccato effect. Persuasive Percussion suggests a quieter
design. A broad band of small circles, densely and regularly organized, estab-
lishes a background beat. Above this, a few freely spaced circles float spon-
taneously and playfully.
More and more manufacturers are finding that their sales increase if
all of their containers have an easily identifiable family resemblance and

if they are well displayed (Figs. 146A and B). Notice in the paint display
the repetition of the name on the stripes, the consistency of the lettering.
sales agents.
Coordinated "families of packages" are effective
in harmony with container designs
attract and hold
(A) Above. Colorful display cards
attention. (Martin Senour Paints)
lettering discreetly held ni a geometric
frame-
(B) Below. Floral designs and handsome
Katayama, designer. (Ntpon-Zakari)
work are varied yet belong together. Toshihiro
puj-wn-.'
Posters and Advertisements -
147
the round spots, and the paint brush motif that link products and advertis-
ing together. Far more refined, sprightly, and unexpected is the family of
Japanese packages designed to appeal to the discriminating customer.
Families of packages and coordinated displays that arouse the buying
urge are two of the devices producers employ to sell their ^vares. But these
are almost invariably augmented by advertising, a field at which ^ve shall
now look.
POSTERS AND ADVERTISEMENTS

Three notable posters from England, Switzerland, and the United Slates
(Figs. 148A, B, and C) state their messages clearly— and Avith varied
means. If the poster proclaiming "Come on the Telephone" in its full size
and colors were located along your path, how would it affect you? Its brief,
urgent message would remind you of that important means of communica-
tion, the telephone. You would think of what the telephone can do and,
to guide your thinking toward two outstanding features, E. McKnight Kauf-
fer centered attention on the handiness of the telephone and the magical
ease with which it carries voices over great distances. This poster might make
you decide to install another extension in your home or to put in a call
at the nearest pay-phone, but its primary purpose is to bring to mind again
what a wondrous invention the telephone is. Advertising of this type is
often appropriately called reminder advertising.

Vigorous, clear, and simple, this poster can be visually grasped and un-
derstood at a glance. It can also be seen repeatedly without losing its impact.
Why? Because it is both strong and subtle. An emphatic element (the tele-
phone) is thrust into the left side of the poster as though it were being
handed to you. This movement is carried downward at the right with the
words "Come on the Telephone." Or it could be analyzed this way (there
are many ways of looking at any worthwhile design): an emphatic vertical

is held above a sturdy horizontal; and these are brought together in a
triangular composition by the diagonals of the wrist and of the words
"Come on the." It is difficult to imagine a more simple basic design. What
Kauffer did with it is another matter. Although immediately recognizable,
the illustration is suggestive rather than representative. The hand and wrist
are almost contained within a form as rigidly angular as the blocks of

letters— but notice the subtle shading that gives the hand life and motion,
and the thumb that escapes through the boundaries to point toward the
first word of the sentence. Motion is further suggested by the accurately
specific outline of the telephone that overlays and pulls forward the ex-
pressive but generalized black shape behind it. This progression from the
ways. (Courtesy of the Museum of Mod-

Effectiveness in posters can be achieved
in many
em Art, New York) j ,„ pro]ect fnrrp-
to „vr.;prt a
n torce
•
(A) Above. E. McKnight Kaufter

employed a simple, dynamic design
with brilliant naturalism

Herbert Matter's poster catches attention
its
(S'^'L left.
organized sub,ect matter.
and enforces its message with well-selected, inventively
Times Square with brilliantly colored
(C) il" S/UDavid Klein vividly expressed
rectangles and sparkling star shapes.
Posters and Advertisements -
149
specific to the general is carried one step further in the shapes behind the
hand and phone. Are they clouds? Or just space and distance? Whatever
they are, they evoke associations of things far away, but they let you imag-
ine just ^vhat these things are. From the specific and commanding sentence
to the intentionally vague, cloudlike shapes, this poster is addressed to you.
It is at once specific and unconfining, as is the service it advertises.
The second poster transports you to Pontresina, a simny valley in the
Swiss Alps filled with spring flowers (Fig. 148B). At first glance the poster
looks completely naturalistic. So hirsute is the hat, so glistening the edel-
weiss, and so hard and shiny the sunglasses and pick that through your
eyes alone you can sense in your fingertips the contrasting textures. Gay
flowers and warmth where the climbers are resting and, just beyond, snow
and rocks that almost touch the sky— an exhilarating paradox near the
top of the world. With subject matter such as this, it is no wonder that
Herbert Matter took nature as his inspiration. But he was not slavishly
literal. He selected, organized, emphasized, and subordinated so that the
underlying idea makes a vivid, lasting impression.
Being in New York City's Times Square at night is a memorable ex-
perience, and David Klein has captured its excitement in an arresting
poster (Fig. 148C). Buildings and signboards, transformed into many brightly
colored, overlapping planes, stand out sharply from the dark background.
Lights become a myriad of sparkling stars, traffic a series of dotted lines.
Above this complexity is the very simple, easily remembered message,
which is reinforced by a realistic airplane.
Each of these posters grew from an and in each the idea was a
idea,
distinctive aspect of the service advertised. Each artist created a design

that vividly expresses what he wanted to communicate. Notice how differ-
ent they are. The first is simple, strong, and semi-abstract; the second is
realistic and intricately detailed; and the third unifies a complexity of
abstract shapes.
Nobody knows who made the first advertisement. Perhaps it was a

potter thousands of years ago who identified his pots with a distinguishing
trademark. We do know, though, that the Romans used advertisements and
that in the sixteenth century posters and handbills appeared in England.
Surprisingly, it was the clergy who in comparatively modern times made

the first use of advertising notices to inform people of their services.
Today advertising is a national phenomenon of tremendous magnitude.
And although it usually pays big dividends, it is costly— one full-page, black-
and-white advertisement in a magazine can cost up^vard of $40,000, and
'

' y?'"^«aP5f^
^^S^SMM
Advertisements may announce new

developments or remind us of prod-
ucts we know.
(A) Above. A new type face is
appropriately introduced by display-

ing its grace and commenting on its
versatility. Herb Lubalin, designer.
{Sudler & Hennessey, Inc.)
(B) Left. Some advertisements re-
mind us that a well-known product

is still available. This example is
outstanding for its refreshing sim-

plicity. {Foote, Cone, and Belding)
HH MOST TREASURED NAME IN PKRFUMC
tJ-LAJSLEJ.
A
Posters and Advertisements - 151
recently one company spent over 66 million dollars in one year to tell
consumers about its products. Advertising as we know it became firmly

established about fifty years after the United States was first settled, but
it did not get into full swing until the Industrial Revolution brought mass
production on a large scale, railroads carried products great distances, and
periodicals with nationwide circulations were read by millions.
been said that the best advertisements tell you luhat, why, where,
It has
when— and how inuch? In general this is true, but there are outstanding ex-
ceptions, examples of which are illustrated in Figs. 150A and B, and 151.
The design of a new type face was used by Sudler and Hennessey, Inc., to
illustrate their product and the felicity with which it might be used. In
this case the design of the advertisement itself suggests the answers to the
first t^vo questions; the next two are answered in the small block of informa-
tion worked into the format at the left. An example of pioneering advertis-
ing, it announces a new product and also reminds potential customers of
the company's services, but discreetly leaves the last question unanswered.
Used without change since 1939, the advertisement for Chanel No. 5
has come to be a classic. While it tells you what wnth. unforgettable clarity
and suggests why with a compelling phrase, the remainder is left up to you
to discover. The one-sentence advertisement for tea is basically similar al-
For more than sixty years

ple, direct message has sold
this sim-
tea. "SAIAM
Is Delicious
though it relies on words alone. It, too, is exceptional in that it has pro-
moted sales for more than sixty years. Rarely do advertisements last this
long. Both of these are reminder advertisements and one falls into the
prestige category. Both are starkly simple yet distinctive, and, therefore,
they stand out from the typically cluttered pages of magazines and news-
papers. Their effectiveness comes from long-continued, regular repetition.
But they would not have been repeated this long had they not been effective
in the first place.
Magazine and booklet covers and television program titles offer many
opportunities for creative commercial design as illustrated in Figs. 1 52
through 153B. Typical magazine covers, such as the one for Holiday, are
related to the contents of that issue. Occasionally, though, a design that
makes one wonder why it was used attracts attention, especially in spe-
lOAY
Two ma<razine covers whose ingenious simplicity commands

attention.
^ . . .
has been given new by George Giusti in a

(A) ML A familiar symbol of England
life
bold, inventive presentation. (RepmUed by special permission from Holiday, ©

195S by
The Curtis Publishing Company) , r-u

.
„»
Cherinayeff,
trade journal, designers Brownjohn,
(B) Rkht. For the seênth issue of a
unexpected. (February 1960 cover of The
and Giesmar relied on the impact of the
Journal of Commercial Art and Design)
S K (.
IB:
periodical into pictorial terms. {Courtesy of
Some covers translate the contents of the
Graphis, Graphis Press, Zurich) . .
,
broadcasting association annual
_
(C) Left. A cover design by Adolf Fliickiger for a Swiss

adroitly expresses the movement of sound waves. , ,
•
i
Limburg electrical
m) Right. The cover for the fiftieth-anniversary report of the Elffers, designer.
carry high-voltage lines. Dick
works retBinds one of the structures that
Creating Advertising - 153
Television are a new field for the advertising artist. (Columbia Broadcasting System)
titles
(A) Left. Georg Olden's deceptively simple title for a television network feature ex-
presses the spirit of the program through inventive typography.
(B) Right. Jack Huper's promotional slide for a television show is packed with action
and suspense.
cialized journals. The bold figure 7, which overflows the cover of the
seventh issue of The Journal of Commercial Art, is a striking example. The
"house organs" published by many large companies offer even greater
freedom because these are distributed without charge. From S^vitzerland
and the Netherlands come the abstract yet pertinent designs suggesting over-
lapping, expanding sound waves for a broadcasting association annual and a
slender-framed steel tower for an electrical company's report.
Advertisements and titles for television programs have come a long
way from how efiêctively the
the early uninspired announcements. Observe
spirit of The News News

behiyid the has been captured in its ingenious
typographic design and how forcefully Manhunt is expressed.
CREATING ADVERTISING
Effective advertising is the result of a long process in which many experts
participate in preliminary research, planning, and evaluation.
Research: Marketing and Psychological
Marketing research seeks facts about potential consumers and about the
appropriateness of the possible advertising mediums (newspapers, magazines,
radio, television). Some of the questions to be answered are:
m Who uses this product and why?

the attention of the consumer and how
. How does the product come to
does it get into his hands?
his choice?
What factors, positive and negative, determine
concerned with the general and specific

human
Psychological research is
reactions to varied kinds of display

and copy. It has given advertismg ex-
perts such findings as these:
space
Size increases attention
approximately by the square root of the
of
of a full page is 100 percent, that
used (for example, if the attention value
a half page is about 71 percent
and of a quarter page about 50 percent.
important: the first and last pages of periodicals get most
Position is
page
attention, right-hand pages are
preferable to left-hand; tf less than one
captures more attention than the mner
and the
is used, the outer column
top more than the bottom. ,
and layout, invades the readers

Movement, suggested by illustrations
consciousness quickly and deeply.

is a very fundamental
pomt-it
Color catches the eye, but-and this
should center the readers' thoughts
and feelings on the product, service,
was created. It fails if it merely attracts
or idea for which the advertisement
attention to itself.
worth
Contrast, unexpectedness, and differentness are almost always
repetition.
while for a time at least, but they may not hold up under
Planning the Advertisement

next step planning an advertisement
is
After this preliminary study, the
or an entire advertising campaign.
A theme or an idea, in both text and
advertis-
research results and out of the
illustration, is developed from the
extraneous or ir-
ingenuity. Anything that is
ing experts' imagination and
the basic idea weakens an advertise-
relevant or that diverts interest from
would weaken statue, or building. It is some-
a painting,
ment iust as it
in advertising than in
what easier, though, to ^veed out the unnecessary
because the aim is single and simple: to sell. To
most other art expressions
make a lasting
must capture attention, arouse and hold
interest,
succeed it
deemed desirable by the man who foots
impression, and lead to the action
the bill.
Evaluation
advertising in selling
The final step is checking the effectiveness of tlie
products, services, or good will.

Commercial Architecture - 155
COMMERCIAL ARCHITECTURE
In our century, commercial architecture has undergone a revolution. The
first stages ^vere little more than face lifting and "brightening up"
old
stores and offices. Ornament was scraped off; brighter colors were used; il-
lumination was improved. Sometimes old equipment was rearranged or per-

haps replaced by what seemed more up-to-date. But with few exceptions
these changes were rightly called "modernization." Later, the many prob-
lems connected with store and office design were freshly studied in the light
of contemporary human needs and habits. As with the home and the city,
new solutions emerged. Studying the illustrations on page 156 will alert you
to some of the changes.
o
Eighteenth-Century Williamsburg and Twentieth-Century Berkeley
Had you lived in Colonial Williamsburg and got dressed in your eight-
eenth-century clothes to go downtown for some shopping, you would have
seen stores like the Millinery Shop. It is a handsome building that quietly
suoo-ests that you pause, look in the windows, or go inside. Though much
smaller in size and more humble in purpose than the Governor's Palace,
the shop is imbued with the same spirit and is built from the same materials.
Notice how back from and raised four steps above the ample brick
it is set
sidewalk in a reserved manner. A modest sign and two oval pictures em-
phasizing women's hats tell the stranger what this building is. But almost
everybody knew what it was and it had little competition. It is a friendly,
tranquil, nonassertive structure.
The Camera Shop, tightly packed in with other stores, fronts on a busy
thoroughfare. It dynamically reaches out for your attention, pulls you in for
a closer look, and then almost compels you to consider the merchandise.
The laroe, legible sign tells you immediately what specific merchandise is
sold within. Even without the sign, the character of the form, space, and ma-
terials would communicate the fact that the merchandise is of a precise,
mechanical nature. Let us now study the other means used to induce the
urê to enter and buy. First, the entire store is a recessed display window
with only a wall of glass and a low planting box (for visual contrast and also
to protect the window) separating the shop from the sidewalk.
This appeals
toman's natural curiosity to see what is going on inside. Second, setting the
window a few feet back from the street intrigues the passer-by-man loves
to explore recesses, nooks, and crannies— and thereby causes him to stop for
a leisurely look. Two small display cases at the left give him sufficient rea-
son to pause near the door while making up his mind about going in. But
I
The design of stores illustrates

the marked change in tempo
and in taste from the eight-
eenth century to the present.
(A) Left. The Millinery
Shop at Colonial Williams-
burg was designed for what
now seems like a leisurely,
noncompetitive approach to
commerce. (Courtesy of Colo-
nial Williamsburg, Inc.)
(B) Below. The Camera
Shop (1946) in Berkeley, Cali-
fornia, is an early example of
stores that attempt by their

openness to pull passersby in-
side before they hurry down
the street to a competitor.
John Carl Warnecke. archi-
tect. (Western Asbestos Com-
pany)
he is almost in already. Third, the separation of exterior and interior has
been minimized not only by the glass wall but by the continuous wall of
corrugated asbestos painted green, by the uninterrupted lines of light, and
by the repetition of the shiny metal columns marching from the sidewalk
to the back of the store. The Camera Shop differs from the Millinery Shop
because buying and selling in twentieth-century California is not what it
^vas in eighteenth-century Williamsburg.

A word of caution is needed here. By no means is the new necessarily
better than the old— except in terms of specific contemporary needs. Cer-
tainly, one would not say that the Camera Shop is more handsome than the
Millinery Shop.
A Shop without Windows and a Bank with Glass Walls

The y. C. Morris store in San Francisco and the Manufacturers Trust
Company in New York City (Figs. 158A through 159B) carry commercial
architecture to such heights that one searches for superlatives in discussing
them. In designing the Morris store, Frank Lloyd Wright soared far above
the rules that tie lesser men down. And in the Manufacturers Trust, archi-
tects Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill went so far beyond stereotypes that
the bank has been called a "crystal lantern." Who would expect to see a
contemporary store without display windows, or a bank that is protected by
nothing but windows? Both are surprising, a quality especially worth while
in commercial art; but, as we shall see, neither of these buildings depends
only on imexpectedness.
On a very short, very narrow San Francisco street, the Morris store
presents a great wall of golden-yellow bricks. Not large in size, it is monu-
mental in feeling. Elegant and substantial, it has no need to shout its
^vares. No sign tells you what it is, for with an exterior as distinguished as
this no applied advertising is needed. But the brick-and-glass archway

arouses interest and invites you to explore. The exterior announces the
circles-in-squares theme as simply and boldly as the opening measure of
Beethoven's Fifth Symphony states its first great theme. Inside, this theme
is magnificently developed. Within the confines of a cube, a spiral ramp
carves the space with a powerful singleness of purpose. Without diverting
too much attention from the main floor, it leads one up to the circular
balcony— and, visually, up to the ceiling. This ceiling of luminescent plastic
bubbles, suspended from above so that it floats between the walls, is a dis-
ciplined flight of fancy that inspirits the whole interior with gaiety. The
rectangularity found in the floor and in many of the cabinets throws into
prominence the use of many variations of circular forms— cylinders, discs
and holes, domes and spheres.

Frank Lloyd Wright's design for the V. C.
Morris store in San Francisco (1949) is a dis-

tinct departure Irom the trend toward
mak-
win-
ing store exteriors into gigantic display
dows. {Photographs by Maynard Parker)
(A) Lejt. The massively solid brick exterior
expresses stability and dignity, lures one in-
side with the promise of richness and
sur-
prise.
(B) Below. The interior is voluminously
spacious yet has the intimacy that is appro-
priate for the display of small, costly objects.
\^
The Manufacturers Trust Company Building (1954) in New York City, designed by Skid-
more, Owings, and Merrill, is as open and inviting as the Morris store is closed and in-
triguing. (Skidmore, Oioings, and Merrill)
(A) Above. The exterior walls of glass and metal are reduced to their simplest struc-
tural terms but are beautifully proportioned.
(B) Below. The interior continues the feeling of uncluttered space announced by the
exterior. Surfacing materials are bathed by light from luminous ceilings.
the integra-
As one moves through the store, led on but not coerced,
tion of beauty and usefulness become evident.
One becomes aware of the
cases and tables
predominant gold, gray, and white against which dark walnut
linens. Children as well as oldsters
act as foils for the glass, silver, china, and
the ramp while participating in its movement
through space. There
enjoy
and chairs experimenting with table
for comfortable sitting while
are tables
settings, either before or after looking at
the objects on display. Although
astonishing amount of display and
the store seems uncluttered, there is an
once, the visitor is not over-
storage space. Because it cannot all be seen at
rows of cases and
whelmed, as in the typical store, by seemingly endless
shelves. Instead, he sees a little at a time,
often in quite small spaces, which
feeling of homelike intimacy and minimizes

shopping fatigue. All
gives a
visitor into a dignified customer."
of this, said the architect, "transforms the
The Manufacturers Trust visually opens a corner on New York City's
a five-story structure screened from

the weather
crowded Fifth Avenue. It is
held in slender, polished aluminum frames. These walls

with sheets of glass
which in turn
do not support the building but are suspended from
the roof,
spaced, slender piers visible in the photograph

of
is supported by the widely
nonsupporting walls of
the interior. Startling as it may seem, a bank
with
federally insured; burglar
glass quite functional today: bank deposits are
is
alarms have been perfected; and robbery, in full

view of the public, would
sturdy and its impact is ef-
be foolhardy. Although costly, the structure is
services more
fective advertising. Perhaps more important, banks today sell
Trust, like the
than they sell old-fashioned security, and the Manufacturers
Camera Shop, advertises by letting passers-by see it in action.
its services
from the sidewalk,
Even though one can see almost all of the interior
there is no letdown when one steps inside.
The promise of light and spa-
floors of this bank are for
ciousness is handsomely fulfilled. The first two
customers, a fact that might have been surmised
from the exterior. Inside
two stories: the second floor
and outside, the exterior walls are unbroken for
walls and
isa mezzanine that audaciously stops about eight feet from the
fastened planting boxes.
whose edges are guarded only by low but firmly
inside, with one
An escalator makes the ascent almost effortless. Everything
polished precision. Pale yellow
dramatic exception, has the beauty of highly
light onto floors that re-
corrugated plastic ceilings diffuse abundant even
light,
flect r°ather than absorb it. Some
walls are smooth plaster painted in
teakwood, gray marble, or
spacious colors, while others are of rich brown
black-brown ebony from
black granite. Creamy figured marble from
Italy,
Macassar, and lustrous stainless steel are

combined in the writing tables and
the long counter.
A seventy-foot sculptured screen created by Harry Bertoia, brilliant
gold in color, is the notable exception to the clean-cut, austere richness else-
where. Innumerable sheets of metal are suspended from a slender metal
frame^vork much as the glass Avails are suspended from the building's struc-
tural frame^vork. But no two luiits of the screen are identical. Some are
merely textured while others are imaginatively bent, ciu, and modeled. Al-
though predominantly rectangular, the individual units vary in size, shape,
and angle. ^Vhereas the building is regular and precise, the screen is intricate
and irreoular. In the ^vords of Lewis Mumford, ". . . it humanizes these

quarters . . . mainly because it suggests something frail, incomplete, yet
unexpected and defiant of the rational statement, and thus lovable, a note
that is not audible in most of the representative architectural expressions of
our time."
Different as these two buildings are in many fundamentals, they have

a surprising number of similar characteristics. Most important from the
commercial point of view is the fact that both are so distinctive that they
are self-identifying and that both structines fulfill their purposes from the
first big idea from which each gre^v down to the smallest details. From the
artists' point of view, both offer powerful esthetic experiences alive Avith
creative vigor that is directly comminiicated to those sensitive enough to
participate. They offer customers and employees an opportimity to see and

move through exciting three-dimensional organizations of space, form, color,
texture, and light. Then, too, they have other points in common: the spatial
integration of the first two floors; the luminous plastic ceilings; and the pur-
poseful use of rich materials and colors.
A Unique Office Building and Research Tower

Frank Lltjyd Wright triumphed in his design for the offices of S. C. John-
son &; Son, Racine, Wisconsin, just as he did in the Morris store. Study the
photographs (Figs. 162 A and B) and read the observations made by the
editors of Life*
Frank Lloyd Wricht Offick Buu.ding .Shows .Shape

OF Thin(;s to Come
The new administration building of .S. C. Jf)hnson & Son (wax polish)
was designed by the master modern architect, Frank Lloyd Wright. It is
genuine American architecture, owing nothing to foreign inspiration, dif-
ferent from anything ever built in the world before. Spectacular as the
• The following quotations are reprinted by special permission from Life Magazine.
The Administration (1938) and Re-

search (1949) Buildings for the
Johnson Wax Company in Racine,
Wisconsin, are another of Frank
Lloyd Wright's many creative con-
tributions to architecture. (S. C.
Johnson and Sons, Inc.)

(A) Left. Walls of glass tubing
and brick, gently rounded at the
corners, give a distinctive exterior
and a well-lighted interior to the
Research Tower at the left and the
Administration Building in the
background.
(B) Beloro. The interior of the
Administration Building gives a
truly remarkable feeling of light
and space. Notice the slender, taper-
ing, structurally efficient columns.
5: PJe .?•«•!
flMail^
showiest Hollywood set, it represents simply the result of creative genius

applied to the problem of designing the most efficient and comfortable,
as well as beautiful, place in which Johnson Wax executives and clerks
could do their work.
"This building," says Architect Wright, "was designed to be as inspiring
a place to work in as any cathedral to worship in." Wrote the financial
editor of the Milwaukee Journal on viewing it last week: "It is like a
woman swimming naked in a stream. Cool, gliding, musical in movement
and in manner. The inside of an office building like a woman swimming
naked in a stream? Yes, that's right."
The building is proof against earthquake, fire, and sound. The walls are
of warm red-brown brick, lined with thick cork and concrete. Bricks were
specially baked in 200 shapes to fit the building design. . . . Two "nostrils"
. . . suck air into conditioning ecjuipment. Heat radiates evenly from steam
pipes laid space-savingly under the concrete floor slab. Heat apparatus is
controlled to synchronize with the movement of the sun.

The main workroom, which occupies most of the Administration build-
ing, seats 200 clerks. On the mezzanine are offices for special workers. Archi-
tect Wright's most revolutionary space-saving innovation is the "golf-tee"
supporting pillar which is only nine inches in diameter at the floor. . . .
The pillars mushroom into a diameter of 18^4 feet at the glass-tubed

roof. Frank Lloyd Wright, to prove to a skeptical Wisconsin Industrial
. . .
Commission that his novel "golf-tee" pillars were really strong enough to
support the building, put on a convincing demonstration. Propping up a
pillar at the building site, he had sand and cast iron piled on until the
weight reached 60 tons, a weight much greater than could be supported by
the same amount Next day
of material in a conventionally designed pillar.
the pillar was found unflawed. Note the round desks, which have cut-
. . .
out space for typewriter and comptometer, "swinging-tills" instead of

drawers.
The dynamic, vigorous curves of the exterior with the striking contrast
of the research tower risitig above the lower masses and the clear, clean, free
sweep of space in the interior are among the most conspicuous factors that
make this building an example of truly significant architecture. But these
are only external expressions of the inspired vision Frank Lloyd Wright
brought to his work. By no means did he ignore the great achievements of
the past, but his creative vigor led him to study each problem freshly. That
is a first step toward worthwhile art of any type.
Two Commercial Centers

The main street of Williamsburg served as an efficient shopping center when
most persons came short distances on foot and there were no automobiles.
But conditions have changed. Our population has grown enormously, and
The Southdak Shopping Center (1956)
the major
near Minneapolis, Minnesota, is
feature of a large-scale land development.
the
Victor Gruen, architect. (Courtesy of
architect and the Soulhdale Shopping
Center)
The master plan for the South-
(A) Left.
dale Center Area shows the Center's stra-
tegic location, how it will
be supported
zones, and
by commercial and residential
how it will be reached by several major
thoroughfares. To the north is space
for
a Health Center with apartments beyond.

to the
Office and Recreation buildings
a pleasant transition to a
resi-
west make
dential area bordering a lake. Neigh- A
borhood Shopping Area, Home Budding
are at the
Center, and Amusement Center
south. To the east are offices
and restau-
rants.
f' (B) Beloiu. The two-story Garden Court,
from the extreme climate, is
a haven
friendly and relaxing.
i.niii.,1
' -' -
_î I
'iUfT- *
distances from homes to "main streets" have increased. Family cars taking
hordes of shoppers to markets have resulted in exasperating traffic conges-
tion, especially in the centers of cities. New regional shopping centers and
the revitalization of downtown areas are the two major mid-century solu-
tions.
The basic aim of the Southdale Shopping Center (Figs. 164A and B)
near Minneapolis, Minnesota, is to make shopping a pleasant, invigorating
community event. The location of this gigantic, 82-acre superblock was de-
termined by population trends, income and purchasing power, and acces-
sibility. Parking for 5200 cars and 800,000 square feet of space for 72 stores
cost 20 million dollars. And this is but one unit of a master plan for 500
acres of land! More consequential than size and cost is the admirable integia-
tion of land-and-building planning with human needs. Extreme climate and
a limited site led to a roofed garden court three stories high and one block
long, enclosed on all sides by a variety of stores, and enriched with $50,000
worth of "art." Grooving trees and plants, sculpture and ornamental chande-
liers, a fishpond and two-story birdcage, and an "outdoor" cafe bring delight
to shopping expeditions. Ten arcades, also lined with shops, connect the
garden court ^vith entrances from the parking areas. It is indeed a far cry
from the typical chaotic location of stores along traffic arteries.
Architect Gruen is also keenly concerned about the spread of blighted

areas in the commercial centers of cities and his proposal for Ft. Worth is an
audacious challenge of this tendency (Figs. 166A and B). Although at pres-
ent 46 percent of the central district is devoted to streets and alleys, pedes-
trian and vehicular traffic are awesomely tangled. His plan has four goals:
1. To make the land more productive, obsolete buildings would be
gradually upgraded or replaced.
2. To have traffic flow freely, a loop highway would encircle the central
district with dead-end tributary streets leading to parking garages, bus and
taxi terminals.
3. To reduce circulation conflicts, the central district would become a

pedestrian area with no surface vehicular traffic.
4. And, most important, to make this section significant to the people,
beauty and excitement would be restored, stores and offices integrated with
civic, cultural, and entertainment facilities. Daring as the proposal is, it is
not a wild-eyed dream but a realistic, comprehensive solution for a critical

problem that faces most American cities.
In these two centers we can see the economically realistic trend toward
humanizing commercial architecture. Also we can see examples of the two
1 f„r -, 'Trpater Fort Worth Tomorrow" (1956) transforms the
termmal..
pene.ra.e ,o parking garage, and bu.
Frin the bei. road dead-end .met.
mall., enriched «i.h pl.nr.ng
and ,ea,., ..ke dre place
°B) Mo*An'ple pede.rri.n
bumper-to-bumper traffic jams.
of
4m- .fe f^'fTjii'M

Commercial Archilechire • 167
trends in city planning mentioned in Chapter 2: decentralization as an
escape from congestion, and intelligent centralization as a means of revitaliz-
*» the centers of onr
ing cities.
As you walk (H" ride along the streets of your community, look critically
at liie commercial buildings. Some are old and some are new. Many, perhaps,
have been redesigned, for better or for worse. Observe the small shops, the
supermarkets, the large department stores, the banks and office buildings.
Do they tell you what they are? If you are induced to enter them, is the
whole experience satisfying and worth repeating? Efficiency is likely to have
been the main concern of the designer, but in the long rim there are other
equally worthy goals of a more general nature. Does the building make its
contribution to the spirit and appearance of the commimity? And does it
contribute to the development of the field of architecture?
The following books treat various aspects of commercial art and archi-
tecture:
Advertising Directions: Edward M. Gottschall and Arthur Hawkins, editors (New

York: Art Directions Book Co., 1959).
Illuminating discussion of trends in ad\ertising.
Annual of Advertising and Editorial Art and Design (New York: Farrar, Straus);
Modern Publicity (New York: Studio) and Tlie Penrose Annual (New York:
Hastings).
Three annual publications on current developments in advertising.
Design for Modern Merchandising (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954).

Illustrated survey that demonstrates the close relation of architectural design
and selling.
Design for Point of Sale: Ladislav Sutnar (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1952).
Enlightening and stimulating approach to package design.
Display: George Nelson, ed. (New York: Whitney, 1953).

Illustrates and describes many imaginative displays in stores, museums, and
expositions.
Graphis (Zurich: Graphis Press).

Bi-monthly periodical dealing with "fine" and "commercial" art.
The Package: Mildred Constantine (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1959).
Provocative discussion of what packaging might be.
Shopping Towns USA: Victor Gruen & Larry Smith (New York: Reinhold,
1960).
Full of information on shopping center design.
Shops and Stores Today: E. S. Somake and R. Hellberg (London: Batsford, 1956).
An informative survey of what the English have accomplished in store de-
sign and organization.
many hitherto tn.explored pc
and skill enable artists to reveal
Invagination, sensitivity,
to create diverse
band saw inspired Jan de Swart
''tÔ^^C^:!::. wood and a
by Jack Laun^n^^)
and extures possible in acrylic plastics. (Photograph
casting alunnntnn developed by Jan de Swart
(C) opposite, below. New techniques of
{Courtesy of the artist)
led to richly patterned wall panels.
PART II Tlie Problem of
Materials and Processes

•rr^r '^ »jy^"L i
i i. !
i
.|mii
m J i|
i
M>« '
"K; ! " 'lll^

"'< ".'. wil' ""W
The martyrdom of John the Baptist is
the subject matter of an eighteenth-

century Italian silver reliquary that is
notable for the intricate detail of its
silverwork. (Courtesy of the Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art)
Introduction
THE SATISFYING OF HUMAN NEEDS is the primary concern of artists,
but our needs are not fulfilled by ideas that exist in the artist's mind or as
sketches on paper. Only when these ideas or sketches are given form in tangi-
ble materials is a work of art fully realized. Thus, a second major art prob-
lem is that of selecting appropriate materials and handling them with re-
spect.
Each material has its own range of characteristics, its special possibilities
and limitations, its inherent beauty. Exploring the nature of materials and
discovering ways in which they can be worked is a constant challenge to
artists, as the illustrations in this section suggest. Wood can be
transformed
171
172 - Introduction
wood when handled by skilled craftsmen ,s demonstrated m the walls

The versatility of
built in Derbyshire, Eng and in 1724.
and furniture from Sutton Scarsdale, a home
walls, the inlay patterns of the clock cases,
Notice the varied kinds of carving on the
of the Philadelphia Museum of
(Courtesy Art)
and the sculptural shape of the chair.
Introduction -
173
into countless shapes with a band saw, or it can be elaborately carved and
inlaid (Figs. 169A, 172). In the new field of plastics we are only beginning
to know the potential range of these materials (Figs. 169B and 173). Metal
can be cast into primitive, enigmatic shapes, or into delicately refined rep-
resentations of natural and abstract forms (Figs. 169C and 171).
Ho^v does an artist decide which material and which process he will use?
Mark ^vell that there is no single, rigid system for every artist and every
problem. At some point, though, he will probably consider how the object
is to be used and what character he feels it should have. Let us return aaain
to the problem of designing a chair. What materials— wood, metal, cane, or
plastic— are most suitable? That, of course, depends chiefly on the specific
purposes of the chair and where it is to be placed. Patio chairs are most
serviceable when they withstand weather and hard usage and are most satisfy-
ing Avhen they are in harmony with an outdoor setting. Weather-resistant
woods, such as cypress or redwood, or such durable metals as aluminum,

copper, or weatherproofed steel, come to mind. In contrast, chairs in a living
room lead a comparatively protected existence and are typically expected to
Laslo Moholy-Nagy's "Space Modu-

lator" (1942) was an investigation in
plastic of concave-convex relationships
A
of forin and space. {Courtesy of the
artist)
O
174 - Introduction
refinement. Mahogany and walnut are

have a greater degree of grace and
and the upholstery can be of hnen,
silk
likely possibilities for the frame,
material has its own kind of comfort
and
wool, leather, or a synthetic. Each
luxurious and wool
durability and unique expressive qualities. Silk seems
its
much depends on how each material is

is noted for its durability, but
nature of the fibers, coarsely spun
worked. Without denying the intrinsic
be gossa-
silk can be woven into thick,
roughly textured cloth, and wool can
this we can generalize that
major factors
mer-thin and lustrous. From all of
in selecting materials are these:
The use to which the object will be put.

The expressive qualities that are desired.
The nature of the material.
The processes with which the material is worked.
is the time
There two other determining factors. First
are, additionally,
Every aspect of the wall and furni-
and place in which the object was created.
in eighteenth-century Eng-
ture in Sutton Scarsdale tells us that it was done
century
land Ian de Swarfs shapes clearly belong to the twentieth
wood
their place of origin (Los Ange-
although in this period of internationalism
les) is not readily apparent.
Second is the artts^s creative indivtduahty.
Koblick embody her temperament and
phi-
Plastics handcrafted by Freda
Moholy-Nagy's (Figs. 169B and
losophy of art, which are not the same as
173)
enjoyment is a constant,
Thetransformation of materials for our use and
artists and a source of delight
to appreciative lay-
lively impetus to creative
on handcrafts and industrial
men In the next three chapters, with emphasis
some basic materials and the ways
design we will explore the qualities of
and 17 we will see how painters,
of working them. In Chapters 15, 16,
pigments, stone, metal, and plastics into
sculptors, and architects transmute
the Fine Arts.

A thirteenth - century, shaped
lion -
pitcher shows how bronze

precisely
can be shaped. (Courtesy of the Metro-
politan Museum of Art, The Cloisters
Collection, Purchase, 1947)
6 Wood, Metal,
-
and Plastics
WOOD AND METAL are two of nature's most abundant and useful re-
sources. To these man has added a third-plastics. Creative designers are
continuously finding new uses for and beauty in these astonishingly versatile
materials.
Observe they have been used in Fig. 176. Steel was chosen for the
how
slender but strong furniture frames and for the desk drawers. Finished
in
satin chrome or enameled in tangerine, sandstone, turquoise,

mustard, and
charcoal, they open the way to many a lively color scheme. The typewriter
is almost entirely metal as is the telephone's inner mechanism. For contrast,
a thick slab of walnut, richly grained, was selected for the durable
and
175
176 - Wood, Metal, and Plastics
friendly desk top. Less vigorously patterned plywood covers the adjacent
wall. Plastics, too, are discerningly used. The tops of the typewriter table
and the small tables in the lounge area are white laminated plastic sheets.
Reinforced with glass fiber, plastic was molded into the form-fitting seat
and back of the desk chair. Easily shaped, light^veight, and warm to the
touch, plastics are the logical material for the telephone case, the pen and
its holder. Plastic fabrics make colorful,

trouble-free upholstery.
Each of these materials was chosen and worked to bring out its special
characteristics. But do not think that other choices would
have been wrong.
The furniture could have been made entirely of wood, in which case the
desion-and the effect-would have been different. The desk drawers and
plastic wall-covermgs
their enclosure might have been molded plastic, and
would be quite appropriate. In short, wood, metal, and plastics have enough
common characteristics so that we can choose from among them for many
objects. But they are by no means identical, and discerning designers create
forms appropriate to the material they have selected.
metal, and plastics are appropriately used in

George Nelsons assuied and func-
Wood,
Furniture Company)
tional office furniture (1959). {Herman Miller
Wood - 177
WOOD
Why is wood still pre-eminent in the manufacture of furniture? It is widely
available, and it is at least moderately durable, inexpensive, and easy to
^vork. But so are metal and either could be used as far as utility
and plastics,
is concerned. Wood, warmth and organic beauty that have

though, has a
appealed to man throughout history and are especially welcome in a mech-
anized civilization.
Characteristics and Kinds of Wood

The grain of wood tells us of its growth history and usually has a deeply
and pattern. Paint a board well, and it is not easy to dis-
satisfying color
tinguish from some plastics or enameled metals. Therefore, if we wish to
take advantage of wood's most distinctive qualities, we will keep the grain
visible.This was done in the desk top and wall (Fig. 176), the carved fire-
place wall (Fig. 172), the chairs (Fig. 181) and the bowl (Fig. 182).
Wood grain differs with various kinds of wood. Birch, maple, mahog-
any, walnut, ebony, teak, pine, redwood, fir,and many others have their
own distinctive patterns. Further, grain is notably affected by the way in
which the wood is processed— whether it is sawed across the grain, plain-
sawed, or quarter-sawed (Fig. 178A). It can be smoothly sanded, etched to
make the grain three-dimensional, textured with parallel ribs, or shaved into
chips that are then bonded together with resins (Fig. 178B).
The color of wood also varies according to the kind of wood and the
method of treatment. A few woods are naturally almost white or black,
some are grayish or greenish, but most are in the yellow, orange, and red
seo^ment of the color wheel. The oaks tend to be yellowish; rosewood, cherry,
and mahogany are red; walnut is brown. With bleaches and stains, however,
the natural color of wood can be changed, sometimes attractively and some-
times not.
Although grain and color are wood's most readily noticed qualities,
many other factors are important in selecting a suitable wood for a specific
purpose. These include:
relative hardness
weight
freedom from shrinkage, swelling, warping, and splitting
ability to hold nails and screws
ease of working with hand and power tools

number and size of knots
resistance to decay
cost
strength— perhaps the most important quality
«li.it
,.
v;i.;;:i^;f:l;|^
>:;:i:'j:iiiiiii;i
and quar
(A) Above. Oak sawed in three
ways-end grain (left), plam-sawed (r..(.r),
patterns. {Forest Products Laboratory)
ter sawed (r;g/-n-reveals three
kinds of
r:a ed
grain pattern three-d>mer.sional. S
mrB./on, Etched plywood (left) makes the Parfcle ho.rd (nght)
grooves of varying widths.
ol wood . ^M l«s Lrallel ridges and
pressure, introduces new textures.
(UrÛed
tlTol Sr fibers Tnd chips bonded under
Company)
States Plywood Corporation and Columbia Hardboard
m
'^3*
W \
lb...-- J;
Iklky mA
Wood - 179
Let us compare two woods.

White oak hard and heavy, shrinks and swells quite a bit, but has
is
only average warpage. It is hard to work with hand tools, but not difficult
^vith power machinery. It holds nails and screws well, but has only average
resistance to splitting. In bending strength and in stiffness it ranks high, but
it is only average in supporting weights from above. It is tough, resists de-
cay, and has interesting grain but few knots. Its cost is moderately high.
Northern white pine is light and soft, is average in shrinking and swell-
ing, but warps very little. It is easy to work with hand tools and is average in
nail-holding power. Although stiff, it is not exceptionally strong or tough.
The axain is of little interest, but it has many small knots. Finally, it is not
expensive.
What does all of this mean to the craftsman, designer, and builder?
Briefly it indicates that the comparatively hard and strong, interestingly
grained white oak deserves consideration for such uses as flooring, the in-
terior trim of buildings, and furniture, as well as for implements and heavy
timbers. Northern white pine— softer, less strong and less expensive, without
special beauty of color or grain, but easily worked with hand tools— in the
better grades is used for those structural parts of buildings in which great
strength is not needed and for cabinetwork that will be protected by paint.
The poorer grades can be made into boxes and crates.
Finding the best wood for a job is a challenge! Here are some of the
qualities of four other woods:

Birch is heavy, hard, stiff, and strong, making it appropriate for furni-
ture. Its uniformly dense surface adds to its suitability for furniture, floors,
musical instruments, and woodenware for which a smooth, polished, durable

surface is desirable.
Mahogany was and widely used for furniture in the
so highly prized
eighteenth century that the period has been called "The Age of Mahogany."
Although the several varieties of true mahogany differ from one another, all
are moderately hard and very strong; yet they are amenable to the most deli-
cate carving and can be polished to a high luster. The color ranges from
pale red to dark brownish-red, and beautifully figured patterns of grain
often occur.
Redwood is light and soft. But it is also strong, resists attacks of decay
and insects, shrinks little, and is easy to work. The colors resemble those of
mahogany. No one would suggest using it for delicately carved, highly pol-
ished furniture, but it is valued for outdoor furniture, interior and exterior
walls, and garden fences.
has been a favored furniture wood since early in man's history.

Walnut
weight, walnut, like mahogany,
Strong and hard yet comparatively light in
it comes with an amaznigly
lends itself to carving and lustrous finishes; also
of mahogany around 1730,
varied pattern of grain. With the introduction
it temporarily lost favor, but it
made a strong comeback in Victorian "black
Avalnut" and is esteemed today.
quickly, and
Without proper treatment, most wood deteriorates rather
its surface is often too soft and
absorbent to resist wear and stains. Hence
waxes, the oldest preserva-
some kind of finish is usually needed. Oils and
soft surface many coats are properly applied.
tives, produce a beautiful if
that is easily cleaned. Opaque

Varnish and dear lacquer give a hard surface
paints, in any color and degree of luster
you wish, dry to a durable, protec-
methods include soaking wood in, or impregnatmg it
tive surface. New
effective preservatives to provide an integral
under pressure with, highly
finish.
Shaping Wood
in pole-shaped trunks and branches that can be
Wood usually grows
refined into columns, furniture legs, and lamp bases
squared into rectangular beams
table tops, and the like
. cut into planks or thin slabs for siding,
the lathe into bowls, plates,
. sawed into blocks suitable for turning on
and convoluted shapes
bent under heat and pressure
ornamented with carving and inlaid patterns
veneers or plywood
sliced into very thin sheets suitable for
. ground or split into small pieces and made into wallboards, paper, and
synthetic fibers.
such hand and machine

The vocabulary of shapes that can be produced with
knives, chisels, lathes, and planes is almost
limitless.
tools as saws,
respectful use of
Few show greater fitness to purpose and more
objects
Its design is based on two
of
materials than the Windsor chair (Fig. 181A).
pole-supplemented by two
wood's most appropriate forms-the slab and the
its supports, the writing
arm
pieces of bent wood. Projecting boldly beyond
remarkably strong for its weight. So does the
seat,
demonstrates that wood is
300 pounds, even though it is less than

two inches
which will support up to
corners. Now look at the poles. Four
'hick and is supported only near the
Wood - 181
The basic concepts underlying the "Windsor" chair design are so sliong and hnidauitn-
tally right that they have inspired innumerable variations.
(A) Left. An eighteenth-century American writing chair is comfortable, sturdy, and
handsome. (Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
(B) Right. Hans Wegner's oak spindleback chair is a contemporary Danish interpreta-
tion. (Pacific Overseas, Inc.)
slender legs carry this weight to the floor. Notice especially the very slender
spindles in the back, held in place by two thin pieces of bent wood. Although
extremely lightweight and airy, this structure will withstand the considerable
pressure of a sitter who leans against it. Not only is the wood strong in
compression (it holds its shape under pressure, as demonstrated by the
legs), but it is also strong in tension (it resists breakage when bent or pulled
as in the chair's back). Small wonder that wood has been extensively used
for furniture, for few materials, if indeed any others, are as strong, as easy
to shape, and as pleasant to see and touch. And the basic design of the
Windsor chair seems so right that contemporary designers continue to ex-
plore its potentialities (Fig. 181 B).

Wood was also used for dishes and tableware back in the days when
ceramics and metal were expensive and plastics were unknown. And wood
is still used for those purposes. The shape of the bowl in Fig. 182 is highly
appropriate to the nature of wood. Most important, though, is the friendly
beauty of the material's color and grain, the way it feels when one holds it.
Finn Juhl's wood bowl, which glorifies

wood's beauty, is shaped to invite one
to handle it. {Georg Jensen, Inc.)
layer constructions
Veneer, Plywood, and Laminated Wood. These
of thin sheets of wood, thicker boards, or
paper greatly extend wood's reper-
tory.
as thin as 1/23 inch, produced
Veneers are sheets of wood, which can be
to thicker
by slicing, sawing, or rotary-cutting large logs. They can be glued
"veneered wood," to other veneers as in plywood and
lami-
lumber to make
nated wood, or to paper for wall coverings.
Plywood is a sandwich composed of an odd number of veneers glued to-
angles to each other.

gether with the grain of adjacent sheets at right
Laminatedwood is a type of plywood in which the grain of successive
same direction. It bends easily with the grain and is very
layers goes in the
suitable for the legs of
stronger one direction, which makes it especially
furniture.
All are readily
advantages of these layer constructions are many.
The
wood and can be surfaced with
available in much larger pieces than is solid
prohibitively
carefully matched, handsome woods that if solid would be
shrinking and warping. Ply-
expensive. Typically, they are strong and resist
curved forms.
wood and laminated wood can be molded or bent into
chairs our age has created.

Figure 183 shows one of the most remarkable
snowshoes, and
Man hts long known that he could bend wood for skis,
chairs, but designer Charles Eames,
experimenting in his own
Windsor
into new shapes. When his
apartment, found that he could mold plywood
bakery and later in a
apartment oven exploded, he continued his work in a
the plywood seat and back
well-equipped laboratory. The organic shapes of
surprisingly comfortable for un-
echo those of the human body and are
material for the legs. Each
cushioned seating. Laminated wood is an ideal
as clearly as do the parts of the
part of the chair expresses its special function
convincingly unified. Above all, it has
Windsor chair, and yet the chair is
quality.
an unusually spontaneous but certain sculptural
Wood - 183
Charles Eames used wood in-
ventively in his sculptural

chair Seat and back
(1946).
are of molded plywood; sup-
ports are of bent laminated
wood. {Evatii Company)
Designed for machine production, these chairs are based on three sig-
nificant technological developments. First, the wood is rapidly, precisely,
and
permanently molded under heat and pressure. Second, the parts of the
chair are joined by shock welding, a technique in which synthetic
resin
sheets are placed between the parts and sufficient heat is transmitted elec-
tronically to produce a bond stronger than the ^vood. Third, the wood is
impregnated with resin, which makesand hardens the sur-

it water-resistant
face against scratches and dents. Not many examples of

contemporary or
historic work show as complete mastery and integration of
the problems of
human needs, materials and processes, and design as do Eames' chairs.
This is a brief introduction to the wondrous potentialities of wood. Not

in
discussed are the magnificently strong or delightfully intricate carvings
historic architecture and furnishings, but it will reward you to look again
at the musical instruments in Figs. 120A and B and
the room from Sutton
materials," but
Scarsdale (Fig. 172). We hear much about the new "wonder
to date none of them is more versatile, useful, and
beautiful than wood.
It can be made into innumerable shapes with hand or power tools. It is
strong in relation to its weight and bulk, and it is easy to repair.

Many new
processes are making it resistant to rot and decay, fire and insects as well
as to shrinking, swelling, and warping. Its feel of warmth and intimacy make
it uniquely endearing to man.
METAL
Bridge (Fig. 185) a masterpiece in metal that
The George Washington is
material's most striking characteristic: great tensile

demonstrates this
as they are efficient, from
strength. Giant cables hang, in curves as beautiful
multilane highways across
towers 600 feet high. These cables hold up two
original plan was to encase
two-thirds of a mile of the Hudson River. The
the towers in a heavy, expensive coating of
ornamental masonry to make the
the frankly expressive
bridge "beautiful." But so many persons admired
allowed to stand in
structural patterns of metal that the towers have been
their pristine state. Metal, like wood, is a virtuoso
among today's resources,
and bridge construction is only one of its multitudinous uses.
Metals and Their Qualities

Before answering
What, then, are the significant characteristics of metal?
this question we remark that metals differ
from one another at least as much
as do various kinds of wood.
until
Aluminum, one of the most abundant metals, was not discovered
century. It is bluish-
1727 and was not commonly used until the twentieth
color and lighter in weight than most metals.
Exposed aluminum
white in
surfaces oxidize to a soft gray but do not deteriorate. Adding even very small
amounts of other metals greatly increases its hardness and strength. Because
it is light, strong, and easily worked, it is used in cooking utensils, furniture,

architectural ornament, and sculp-
the bodies of transportation equipment,
ture.
Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin (silicon, aluminum,
and manganese
but easily worked.
may be used instead of tin), is harder than brass less
When exposed to air and moisture, it becomes a rich brownish-black or de-

surface film). Bronze is
velops a strikingly beautiful green patina (a mellow
long-lasting and beauti-
widely used for metal sculpture (see Chapter 16), for
ornamental doors and church
ful vessels (Figs. 175 and 190 A), and also
for
bells.
prized from early times, known because it is some-
Silver was known and
it is the whitest of metals.
times found in a pure state and favored because
malleable metal. A single gram
Except for gold it is the most ductile and
can be beaten into leaves
can be drawn into a wire over a mile long, or it
is too soft for most uses,
only 0.00025 millimeter thick. In its pure state it
and hardness. Fre-

but small additions of copper increase its toughness
metals. Soft buffing creates
quently it is employed as plating over less costly
Metal -
185
The George Washington Bridge (1931) in New York City takes full advantage of the
tremendous tensile strength of metal. Contrast the slender metal cables with the sturdy
stone columns of the Parthenon (Chapter 17). {Courtesy of Fortune Magazine; photo-
graph by Margaret Bourke-White)
186 Wood, Metal, and Plastics
Handworking a flat piece of metal

into lioUow ware is an ancient proc-
ess that is still used today.

(A) Above. A pitclier is literally
"raised" from a disc of silver witli
hammers and mallets. (Gorham
Company)
(B) Le/(. The body of Johan
Rohde's sterling silver pitcher
(1930) is embellished with the ham-

mer marks of the craftsman who
made it. Ivory in the handle adds
contrasting color and texture.
{Ceorg Jensen, Inc.)

Metal - 187
Transforming silver and copper into "sterling silver" forks and spoons is accomplished by
hammering or pressing.
(A) Above. In making spoons, flat sheets of silver are cut to approximate shape and
then formed in a mold. {Gorham Company)
(B) Below. Spoons and forks of distinctive design. Notice that the ornament is logically
concentrated near the ends of the liandles and at the junctions of bowls and handles.
{Georg Jensen, Inc.)
an inimitable satiny luster, or it can be polished to dazzling brilliance. Its

ideally to delicate detail. (Figs. 186A
through
color and reflectivity suit it
187B). . ,
our age. Iron almost

steel are the great structural metals
of is
Iron and
for many centuries. Steel
as abundant as aluminum, and man has used it
red-hot, and
is produced by combining
iron and carbon chemically, heating it
strength of iron and steel and the com-
then cooling it suddenly. The great
machine-worked have made them two
parative ease with which they can be
our most useful materials (Figs. 1 85, 1 90B,
and 1 9 1 A).
of
many differences, metals have important common

In spite of their
characteristics:
and therefore do not rot or decay, although many rust

. All are inorganic
or corrode.
even when thin, they do not
. They are long lasting, in part because,
break so readily as glass, ceramics, or wood.
comparatively light,
. They are heavy, dense, and homogeneous (wood is
porous, and granular).

usable state, they must be re-
. Because they are seldom found in a pure,
work bear almost no re-
fined-the materials with which metalsmiths
extracted.
semblance to the ores from which they were
highly polished they have
. Metals tend to look hard and cool, and when
a glittering brilliance.
for their distinctive
But do not conclude that metals are unfriendly,
visual and tactile enjoyment. Few
qualities greatly expand our range of
with light re-
sights are more heart-warming than brass or copper glowing
metallic sleekness of air-
flected from a fireplace, more exciting than the
jewelry.
craft, or more treasured than the richly glowing highlights in
Shaping Metal
many. In its solid state metal can be
The methods of fabricating metals are
sawed, drilled, or turned on a lathe.
"With heat and pressure, it can be
bent
hammered, pressed, or rolled into thin sheets
drawn into slender wires

fused together as in soldering or welding
melted and cast into forms.
Metal - 189
Let us consider three typical processes:

1. Figure 186 A illustrates the steps in making metal hollow ware by
hand. With the silversmith's hammers or mallets, the pitcher is gradually
"raised" from a flat disc into a three-dimensional, hollow receptacle. No
nonmetallic material would respond in this way to the repeated blows of a
word malleable was derived from the mallets used in hammering
mallet; the
metal. When a final form is reached, the delicate, precisely engraved pattern
is "chased" into the metal. Joining the separately made handle, spout, and
base completes the piece. The handsome contemporary pitcher in Fig. 186B,
showing the subtle texture of hammer marks, was made by similar means.
And so was the teapot made in the eighteenth century by Paul Revere (Fig.
1 13B). Iron, too, can be hammered and bent, especially when hot, into shapes
ranging from horseshoes to fireplace equipment and wrought-iron furniture.
2. Similar to hammering is the shaping of metals under pressure in a
mold. In Fig. 187A we see the stages in the manufacture of a spoon: dies for
the front and back are carefully made; and a sheet of silver, rolled to the
proper thickness, is cut in the shape of the spoon. Then an indefinite num-
ber of spoons can be stamped mechanically in a heavy press. Silverware can
also be made by hand, much more expensively than by machine, but with
the possibility of such individualized beauty as shown in Fig. I87B.
3. Casting is another way of shaping metal. In this process, molten
metals are poured into molds. The resulting products can be as unpreten-
tious as the cast-iron firelighter in Fig. 190B. Adapted from an old Cape Cod
invention, the pot holds kerosene or coal oil. The easily held, self-cooling
coil handle is attached to an absorbing firestone that, when lighted, takes
the place of kindling. But cast metal objects can also be richly ornamented,
as study of the Chinese bronze vessel (Fig. 190 A) will prove. Made more than
a thousand years before the birth of Christ, the bronzes of the Shang Dynasty
have never been eqtialled in craftsmanship, creative handling of complex
symbols, and sensitivity to design. The artisan who fashioned this vessel
imbued it with a powerful biu controlled intensity of feeling somewhat akin
to that in "Coatlicue" (Fig. 101).
It is almost as difficult to imagine a world withotit metal as to imagine

it without color. From airplanes to safety pins, from suspension bridges to
wrist watches, metal products serve us constantly. Steel construction has
given our architecture a new character, and metals have made possible our
systems of heating, lighting, and plumbing. But in addition to utilitarian
concerns, the beauty of metal is a continuing source of esthetic satisfaction.
Metal is truly a basic material in modern living.

enriched or
Metal objects can be highly
severely plain. .
(A) Above. Chinese bronze ceremonial

A
vessel made more than
a thousand years be-
birth of Christ represents a combina-
fore the
technical skill, creative
power,
tion of great
{Courtesy of Metropohtan
and discipline,
Museum of Art)
(B) Left contemporary cast-iron tire-
A
lighter, designed by
George Nelson, is sim-
and useful. {Alfred Auerbach
ple, sturdy,
Associates)
Metal - 191
Metal can be handled so that its intrinsic

character is revealed— or so that its nature
is obliterated.
(A) Above. Metal's strength, delicacy,
and precision are evident in this Italian
Renaissance grille, in which form and ma-
terial are harmonious.
(B) Right. A nineteenth-century rustic
bench of metal designed to imitate wood
is a travesty on both materials.
PLASTICS
modifying his environment to
Plastics are one of man's greatest triumphs in
such materials as cotton wood
meet his needs. Chemists have transmuted
natural resms, salt, silica, coal tar,
and formaldehyde
pulp, soybeans, milk,
that resemble glass but are
into crystal-clear substances ^^^f'^^^'J^^}''
backs; dishes
brilliantly colored strips that can
be woven into chair seats and
stains. Wood
surfaces that resist scratches and
that do not break easily; and
useful
altered when transformed into
and especially metal are considerably
relation (except
plastics bear not the slightest
objects or works of art, but
chemically) to the raw materials
from which they were developed.
was made
The goes back to 1868. when celluloid
history of plastics
of cotton, nitric acid, and camphor) as
(from a highly improbable fusion
though, was rela-
a substitute for the ivory
used in billiard balls. Progress,
Since then, each year brings many
new develop-
tively slow until the 1920's.
and
meet our fantastically diversified
ments in substances tailor-made to bU-
production of plastics is now over six
specialized demands. The annual
lion pounds.
Characteristics and Uses of Plastics
basis of their chemical composition,

Plastics are grouped into families on the
considerable variety. Four of the
twenty or
but within each family there is
qualities and uses
so families will serve to
introduce the greatly diversified
of plastics. J 1- 1
exceptional clarity and light trans-

Acrvlic plastics are noted for their
193A and B), but they also come
in a
mission when transparent (Figs.
stiff, and rigid, they
full translucent and opaque colors. Strong,
range of
withstand weather and sharp blows.
Their uses include skylights, windows
backs and combs; trays and
salad
and airplane canopies; furniture; brush
sculpture.
bowls; costume jewelry; and _
plastics, retain a lustrous

finish
Melamines are among the hardest of
range of
cleaning fluids, and oils. Their
and are unaffected by detergents,
great. These them to laminated
qualities suit
textures and light-fast colors is
tables (Fig. 176), colorful dinnerware, and buttons.

surfaces on desks and
but not continued outdoor
Nylon withstands extreme temperatures
bend-
exposure. It has high tensile strength
and therefore is not harmed by
soft but varied. Widely
known as a textile
ing or hard blows. Colors are
bristles, faucet washers,
gears, and tumblers
fiber, it is also suitable for
brush
(Fig. 194A).
Plastics - 193
Acrylic plastics resemble glass but are much harder to break.

(A) Left. A salad bowl and oblong tray show two textural patterns that are well suited
to the material and the process. (£. /. du Pont de Nemours and Company)
(B) Right. The "Lily" chair is a dramatic, unexpected use of clear, smooth plastic.
{Laverne, Inc.)
Vinyls, which can be flexible, rigid, or a foam, are used for upholstery,
draperies, floor and \vall phonograph records and lamp shades
coverings;
(Fig. 194B). They, too, are strong and tough, resist normal abrasion but not
direct heat. \'inyls can be clear or in a wide range of translucent or opaque

colors. Articles made from them can be printed or embossed.
Shaping Plastics
The ways in which plastics are shaped differ as much as do their character-
istics and uses. They can be:
molded in forms under pressure

blown into molds
cast by methods similar to those used with glass or metal
rolled or pressed into sheets
extruded through dies to form continuous sheets, rods, filaments, tubes
or pipes
blo^vn full of gas or air to make lightweight insulating materials
sprayed onto other materials
used to impregnate other materials to combine the virtues of both.
194
nylon and vinyl is an

The flexibility of
important design factor.
(A) Left. Translucent
tumblers are
pleasant to touch, resist damage and
wear. (£. /. du Pont de Nemours and
Company)
(B) Below. The "Net Lights" de-
signed by George Nelson are made
of
vinyl-sprayed fish net stretched

over
metal rings of varied dimensions.

They
the
introduce fanciful sculpture into
{Howard Miller
world of lighting.
Clock Company)
shapes as complex as tn Ftg. 1J4B

Only could give such perfect fit to
plastics
expensive. Other plasties can be
made into
and yet be durable and not
effect of foam rubber
and wxth xts own
foam with twice the cushioning
It has been sug-
surface covering is needed.
proTective skin so that no
upholstered chairs could be made
by stmp y spray-
gested that comfortable
can be hand-
appropriate metal frame. And plasties
n this plastic on to an
creations (Figs. 169B. 173. and
195).
worked Lto highly individualized
be shaped in so many ways-no

others
No other group of materials can
handled, together
are so truly plJ.The ease with which they can be
195
Plastic sculpture by Jan de Swart

reveals the uniquely beautiful way
in which acrylics and light interact.
(Courtesy of the artist)
with the abundance of the raw materials from which they are made, are
great virtues, but they have many other assets when appropriately selected
and used. Many are surprisingly durable, yet are light in weight. Most of
them are pleasant to handle, yet they do not mar or scratch easily. Because
the color usually is integral with the plastic, it does not wear off, and with
proper care it does not fade. Only recently, though, have the significant
characteristics of plastics been thoroughly studied and the best uses for each
plastic become known to designers, manufacturers, and a iew consumers. A
number of plastics have many and varied uses, just as do a number of metals
and woods, but each plastic has its limitations as well as its strengths.
Designing in plastics is a challenge, chiefly because the materials them-
selves have so little intrinsic character and can be made to do almost any-
thing. As is usual under such conditions, designers at first bent their efforts
to making these new materials look like old and familiar ones— it is still not
uncommon to find plastic table tops which unconvincingly imitate Avood,
marble, or cloth. Gradually, though, the inherent possibilities of plastics are
being recognized and sympathetically revealed to make a ne^v and positive
contribution to our living.
CONCLUSION
Woods, metals, and plastics may be processed in a multitude of ways and
formed into an endless number of objects for human use. In enjoying
and appraising objects made from these materials, think about how well—
shaped to meet our needs

or how poorly-the material has been selected and
beautiful. Wastebaskets, for examp e, can be made
for the useful and the
hard to imagine a smgle des.gn
eqt.^^
IL wood, metal, or plastic, but u is
craftsmen mu
^ -table for all three materials. Indt.str.al designers as wel as
well, and heir
well and what u does less
know what each material can do
nature of the materials wuh
-^^ch they
products should express the -^^^^^
rue tâ
basic questions about the use of materials Is t
This raises
that iron should not be
made to ook like
metal should look like metal,
marble, wood,
plastic should not imitate
wood (Fig. 191B) or stoneP That
and
"^"i;:r:o :L::îons take us . .. direction of philosophy
Do you want hones y
personal values. Do you value sincerity and frankness?
are weigh y
imitation and pretense? These
Tart" Or are you content with reactions to
ûesaons! and'yotir answers to
them will govern many of your
^" fe. wood, me^s,

°r lir ac^L might well be to look at and
Your own home and school,
to
offices,
.nd nlastics in all their various forms. Study
are full of these materials.
::itomoX,Turniture and hardware stores
used.
well the materials have been
how
them. Decide for yourself
Some suggested readings are:
Press,
Read (Bloomington, Ind.: University of Indiana
Art and IndusUy: Herbert
production of useful,
role o£ materials in the
''''xhe best exposition of the
beautiful objects. , c
• •
H.„<ii,oo»: Jeann.t.e Adams and Emanuele St.er,

Tkc C.»,p(... .»'<.o<i»-ii„g
,„>„„„ o„ a„ pha«, of «orUi,„

..h wood.
**i::;^*ri;.eX,,ce
-Tê-.::rrr::L^=r;::^;rrtSo„ „.
plastics.
... . .,. .,».

-- S=:nLnJis„™X;::^srt:oS;'r;L
crafts.
Holden (New York: Studio. 1954).
Geoffrey
The craft of the Silversmith:
Clear explanation of techniques.
Greta Daniels
Design: Arthur Drexler and
introduction to Twentieth Century
(New York: Museum of Modern
Art, 1959).
in this century.
\n exceptional survey of design
Monies (New York: McGraw-Hill. 1961).

Wood in Architecture: Finn
Emphasizes the esthetics of wood
in structures.
A triple-spouted, gourd-shaped vase
made in eigliteenth-century China re-
tains the plasticity of the clay from
which was made. The high-grade
it
stoneware body is covered with softly

textured green glaze. (Courtesy of the
Stanford University Museum)
7 Ceramics
- and Glass
IT IS LOGICAL to consider ceramics and glass together because they have
marked similarities. Both are made from decomposed rocks, and being inor-
ganic they do not rot or decay like wood, nor do they rust or corrode like
metal. They are shaped while in a plastic or liquid state, as are most metals
and plastics, and they are subjected to high temperatures. Generally, cer-
amics and glass have less tensile strength than wood, metal, and plastics—
they are likely to break if bent and to shatter if dropped on a hard surface.
All glazed ceramics are closely related to glass because glazes are really
glass; and porcelain, although rightfully classified with ceramics, has almost
as many "glass" characteristics as those associated with "clay." Both materials
197
198 - Ceramics and Glass
machine. Hand processes have
changed compara-
can be shaped by hand or
speed and economy.
tively little, but
industrialization has greatly increased
at one
medieval potter could be hardened
For example, a year's output of a
kilns. In one minute a
machme can make 1000
firm, ur some of our large
ago this would have taken two
men a whole
glass light bulbs; a few decades
'^'^'
between these two materials.
There however, important differences
are,
it can be
beh.g transparent (even though
Glass is usually thought of as be
opaque (although porcelains can
opaque), and ceramics are usually
sharp-pointed grains of sand that becom
tL'slucent). Glass made from
is
are made from clay
plastic or fluid only when fused at great heat; ceramics
Glass is shaped while
Lt become plastic or fluid when mixed with water. shaped.
undergo heat until they have been
very hot, but ceramics do not made
again be
reshaped, but fired clays can never
Glass can be remelted and
tensile strength of glass far
exceeds that of
plastic or fluid. Finally, the
rolled into large, thin sheets for
windows or
ceramics: glass can be drawn or
for textiles and insulation.
spun into thin filaments
CERAMICS
which include
"Objects made of fired clay" is a short definition of ceramics,
tiles, bricks, and drain tiles. We will, however
tableware, vases, sculpture,
ornamental ceramics, for it is with
confine this discussion to tableware and
daily living.
these that we have most contact in
vessels from
arose the art of fashioning
No one knows when or where ceramics
by heat, nor do we know how
the first
clay and hardening them
that some
early man must have noticed
were made. Inevitably, thotigh,
^ê soft clay along
fires hardened the
ground under them; and, then as now,
boulder. Some-
perhaps halfway over a round
riverbanks invited shaping,
clay made it
lining a wicker basket with
one might have learned that
discovered that when this clay-lined
more nearly water-proof, and then hardened
wicker burned away to leave a
basket was left in a fire, the
turning different
discovered that different clays,
clay pot. Somewhere it was
for colorful enrichment.
Glazing may have
colors in firing, could be used
surface
quartz pebbles develop a shiny
developed from the discovery that
if heated in wood ashes. . j- ^„„
processes in ceramics were discov-
Almost of the basic materials and
all
(Fig. 199A) was no-
artistry of ancient potters
ered centuries ago and the
steps ahead
reached the stage where significant
table Very early this art
our credit the discovery of new
became few and far between. We
have to
and mass
clays and new glazes, faster
and more accurate methods of firing,
Ceramics - 199
Some ancient and some con-

temporary pottery liave much
in common.
(A) Left. Made in Cliina be-
fore 2200 B.C., this prehistoric
jar is painted with sinpris-
ingly "modern" designs in
brown and black. {Courtesy of
the Stanford University Art
Gallery, Mortimer C. Leven-
tritt Collection)
(B) Right. Marguerite

Wildenhain's contempo-
rary hand-thrown, stone-
ware bowl is appropriately
enriched with scratched (or
sgraffito) patterns in white
,Md brown. (Courtesy of
the artist)
A
production techniques. applied power to turn old machines, found

We have
sources of heat, and greatly developed the
chemistry of ceramics to
new
electricity and
meet such new demands as that for insulators for high-voltage
crucibles for chemists. Today, almost everyone
can own ceramics, whereas
of ceramic dinnerware. But the
in 1750 only the wealthy could afford a set
components are
fundamental processes have changed little, and the basic
still clay and glazes, which will be discussed in the following sections.
Clay— The First Basic Material
Clays, or thin flakes of decomposed granite-type rocks, are found all over
the world and vary as much as woods and metals. Some are coarse and melt
under high temperatures; such clays are suited only to thick, crude, low-
porcelains and some
fire ceramics. In contrast, the clays in exquisitely thin
electrical insulators have extremely fine
textures and will hold their shape
in the colors they
under great heat. Also, as mentioned above, clays differ
red, others tan or brown; some remain
gray
develop when fired: some turn
white. Notice, the next time a piece of ceramic
ware breaks
and a few become
in your home, the color of the clay under the glaze.
seldom completely
Because a single clay as found in its natural state is
are mixed together, often with
satisfactory for ceramics, one or more clays
flint, to give the desired prop-
the addition of such materials as feldspar or
erties. In order to be workable, especially
by hand, some degree of plasticity
requisite that the clay keep its shape while
is desirable. For all ceramics it is
drying and firing and that the particles fuse together in the kiln.
used and the
Ceramic wares can be categorized in terms of the clays
factors affect the use,
temperatures at which they are fired. Both of these
shape, glaze, thickness, durability, and
enrichment of the piece.
and terra-cotta
Earthenware includes bricks and floor tiles, flower pots
sculpture, and some vases, bowls, and dishes.
Made from coarse surface
shales and clays, earthenware is fired at
low temperatures (1740 to 2130
degrees Fahrenheit). The coarser earthenware, such as flower pots and "pot-
terV' bowls or plates, comparatively rough and porous, red to brown
is
refined earthenware is produced by

in color, and thick (Fig. 21 IB). More
temperatures, this "fine earth-
adding other clays and flints. Fired at higher
facts that suggest
enware" stronger and smoother than the coarse wares,
is
thinner pieces with more delicate, formal shapes

and enrichment (Figs. 211
and211C). ^
frequently used for decorative pottery and
some of^ the ,
Stoneware is
finer clays and fired at higher

better "pottery" dinnerware. It is made from
than earthenware. When
temperatures (2130 to 2300 degrees Fahrenheit)
Ceramics - 201
fired, stoneware generally becomes tan or gray, and the clay particles are
partially to completely fused. The result is a smoother surface, impervious-
ness to water, and greater strength. The range of shape, glaze, and ornamen-
tation is and 206B).
great (Figs. 199B, 203 A,
Porcelain is used for high-grade dishes and ornamental wares. Usually
made from mixed clays containing goodly amounts of kaolin (very pure,
fine, \vhite clay) and feldspar (a mineral component of most crystalline
rocks), porcelain is fired at high temperatures (2300 to 2786 degrees Fahren-

heit). The result is a completely vitrified (that is, changed into a glassy
substance), translucent, waterproof, strong, ^vhite or bluish-white material.

Precise, refined, formal shapes and enrichment are suggested by this costly,
usually thin type of ceramics (Fig. 21 ID).

Although these are standard categories, they merge with one another
rather than being distinctly separate. There are, for example, clay bodies
that fall between stoneware and porcelain, and one very common hybrid
deserves mention:
China, from whichmuch commercial dinnerware is made, is white in
color, durable, and not expensive. The term was originally used for Euro-
pean ceramics that imitated Chinese porcelains. It is fired at medium tem-

peratures (2200 to 2280 degrees Fahrenheit) and is semi-vitreous. Ranging
from medium to high in thinness, translucency and strength, it suggests
somewhat formal shapes and enrichment.
Shaping Clay by Hand. Clay, moistened to a puttylike plasticity, can be

shaped by several methods after all impurities and air bubbles have been
eliminated and the consistency is uniform.
The coil method is easy and has many possibilities of size and shape.
Starting with a disc of clay, the potter attaches ropelike strands of clay that
he has previously rolled out. These strands he builds up in layers of coils
pinching and smoothing them together. When the coiled pot is nearly dry,
he may smooth and polish it with a pebble or spoon— or he may let the
successive layers of coils remain as structural ornament.

The slab method involves rolling clay out like biscuit dough, cutting
it into pieces and fastening them together (Fig. 202A). Rectangular, rounded,
or irregular forms are all possible. Clay slabs can also be pressed into a hol-
low mold or onto a convex mold.
Throwing is the term used for shaping clay on a potter's wheel (Fig.
202B). Dating back to at least 4000 B.C., the potter's wheel is a heavy flat disc
that is rotated by hand, foot, or motor. Few art processes are more exciting
to watch than a skilled potter raising a shapeless lump of clay into a sym-
metrical, thin-walled vase. A ball of clay is "thrown," or placed onto the
middle of the wheel, which is then rotated. When the potter has a squat.
202
(A) Right. A sculpture by Hui Ka
Kwong poises slabs of clay in a spirited
interplay of form and direction. (Courtesy
of the artist)
Throwing pottery on a potter's wheel is an age-old

art widely practiced.
still
placing
(B) Below. Four stages in forming a vase:
the ball of clay on the wheel; centering the
clay; rais-
ing the clay into a cylinder; and

shaping the vase.
(fiourtesy of Joel ^foss nnd ]osiah Wedgxeood and Sons)
(A) Left. In Arthur Baggs' 203
stoneware cookie jar the flowing
contours and concentric rings
show that a plastic material was
shaped on a rotating wheel. The
handles retain the tractable char-
acter of wet clay. (Courtesy of
the Syracuse Museum of Fine
Arts)
(B) Right. Hui Ka Kwong's vase was

made by squashing a thrown bowl and
then adding other thrown pieces.
Black, yellow, white, and blue glazes
intensify the unexpectedness of the
forms. (Courtesy of the artist)
symmetrical, truncated cone of clay, he begins to open it by pressing both
thumbs into the center while from spreading too much.

his fingers keep it
Then he forms a cylinder by pressing on the inside with one hand and on
the outside with the other. From this point on, the potter shapes his pot by
varying the pressure on the inside and outside. An almost unlimited variety
of round, symmetrical shapes is possible— the potter's skill, imagination, and
taste, and the available clays are the important controlling factors. The
cookie jar in Fig. 203A is a consummate example of wheel-thrown pottery.
The full flowing contours and the unobtrusive concentric rings show
clearly that a plastic material was shaped on a rotating wheel.
Although wheel-thrown pottery is typically symmetrical, some con-
temporary potters have experimented with less rigid forms. Creating spon-
taneously but with great technical mastery, Hui Ka Kwong combines, adds,
and subtracts; pierces, cuts, and glazes his forms into highly animated and
personal sculpture (Fig. 203B).
production, ceramic objects are
Shaping Clay by Machine. For mass
models are made; then thousands of
designed in clay, plaster, or on paper;
or with a jigger (Figs. 205A
replicascan be turned out quickly in molds
through 206B).
a typical way making hollow ware-vases, coffee
of
Casting in molds is
based on two facts: that plaster of

Pans
pots and pitchers. The process is
that clay particles can be suspended

in water. A
absorbs water readily and
dimension
one-piece mold for a simple shape in which the top is the largest
be cast upside down and pour-
made by simply turning the model to
can be
to form model is more com-
a thick wall. If the
incT plaster of Paris over it
mold of two or more coordinated

pUcated and has undercuts or extrusions, a
Lerlocking segments is needed. Then,
when the plaster has hardened
original model is removed and the
mold
sufficiently to retain its shape, the
"""
pot in a three-piece mold. Slip, a
Fi-ure 205A shows the casting of a
is poured into the top
of the mold. Being
thick mixture of clay and water,
con-
water from the slip that comes in
very "thirsty." the mold absorbs the
clay, which varies in thickness
with the length
tact with it. Thus a layer of
mold, builds up inside the mold.
When this
of time the slip is left in the
slip is poured out. Then the
piece is allowed
layer is thick enough, the excess
clay shrinks in drying, iteventually pulls away from the
to dry and, because
The removed
cast pot is from the mold, seam marks or other
plaster of Paris.
handles or knobs not cast with the
imperfections are smoothed out. and any
drying the mold can be used
main pieces are fastened on. After thorough
again. . , •
process by which most machine-

,
Shaping with a jigger and joUey is the

formed. Basically it is much like
made cups, bowls, saucers, and plates are
throwing on a potter's wheel, but a
mold and a template are substituted
205B). Jiggered pieces are finished
and dried m
for the potter's hands (Fig.
the same manner as those that are cast.
When fired, it is hard

While being shaped, clay is either plastic or fluid.
qualities give us two suggestions
about ap-
and comparatively brittle. These
essential-association
the long-but not
propriate shapes, and to these we add
together suggests rounded, compact
with the potter's wheel. Putting them
parts, and angles seem more
appro-
forms. Sharp edges, slender extended
as a survey of historic and
contemporary ob-
priate to metal than to clay,
hand, the qualities of the
both materials would show. On the
other
jects in
meet our
material are but one factor in
determining the form of objects to
found in
can have the angular shapes
needs We all know that ceramics
and vases.
some modern decorative ceramics and in some old Oriental bowls
Ceramics - 205
JOLLE Y ARM
BOWL BEING
JIGGERED
PLASTER OF
PAR I S MOLD
J I G G E R
Mass-produced ceramics are usually made in molds, or with jiggers and jolleys.
(A) Upper. In casting, liquid clay is poured into a plaster mold that absorbs the
water and leaves a layer of clay on the inside of the mold. After the clay has partially
hardened, the object is removed. (Josiah Wedgwood and Sons)
(B) Lower. Jigger and jolley. The mold on the jigger shapes the inside of the bowl or
plate; the template on the jolley arm shapes the outside.
Practical and beavitiful tableware made

by casting and jiggering.
(A) Left. Comparatively thin and re-
fined shapes covered with a smooth white
glaze that is appropriate to the material
and form. (Arzberg)
(B) Below. Sturdy stoneware in strong,
informal shapes with a smooth, white
mat glaze on the inner bowls, a dark
textured glaze on brims and outside.
{Heath Ceramics)
Ceramics - 207
Cups and pitchers can have slender handles; bowls and vases can have thin,
flaring rims. As with other materials, a potter brings into imison the forms a
material first suggests, his skill in exploiting its potentialities, and the human
needs, specific and general, for which the object is made.
Drying and Firing. Clay objects must be dried carefully and slowly to
prevent warping or cracking. In drying they may shrink as much as ten per-
cent, and they may shrink another ten percent in firing. Before firing, they
are called green ivare, and at this stage they break easily and soften or even
disintegrate in water.
Firing at sufficient temperatures completely changes the character of
clay: this change is called maturing. As mentioned, various clays are fired
at difiierent heats. At temperatures suitable for earthenware, porcelain will
harden but not vitrify; and at the high heats needed to mature porcelains,
earthen\vare clays lose their shape. Successful firing demands careful control.
Temperatures must not go too high or stay too low.
Most ceramic objects are fired twice. Biscuit firing hardens the ware,
and this is the only firing that such unglazed pieces as flower pots get.
Objects are glazed in glost firing. A few objects are hardened and glazed in
one firing, and some glaze effects or types of ornament require several firings.
Glazes— The Second Basic Material
Most ceramics are covered with glazes, which are glasslike coatings fused at
high temperatures to clay surfaces. The main function is to give clay objects
a hard, durable, easily cleaned, and usually waterproof surface. But another
and more exciting virtue is that of providing color and texture. Colors
range from soft earth colors to gemlike brilliance. They can be thick or thin,
shiny or dull, transparent, translucent, or opaque. Their surfaces can be
very smooth or have tmcounted kinds of textures. These qualities are de-
termined by the ingredients used in the glazes and by the temperatures and
methods of firing and cooling the pieces. Endlessly fascinating to potters,
glazes range from simple ones made from salt alone (Fig. 203A) to those that
are technically complex.
Glazes vary in the way they join the clay body. A broken piece of
earthenware shows that the glossy coating and earthy body are distinctly
different, but in porcelains the glaze and body are so similar chemically that
they fuse together. If glaze and body do not shrink at the same rate while
cooling, the glaze may craze or crack into many fine lines. Sometimes "crack-
ling" is deliberately planned as an attractive enrichment. In Fig. 208A the
long crackle lines emphasize through contrast the bowl's shape while adding
their own intricate tracery.
beauty of different kinds.

Shane and daze alone give these ceramics great
bowl (Sung Dynasty,
J) aL The Ireavy gray glaze on a simply shaped Chinese
has pattern^ of crackle produced by sudden chdhng
temh fo th r'teenth centlrfes^l) St.mson Memortal
Seattle Art Museum. Tko,nas D.
In a pigmented liquid. (Courtesy of
by contrasting colors vitalize

^lB)thzv Vigorous textures of clay and glaze accentuated
bowl. (Courtesy of the M. H. de Young Memorial Museum)
fiiatrice Wood-sôntemporary
Ceramics - 209
(A) Above. Maija Grotell's vase is enriched

with a pattern that retains the qualities of
glazes fusing and melting in a kiln. (Cour-
tesy of the American Craftsmen's Council)
(B) Right. Bob Arneson chose to key up
the asymmetrical, plastic character of a vase
with irregular textured areas of dark over
light glazes. (Courtesy of the American
Craftsmen's Council)
esthetically
Beyond fitting the body physically, glazes at their best are
of the piece. This is not a
matter
appropriate to the character and purpose
effect. If a potter wishes the
of rulesbut of sensitivity to the total desired
to dominate, comparatively
smooth, quiet glazes are a sen-
form of a piece
that
sible choice (Figs. 197, 203 A,
206A, and B). He may, though, want glazes
in themselves, in which case
he might use such knids as are
are eventful
209A, and 343. Or he may use two or
more con-
illustrated in Figs. 208B,
design of a pot (Figs. 203B, 209B,
and
trasth.o glazes to underscore the
relationships of clays
213A). Many modern ceramists are re-examining the
glazes with results that are exciting
and personal.
and
Enrichment of Ceramics
shape and glaze alone, man
Although many ceramics are beautiful through
the other
for some ornamentation. As in
has often responded to the need
tellingly re-
arts ceramic enrichment is
most satisfying when it in itself is
expressive functions, the material,
and the
lated to the object's useful and
basic shape. i-
•
us to some of the potentialities

A study of four plates will introduce
a lip (or rim) and a well
(and guiding principles) of ornament. Plates with
(concave inner part) suggest that these

two important divisions be acknowl-
of highly refined earthenware.
The
edged Fi-ure 211 A shows a plate made
shapes that at first
lip"is covered with an
over-all pattern of raised diamond
have curved sides. The lines make
these
look completely angular but actually
returning to the center; the result is
shapes appear to be going out from and
conventionalized
a lively movement. An indistinct wreath of
circular
well, the center of which
leaves slightly emphasizes the sloping sides of the
different is the vigorous,
hand-painted design on the coarser
is plain. Quite
abstract forms suggest varied
natu-
earthenware plate (Fig. 211B), on which
the plate s center
circular "bull's-eye" emphasizes
ral shapes and rhythms. A
not
patterns radiate. Two circular bands
and from this focus, five plantlike
but indicate the division between
lip
only check this outward movement
concentric motifs
and well. A freely serpentine band accented with
drawn
completes the design.
discussed above are the other two.
The
Less symmetrical than the plates
21 IC a wreath of
first is refined earthenware;
the second is porcelain. In Fig.
is combined
semirealistic grapevines with a
hint of three-dimensionality
three-dim n-
scalloped rim that is actually
with an informally fluted and
In this
sional. The whole design is
remarkable for its consistent infornrality.
on the lip but it wanders down the
example, ornamentation is concentrated
bottom. Typical of
sides of the well and spreads
a little onto the plate's flat
Ceramics - 211
The ornamentation on these plates is har-

monious with their shapes and the varied
types of clay.
(A) Left. A plate of high-grade earthen-
ware, cast in a mold, with a raised design
that is precise and formal in character. (Cour-
tesy of Copeland and Thompson)
(B) Right. On a coarser earthenware body

drawn, \igorous design seems at
this freely
home. Hjorth, designer. (Georg Jensen, Inc.)
(C) Left. The pattern on this fine-grade

earthenware plate is printed. The design of
the vines and leaves echoes the rippling edge
of the plate. (Josiah ]]'edgii<ood and Sons)
(D) Right. An eighteenth-century Chinese

porcelain plate embellished with designs
hand-painted in enaniellike glazes. (Courtesy
of Stanford University Art Gallery, Mortimer
C. Leventritt Collection)
212 - Ceramics and Class
informal art, this design does not confine itself within rigid boundaries.
of the
In so doing, it tends to merge, rather than to differentiate, the parts
Figure 21 ID illustrates the Oriental's ability to adapt
and modify
plate.
imitative or losing
natural forms without either making them superficially
becomes a rich but
their organic qualities. The intricately elaborated
lip
part maintains
subordinate enclosure for the floral design in the well. Each
with the others. The plate subtly and
its identity and yet truly belongs
goes beyond many tedious little rules of design to

become a
creatively
beautifully integrated whole. Its expressive communication-yes, an object
"say something"-does
ashumble as a dinner plate not only can but should
not grow thin with repeated study.
Applied ceramic ornamentation falls into two basic categories.

surface of pots
Painted or Printed. The typically smooth, uninterrupted
and plates invites drawing and painting almost as
much as do walls and
minerals could be mixed
canvases. Very early, men discovered that clays and
The prehistoric urn (Fig. 199 A) has black
with liquids and painted on clay.
and brown designs painted on its reddish body; the eighteenth-century
Chinese plate ID) was painted with enamellike glazes of glowing

(Fig. 21
with blue
colors, and the contemporary Danish plate (Fig. 2 11 B) is decorated
on white.
and effects are possible.
A great variety of "paints," tools, techniques,
with liquids to many
Diverse pigments can be used, and they can be mixed
thick-cream consistency
consistencies. Clays can be combined with water to a
ware, or they can be
and applied thickly, as in much Pennsylvania German
sticks, brushes, eye droppers,
thin as milk. These can be applied with fingers,
or precise and intricate.
or syringes; and the designs can be boldly vigorous
of these meth-
Or glazes and enamels (Fig. 209A) can make the patterns. All
ods are used today in handmade ceramics, but
most mass-produced deco-
are engraved with the de-
rated ware is printed (Fig. 21 IC). Copper rollers
signs, heat-softened color is rubbed into the
engraved lines and then printed
which the design can
on special tissue paper to produce decalcomanias from
ware. This printed paper is
then be transferred to the surface of the ceramic
placed on the piece color-side down, vigorously
rubbed to make the color
adhere to the object, and then the paper is washed
off.
pigments, tools, and effects. But pig-

So far we have mentioned only the
dry enough to hold
ments can be applied to clay objects as soon as they are
they are glazed. After appli-
) their shape, after they are biscuit-fired, or after
cation of the pigment, the piece can be
glazed-or reglazed. Painted or
decoration covered by a glaze (usually colorless and

transparent) is
printed
no glaze covers the design, it is called over-
called underglaze decoration. If
Ceramics - 213
aa:r;i
% -7^
^!%^-
<^y'-'\ir^ -.<fr
>^5S
>;:?>
k^%Mb^
Clay is modeled ornamentation.
a natural material for carved or
Luca della Robbia's plaque, "Prudence," was made in fifteenth-century Italy.
(A) Left.
The sensitively modeled forms are emphasized by richly colored glazes. {Courtesy of the
Metropolitan Museum of Art)
(B) Right. Dirk Hubers' contemporary jar is deeply carved with a vigorous abstract
pattern. The naturally dark brown stoneware body is lightened with a spotted, cream-
colored matte glaze in the deep relief. (Courtesy of the artist)
glaze decoration. Protected by a glassy coating, underglaze decorations are
more durable; but overglaze pigments have a greater color range, and all
gilding is done after the final olost-firin?.
Modeled or Carved. Clay in its plastic state invites being worked \vith
because it responds so readily to every pressure. While hand-thrown pottery
is still soft it can be given concentric raised or lowered rings and thumb-
print borders; it can be textured Avith about everything from modeling tools
and pocket combs to burlap and screen-cloth; or it can be impressed with
designs carved in wood or plaster. Also it can be modeled into sculptural
forms (Figs. 203B and 2 ISA).
When cheese hard or leather hard (firm enough to be handled safely

but not so dry that it po^vders or chips when cut away), other kinds of
enrichment are possible. Three-dimensional enrichment can be incised— that
is, designs can be cut into the clay (Fig. 21 lA); excised— the background
can be cut away to leave the design in relief (Fig. 213B); or pierced— the
design is actually cut through the body of the piece. Sgraffito, a process with
slip of
a very long history, is produced by coating the whole piece with a
body; the design is then scratched through
clay different from that of the
underneath (Fig. 199B).
the outer layer to expose the body
ornamentation, it is small wonder

In view of the great range of ceramic
ages have exploited the many
possibihties.
that potters down through the
needed, and that often
But we remind you that ornamentation is not always
the greatest test of the potter's art and science comes when he creates a
beautiful unadorned piece.
GLASS
has af-
used in uncounted ways. Throughout
its history, it
Today, glass is
significantly as in our century. This

is
fected human concerns but never so
repertory. One company checks an
because of its fabulously expanded
it has tested
average of thirty formulas each day; in more than a century
new
as iron,
some "65 000. Glass now can be lighter than cork or almost as heavy
hard as gems. Some glasses transmit heat or
as soft as cotton or nearly as
survive sudden
electricity readily while others do not. There are glasses that
changes; others are sufficiently strong
and flexible to serve as
temperature
have windshields that resist shattering,
and a telescopic
diving boards. We
weighs 20 tons and is 200 inches in
mirror, cast in one flawless piece, that
of these tremendous advances,
almost 90 percent of
diameter. But in spite
did very
today's glass has much the same "soda-lime-silica" composition as
ancient examples.
Like ceramics, glass has a long history as yet not completely disclosed.
And, again, we do not know just when or where man first made glass, but
producing such glassy substances as
we know that nature had for eons been
shaping of glass developed slowly, and some
obsidian. The making and
Thus some of the first vessels
processes resembled those used in ceramics.
glass
were made much like coil pottery by winding rods of hot, softened
By 1200 the Egyptians knew how to
a core of sand (Fig. 215A).
b.c.
around
invented until shortly before the birth
press glass, but the blowpipe was not
of Christ. Like the potter's wheel,
the blowpipe has changed remarkably
from its first

importance to the invention of the
form. Comparable in
little
With
potter's wheel, the blowpipe caused an early "industrial revolution."
little from the category of a
rare
the new, efficient tool, glass descended a
Revolution had it become a product
luxury, but not until the Industrial
for common use.
substance, usually transparent, composed
What is glass? "An amorphous
one definition. But it omits one of this material's
chiefly of silicates" is
Glass - 215
Glass is an extremely versatile material that
can be handled in many ways.

(A) Above, left. This multicolored, tiny
vase of translucent glass was made in Egypt
about 3500 years ago. (Corning Glass Works)
(B) Above, right. A seventeenth-century
Venetian candelabrum demonstrates the deli-
cate, intricate elaboration to which glass
lends itself so well. (Courtesy of the Metro-
(C) Left. Glass as clear and brilliant as
this vase and goblet
is a comparatively re-
cent achievement. (Fisher, Bruce and Com-

pany)
is a
strangest and most distinctive characteristics. Glass "-P--°l^^^^^";;^''
viscous that it is rigid. Technically
becomes so
that at ordinary temperatures
no abrupt physical change when
i
there
speaking, it is not a solid, for
is
wi 1 not. This
will flow and becomes one that
ceases to be a substance that
like a
us were it not that glass actually looks
would be of little concern to
liquid, ^vhich is an important factor in designing.

glass is
of special glasses, ordinary
Despite the diversified characteristics
it will not withstand
sudden tem-
comparatively brittle and fragile, and
rust, corrode, or rot when
in contact with
perature changes. But it does not
any plastic to date in
^---b^.ed trans-
water or most acids; it exceeds gh
and refracts (bends and breaks up) 1
parency and hardness; and it reflects
material can (Fig. 223). Although
we usually think o
as no other common
thousand^ o
glass as thin, and colorless, men struggled for
transparent,
secrets that made this kind of glass possible G a
years before unlocking the
It can
with bubbles or other textures.
can be translucent or opaque,
filled
It can be blown^
colorless, delicately tinted, or richly hued.
be thick or thin; and
sheets, or spun into threads;
cast molded, pressed, "drawn," rolled into
and enamel-
engraving, etching, sandblasting
t c^n be enllced by cutting,
most spectacularly useful and
Z No wonder that it remains one of our
As though this were not enough,
glass is made from
beautiful materials.
common materials and is inexpensive to manufacture.
useful and
our discussion to the types of
As with ceramics, we shall limit
--iles a- men-
decorative glassware such as might be used in homes. Glass
architecture is shown in Chapter
17.
tioned in Chapter 8 and glass in
modern
The Materials
ele
formulas include almost every chemical
Even though thousands of glass
composed of silicates such as -"^ ^^^^
nient known, glass is basically
at very high -^P-^^-^^^
-J
such as sodium or potassium fused
added to give special q^'^"-. ^^^
f^^^^ ^^^
substances, many others may be
^^^ J.^^
major categories as determined
by
majority of glasses fall into one of three
to silica,
their basic materials. In addition
and
ingredients of ordinary household
. soda and lime are the principal
window glass.
grade of glass.
. potash and lime are used in a finer
which has
. iead. from 25 to 50 percent
by weight, is used in crystal,
luster (Fig. 215C).
exceptional clarity, brilliance, and
-^s; copper
gold and copper oxides give
Colors come from various minerals: or
or cobalt oxides give blues; and
cadmium and uranium produce yellows
Glass - 217
oranges. Other effects, such as translucency, opacity, or bubbles, result from
chemicals or the way in which the glass is treated.
Shaping Glass
A material as plastic and ductile as hot glass can be shaped in many ways,
but there are two basic processes.
Blowing Glass.W'hen glass is blown by hand, the blowpipe (a hollow

metal rod) is dipped in molten glass and then withdrawn with the desired
amount clinging like heavy molasses to the end. It is rolled on a polished
slab, then blown into a bubble (Fig. 218A). Working with the simple tools
used for centuries—workman's bench, flow-iron, shear, calipers, and wooden
paddles— the craftsman in "offhand blowing" expertly develops the final
form by rolling, twisting, and shaping with tools while the glass is hot and
plastic. Because glass can be worked only at high temperatures, the object is
frequently reheated in small ovens. Stems, feet, handles, or blown ornaments

are formed separately and laid on (Figs. 218C and 222A). Glass may also
be blown into a mold or a series of molds of different shapes which make pos-
sible some sculptural effects difficult if not impossible in "offhand blowing."
Most blown glass nowadays is produced by machine (Fig. 218B) with,
of course, greatly increased efficiency.
Pressing (or Molding) Glass. Although the Egyptians pressed glass more
than 3000 years ago, the process was not fully developed until rather re-
cently. A mold is made, the right amount of molten glass is dropped into it,
and a plunger forces the glass into the desired shape. Done either by hand
or machine (Figs. 219A and B), pressed glass emerges in many shapes, often
with a textured surface (Fig. 219C). Although much pressed glass is of the
type shown in the illustration, many other kinds, such as glass sculpture, are
possible.
What shapes are most appropriate for this completely amorphous super-
cooled liquid with its chameleonlike qualities?
The primary factor is the unique manner in which glass and light inter-
act. When glass is transparent and colorless but thick, patterns of light
develop inside— as well on the surface of— the material. These patterns
as
can be serenely simple (Fig. 220) or complex and diversified (Fig. 223).
Even in constant light, the patterns in glass imply motion, perhaps because
we know that if the light changes or if we change our position the lights and
darks will actually change dramatically. Colored transparent glass not only
Glass can be blown by hand or by machine.

"Offhand" blowing requires great skill but can produce shapes im-
(A) Above, left.
possible by any other process. {Steuben Glass) r , î

puff of air makes a bubble of molten glass
, , ,
(B) Above, right. In machine-blown glass, a

that is then shaped in a mold. (Corning Glass
Works)
r u j •
(C) Belox,. Blown and enriched by

hand, these examples show some of the design
possibilities of the process. The bases of the
wine glasses
^^^%,f'^Pfj^'^\'\^Z^'
engraved. The globs on the bottom
were hot and workable. The owl on the plate was Glass
of the decanter were laid on. (Corning
of the vase and the ridges around the neck
Works)
Glass - 219
Pressed glass shapes often have textural patterns, although this is not inherent in the
process. {Corniyig Glass Works)
(A) Above, left. In pressing glass by hand, a white-hot glob is dropped in the mold
and pressed into shape by a plunger.
(B) Above, right. Mechanized pressing of glass has greatly speeded up the production
of such items as casseroles, dishes, and glass blocks.
(C) Below. Typical contemporary machine-pressed glass.
Two modern Finnish vases preserve

tlie globular character of hot,
molten glass. The asymmetrical,

free-form shapes are sensuously
sculptural. Time Sarpeneva, de-
signer. {Georg Jensen, Inc.)
shadows but seems luminous color to the space

to radiate its
creates colored
through varying
surrounding it. As we proceed aivay from transparency,
translucency and with countless textures either
on the surface or
degrees o£
enter a field of uncounted possibilities (Fig.
215B). Then
in the glass, we
there are the techniques of cutting and
engraving that can set glass ablaze
diamonds. It can glitter, sparkle,
with a chromatic brilliance rivaling that of
and scintillate-or glow with an opalescent luminosity.
No matter what tech-
glass to join forces with the material
in an
nique is used, light gets inside
say that the most appropriate

inimitable way. It seems logical, therefore, to
shapes for glass as a material, not necessarily
as an object for use. are those m
which full consideration is given to the effect of
light.
important. Molten glass when

behaves in processing is
But the way glass
shapes
first taken out of the furnace
tends to assume asymmetrical, globular
ornaments in Fig. 218C. The
somewhat like those in Fig. 220 or some of the
will entice molten glass mto
blowpipe normally produces a bubble, molds
angular shapes. Is any one of
almost any shape, and cutting can give sharp,
others? Certainly all are not only
these more basic to the material than the
Glass - 221
feasible but appropriate. But the asymmetrical glob seems distinctively

characteristic, and the bubble seems to be in the nature of the material and
of one basic process. We shape glass, though, less for its own sake than for
our needs, and the forms suggested by the material are only one factor.
Enrichment of Glassware
As with ceramics, much glassware does not need ornamentation. The ma-
terial can be beautiful in itself and the basic shapes handsome. Certainly, no
added decoration is needed on such pieces as are shown in Figs. 215C and
223. But there are numerous ways of enriching glass which, when sensitively
carried out, may enhance the material and the shape to give us intensified
pleasure.
Laid-on Ornamentation. Additional pieces of glass can be added to, or
laid on, the basic shape for further enrichment of varied kinds. Notice in
Fig. 218C that they can be precisely regular, as are the rings around the de-
canter's neck, or they may have a globular, less formal quality as on the
base of the vase next to the decanter. They can be as ingeniously fanciful
and delicate as the candelabrum (Fig. 215B) or preserve the plasticity of
molten glass (Fig. 224).
Cut Glass. Like precious jewels, glass can be cut to increase its sparkle,
to provide decoration, and to create new shapes. The cutting is done by re-
volving stone or steel wheels fed with coarse abrasives; then the piece is
successively polished on stone and felt wheels until the surfaces regain their
original brilliance. When workmanship are good,
the design, material, and
cut glass produces a brilliance difficult to equal with any other material and
process. With the development of flaw-free glass and the trend away from
elaborate decoration, the saw-toothed, heavily patterned cut glass that graced
our grandmothers' sideboards fell temporarily from favor. But the technique
still holds possibilities— and much of our grandmothers' cut glass has a spirit
and richness that are worthy of appreciation.

Engraved Glass. Because glass is as smooth and uniform as metal, it
lends itself to delicate— or vigorous— engraving. An old technique, the en-

graving of glass has enjoyed considerable popularity in the past few decades.
Good hand-engraving takes time and great skill; therefore, it is expensive
and done only on the finest crystal. Engraving is done with copper wheels
of many sizes and shapes turned rapidly by motors. The glass is pressed
upward against the revolving wheel, which is fed with a fine abrasive of
emery dust mixed with oil. The result is a shallow intaglio that, by optical
illusion, may seem to be in lo^v relief (see the engraved owl on the plate in
Fig. 218C). Although the engraving is seldom deep, the effects can range
These two vases show ornamenta-

tion strongly related to material
and
process.
(A) Left. Asixteenth-century Ve-
netian glass beaker with "laid-on"
enrichment of clear and colored
glass. {Courtesy of the
Metropolitan
Museum of Art)
(B) Below. A contemporary
vase
from Holland with a subtle design

in gray and black which
appears to
crystal.
float between layers of clear
F. Maydam, designer. (A. ]. Van
Dugteren and Sons, Inc.)
Glass - 223
Hand from a glob of light

cut
green Vera Liskova's
olass,
frog demonstrates some of the
contemporary tethniques used
in Czechoslo\akia. Licjuid,
rhytlmiic intciplay of light
and dark imbues the sculpture
with a strong feeling of move-
ment. {"Glass 1959," The
Corning Museum of Glass)
from delicate lines to strongly realized forms. It is easy to distinguish from

etched glass (described below) and from ornamentation
produced by sand-
blasting through a stencil, for neither of these
gives the sharp clarity of line
or full modeling of form that comes from enaravincr
Etched Glass. Etching is a common method of decorating inexpensive
glass. The areas not to be etched are coated with a waxy substance. Then the
glass is exposed to hydrofluoric acid that eats the unprotected areas to a
frosted texture.
Etiameled and Gilded Glass. Again like ceramics, glass can be painted
with enamels of many colors, or with gold and silver, and these can be fired
onto the surface. In recent years, glass enriched by this technique has been
of disappointingly low quality, but the
potentialities of the technique have
been proved by many pieces of historic glass treasured in
museums.
There are innumerable other ways of enriching glass. Romans,

Vene-
tians, and artists today have made vessels out of multicolored glass
mosaics
fused together. Objects with two or more layers
of different colors have
been carved in cameo fashion; and ornamentation has
been sandwiched
between two layers of glass. Varying the thickness of glass and introducing
A small contemporary glass bottle

exemplifies the ingenuity and skill
that Sweden has brought to glass-
making. Bubbles in the glass and a
fluid network of laid-on glass com-
bine to produce an intricate pat-
tern as full of surprises as the
images in a kaleidoscope. Bengt
Edenfalk, designer. (Courtesy of
Corning Museum of Glass)
such as those in Fig. 224.

controlled bubbles or textures produce results
flakes can be suspended like
Colors can be fused on the surface, and mineral
spun threads and drawn
snow. The Venetians were masters of decorative
fusing fmely powdered glass
bands. Pate de verre (or paste glass), made by
in molds, has given us velvetlike surfaces
and a depth and subtlety of color
glass can be made irides-
unobtainable by other techniques. The surface of
cent and illusive; unconfined colors can
appear to drift through the body
(Fig. 222B).
Glass is indeed a versatile material.
CONCLUSION
clay is still practiced
The ancient art of making durable vessels out of soft
of early potters
throughout the world by methods that differ from those
much slo^ver to progress, has recently enjoyed a
chiefly in efficiency. Glass,
tremendous development as a material of unique importance in science, in
art, and in architecture. Even though glass and ceramics are used for hun-
dreds of objects that affect our daily living, there is good indication that we
possibilities.
have only begun to explore their
Conclusion -
225
The following publications on ceramics and glass are worth reading:
Ceramics: Glenn C. Nelson (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960).
Excellent illustrations supplement a well-organized discussion of ceramic
techniques.
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Articles on Glass, Glass Manufacture, and Pottery and Porcelain.
Glass 1959: Corning Museum of Glass (Corning, N.Y.: Corning Glass Center,
1959).
Illustrated catalog of an exhibition of international contemporary glass.
How Much Do You Know About Glass?: Harlan Logan, ed. (New York: Dodd,
Mead, 1951).
Pleasant, informative reading.
Potteiy: Form and Expression: Marguerite Wildenhain (New York: Reinhold,

I960).
Outstanding statement of a great potter's philosophy.
Stoneware and Porcelain: Daniel Rhodes (Philadelphia: Chilton, 1959).
An informati\e sur\ey of high-fired pottery followed by explicit technical
information.
The Sto^y of Glass: Freda Diamond (New York: Harcourt, 1953).

Excellent, concise history of glass.
Sunset Ceramics Book: Herbert H. Sanders (Menlo Park, Calif.: Lane, 1953).
One of the better "how-to-do-it" books.
Beatrice Wood's stoneware plate filled

with a thick, textured, glasslike glaze
brings clay and glass together. {Cour-
tesy of the American Craftsmen's Coun-
cil)
Weaving is the interlacing of flexible
materials. {The Coimnbia Mills)
8 Fabrics
-
ALMOST EVERY MINUTE, day or night, we are in visual and physical

Not only do we use them to upholster furniture, to
contact with fabrics.
windows, but we wear them for pro-
cover floors and beds, and to hang at
infinitely variable in color
tection and adornment. Pliant and responsive,
texture, they soften, humanize, and
enhance our environment.
and
fabrics are primarily utilitarian, a
few are created solely for esthe-
Some
tic pleasure, but the majority combine usefulness and beauty. Contemporary
have at their command many materials
and
weavers and textile designers
varied
processes with whichproduce a profusion of fabrics to meet our
to
intelligently only when we have
needs We, the consumers, can select
the ways in which they are fabri-
some knowledge of the basic materials and
specific considerations of fabric design.
cated, and some understanding of the
226
The Materials -
227
THE MATERIALS
Most fabrics are made from fibers, which are slender threadlike filaments.
Plants and animals provide an abundance of natural fibers, and scientists
have recently given us a host of new man-made materials.
Natural Fibers
Of the hundreds of fibrous materials found in nature, four are

pre-eminent.
Two of these, cotton and ^vool, deserve to be called "-svonder"
fibers be-
cause no man-made filaments yet developed are so versatile.
Cotton, used in more than t^vo-thirds of today's textiles, comes from
the
fibers covering the seeds of cotton plants. The short fibers are separated from
the seeds; carded and dra^vn to clean them and to make them parallel; spun
into threads and yarns; and then woven into textiles. Cotton is inexpensive,
wears fairly well, and is versatile-cool summer clothes, easily laundered
bed and table "linens," thin curtains and heavy draperies, thick rugs, and
tents. Special treatments can increase its softness and luster,
make it water-
repellent, wrinkle resistant, and quick drying.
Linen comes from the fibers around the woody pith of flax plants, which
have been cultivated for some 7000 years. One stem may yield as many as
25.000 fibers, each averaging i/iooo inch in diameter and measuring up
to
three and one-half feet long. Linen is the strongest, most pliable vegetable
fiber. Because of its strength, linen can be
spun into extremely fine threads
and and durable textiles such as those used for handker-
\v'oven into thin
chiefs. Linen tablecloths and napkins look and feel smooth and fresh even
after years of use. Heavier yarns are used for draperies, upholstery, and rugs.
Today it can be processed so that it resists soil and wrinkles.
Silk is the luxury fiber without equal because of unique
its luster and
crunchy softness. It has the greatest tensile strength of any natural fiber, is
somewhat elastic, and resists abrasion. Because silk fibers are long and strong,
they can be spun into very thin yarns and woven or knitted into gauzy tex-
tiles, such as translucent chiffon or stockings. And silk yarns give shimmerino-
satins, rich velvets, and lustrous rugs. Coarser silk fibers,
from worms fed
on oak leaves, are woven rough textures of shantung and
into the pleasantly
pongee. The way in ^vhich silk^vorms transform mulberry leaves into this re-
markable fiber is quite as wondrous as the processes by which man makes his
artificial fibers, and basically it is similar to those used in making rayon.
Wool is not hair, but a fine undercoat that may develop into hair.
later
Sheep, and not all sheep at that, are one of the few animals that bear a fleece
228
patterns as a natural conse-

Hand.woven textiles can have clear-cut, regular, geometric
coverlet from
white ôd and linen, an eighteenth-century
T;1;V WoT: of bCrnd
precise, orderly organization of
varied repeated patterns. (Courtesy
New Hamprre has a
Gallery of Art, Index of
America?, Design)
of the National ,
wall hanging exploits the lumniosUy of brightly colored

(B) Rt.ht Ted Hallman's
(Courtesy the
held in bands by plastic and fiber warp.
of
circles and strips of Plexiglas
American Craftsmen's Council)
some are thin as a spider

of wool but not hair. Wool fibers vary in thickness:
They also vary in length, growing
web while others are as coarse as hair.
to over eighteen inches a
year. Like cotton, wool
from about one inch
and woven into textiles of re-
fibers are combed out, twisted into yarns,
qualities. There are thin challis; smooth, firm gabardines;
markably varied
durability, resiliency, and soft
or rouoh, loose tweeds and homespuns.
Its
deeply to give
luster have made it a standard fiber for rugs. Dyes penetrate
color.
unequaled richness and subtlety of
Man-made Fibers
man got along with nature's fibers.

Until late in the nineteenth century
and glass fibers-laid the foun-
Then two independent developments-rayon
making fibers tailored to our specific
dations for an enormous program of
requirements. As with plastics, however, not
much progress was made until
of the textile fibers used in the
world are manu-
the 1930's. Now 22 percent
factured rather than grown.
229
The world of nature offers weavers boundless inspiration with its multiplicity of organic
forms. (Courtesy of the American Craftsmen's Council)
(A) Left. A
portion of Lenore Tawney's transparent hanging of cotton, silk, wool, and
goathair shows her free experimental techniques in which meandering yarns seem to
drift through the fabric.
Right. Mildred Fischer uses varied techniques in weaving individualized wool
(B)
tapestries that express in abstract, universalized symbols her reactions to the colors and
patterns seen in skies and water.
Rayon, or artificial silk as it was first called, was predicted by a British

scientist in 1664, but commercial production began in 1886. The process,
although complex, can be described simply. Wood pulp or cotton linters are
chemically treated to produce a honeylike solution called viscose. This is
forced through tiny nozzles (much like the spinnerets of silkworms and
spiders) into a chemical bath. This hardens the fine streams into continuous,
hairlike threads, which are then twisted into yarns and woven into textiles.
All rayons are strong, absorbent, and mothproof, but vary greatly in other re-
spects. They range from sheer to heavy, glossy to dull, and can be processed
to resemble cotton, linen, or silk. Often they are combined with other fibers.
Rayons are widely used for sheer curtains, draperies and upholstery, and
clothes.
Glass fibers were first woven into textiles in the 1890's but were not
seriously studied or widely used until the 1930's. While most glass is brittle,
glass fibers are pliable because they are extremely fine— from 100 to 400 fila-
ments are combined to make a fine yarn. Fiberglas, as the material is usually
called, is noninflammable, nonabsorbent, and strong. It can be sleekly smooth
230 - Fabrics
draperies as
or show many textures. It is used for thin curtains or heavier
laminated sheets, and for many indus-
reinforcing in plastic lamp shades or
trial purposes. .
in a very special way coal,

Nylon was discovered in 1928 by combining
gas, air, and water. It isthe strongest textile fiber commonly
wood, natural
very dur-
can be woven into very sheer stockings or into
used- therefore, it
Highly elastic and resilient, nylon textiles will return to their

able nic^s
easy to
twisting. They are slow to soil
oricînaf shape after stretching or
as yet nylon does not have the
clean and resist moths and milde'w. Although
silk, it is less expensive and more durable.
deeply satisfying richness of
them equally
Each textile fiber has its assets and drawbacks. None of is
for each set of conditions

there is a fiber,
suitable for every purpose, but
that will do the job. Much,
though, depends on
or a combination of fibers,
the manner in which they are fabricated.
MAKING FABRICS
were the forerunners of fabrics, but
at
and the bark of trees
Animal skins
they could make their own
fabrics,
some early time men discovered that then
needs. Felts probably came first,
which were more responsive to their
well as baskets woven of grass
and rushes.
knitted fish nets and textiles as
into yarns led to more pliable
and diversi-
The controlled spinning of fibers
have been few basic changes in
As with ceramics and glass, there
fied cloths.
stupendous
natural fibers, but there have been
the making of fabrics from
the three
technological developments. Today the fabric industry is one of
and engineers have invented new

processes
largest in the world. Designers
o fabrics
seemingly inexhaustible variety
and refined old ones to produce a
quantities of cloth, de-
at great speed. Relieved
of the necessity to produce
in new directions.
signer-craftsmen are free to experiment
manufactured, but it is often applied
The term fabric refers to anything
to fabrics that are woven.
to cloth. Textile refers only
specifically
Weaving
of
usually at right angles, two systems
Weaving the process of interlacing,
is
crude
pliable materials. It can be done
on a piece of cardboard cut into a
a great
on the complex power looms of
loom on hand looms (Fig. 231), or
are known as
are called zvarp. the crosswise
mill The lengthwise threads
fundamental steps.
weft or woof). There are four
filling (also
Making Fabrics - 231
(A) A four-harness Iiand loom per-

mits many complex weaves. Notice
the four-foot treadles that separate
warp threads in four ways, and
tlie
shuttles on whirh the filling is

tlie
carried back and forth. Robert

Peterson, designer. (Pliolograph by
Zack Stewart)
Stringing the loom with the warp threads.

Separating the warp threads into two or more series to form an opening
for the pa,ssage of the filling.
"Picking" the filling through this opening, usually with a shuttle.
Beating back the filling just run through to make the interlacing of the
desired tightness.
When you look at the textiles in a large store or mail-order catalog, it is

hard to believe that there are only three basic types of weaves:
Plain weave, the simplest and strongest, accounts for about 80 percent of all
woven goods (Figs. 23 IB, 237A and B). In this weave, one filling yarn passes
over one warp thread and under the next as in broadcloth, burlap, or mus-
lin. The many variations include basket weaves, in which two or more warps
are crossed by two or more
I \ \ l'
filling yarns, as in monk's cloth, and rib weaves,
in which a rib is formed by having a warp thicker than the filling (or the (R) Plain Weave.
reverse) as in rep or poplin.
Floating yarn, or satin, weave from plain weave in that the filling
differs
yarns float over or under several or many warp
yarns (Figs. 23 IC and 232B).
This produces the smoothness of satin, in which long floats minimize the
over-and-under texture of most woven products.
Twill weave interlaces warp and filling yarns so that diagonal lines show on
the surface (Fig. 231D). Many flannels, gabardines, and serges are examples.
(D) Twill Weave.

232 Fabrics
qualities
Machine-woven textileshave a fabulous range of expressive
soft and bidky. Marie Nichol's design, in wh.ch vert-
(A^LeU Texturized Fiberglas is
the textile's structural,
cal slfp/s oMainwave alternate with open weave, celebrates
Fiberglas Corporation)
nrrhitectural character. (Oiuens-Coming
Viscose rayon yarns in an irregular
saun -ave produc^ n
B S"'- Be-berg Lnd (Boh. KroU
of informal, meandering lines.
ever-changing silky texture with an overlay
Fabrics)
'*'**'" fully appre-

'^'"whrnXeTinspected.laCicrreveal patterns and textures that cannot be
fibers
bronze metallic, and heavy cotton
"Tq L^Handwên from silken ricrac,
fine, light and dark elements,
ilsabel
interplay of coarse and
•p£L ^b an inurcTte
Scott Fabrics Corporation) weave rug
j „„i„ ,Pvt„rpH nile-weave rue
(D) Right. Jos6 Clton's "End of
Summer" is a rough, deeply textured, pile
{Courtesy of V'Soske)
o£ vibrantly colored wool yarns.
Making Fabrics -
233
Two frequently seen elaborations of the basic type weaves are the pile
weave (Figs. 232D and 238B) and figure weave (Figs. 228A and 229B). The
pile weave has, in addition to the fiat-lying warp and filling, another set of
yarns that stand up in loops. These loops can be cut
as in velvet, or uncut as
in bath towels. Figure weaves have simple to
complex patterns as in coverlets,
brocades, and carpets. They can be produced on hand or power looms.
Ma-
chine weaving of this type is usually done on a Jacquard loom, a complex
mechanism in which the weaving is controlled by perforated strips of card-
board in intricate designs (they look much like the old player-piano rolls
and the principles are much the same).
Although most woven, four other techniques are regaining

fabrics are
importance because of their design and production potentials.
Felting
Felting is the matting together of a

web of fibers, usually with heat, water,
and pressure, to form
continuous dense cloth. Felts are much used indus-
a
trially, and new techniques give promise of distinctive, ornamental design
(Fig. 241).
Knitting
Knitting the interlocking of loops of yarn by needles. In knitting, a single

is
yarn (or set of yarns), moving in one direction only, is looped through itself
to make a chain of stitches. With pouer machines, knitting can be five times
as fast as weaving (Fig. 234B).
Below. Enlarged photographs show how the structure of felt (left) differs from that
of a woven fabric [center) and a knitted fabric {right). (Ciba Company, Inc.)
234 - Fabrics
iiMiM«.ifjii?t£i^r«MS
i^ttlllifiiaiiii
the world of fabrics. {Courtesy of Lar-
Lace-making and knitting open new dimensions in
rich open-and-closed patterns natural

to lace.
'^"(aJ^S" '^''Bobbin Cloth" revives the and drip dry.
wilt resistant
Made of permanently white cotton, it is slip proof, open case-
stable synthetic yarns can be knitted into
(B) Right. Strong, dimensionally
ment cloths that hold their shape and are flameproof.
Lace-making
Lace, made by interlocking yarns in openwork patterns, has been given

vitality with fresh designs (Fig. 234A). Machines with as many as 4000 bob-
make lace from cotton, linen, nylon, rayon, or wool with great speed.
bins can
Plastic Sheeting and Coated Fabrics
Used for curtains and raincoats, plastic sheeting is

made not from fibers but
rollers into thin, transparent
from synthetic resins that are pressed between
used for upholstery and wall cov-
or translucent membranes. Coated fabrics,
coating of vinyl. Both plastic sheet-
erings, are textiles with a durable surface
printed with any pattern desired
ing and coated fabrics can be embossed or
(Fig. 235A).
or molded into three-dimensional designs
Each of these processes leads to fabrics with distinctly different physical
and esthetic characteristics.

Fabric Design -
235
atwiiptiNM
)esigneis are exploring the promises of a realm of new materials and processes.
(A) Lejt. A molded plastic wall covering gives a vigorous play of light and shade.
Courtesy of Laverne)
(B) Right. Luella Williams' wall hanging of grasses, reeds, seed pods, and natural linen
hows that humble materials can be invested with great appeal. {Courtesy of American
Iraftsmen's Council)
'ABRIC DESIGN
Ul fabrics have a purpose that is fulfilled through materials organized
nto a structure. The major factors in fabric design are therefore:
The purposes, or functions, of the fabric.

The materials of which it is composed.
The processes by which it is fabricated.
The applied ornamentation (if any) that is added.
I designer may start with any of these— perhaps the desire for a different
urtain fabric (Tig. 235A), or the challenge of grasses as materials (Fig. 235B).
Us interest may be in a process (Fig. 234A) or primarily in applied orna-
nentation (Fig. 237A). But all factors must be considered.
unctions
k. few handmade textiles are created for the sheer joy of making some-
hing, and some fabrics are developed in the hope that a use will be found
236 - Fabrics
of our textiles are produced with some purpose in

for them But almost all
merely confining the water from a

shower
mind It can be as mundane as
sheeting, or as inspiring as a
hand-woven
bath w.th noncommittal plastic
which a fabric will
event. Thus, the ways in
tapestry created as an esthetic
in design.
be used and enjoyed are first factors
Materials
fibers, a designer considers

the qualities of
In looking for satisfactory
problem. Also, he thinks about how
many kinds in relation to the specific
itself. For luxurious
upholstery he might re-
the material can best speak for
But if moderate cost and d^'rability
gard lustrous silk as the ideal fiber.
soft,
toward viscose rayon (Fig. 3.B),
are important factors, he might well turn
would be even less expensive and more
nylon or wool. Vinyl-coated fabrics
durable, but they often appear cold
and institutional. The manner m which
is almost as important
as the material itself.
the fibers or resins are handled
of wool as rougher and
thicker-btit
We think of silk as soft and fine,
thick yarns makes sturdy rugs
while some wools
coarse silk roughly spun into
fibers can be smooth continuous fila-
can be sheer and lustrous. Synthetic
There is much latiuide for selection
ments or bulky, textured staple fibers.
of several (Figs. 228B and
232C).
of asingle material or of a combination
Fabricating Processes
physical
described earlier leads to different
Each of the fabricating processes
structural pattern, as can be seen by
and visual qualities. Each has its own
The patterns can be as simple
comparing the illustrations in this chapter.
229B, for there is almost
as that in Fig. 23 IB or as intricate as that in Fig.
enrichment that can originate while the
no limit to the kinds of structural
Embossed patterns (Fig. 235A) on plastic
yarns are being fastened together.
patterns,
not, strictly speaking, structural
sheeting or vinyl-coated fabrics are
is being made.
but they are formed while the material
Applied Enrichment
is not necessary. Many
Once again, repeat that applied ornamentation
we
fabri-
appropriate materials sympathetically
fabrics need nothing beyond
holding
appreciate variety and stimulation, a
cated for visual appeal. But we
not ahvays achieved
intensity of expression
and releasing of attention, and an
such as printing, applique, and
without some additional ornamentation
embroidery.
Fabric Design • 237
^ k
Two American textiles are enhanced with li\ely printed designs in which dark and light
areas contrast strongly. The dominant \erticality in both designs is balanced by subordi-
nate horizontals, and there are many diagonal paths for the eye to explore. In both, the
background areas are not merely left-o\er space but vital components of the design.
(A) Lejt. An eighteenth-century hand-blocked cotton cloth shows conventionalized birds
and foliage organized as intertwining curvilinear shapes. Small leaves and flowers in the
background strengthen the feeling of continuity. {Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston)
(B) Right. Alexander Girard's contemporary hand-screened "Cut-Out" is brisk and
staccato, preciseand geometric. Many new relationships are seen when the cotton batiste
is hung in folds. The design can be read as a white figure on a dark background
or a
dark figure against white. This shifting of attention from dark to light and back again
further animates tlie lively shapes. (Herman Miller Furniture Company)
Printed fabrics are so abundant that they deserve special attention (Figs.
237A through 240B). Little is known about when and where they were
begun, but evidence indicates that the Egyptians stamped designs on cloth
as early as 2100 b.c. Apparently, though, it was many centuries before this
process was widely known and used.
The three basic ways of printing designs on fabrics are block printing,
roller printing, and screen printing, processes that are almost identical with
those for printing on paper, discussed in Chapter 9.
Block printing, the oldest of the three, is done from blocks, usually of
wood, into which a design has been cut (Fig. 237A). A coloring agent is ap-
plied to the block, which is then pressed onto the fabric, and the raised
portion of the block prints the design. Each color requires a separate block.
238 - Fabrics
and flowers are continuously popular [or the pleasant

associa-
rulcnib 1..M.1 on lul,,,^c
ways in which the forms can be creatively adapted
tions they arouse and the manifold
designers
to fabric design. The use and
character of the textile suggest directions that
of "River Ferns" is ideally suited to

translucent, misty curtains
"yA)°Le7' The delicacy
a synthetic fiber of great durability and dimensional stability. (/. H.
woven of Fortisan,
Thorpe and Company) , .
r u- u
. a i
for high-keyed
(B) Riiht Wright's 'Trimavera- is printed cotton velvet intended
Don
simplified natural forms seem at ease
upholstery, draperies, or bedspreads. The compact,
with dense pile. Wavering bands of background color hold the pro-
on a thick fabric
{Larsen Design Corporation)
fusion of informally spaced motifs steady.
suited to relatively simple

Usually a laborious hand process, block printing is
large and the number of
designs in which the repeated motifs are not
colors is liinited.
a machine process that uses engraved

copper cyl-
Roller printing is
only one color, but as many

inders on a rotary press. Each cylinder prints
as sixteen colors can be printed in one
run through the press. It imposes few
limitations on the designer. The pattern can
be simple or complex with
the cylinder. Because of its
repeated motifs as large as the circumference of
flexibility, speed, and precision, roller
printing is widely used.
to as silk-screen
Screen printing a stencil process, sometimes referred
is
pasty dye through the

(Fig. 237B). The basic procedure is forcing a thick,
stencil screen. Nowadays an electronically controlled
uncovered mesh of a
hand process. Al-
mechanism prints up to seven times as fast as the older
Fabric Design - 239
Emphasis on verticals and horizontals recalls the structmal pattern of a textile's interlaced
warp and filling. The designs can range from those boldly contrasting and open in
feeling to those that are densely packed with small details.
(A) Left. An arresting variation of crossbar plaid distinguishes "Festival," a hand-
printed linen from .Austria. It is easy to imagine that we are seeing the fibers of the
cloth greatly magnified. (Greeff Fabrics, Inc.)
(B) Right. In "Wanderlust," a hand-screened drapery material, buildings from all over
the world are subtly organized in horizontal and vertical bands. Seen from a distance it
looks like an abstract pattern of textures but closer inspection discloses a wealth of
evocative details. (Ellenhank Designers, Inc.)
though slower and more expensive per yard than roller printing, screen
printing permits larger repeats and heavier pigments that give the fabric
a handcraft look.
In looking at the diversified printed fabrics on pages 237, 238, 239, and
240 you might wonder if there are any valid principles for ornamenta-
tion applied to fabrics. It would be better to assume that there were none
than to devise constricting rules. But thinking about the distinctive qualities
of fabrics does provide some clues. Fabrics are essentially two-dimensional
structures that are typically continuous and pliable.
Flatness suggests patterns that acknowledge the two-dimensionality of

fabrics by staying on the surface. This does not preclude some sug-
gestion of depth, but it may make questionable designs that seem to
bulge out from the fabric or that plunge into deep space.
untnterrupted and xs wtthou
Continuousness indicates ornament
that is
.
The contintting character of fabrics
definite begn^ning or conclusion.
stripes, pla.ds tha^ move n
or vertical
can be underlined by horizontal Only occa
that are multi-directional.
twodirections, or varied patterns
sionally are motifs that

appear as isolated spots satxsfynrg.
particularly receptive to
supple, flexuous de
- Pliability makes fabrics
those that are geometric.
signs but does not outlaw
crisscross of weavmg can
be h^hhgh
. Structure, especially the
d^J
part. But if thi
construction of which they are
figures that reflect the
rigidly, the range of
designs is
factor, interpreted too
ufe any other is
critically limited.
purposes of
consideration. b„. the intended
These major taclors deserve
consequential.
fabrics are sometimes more
we think about the

in appreciating textiles
As witlr other types of art.
funcuonal
concern ourselves with the.r
„av fn wl h they Jdl be used and
look for textiles that have
sp.rtt.
Ld, /qua,,, important, we
;:il,:ie:
tnakes selection easy

'"^^Tttmrcûs'lariety of textiles available today
yon look long enough you can find what you
and lifflcreasy because li
Fabric Design - 241
Inspiration for fabric design can come from

the experiences gained in travel and from
creative work with other materials.
(A) Opposite, left. The Finnish designer,
^^te^»Jt^
Vuokko Eskolin, produced a large, boldly
printed cotton panel as a wall hanging after
seeing the bright colors around the Mediter-
ranean. Circles of red and orange are intensi-
fied by a black and white background. {Cour-
tesy o] American Craftsmen's Council)
(B) Opposite, right. Fagya Ostrower, a Bra-
zilian etcher, brings the imagination nur-
tured by print-making to textile design. Be-
ginning with a basic rhythm, she repeats
dots, lines, and spaces so that they reach out
and join with one another. {Courtesy of the
artist)
Right. An enlarged detail of a Japanese

paper-making technique shows a handsome
structural pattern. Soft, flexible felt cloth
could be rapidly by this process. {Cour-
made
tesy of the American Craftsmen's Council)
want, difficult because the variety is confusing. To become more conscious

of the textiles around you, make a list of the distinctive ones you see in one
day. Feel them carefully to notice their tactile qualities, because— mark this
well— most textiles are designed to be felt. Try applying the criteria listed
earlier to printed fabrics. Then, if you wish to learn more, read:
America's Fabrics: Zelma Bendure and Gladys Pfeifler (New York: Macmillan,
1947).
Thorough, authoritative presentation of fabrics, fibers, and processes.
Craft Horizons (New York: American Craftsmen's Council).

An outstanding periodical that covers all phases of the handcrafts.
Encyclopaedia Britannica
Articles on Cotton, Rugs and Carpets, Silk, Synthetic Fibers, Textiles and
Embroidery, Textile Printing, Weaving, and Wool.
Encyclopedia of Hand-Weaving: Stanislow W. Zielinski (New York: Funk &

Wagnalls, 1959).
An authoritative reference on terminology, materials and techniques, and
patterns.
Encyclopedia of Textiles: Editors of American Fabrics Magazine (Englewood

Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1960).
Weaving techniques are explored on a foundation of history and theory.
242 - Fabrics
Fabrics: hucy B. Taylor Q^cv^ York: m\ey, m\)

Know Your in relation to home
discussion of historic and
contemporary textdes
A
furnishing.
Printed Textile Design: Terence

Conran (New York: Studio, 1957).
Very useful how-to-do-it book.
(New York: Harper &: Row, 1959).
The Textile Arts: Verla Birrell
and techniques of weavmg
Detailed information on the history, materials,
and printing textiles.
Weibel (New York: Pantheon, 1952).

2,000 Years of Textiles: Adele C.
Excellent historical survey.
Emil Nolde's woodcut, "The Prophet"
(1912), intensifies the stern conviction
of a religious seer through vigorous
contrast of black and white. (Courtesy
of the National Gallery of Art, Wash-
ington, D. C, Rosenwald Collection)
9 Printing and tlie

-
Graplxic Processes
THE BOOK YOU ARE READING is an example of the art and science
of printing. The type face is called Baskerville; the black-and-white photo-
graphs were reproduced by halftone; and the color chart in Chapter 14 was
reproduced by the jour-color process. The text and the pictures were printed
by letterpress, a term that refers to printing done from a raised surface.
So accustomed have we become to the printed page— newspapers, maga-
zines, books— that we easily forget that machine printing on paper had been
known in Europe for only fifty years when Columbus discovered America.
Before man abandoned the old, laborious process of copying by hand the
books in which the world's knowledge was stored, the Egyptian and Greek
temples, already centuries old, were beginning to crumble.
243
Processes
Printing and the Graphic
which printing is based had long
But the principles and processes on
designs from woodblocks had been
im-
been known. In Egypt and in India,
and early in their history the Cheese were
pressed on textiles for centuries,
Chinese
familiar with block printing
on paper. There is evidence that the
Korean
in the eleventh century, and
that a
used movable type of clay and tin
until the mid-
1409. However, it was not
book was printed from cast type in mak-
dle of the fifteenth century in
Europe that Johannes Gutenberg began
ing movable type of individual

letters.
job
and printed on simple platen or
At first this type was set by hand
surfaces are forced together to
make the
presses-presses in which two flat
pages a day.
early presses was about 300
printing The capacity of such
print a best-selling novel or a
Sunday
Think of the time it would take to
presses were
newspaper on such By 1814, power-driven cylinder
presses!
presses have many
prodiiciiag 1000 pages an hour, and today our giant rotary
press in that
press differs from the platen
times that capacity. The cyUnder
surface In the
the paper is fed on a cylinder
but the type is carried on a flat
press, both type and paper
are on cylinders,
next development, the rotary
and efficiency.
making possible much gieater speed
attention was turned to the process
As the speed of printing increased,
1885 the linotype was patented.
The improved
of setting the type, and in
very complex machine. A skilled
opera-
form of the linotype in use today is a
presses each key a
similar to a typewriter. As he
tor works at a keyboard
and carried to an assembler. When
matrix or mold of the letter is released
molds for a full line of words have
been assembled, a cast or slug is made.
to their proper places, and
the
Then the molds are returned automatically
printing is done from the cast.
type faces used in magazines,
you
As you look at the different kinds of
of different ones. There are-
will probably think that there are hundreds
one of four basic families.
but almost all of them relate to
ROMAN SANS-SERIF ITALIC

Placfe Hettcr
of hand-letter-
. Black letter type, introduced by Gutenberg in imitation
ing is the earliest. It is seldom used today.

the inscriptions carved on Roman monuments, was
. Roman, based on
Some lines are thick, others thin;
developed in the fifteenth century.
the
(small ornamental projections
at
and most of the letters have series
tops and bottoms). . u ^»
and there are
lines are of equal thickness
- In Sans-serif (or Gothic), all
serifs, or at least only
vestiges of them.
no
letters.
Italic, of recent origin, has slanted
Printing and the Graphic Processes -
245
Three other distinctions are worth mention. The weight (lightness or
heaviness) of type is described in four standard classifications: "^
lightface
standard
boldface
exirabeld
Letters also vary in width, and, again, there are four categories:
extended
standard
condensed
extra-condensed
In addition to different weights and widths, type faces can express innumer-
able ideas and feelings through their character, as is illustrated below.
DIGNITY or £PlaJulness
SIMPLICITY or COMPLEXITY
SPEED or SLOWNESS
STRENGTH or FRAGILITY
Advertisers and book designers use appropriate type faces much as painters
and sculptors use expressive forms and colors.
Any printing job demands many decisions: page size; type face; quality
of paper; kind and quantity of illustrations; and size of margins around
the printing. When sensitively and creatively handled, printing can be an
art in its own right. Look at the printing you see every day and ask ques-
tions such as these:
Is it legible? Printing is one way of communicating ideas, and if it is
not readable, it has little to recommend it— except as an occasional de-

vice to capture attention.
Is the style of printing appropriate to the publication's purpose? Much
printed material is intended to be read quickly and discarded, but
some printing can give lifetime enjoyment.

Are the printed words and illustrations well organized? Design is as
important in printing as in any other art.
The printing of words is only one branch of this field, and we now turn
to the creation and reproduction of pictures by hand and machine.
Printing and the Graphic Processes
THE GRAPHIC PROCESSES

About noon, in Brooklyn, the President's wife christens
a ship. photog- A
continent in San
rapher records the event, and later that day, across the
Francisco, pictures of the christening are
printed in the evening newspaper.
of electricity, and
Photographs are wired across the country with the speed
Strikingly different is the
reproduced by the thousands in a few minutes.
produce a small num-
example of an artist who labors long and patiently to
of drypoints or etchings. Yet both are
examples of the graphic arts
ber
serving real but different contemporary needs.
making of plates and the
The graphic processes can be defined as the
plates. Some, such as drypoint
printing of pictures or designs from these
hand processes by which art is created. Others, such
as line
and etching, are
reproducing art. A few, notably
cut and halftone, are mechanical methods of
lithography and silk screen, can be either.
of it
A basic problem in all printing is treating a surface so that parts
ways of achieving this goal have
will print and parts of it will not. Four
been developed.
Relief printing is that in which the design stands above the gen-
eral level of the plate's surface (Fig. 246A). Rubber stamps and
fingerprints, woodcuts and halftones are examples.
the opposite-the design is scratched, en-

Intaglio printing is
graved, or etched into the plate (Fig. 246B).

These depressions
wiped, and with great
are filled with ink, the plate's surface
is
ink.
pressure paper is forced into the depressions to absorb the
Etchings and drypoints are examples.
I Planographic (or surface) printing done from an almost

is
so that some
smooth surface treated chemically or mechanically
(Fig. 246C). Lithography is
areas will print and others will not
the only common example.
are shown in magnifieddetails of mechamcal,

Above The major techniques of printing
the paper; the lower are the pnnung
plates
carry
fotary presses. The upper cylinders the paper
show on the left, and the mipresstons made on
The Lked designs on the plates
areon the right. (Mergenthaler Linotype Company)

,
The Graphic Processes -

247
is accomplished by cutting designs out of special paper,
Stencil printing
or bymaking some portions of thin cloth impervious to liquids. Ink goes
through the open portions but not through those that are impervious.
Silk-screen prints are the best known type.
Prints with more than one color can be made by any of these methods.
Usually each color requires a separate plate and a separate printing, but dif-
ferent colors can be applied to one plate and printed together.
Hand Processes: Relief
In creating handmade prints of any kind a typical early step is musing about
^vhat the print is intended to do. In the past almost all prints re-presented
a scene, interpreted an event or story (Figs. 250B and 254), or depicted spe-
cific emotions (Figs. 247 and 253) with recognizable objects. But contempo-
rary print makers have extended the scope by exploring less tangible experi-
ences and expressing them in abstract forms (Figs. 248B and 250A) much as
musical composers have always done. Graphic artists usually make pre-
liminary sketches on paper, and these range from rough sketches to detailed
drawings. Some transfer their drawings to the printing surface while others
'fmmmmimm^-
Right. Edward Munch's "The Kiss"

(1902), a woodcut printed in black
and gray, takes full advantage of the
grain in the wood block to enhance
the monolithic simplicity of the fig-
ures. (Collection, the Museum of

Modern Art, New York)
Ui^t..i
248 - Printing and the Graphic Processes
JfS^
"Woman of the Quarry" (1958), woodcut and wood en-

(A) Above. In Frederkk Beckers
blocky com-
graving techniques give much textural interest to a strong, appropriately
Incite by Arthur Deshaies,

P°SJTi'°"'S iLeastr'ip" (1957), a relief engraving on
habits. Opulent textures f«"-d ^^y velve y
is ilafciful semi-abstract comment on insects'
s material. (Courtesy
pnntmaker oj
demonstrate the versatility of Incite as a
black areas
the artist and the Pririt Council of America)
^'':% g» KrrimmF""
'-
The Graphic Processes - 249
hang them on the wall as guides. Some make no preliminary studies but
work directly from nature or straight out of their heads responding only to
their feelings and the potentialities of the process they have chosen.
Woodcuts and Related Techniques. One of the most ancient graphic

processes, woodcuts (Figs. 243 and 247) retain their popularity with experts
and amateurs. Probably you have received some as Christmas cards from
your more industrious or artistic friends, or you may have made them
yourself. In addition to wood, linoleum and many other materials are often
used. Here are the basic steps in the standard approach.
The design or picture is drawn or mentally projected on the side grnin

of such even-grained woods as beech, apple, or sycamore; or onto heavy
linoleum, which is usually mounted on a block of wood.
Knives or gouges cut out those parts that are not to be printed.
The block is inked and the design printed on suitable paper with the
pressure of a printing press, a foot, or hand rubbing. Usually a few
"proofs" are "pulled" and studied to see if changes are needed.
Wood engravings are almost always done on the eyid grain of hard,
fine-grained wood with burins (small steel rods ground to a square- or
lozenge-shaped cutting point). The prints typically have greater and more
refined detail than do woodcuts.
Contemporary printmakers with many original ideas have revitalized

a field that had become moribund. Exploring new approaches, they have
produced genuinely creative prints. Two or more processes are often com-
bined, as in Fig. 248A in which wood engraving supplements woodcut tech-
niques. Cardboard, chip board, composition board, plastics (Fig. 248B) and
plywood, as well as wood blocks, can be used. Innumerable textures can be
procured by imprinting the surface with such things as wire screen or nails
or by roughening it with carpenters' files or power tools. The block can be
coated with glue or shellac, which before it dries can be impressed with hair-
pins, lace, the bark of a tree, or whatever the artist deems suitable.
Instead of ctUting into the block, a composition can be built up with
pieces of cardboard (or many other materials) that are cut out, glued to
the block, coated with shellac, and printed in the customary way. Paper
reliefs, as made by Edmond Casarella (Fig. 250A), involve both building up
and cutting away. Variously shaped cardboard forms are glued to a rigid
base, and then other patterns are cut into them. This technique allows great
freedom, for the artist can add or subtract until he gets what he wants.
Multicolored prints, which can be made with any of these processes, call
Prints in color have special appeal

for
many persons.
(A) Left. Edmond Casarella's
"Blue
cut, is an
Vein" (1957), a color paper-relief
arresting composition that shows the fluid
complexity possible with this technique.
{Courtesy of the artist)

(B) Below. In Katsushika Hokusai's
"The Great Wave of Kanazawa" (1823-
color, large
1829), a Japanese woodcut in
areas of color are accented by detailed
lines in the waves and boats. The

huge,
menacing wave emphasizes how small and
helpless are men when confronted with
great natural forces. {Courtesy of the
Met-
ropolitan Museum of Art)
251
to mind Japanese colored woodcuts. Keen observation and rich inventive-
ness in penetrating surface appearances to reveal essentials, combined with
sureness of design, have carried these prints to remarkable heights. "The
Great Wave of Kanazawa" (Fig. 250B) depicts with powerful intensity one of
the enormous waves that periodically strike Japan's coast. In the distance,
Fujiyama is serene and aloof in contrast to the menacing turbulence of the
ocean. Notice the dynamic asymmetrical balance, the rhythmic movement
of water and spray, and the adroit placing of the mountain. Many modern
print inakers and painters have been inspired by Japanese prints to discover
new, equally exhilarating modes of expression.
Hand Processes: Intaglio
Line engraving, drypoint, and etching are the major hand intaglio processes.
Fine detail and intricate textures are typical characteristics. The printed
lines or areas are slightly raised and a depressed plate mark shows that the
plate was pressed into the paper.
Line engiavings are also referred to as engravings in metal, steel en-
gravings, or copper engravings. Sometimes called the "severest form of print
making," engraving in metal gives clean, assured, sweeping lines. Engraving
in metal is done as follows:
Plates of copper, steel, or zinc are engraved with burins (or gravers)
that are pushed into the plate gouge out V-shaped channels. The
to
deeper a line is engraved, the wider it becomes, and the heavier it
prints. Typically, the lines are crisp and definite, become thicker toward
the middle, and taper toward the end.
The plate cleaned and heated; then the engraved lines are filled with
is
ink and the surface is wiped clean. The plate is centered, face up, on the
bed of a heavy press. Dampened paper is laid on top of it and blankets
of felt are placed over the paper.
When a heavy roller is pulled over the plate, paper, and felt, the pres-
sure forces the damp paper into the incised lines and the ink is trans-
ferred to the paper as slightly raised lines.
Calling cards and wedding invitations, postage stamps and paper money
are the most common examples of line engravings seen today. If you exam-
ine a dollar bill with a magnifying glass, you will see many fine textures-
parallel lines of varied widths, dots, dashes, and cross-hatching— that are
possible in this graphic process. In the past, engravings made by hand were
a major way of reproducing paintings and illustrating books: the lines can
be so fine that 1000 can be put on an inch of plate.

Processes
252 - Printing arid the Graphic
expressive
Recently, line engraving has
been revitalized as a creative,
stereotypes, contemporary engravers
move from
process. Freed from binding
Often, as in Fig.
the energetic and impulsive.
fhe austere and controlled to
or other incised techniques,
and the
252 engraving is combined with etching
"intaglio."
prints are referred to as "mixed media" or simply
slightly different from line

engravings
Drypoints superficially seem only
engravings). With study the differences
(and are sometimes called drypdnt
drypoint:
assume significance. In making a
plates with
zinc, aluminum. Incite)
. Lines are cut into copper (also
steel, or with points
made from dia-
needle-like points of sharpened
make a finer indentation than the
monds or rubies. These, in general,
freer, sketchier line. A
second important
engraver's burin and suggest a
edges
distinction is that the drypoint
needle throws up tiny, irregular
that are left on the plate.
In contrast the en-
of metal, called burr,
no burr, and any left by a dull tool is
graver's burin, if sharp, leaves
scraped off.
253
Opposite. Stanley William Hayter's

"Unstable Woman" (1947) is an ex-
ample of contemporary experimen-
tation with mixed intaglio tech-
niques for expressive effect. Major
lines were freely engraved with a
burin; areas were textured by etch-
ing through the imprint of various
materials on soft groiuid. The basic
colors are magenta, turquoise blue,
and yellow. {Courtesy California
Palace of Legion of Honor,
the
Achenbach Foundation for Graphic
Arts)
Right. Mary "La Caresse"

Cassatt's
(1891) modern drypoint in
is a
which some of the lines show the
soft, blurred quality produced by
the "bun" on the plate. (Courtesy
of the Metropolitan Musewn of Art)
m Printing drypoints is much like printing line engravings. Ink is rubbed

onto the warmed plate— but in wiping it off, some ink is left in the burr
to give the drypoint's characteristically soft, velvety line, and a light
film of ink is usually left over the whole surface to give the background
a pale tone.
Thus drypoints are generally distinguished from line engravings by such

characteristics as these: the line quality is less formal, precise, and calculated;
the printed line is softly fuzzy; and the print generally has a toned back-
ground. "La Caresse" (Fig. 253) shows subject matter ideally suited to dry-
point, for it is unpremeditated and tender, sensitive and yielding. The com-
position, too, is appropriately informal for the subject and the medium. Had
this subject been carried out in line engraving, it would have been much
clearer, harder, sharper.
Editions of drypoints are limited in number (unless the plate is coated

with steel) because the burr wears off in the printing. The first twenty-five
to thirty prints have the greatest richness, and from then on the quality
declines.
Guilder
,. ^ (1,,,., Healine the Sick" (1649), also known as "The Hundred
,
•
J^ complexity possible in etching. (Courtesy

i:£:;-a^nlr:::^t^^c r-^^J.
of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art)
from drypoints. But as we con-

Etchings are not easily distinguished
their special qualities will become
sider the way in which they are made,
clear. For etchings:
dark,
. A plate of copper or zinc is coated with a thin layer of ground-3.
metal needle.
waxy material that resists acid but is easily penetrated by a
a needle blunter than that

used in drypoints, the Imes to be
. With
This exposes parts of the plate
printed are drawn through the ground.
but does not scratch the metal.
acid bath that eats away the
exposed
. The plate is then immersed in an
dark-
the plate-and the consequent
metal. The depth of the lines on
length of tune the
determined by the
ness of the lines on the print-is
immersion gives Imes of equal depth.
plate remains in the bath. A single
plate from time to time, covermg
Variety is achieved by removing the
are deep enough, and returnmg
with a stop-out varnish those lines that
the plate for further biting.
Printing is identical with that of drypoint.
255
The fact that lines in etchings are eateii into the plate
by acid leads to im-
portant differences between them and drypoints or line engravings. First,
because the etching needle merely pushes aside wax instead of digging into
metal, the lines are typically freer and have blunter ends. Second, because
the acid leaves no burr as does the drypoint needle, the lines print more
sharply. Third, because more factors can be controlled and the plate can be
progressively changed until the desired result is achieved, etchings lend
themselves to more complex statements.
The etching, "Christ Healing the Sick" (Fig. 254), by Rembrandt, stands
today, as did three centuries ago, as one of the truly great works of art in
it
any medium. The intense, sympathetic treatment of this moving subject

matter makes it a noble expression of religious ideals. The dramatic diag-
onal organization of darks and lights gives great force to the group of figures
with Christ in the center. Notice the virtuosity with which lines have been
used. At the extreme left the lines stand clear and distinct, defining
form
and space by merely enclosing areas. As we move into the center of the
picture, the lines arewoven into a pattern of textures and values so that we
are conscious of the individual lines. Finally, at the extreme right, the
less
lines are hardly noticeable in the rich grays and blacks. But line is
the ele-
ment on which the composition is built and is a major factor in giving it a
flexible, lucid, almost transparent quality.
Other intaglio processes that you may come across used alone or more
often with other techniques include the following:
Aquatints are made by covering a metal plate with resin dust and
then heating it. Each particle of resin adheres to the plate
as a hardened
crystal, and the spaces between are etched with acid. Some areas are stopped-
out with varnish while others are exposed to the acid. Repeated many times,
this leads totextured areas that range from almost pure white to pure black.
Soft ground etchings (see Fig. 252) are made by coating metal plates
with a greasy ground that does not harden. A sheet of paper is laid on the
ground, and the draws with a pencil or impresses the ground with any-
artist
thing he wishes. \Vhen the paper is removed, some of the ground comes
with it. Then the plate is immersed in acid that eats into the metal in direct
proportion to the amount of ground that has been removed.
Hand Processes: Planographic
Lithography, the only important type of planographic printing, is based on

the mutual antipathy of grease and water rather than on raised or lowered
surfaces of printing plates. The major steps in the process are these:
Processes
256 Printing and the Graphic
fate
grays and
• . ,, ,. "Thp Too-Hot Bath" (1839) shows the textured
apolis Institute of Arts)
Bavarian stone, or on a ztnc

The drawing done on a slab of special
is
and lamp-
ingredients as wax. shellac, tallow,
or aluminum plate. Such be ap-
can
crayons or pencils, patnts that
black are combined to form
brushes, or inks that will flow
from a pen. The drawmg is
plied with
of these compounds.
done with one or more
then flooded with a solution
of gum arabtc, .h
The stone or plate is
,
-^ whidr
drawn portions insoluble m water,
"Urtc acid
n.akes the
the surface is chem-
makes the undrawn areas repellent to ink. Thus,
grease
so that part of it repels water, the rest repels
ically changed
metal plate) is moistened w
h
. When ready for printing, the stone (or nik. vo led
Printing
those parts not drawn on.
water, whic'h soa^s into
to those portions that are not wet. Paper
over the surface, adheres only
exerted, and a print is
produced. The greasy par
is applied, pressure
the part that is wet
of the plate s surface
holds the greasy ink, and
lowered notice-
surface is neither raised nor
Repels U; and although the
gray is possible.
black, and all values of
ably a print with white,
257
Jack Perlnuitter's color lithograph entitled "Boarchvalk" (1956) is an arresting composition

of dark forms silhouetted against a textured background. (Courtesy of the artist)
The expressive and technical scope of lithography is vast. Lithogxaphic

pencils and crayons give soft and grainy lines, cross-hatched or solid areas
(Fig. 256). Brush and ink give freedom akin to that in painting, especially
when printed in color (Fig. 257), while pen and ink can be sketchily free-
hand or mechanically precise (Fig. 325A).
Hand Processes: Stencil (or Serigraphy)
Serigraphs writing on silk), also called silk-screen prints, have

(literally
been extensively produced and developed only since the 1930's. But they
represent a branch of stencil printing, which has a long history. These are
the steps:
A special silk or synthetic, open-mesh textile is tightly stretched to a

wooden frame with sides several inches high, and the cloth (or screen)
is treated so that the mesh is left open in some areas to allow paint to
pass through but is made impervious in others.
In printing, the paper (or fabric) on which the printing is to be done
is placed below the screen, and a thick but light paint is poured along
the edges of the printing frame. The paint is drawn across the screen
with a squeegee and forced through the porous sections. A separate
screen is, of course, required for each color.
Two silk-screen prints demonstrate
this process.
the versatility of
(A) Above. Robert Gwathmey's seri-

graph, "End of Day" (1944), gains
power through monumental forms
color
represented by flat areas of
that are activated by a
few incisive
lines. (Courtesy Philadelphia Mu-
seum of Art)
(B) Left. A detail from Sister Mary

of Mir-
Coritas "The Beginning
(1953), a serigraph printed
acles"
complex
with 23 screens, employs
vibrating textures to communicate
a
wonder.
deep message of awe and
(Courtesy International Graphic
of
Arts Society)
259
Silk-screen prints can be made with simple flat areas as illustrated in Fig.
258A. Or they can be as richly textured as "The Beginning of Miracles"
(Fig. 258B), which was printed from twenty-three separate screens. This
process is also used for posters and other commercial art when comparatively
small quantities of the print are needed, since the initial cost of preparing
the stencils is much less than that of the plates for most other printing
methods. Serigraphy is also used in the printing of "limited editions" of
textiles, eitherby hand or by semi-mechanical means. It is widely used for
machine printing on glass-labels on milk bottles, decorations on tumblers
-because it is difficult to print from metal plates on this material.
Mechanical Processes: Relief
Almost all pictures seen in books, magazines, and newspapers are repro-
duced by one of the photomechanical processes. These processes permit
reproductions to be printed in almost unlimited quantities. As the name
implies, light plays an important part in these highly mechanized methods.
In all of them, the design or picture, known as the copy, is photographed
onto a photosensitive plate that is acted on by chemicals to prepare it for
printing. Of the important types, line cut, three-color, halftone, and jour-
color ^re relief; photolithography is planographic; and photogravure belongs
to the intaglio group.
Line cut is the simplest of the photomechanical processes. Its most dis-
tinctive characteristic is that the prints have but one value, usually but not
necessarily black (Figs. 246 and 261 A). Thus it is a process suitable for repro-
ducing any picture or design in which there are no shaded areas-pen-and-
ink drawings, woodcuts, or wood engravings. Though highly mechanized
and complex in detail, it is basically simple. It resembles the method by
which an etching plate is prepared and is often called "zinc etching."
The copy is photographed onto a photosensitive glass plate to produce

a negative.
This negative is printed on a zinc plate that has been coated to give it
a photosensitive surface, just as an ordinary photographic negative is
printed on paper to produce a positive. Those parts exposed to light

become hard and insoluble in water; careful washing removes the un-
exposed coating.
The plate is inked and dusted with a fine ground much like that used
on etching plates. The ground adheres to the inked portions and is
brushed off the remainder.
The plate is immersed in an acid bath to etch out those portions not
coated with ground.
Processes
260 - Printing and the Graphic
this, too, is a relief
process.
printed much as a woodcut-for
, The plate is
or comic
used in newspaper advertisements
Textures and stippUng, often ôm
rangtng
"prefabrtcated" textures or screens
ir" are produced by
-"'effects (Ftg.
crosshatchings, st.ppUngs, and
d s and parallel Hues to (d.cussed be-
be distinguished from /.«//.o...
261 A) Line cuts can readily
variation or shadmg.
low) because thescreens in line cuts show no
method of prtnttng adver-
the simplest, least expensive
Three-color is
color. The principles and

methods are identical
tisements in more than one for eac
that a separate plate ts made
: Xthose for making line cuts, except var.at.ons,
three-color printing never
shows shaded
color Ltke the line cut, man
printed flat. The name ts somewhat misleadtng smce as
ea h color ts
but serves to dtsttngutsh U from the

colors as necessary may be ttsed, tt
four-color process discussed

below.
newspaper and magazme reproduc^
Halftones are used for almost
all
nr hght and dark
paintings that show variations
tions of photographs or
cut with one
process ts similar to the line
bu have only one color. The sizes (see
broken up into dots of different
•rponant difference: the copy is
magnifying glass).
Fi<. 961B and look
at Fig. 250B through a
lines
engraved with parallel diagx)nal
I Two sheets of plate glass, each
pigment, are placed face to face
wuh the lines
^hlt are hUed wUh black
other. This produces a
grid of opaque black
at rioht angles to each
lines^with spaces between
much like that in window screens.
plate through
is photographed
onto a photosensitive metal
. The copy The vacation
up into a series of dots.
It grid whic'h brefks the picture
on the amount of light striking the plate.
in size of dots depends
process is exactly like
that for line cuts-applying
. From here on. the
acid, and printing.
a ground, etching in
(and consequently the
The distance between the lines
average size of the dots)

varies. The halftone screens
dots per
on the
square
glass plates
^^
";^^
;
inch). Better
-—
have 60 lines to the inch (3600
newspapers per inch,
with from 120 to 150 rulings
comm rcial reproduction uses screens can see the
as 200. Although you
and "ne color work may have as many
you will need a magnifying
li ^newspaper halftones with the naked eye.
alass to see them in finer printing.
process into the field of color

Four-color is an extension of the halftone
a
•I
aaaaaaaBBa
aaaaaaaaaa
aaaBBaaaaa
laaBBBBBBBI
BBBBBBBBBB
BaBBBBBBBaa
BBBBBBBaaai
aaaaaaaaaaa
•
•
•••••••••••
••••••••••«
•••••••••••
261
BBaBBaaaaai
aaBaaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaaaaa
•
••••••••••••
aaaaaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaaaaa • •••••••••••
(A) Above. Line cuts can be enriched with ready-made, repetitive textures that are avail-
able in hundreds of patterns. [Para-Tone Company)
(B) Below. Halftones, greatly magnified, show the vari-sized dots that are hardly vis-
ible at ordinary size. A coarse screen was used for the example on the left; a fine screen
for that on the right. (S. D. Warren and Company)
separate the colors, the copy photographed

halftone printing plates. To is
to pass and
first through a blue filter which permits only the yellow rays
green
thus gives a record of all the
yellow in the original; second through a
obtain blues.
filter to obtain reds;
and third through a red-orange filter to
the hues eliminated, recording
The fourth plate is made with practically all
only the major values. The printer
now has four plates, one of which is used
last black.
to print only yellow dots,
another red, another blue, and the
Through and their combinations practically any color

different-sized dots
can be duplicated. .
widely used. The color plates in many books

This method of printing is
four-color process, and you can perhaps

dis-
and magazines are done by the
the dots with the naked eye.
Study some four-color plates through
tinguish
and notice the structure of the dots.
a magnifying glass
Mechanical Processes: Intaglio

processes except that photo-
Photogravure and rotogravure are identical
rotogravure fiom cylindrical. The copy
is
oTavure is done from flat plates,
with halftones; but these are intagho
reduced to a series of spots, much as
processes and the printing is done
from millions of microscopically small
inch), square cups. Unlike
halftone plates,
(usually 29 500 to the square
these etched squares are all the
same size but vary in depth. The deep cups
darker. These processes reproduce
fine
hold more ink and therefore print
subtle gradations in tone and color. The
detail very well and permit very
quality and feel slightly powdery to
the
prints usually have a rich, velvety
fingers.
Mechanical Processes: Planographic

as described
Photolithography similar in all essentials to lithography
is
specifics: it is a means of reproduc-

under hand processes. It differs in these
materials; the illustrations are photo-
ing rather than creating illustrative
used for halftones) directly onto
graphed through a screen (similar to that
with a light-sensitive emulsion;
words and
a textured metal plate coated
plate; and the process is highly mechanized
pictures can be printed from one
znd fast. , . ,
Offset photolithography differs

from photolithography in only one way.
turn
make their impression on rubber rollers that in
the printing plates
"offset" rather than "direct."
The advantages
print on the paper. Thus, it is
plates and
cause less wear on the printing
are that resilient rubber rollers
process is widely tised today because
permit printing on rougher paper. This
it will reproduce almost anything.
Conclusion -
263
.A
Misch Kohn's "Lion" (1957) freely combines etching, aquatint, and engraving to produce
an intaglio print based on unconstrained lines and textures. {Courtesy of the artist)
CONCLUSION
Printed words and pictures are one of the most potent means of communica-
tion among men. Newspapers, magazines, and books quickly carry facts and
ideas, verbally and pictorially, to millions of people in all parts of the
world. Scientists and working together, have developed the repro-
artists,
duction of photographs, drawings, and paintings to a point permitting their

use in almost all publications. Through them our understanding of the
visual aspects of our environment has been greatly extended.
At one time it was thought that the inexpensive ease with which illus-
trative matter can be multiplied would end the need for prints made by
hand in limited editions. Happily, the exact opposite has come true. Perhaps
because we see so much that is mechanized we find new delight in hand
prints. They are original works of art, which give them an immediacy and
individuality that are treasured because these qualities are rare. Contem-
porary print-makers have engendered and maintained a remarkable level of
creativity. Freed from the economic necessity of producing something that
will please millions of dissimilar observers, they have revealed new, pene-
trating insights into our world. Although many of us cannot easily afford
original paintings, nearly everyone can enjoy original prints in his home or
place of work.
readings are suggested.
For additional information the following
Encyclopaedia Britannica ,., j j

Photoengraving, Printing, Woodcuts, and
.
Articles on Drypoint, Etching,

Wood Engraving.
M. (Boston: Beacon, 1958).
How Prints Look: William Ivins, Jr.
distinctive characteristics
Many magnified details of prints clearly show the
of different processes.
Barrett and Adolf Dehn (New
How to Draw and Paint Lithographs: Lawrence
York: American Artists Group, 1950).
Thorough treatment of old and new techniques and
possibilities.
Leach (New York: Reinhold, 1960).

Letter Design in the Graphic Arts: Mortimer
relation between type and lettering and the use of lettering
Discussion of the
in contemporary graphic arts.
Prints and Drawings: Paul Sachs (New York: Knopf, 1954).

Modern J.
Authoritative discussion of modern achievements.
About William Stanley Hayter (New York: Oxford, 1962).

Prints:
discusses the significance
A great contemporary innovator in printmaking
and techniques of the graphic arts.
Macmillan, 1959).
Printmaking: Gabor Peterdi (New York:
of printmaking techniques.
Clear and thorough treatment
Rinehart and Winston, 1958).
Printmaking Today: Jules Heller (New York: Holt,
detailed description of the handprint processes.
Handsomely illustrated,
The Book of Fine Prints: Carl

Zigrosser (New York: Crown. 1956).
excellent introduction to old and new

prints.
An
That photography is "writing with
light" demonstrated by a picture of
is
a flashlight swinging on a string over

a camera in a dark room. (Michael
Kosinski, photographer)
lO Plxotography
-
IS PHOTOGRAPHY AN ART or a science? Creative or mechanical? Are

photographs literal reports or expressive interpretations? Is photography
easy or difficult? The answer to each of these questions depends on the
intent and skills of the photographer.
Photography can be an art when a photographer perceives and reveals
the significance in his subject matter; but it is also a science in which the
physics of light and lenses, the chemistry of making light images permanent,
are basic. Photography, like painting, if the man behind the
is creative
camera makes us aware of qualities that we had not seen or felt before.
Mechanics are important but need not be routine. Because cameras record
265
266 - Photography
Paul Nadar's photograph of Sarah

Bernhardt (1859) dramatizes the
beauty of a famous actress. {George
Eastman House)
(or help), we are inclined

images seemingly with little human
interference
the literal truth. It does tell a truth because
to believe that photography
tells
of the objects on which they are

cameras record the external appearances
of the same subject taken by twenty
focused. But if we saw photographs
would be evident that the individual who
presses the
photooraphers. it
truth is of consequence to him. Pho-

button determines which phase of the
they
tographers, like print makers, select
the aspects of their subjects that
photograph can tell everything about any-
wish to emphasize, for no single
the inner, essential truth is of
most
thin- To the creative photographer
photography as the 1850's, a group
consequence. As early in the history of
to make portraits something
more than
of Parisian photographers sought
who was one of this group
small dim, standardized records. Paul Nadar.
and writers who came to his studio and
knew well the many actors, painters,
posing, he succeeded in transmut-
through careful attention to lighting and
2fab).
penetrating portraits of his sitters (Fig.
ing this personal vision into
essentials that lie under the sur-
Dorothea Lange, too, searches for the
of
face Reminiscing about her
assignment to photograph the conditions
Photography - 267
Dorothea Lange's "Migrant

Mother" (1936) is a stark revela-
tion of poverty and depression.
(Dorothea Lange for the Farm Se-
curity Administration)
migratory workers during the depression of the 1930's, Miss Lange says of
her "Migrant Mother" (Fig. 267):
I saw and approached the hungry and desperate mother, as if drawn by a

magnet. ... I made five exposures, working closer and closer from the
same direction. There she sat in that lean-to tent with her children
. . .
huddled around her, and seemed to know that my pictures might help her,
and so she helped me. The pea crop at Nipomo had frozen and there
. . .
was no work for anybody. But 1 did not approach the tents and shelters of
other stranded pea-pickers. It was not necessary; I knew I had recorded
the essence of my assignment.*
Sometimes called the easy art, photography at its lower levels of achieve-
ment offers beginners some degree of success more quickly than do the other
arts. "You press the button, we do the rest" describes how easy it is— to do
only a small part of the work! Professional photographers know that tech-
nical mastery takes time but is far less difficult than is the cultivation of
individualized seeing and thinking in terms of the ^vhole photographic act.
• From Popular Photography, Vol. 46. No. 2, February. 1960, pp. 42-13. 126.
268 - Photography
Human eyes andcameras have

marked {Reproduced
similarities.
Photog-
by permission from This Is
raphy)
little more than a century

ago
Photocrraphy became a practical reality
because for centuries scientists
knew the
(Fie 276)° This is surprising
hght
produces visual images and that
underlying prn.ciples-that light
of some materials. Leonardo
da Vmct explan.ed
alters tire chemical nature
pictures" ("camera is an
artists made "camera
the process, and Renaissance
or a lens
admitting light through a pinhole
Italian word for "room") by
learn how to make
until the last century did man
into a dark room. But not
such pictures permanent. ^
.
basi-
means "light-writing ) is
The technique of photography (which a hght-
is focused on
The light from the object to be recorded
cally simple.
so that additional
sensitive surface in a darkened box. and this image is fixed
have
further change. Years of research
exposure to light will not produce
possi-
extended the scope of photographic
increased technical control and
photographers has
bilities, while at the same
time the leadership of master
mechanics.
shown how far creativity can rise above
THE MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

enables photographers to have more
Although complex, expensive apparatus
have been made
of the greatest photographs
control over their work, some
camera, usually
basic equipment consists of a
with simple equipment. The
films or plates; filters; paper
on which
with a lens, shutter, and diaphragm; negative
paraphernalia needed to develop the
the image is printed; and the
and make the print.
Cameras Are Lightproof Boxes

nothing more than a lightproof
box .ith a simple
The simplest camera is
appropriately called
lens and shutter and film at the back, and is
at the front
it record
amateur use under average conditions,
a box camera. Designed for
But if you wish to take
objects with minimum effort.
well-lighted. stationary
269
Lenses concentrate the light reflected

from objects to produce a small inverted
image on film.
pictures with sharp detail, under poor light, or of moving objects, more
precise controls are necessary, and there is a vast array from which to choose.
Folding, miniature (35 millimeter), and reflex cameras, as well as many
specialized types, are all developments of the box camera. As the price
mounts lenses improve, shutters can be set for many speeds, view finders
and focusing devices get better.
Lenses Gather and Focus Light Rays
The most important part of a camera is the lens— even though it is not abso-
lutely necessary. A pinhole will produce an image in moderately sharp
focus, but the image will be so faint that an extremely long exposure or
very bright illumination is required. A larger hole will admit more light,
but the image will be fuzzy. A good lens, in contrast, gathers and concen-
trates much light to produce a sharply focused image quickly. As lenses get
larger, less light on the subject or less time for the exposure is needed,
which permits good photographs of dimly illumined subjects or those mov-
ing rapidly. Good lenses must be precisely ground and free from defects
so that they approach that most remarkable of lenses, the one in the human
eye.
Of the lenses designed for special work, telephoto and wide-angle are
the most common. Telephoto lenses, often used by wild-life photographers,
have a telescopic effect that allows the photographer to station his camera
at considerable distances from his subject. When photographers cannot
back far enough away from their subjects to include all that they wish,
wide-angle lenses are the answer. They are much used by architectural pho-
tographers who wish to record a large section of a small room.
Shutters Control the Duration of the Exposure
The camera opening, or aperture, must have a mechanism to keep it closed

until the moment of exposure— the crucial moment when for a short time
270 - Photography
f/4 f/8 ^/"

f/2
of an eye. changes size to admit much or little

The diaphragm of a camera, like the iris
light.
mechanism is called a shutter

liolu allowed to enter the camera. This
is
again is its speed. Box cameras
have
.nd the time it takes to open and close
from y., to %o of a second. More complex
only one speed, which varies
a wide choice of speeds,
from one second
cameras have shutters that provide
exposures of any length. Thus there are two
to Mo,o of a second, or tnne the shutter
light that hits the film. First,
means of controlling the amount of
of the exposure. Second, the
diaphragm increases or
controls the duration
which discussed below.
decreases the size of the aperture,
is
Diaphragms Control the Amount of Light

greatly increased amount of light that it
if the
The usefulness of a lens is
is open can be
controlled. A window shade allows
oathers while the shutter
covering more or less
us to increase or decrease the light entering a room by
acts in much the same way.
Whereas
window. The iris of the eye
of the
opening, the better cameras have
dxa-
cheaper cameras have one fixed
of the
or any size up to the diameter
phragms that can be made very small
lens.
relation between size of aperture

and time of exposure is impor-
The
there are varied combinations
from which to
tant and for most subjects
photogxaph. These are the major
factors.
choose. The choice affects the
longer
exposures, small openings take
. Large openings take shorter
quantity of light striking the film.
ones This tends to equalize the
pictures
openings) are required for sharp
. Short exposures (with large
events
probably noticed pictures of athletic
of moving objects. You have
The Materials and Processes -
271
OUT OF FOCUS IN FOCUS LARGE APERTURE FILM
4=^î
IN FOCUS IN FOCUS SMALL APcRTURE FILM
34
Nearby and distant objects can be in focus if the diaphragm is adjusted to make the
aperture small. {Reproduced by permission from This Is Photography)
taken at such slow shutter speeds that the figures were blurred. In order
to "stop" the action of a fast runner, shutter speeds up to Vhoo of a sec-
ond may be necessary. (The exact speed is also determined by how
brightly the subject is illumined and how fast the film is.) But at such
speeds only that part of the picture on which the photographer has
carefully focused his camera will be sharp.
Long exposures (^vith smaller openings) produce greater depth of
field (the distance between which near and far objects are in sharp
focus). Figures 278 and 280 show considerable depth of field.
In some scientific work, speeds are needed that far exceed those possible
with mechanical shutters, and it is then necessary to provide a sudden burst
of intense light for as little as Viocooo of a second (Fig. 285B).
Films Record the Image
Black-and-white film is a thin, multi-layered sandwich. The layer that does

the work is the emulsion, a thin coating of gelatin in which millions of tiny
silver bromide particles are suspended. These light-sensitive crystals record
the subject in terms of the amount of light reaching them. When developed,
those particles struck by light turn black to produce the negative. Under the
emulsion is the support, which provides a strong yet flexible transparent
base for the emulsion. The bottom layer, or anti-halation backing, absorbs
any excessively bright light.
Black-and-white films differ from one another in four basic qualities:
Color sensitivity describes how well the film responds to different colors.
Ordiyiary film, which is sensitive only to ultraviolet and blue light,
272 - Photography
Two photographs of the same piece

of lucite with a pattern
produced by
atomic bombardment show how
lighting alters appearances.
Above.
from front; rif^ht. lighted
lighted
from back.
chiefly for copying black-and-white

produces strong contrasts and is used
Orthochromatic extends the color
illustrations or printed material.
which is sensitive to most o
ran-e to include green. Panchromatic,
gives natural-looking pictures
with many steps of gray as well
the colors,
as black and white. .
satisfactory
light needed to get a
. Film speed refers to the amount of
image, and this in turn determines
how large the aperture and how
long the exposure should be. , j
•
j
silver bromide used
. Graininess comes chiefly from the large grains of
in high-speed films. It is usually noticed only in enlargements.
film's sensitivity to subtle differences
of hght m
. Contrast describes a
produce harsh contrasts of lights and darks;
the subject. Some films
many shades of gray.
others differentiate between
are the basic
The story of color film long and complex, but these
is
of emulsion each one of

which
facts. Color films typically have three layers
273
is affected by one primary color. When developed, color films give either
"positives" or "negatives." The most common type gives a positive trans-
parency looked at through a viewer or projected on a screen, repro-
that,
duces the colors approximately as the photographer saw

them. The other
type gives a negative in which the colors are represented by
their opposites.
When printed on special paper, the colors are again reversed so that the
subject is seen in its natural colors.
Filters Modify Brightness and Color
When it seems desirable modify the dark-and-light pattern or the colors

to
of a subject, filters can be used. These are pieces of transparent, colored
gelatin or glass placed between the subject and the film. Filters lessen
the
amount of light reflected from objects of all colors except that of the
filter.
Of the many filters available for special effects, the commonest are
the red,
orange, and yellow used to intensify the contrast
between blue skies and
white clouds (Figs. 273B and C) or to penetrate haze.
Films and filters alter photographs of the same subject.

(A) Below, left. Film not sensitive to color differences
is likely to give a lifeless print
(B) Below, yniddle. Panchromatic film and a yellow
filter differentiate clouds, sky, trees,
and grass. (C) Below, right. Infrared film and an infrared filter
give dramatic, unrealistic
lip- Its and rlai-ti:
274 - Photography
Visible and Permanent

Developing Negatives Makes the Image
exposed to light, the latent
Although chemical changes occur when
fihn is
developed. In a dark room exposed

imaae 'is not visible until the film is
of several
first immersed in a
developer, an aqueous solution
films are
bromide,
chemicals that transforms the
exposed grains of silver bromide to
which adheres to the film support^
which is washed away, and metallic silver,
with strong contrasts of dark and
Some kinds of developers yield negatives
to a most-
scale of gxays from almost-black
licht while others give a long
solution
either cool water or a short-stop
white The film is then rinsed with
agent, com-
to halt the action of the
developer and then bathed in a fixing
from making any further changes.
monly called hypo, that prevents light
again in water, the film is dried
and is then
After being thoroughly rinsed
ready for use. . ^ ,. , i^^
of silver grains. Studied under
The resulting negatives contain millions
these grains seem to be scattered
and tangled without
a powerful microscope,
the unassisted eye, they make an image, m re-
design but when viewed by
versed values, of the original scene.
Printing Is the Final Step
This process is
and developing a negative. In a dark-
similar to exposing
with a
the negative on to paper coated
ened room, light is passed through
emulsion. The light is unimpeded
by the translticent areas
light-sensitive
the values are reversed. The
ex-
and held back by the darker parts. Thus
then developed, fixed, and dried. The length of exposure
posed paper is
light, the density of the
depends on such factors as the brightness of the
Figure 275 shows the differ-
neLtive image, and the sensitivity of the paper.
varying the time of exposure.
ent effects obtained from the same negative by
the negative. They are made
by
Contact prints are the same size as
negative and
paper in firm contact with a
placing a piece of photographic
light first through
are made by passing
exposing it to light. Enlargements
focused image at
a lens to produce a large,
the negative and then through
some distance from the negative.
They offer many possibilities. Using the
of the
be changed. By using only part
whole image, the size of the print can Parts
ne<.ative, the shape can be changed
and undesirable parts eliminated.
And portions of two or more
of the picture can be darkened or lightened.
landscape
negatives can be combined-clouds
from one negative added to a
or two images can be -P-^-P°-^-
in which the sky is uninteresting,
thatf "f
the
to the purists who believe
darkroom manipulation is abhorrent
275
The same negative can produce markedly different results depending

on the length of
exposure during printing. The exposure of 20 seconds makes the
most brilliant print
(An SCO)
record on the exposed negative should be altered little if at all, but it is

common practice for many photographers.
In the preceding sections the mechanical techniques of

photography
have been stressed because they are fundamental in enabling the photocr-
rapher to get the result he wants. But the photographer makes many
per-
sonal decisions, which include:
Finding his subject and deciding which aspects of it he wishes to em-

phasize- what to include and what to omit, the angle from which to
shoot,and what light is most appropriate.
Choosing his camera and accessories.
Selecting the most suitable film and filter (if any).
Determining the size of the aperture and the length of the exposure.
Deciding which developer to use and how long the film should stay in
it.
Selecting the photographic paper best suited to his intent.

Controlling the printing in many ways.
276 - Photography
record of one corner of "The

succeeded in making a permanent
In 1837. Louis Daguerre
Artist's Studio." {George
Eastman House, Inc.)
each demands judg-

Although all but the first of these seems mechanical,
evaluatton of many factors. The
first step,
Int. a creative assembling and
separates the journeyman
photographer
however, is the crucial one that
from the masters whom we shall now study.
LOOKING AT PHOTOGRAPHS
that
Today's newspapers, magazines,
and books carry so many photographs
pictures of.
enough to see what they are
we tend to look at them only long
That natural stnce th
we begin and end with the subject matter. is
in short, BtU
more than a literal, vtsual report.
"at majority of them are nothing
photograph that arrests ottr attention
Lm time to time we come across a
because the photographer has
stripped
noTonly for its subject matter but
penetrated into something deeper
Z commonplace from what he saw and
we are likely to experience an
esthetic emo-
than surface appearances. Then
tion akin to that offered by
any other work of art.
Looking at Photographs -
277
Three Historic Photographs
"The Artist's Studio" (Fig. 276), taken by Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre
in 1837, is one of the first successful photographs. Daguerre had established
his reputation as a painter who could
depict with astonishing accuracy
natural scenes, but he wished to go further and make light
paint the picture.
After much experimentation, he succeeded in recording
on a silver-plated
piece of copper what he saw. The process was slow and
complex, but a
likenesshad been captured. Improvements led to a great wave of popularity
during which thousands of daguerreotypes (or tin-types) were
made to satisfy
a public craving for pictures, chieHy portraits.
"The Artist's Studio" is
remarkable for its composure, its sculptural three-dimensionality, and its
varied textures.
By the time of our Civil War, photography had progressed a long way.
Although the equipment was cumbersome, a photographic negative
could
be made on a glass plate from which any number of prints could
be made.
Matthew Brady saw the potentiality of faithfully recording important events.
Matthew Brady, one of the first photographers to record a war, made "The Ruins of
Richmond, Virginia" around 1865. (Collection, the Museum of Modern Art, New York)
1 11 II II.
J k M I I I i
a i i i (^ ti I
(^1
"
•iSmaini:.ntt»fMKnXf
t^ ^'^'-'-^—'"^-'-- •
-""''"iiil'imTi [ii rt
278 - Photography
faithfully represented by William Henry

West WHS
JiL^n^^'-C^liip in^ê
,,l
•!
the
SSJ^ (1875) . iCoUe.L, L Museu,n of Modern Art,
New York)
loaded with all of the paraphernalia

Traveling in a horse-drawn buggy
pictures, he made some seven
thousand
needed for taking and developing
war. "The Rutns of Rtchmond
(Ftg.
Xss-plate negatives of the faces of
Silhouetted against a white sky,
comment on destruction.
277) is a stark
of war in a way
grimly of the empty wantonness
the scarred buildings speak
that is hard to forget.
1870's gave photographers a

chance to
Exploration of the west in the
undreamed-of vastness of the Rocky
Moun-
the
try their skill in recording
;:L. William Henry Jackson's "Camp in Baker'sPark"
(Fig.
7^ prove
to the ask. With a sure
that they and their improved equipment were equal
sense of'expressive composition,
Jackson contrasts the
with the monumental
^^^^^[^^
animals, the flimsiness of tents,
ff^'y^'^l^'l^^
far. is faithfully recorded,
and th fact th
and mountains. Detail, near and possible to use
there is no blur caused by
movement shows that it was now
to accomplish this, he
used a camera
or^paratively short exposures. But
Z
still
would accommodate glass plates two
feet square because enlarging
Developing the plates was done

not practical.
was
in a portable tent. To
leisure
who use miniature cameras and develop our negatives at
those of us
conditions increase our
the difficulties of making photographs under such
respect for the results.
279
Four Modern Photographs
In order to focus attention on photography's potential for creative

individ-
uality, we will look at four examples of subjects found in cities.
In 1893 Alfred Stieglitz photographed "The Terminal" (Fig. 279)
after having u-aited hours in a snowstorm for his subject to compose itself
as he wished it. Using the neuly developed hand camera
for outdoor work,
he championed the "straight" or "pure" approach. Not imitative of painting
or burdened uith tricks, his photographs seem to let the observer
see the
subject through the camera lens but in a new, more vivid way.
"The Termi-
nal" transforms a commonplace scene into a profound revelation of
an ordi-
nary occurrence. The powerful curve of men, horses, and tram boldly
large,
unifies an intricate composition of many interdependent
parts. Atmospheric
conditions and movement are captured in instantaneous vision.
"The Terminal," photographed by Alfred Stieglitz in 1893, demonstrates that

photog-
raphy can capture "the moment of truth" in an inimitable way.
(Alfred Stieglitz Col-
lection, San Francisco Museu?n of Art)
280 - Photography
I I j
^
i 5 i
3 1 1
i
9 ^
^
'
si
•5
9
1
JmB
'1
Museum of Art)
281
In contrast to the action and atmosphere of "The Terminal," Stieglitz's
photograph of New York City skyscrapers in the morning (Fig. 280), taken
in the early 1930's, presents the brilliant contrasts of light and dark, the
stillness of a day's beginning. Here, too, the composition is audacious: hard,
sharp, and geometric. Arresting vertical elements at the right give way to
diagonal lines that carry attention far back to the intricacies of a skyscraper
skeleton and the towers of a church. Every part, even the luminous blacks,
is rich in detail to enjoy at leisure. But the details never threaten the quiet
intensity, the reserved power of the whole composition. The monumentality,
growth, and heterogeneity of a whole city, even of cities in general, have
been compressed into a single photograph.
Berenice Abbott's "Night View of New York City" (Fig. 282), also
from the early I930's, presents a totally different aspect of a city. Taken from
a high vantage point, it portrays the metropolis as a series of luminous,
cellular edifices separated by traffic arteries. Rigid geometric line is softened,
differences are de-emphasized by concentration on the myriad pinpoints of
light. Our eyes are left free to wander and explore as we wish, for there is
no single center of interest. But, by contrast, the unlighted roofs, the scarce
areas of land without buildings, and the low unlighted structure (slightly
left of and beIo\v the center) tempt one to pause while looking more closely
to see what is there. It is a compact, dense composition without beginning
or end that stands for the seeming endlessness of our urban centers.
Movement and space are dominant elements in "Abruzzi" (Fig. 283)

by Henri Cartier-Bresson. He has written that his camera is an "extension
of my eye. I prowled the streets all day, feeling very strung-up and ready
to pounce, determined to 'trap' life— to preserve life in the act of living.
Above all, I craved to seize the whole essence, in the confines of one single
photograph, of some situation that was in the process of unrolling itself
before my eyes. ... In photography there is a new kind of plasticity,
product of the instantaneous lines made by movements of the subject. . . .
But inside movement there is one moment which the elements in motion
at
are in balance. Photography must seize upon this moment and hold immo-
bile the equilibrium in it." *
"Abruzzi" invites our eyes to roam around in many directions, slowly or

rapidly, and to pause at strategic points. We can follow the plunging diag-
onal of the railing and notice the events along the way: the woman at right
center establishes a relationship with the church door while the woman
• Quoted by permission from Henri Cartier-Bresson's The Decisive Moment published
by
Simon and Schuster. Copyright 1952.
282 - Photography
_:•:•.
,.'^' .^'^- ;,: •:: -
jIlV
'
!:»..
»>^»1ra
i
%»*«;.• %.
'..
New York City (1933) discloses an intricate pattern of

Berenice Abbott's night view of
lights and darks.
283
In "Abruzzi" (1953) Henri Cartier-Bresson snapped

his shutter at the decisive
when his subject was in equilibrium. {Henri Cartier-Bresson-Magnum)
284 - Photography
down into the picture. The angle of her tray makes

carrying a tray leads us
or turn toward the
us wonder whether she will continue down the steps
other, we see a boy aligned with
church. Looking from one woman to the
half hidden by the railing. To the
the lamp support and then notice a girl
left of the church a woman walking
away calls attention to the background
where there are three separated groups of people
who make a handsome
geometric pattern with the woman. No matter
where we look there are
suggested paths of movement exemplifying Cartier-Bresson's state-

to enjoy,
ment that, "... the world is movement, and you cannot be stationary m
your attitude toward something that is moving."
opposites into
The sense of vitality is heightened by bringing many
slender dark metal strips, which
unison. Most conspicuous is the interplay of
solid masonry. Textured paving,
go through the whole photograph, against
plain surfaces. Straight or
rough stone walls, and tile roofs enhance the
those that are curved. And the people,
dark and
angular lines accentuate
stonework that is their town.
silhouetted, give meaning to the motionless
we have seen thus far have in common?

What do the masterworks
Diverse as they are, some general qualities
can be cited.
consideration.
them is technically excellent, and this is a basic
Each of
only by rare chance
Without technical competence a photographer can
Proficiency, though, is even
succeed in communicating his vision to others.
and knowledge of rules.
more a matter of judgment than of manual skills
to the
It entails choosing the
materials and processes most appropriate
for example, many objects are
"The Terminal,"
photographer's intent. In
indistinct because that quality was
inherent in the subject whereas in
is a
is crystal clear. Dexterity
Stieglitz's study of skyscrapers everything
distract both the photographer
means, not a goal, and overemphasis on it can
and his audience from more valid concerns.
has been brought into some
In each of these photographs the subject
us have an inherent urge to
kind of order for two reasons. First, most of
success of others in this respect.
organize our environment, and we enjoy the
lines, and textures can be
Second, an appropriate coordination of forms,
the essence of a subject.
instrumental in expressing and communicating
to have been created for that
Ideally the composition seems inevitable,
and 267 we see that the
photograph alone. Looking again at Figures 266
actress, supported by a classical
pedestal and cloaked with a luxuriantly
pose. All is soft and smooth,
draped robe, has taken a graceful, relaxed
the worried, overworked migram
fluent and harmonious. Not so with
mother. Harsh, angular lines and rough, ill-assorted textures bind the
endurance. These are ex-
mother and her children in their weary, bitter
Looking at Photographs - 285
Photography holds great possibilities for

recording things not ordinarily perceived.
(A) Above.By opening his camera shut-
ter and driving around city streets at
night, Bruce Lauritzen created a pattern
of unusual rhythmic interest. {Courtesy of
California College of Arts and Crafts)
(B) Right. The splash of a milk drop,
a photograph taken at 1/100,000 of a
second, reveals a new world of reality.
(Edgerton, Germeshausen, and Grier)
(C) right. To measure and evalu-
Lower
ate the performance of an airplane pro-
peller revolving at 4080 revolutions per
minute, this photograph was taken in a
smoke tunnel. (Courtesy of F. N. M.
Brown)
286 - Photography
and helpful hints may be
amples of expressive composition. Admonitions
develop their own compositions out of
useful to beginners, but the masters
rules that are sup-
what they see. Often, they intentionally violate the little
posed to cover every situation.

special qualities is the crucial test
Findino a subject and unveiling its
Thousands can produce pictures that are technically

of a photographer.
and attractively composed. We acknowledge their competence and
perfect
photograph that affects us deeply,
walk on. But once in a while we see a
of something we had not experienced
that -ives us a heightened awareness
half closed. There is no point in
using
or had viewed with eyes and mind
this can be specifically explained.
At present,
a lot of words, pretending that
see and feel more
it cannot. We simply
kno^v that someone has allowed us to
customarily do. Great photography can
do this.
deeply than we
SPECIALIZED PHOTOGRAPHY
when a drop of milk falls into a pan, or when an air-
Exactly what happens
motion? It is doubtful that anyone knew until
plane propeller sets air in
structure of ordinary mate-

Microphotography exposes the diverse, intricately beautiful
pen-and-ink drawing.
100 times resembles a sensitive
"'(A) Left. Stainless steel magnified
polar-
^'(B;H?'/'^'A2«git1a crystalline compound) photographed with transmitted
size reveals the intricate
pattern of us structure.
izcd light at 200îm'es natural
287
Photograms offer op-

portunities for the crea-
tion of abstract pat-
terns quite unlike those
made with other media.
(Courtesy of the Cali-
fornia College of Arts
and Crafts)
288 - Photography
Arthur Siegel's "Lyric Singer" was achieved by printing two negatives on one piece o£
paper. {Courtesy of photographer)
specialized Photography -
289
such photographs as those shown in Figures 285B and C were taken.
The instantaneousness inherent in photography
possible to makes it
"stop" the most rapid action. Equally important are the permanent
records
of the paths of movement (Figs. 265, 285A, and 380B) that give us
a better
understanding of rhythmic action. Cameras combined with telescopes can
over a period of time concentrate enough light on films so that stars in-
visible to our eyes can be studied. Photomicrography pries into
the complex
structure of substances and reveals their amazing intricacy (Figs. 286.^ and
B). To scientists these are invaluable tools, and they open to artists hitherto
unseen realms of inspiration.
Other distinctive potentialities of the photographic medium include
photograms and single prints made from two or more negatives. Figure
287 is a photogram— a print made by putting objects directly on light-
sensitive paper and exposing it to light. Neither cameras nor films
were
used. "Lyric Singer" (Fig. 288) was made by printing two negatives on the
same piece of photographic paper: one negative carried the image of the
girl and the other an image of trees, shadows, and a gate. The
forms inter-
penetrate and overlap one another to produce an elusive, evocative dream-
like quality.
The moving images seen in motion picture theatres or on television

receivers are from a branch of photography far too complex to discuss in
detail. They are, however, man's
achievement in making permanent
latest
records of action. Many murals in prehistoric caves and Egyptian
temples,
Greek and Roman carved friezes, and Oriental scrolls portray sequential
events by a series of successive, static forms.
Having no control over the
way which observers would look at his work, the artist could only hope
in
that due time would be given to each part and that the intended
order
would be followed. In motion pictures, the action unfolds before our eyes,
and we see each part in the order and for the exact amount of time that
the director deems best. The feeling of immediacy is also augmented by the
addition of sound, the human voice explaining the action, music under-
scoring the mood, off-stage noises extending the scene. Thus time, the
fourth dimension of our existence, and our sense of hearing, bolstering that
of sight, draw us into the picture and surround us with it; often to the
degree that we seem no longer viewers but participants emotionally involved
in what is taking place.
The impact motion pictures comes primarily from their subject
of
matter, but appropriate photographic techniques and composition heighten
our reactions. Our eyes can be directed to dart here and there, pausing for
close inspection, scanning a panoramic view, catching a transitory glimpse.
290 - Photography
Eroded rocks are one of

many natural phenom-
ena of interest to pho-
tographers. (Courtesy of
California College of
Arts and Crafts)
music, the tempo can be retarded or

or racing at breakneck speed. As in
quickened, punctuated by abrupt breaks, and built up to a climax. The
two can be combined for em-
whole image can be sharp or vague, or the
phasis on one part. Flash backs suspend and intensify the progress of events.
person or object can be photographed from
many angles, light-
The same
ing can be varied, sound can be added.
These are the possibilities, but only
for pushing beyond mere storytelhng
a few directors have utilized them
into the realm of artistic endeavor. In
sum, motion pictures permit degrees
of freedom, flexibility, and involvement

uncommon in the graphic and
plastic arts, and so far largely unrealized.
CONCLUSION
important arts. Satisfaction can
Creating pictures with light is one of the
be had by a child with his inexpensive
box camera, by the vigorous adult
with his complex camera and special
equipment, or by the retired oldster
his gTandchildren or of his flowers.
sitting in his sunny chair taking snaps of
arts and has almost
It is most widely practiced of all of the graphic
the
infinite flexibility and potentialities.
facts of visual experience
Great photography deals not merely with the
inherent but often unnoticed
but with the infinite range of qualities that are
technical dexterity and compositional
in our environment. We may admire
only means through which the
excellence, but we soon learn that they are
feels. Expression and com-
photographer reveals what he sees, knows, and
Conclusion -
291
munication are foremost. Often the content of a photograph cannot
be satis-
factorily translated into words, for photography has
its own unique char-
acteristics. In the words of Ed^vard Steichen, one of
our most distinguished
masters in this field, "photography is a dynamic process of giving form to
ideas. . .
."
Here are some worthwhile references:
Color Photography: Eliot Elisofon (New York: Viking,

1961).
Profusely illustrated exposition of color photography
compared with that
in black and white.
The Decisive Moment: Henri Canier-Bresson (New York: Simon and Schuster
1952).
Handsome reproductions of photographs and enlightening comments by
a
leading contemporary photogiapher.
The Family of Man (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1955).

A distinguished selection of intensely expressive photographs selected
for
the purpose of "explaining man to man."
The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: Frederick Purves, ed. (New York-

Macmillan, 1960).
A compendium of information on all phases of photography.
History of Photography from 1839 to Present Date: Beaumont
Newhall (New
York: Museum of Modern Art, 1955).
A comprehensive history of photography.
Making a Photograph: Ansel Adams (New York: Studio, 1948).
An excellent manual for the serious student of "straight" photography.
Masters of Photography: Beaumont and Nancy Newhall, eds (New York-
Braziller, 1958).
Handsome reproductions and informative text on the great photographers.
Motion Pictures: A. R. Fulton (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press
1960).
A concise history of motion pictures from the silents to television.
Photography: Herbert S. Zim and R. ^V'ilI Burnett (New York- Golden Press
1956).
Informative and well illustrated guide for amateurs.
Successful Photography: Andreas Feininger (Englewood Cliffs, N T Prentice-

Hall, 1960).
The art and science of photogiaphy explained by an expert.
This Is Photography: Thomas H. Miller and Wyatt Brummit (New York: Garden
City Books, 1959).
One of the clearest manuals on all phases of photography.
U.S. Camera Annuals: Tom Maloney, ed. (New York: Duell. Sloan Sc Pearce).
A series of yearly publications well worth study.
292
over ten cen-

Venice, built, rebuilt, and modified
Ottoosite Pase St. Mark's Square in room in Europe,
beautiful drawuig
^rfe^lnd described by Najoleon as "The most architectural forms" surroundmg
symphony of
bring; contrSng buildings hue "a
lasting
pedestrian space. {The Italian Tourist

Bureau)
open,
PART III
I'^'^fwT
\m ."~nr-
."'
.1 ' n
9ffl_ " '«PW.«IW«»"!
Tlie Problem of
Organization
294 - Introduction
terra cotta, a female figure from Mexico's

Less than two feet high and made of fragile
Tarascan culture (a.d. 1000-1500) transforms vivid emotion into monumental sculptural
form. (Courtesy of the Worcester Art Museum)
Paavo Tynell's metal and glass lamp
from Finland displays a mid-twentieth-
century fusion of service and beauty.
(Courtesy of Finnish-American Trad-
ing Corporation)
Introduction
A PUBLIC SQUARE in Italy and a Mexican sculpture, a new table lamp
and an American Colonial teapot, a community mural and an etchino are
dissimilar in specific purposes and in materials. But they are related to one
another because each is an organization that has:
forms growing out of functions and variety in unity;

form, line, space, texture, and color;
m balance, continuity, and emphasis.
Having investigated in Part I the human needs from which art emerges and
m Part II the roles of materials and processes, we now focus attention on a
third major aspect of art-the problem of organization.
295
296 - Introduction
All art has organization-the

arrangement of interdependent parts to
you can call it design, composition,
form a coordinated whole. If you prefer,
because it seems more funda-
form or order. We
like the term organization
suggests
mental and inclusive, less rigid and formalized than the others. It
product, not super-
that this aspect of art is inherent in the process and
mtegration of
ficially applied or arbitrarily
imposed. It implies a purposeful
distinguishes art from that
which is haphazard,
all factors. This quality
miscellaneous, or disorganized.
But why is the organization of the two
objects illustrated m Figs, /y*
Or why does any one branch of art, such as houses or

and 295 so different?
paintings, differ? The answer is that houses and paintings have been created
in different parts of the
world
to satisfy specific needs
by diverse peoples
Each arose from
at different times.
own complex of spiritual, social, and
its
its
that art merely reflects
geographical conditions. This does not imply
its physical environment
and the
environment, because great art rises above
materials from which it was formed.
who finds new ways to express truth,
Of equal importance is the artist
remakes design to suit
his epoch. Of inner necessity he
his truth and that of
and thus the same period and coun-
art created in the
his individual ideas,
shows numerous approaches to organization.
Two artists may respond
try
aspects of the same culture, but each
by ordering his impressions
to different
can get across to us his personal vision.
One man illumines his view of the
fine-lined, close-up view of
wheat
world of nature (Fig. 297A) through a
artist (Fig. 297B), reacting
to the space
stalks flourishing in a field; another
tensions that very high speeds
might generate. Significant
age, reveals the
elo-
search for forms and colors that
organization in art involves an intense
beholder what the artist has found
quently communicate to the appreciative
design is the opposite of con-
most authentic in his world. Thus, inspired
formity to stereotyped patterns.
the aims and principles
This might lead you to think that studying
a waste of time. An understanding of basic principles,
of organization is
that might otherwise remain
however, can help us relate varied experiences
can be guides for future activity.
disconnected. The resulting generalizations
should develop out of the
To be comprehensive and flexible, the principles
This indicates continuing study of
widest possible variety of experiences.
diverse relationships of form,
many aspects of our world: human responses to
color; the characteristics of
materials, new and old;
line, space, texture, and
movement of waves or clouds; and
design in nature, in a tree or rock, the
from all of the world's culture. New develop-
contemporary and historic art
philosophy and psychology-
ments in chemistry and physics, anthropology,
exciting new vistas for those who
create
to mention but a few fields-open
Introduction - 297
In any period, but especially today, creati\e artists find evocative ways of expressing differ-
ent ideas. (Courtesy of the artists)
(A) Above. "Wheat Field," a silk screen print done by Ben Shalin in 1958, is a tender
portrayal of the poetry of nature.
(B) Below. "iMach 5" is an etching created by Warrington Colescott in 1957. Its tumultu-
ous interplay of forces expresses how it might feel to travel at five times the speed of
sound.
298 - Introduction
formulacmg
or appreciate art. Such comprehensive study protects us from
and rigid that they restrict creativity and appreciation.
principles so narrow
organization in art.
We now turn to more detailed consideration of
function and va-
. First, the two aims of organization, form follows
riety IN UNITY, are discussed in Chapter 11.
We call these "aims" be-
that deserve attention before dealing
with
cause they are basic concepts
more specific matters.
texture, and coZor- the
. Second, the plastic elements-/orm, Ime, space,
vocabulary used by artists to express their ideas
and concepts are con-
sidered in Chapters 12 and 13.

continuity, emphasis-which
. Third, the principles of design-balance,
are guides in organizing the plastic

elements to achieve the two aims of
organization are dealt with in Chapter 14.
evident that man intentionally or in-

Throughout the history of art it is
tuitively organized his expressions to satisfy

an inborn need for coherence.
attention to the ways in which
As you read this part of the book, pay special
only )wio it is done, but why
the art you encounter is organized. Heed not
it was done that \vay.
the
Chinese painting reached its apex during
Sung Dynasty (a.d. 960-1279). In Kao
K'o
Rung's landscape, man has a secure
though
minor place in the great order of nature.
Rocks, trees, mist, and mountains, deftly
m-
dicated with quick brush strokes, form
an
misty
ascending spiral. The large areas of
of
space speak of the intangible aspects
living. (Courtesy Philadelphia Museum of
Art)
A soaring sea gull epitomizes form
that follows function. (Photograph by
Cecil Tose)
11 - Two Aims of
Organization
WHEN WE WATCH a sea gull soar with minimum effort, dive suddenly
for a fish, or float buoyantly on smooth or rough water, we become aware
that the "design" of the gull's body is wondrously adapted to its way of
living. This one of the chief reasons that sea gulls continue to exist, for
is
in nature anything that is not efficient may perish. If we observe a gull more
closely, we see that although the bird is unified the parts are unlike one
another. Wings and legs, beak and tail are far from identical in shape be-
cause each has a particularity of function, yet they are joined into a coherent
whole.
How does this relate to art?From time immemorial artists have turned
to nature for inspiration and guidance. They have been stimulated by the
299
300 - Two Aims of Organization
deraone many changes. {Ford

Motor Company)
undergo
American automobile design has
by the principles on
nch diversity they see. and they have been guided
are based.
which natural phenomena
FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION

functions of many kinds. At one extreme
fulfill
Man too develops forms to
of form: hampers fo
the basic determinant
r^h tils in wh.ch utility :s
of us wtU
for cooking food. In such objects few
dr vin. naUs and skdlets
lessens eff.ciency-yet
man has seldom been con.
put r; wUh anything that and
practical. Pr.mU.ve peoples
pLly with tools that are merely
Taisfied
productwuy and work
today s
found that beauty increases
fficiency experts
:' refined beyond utdttar.an
of '-useful" objects is
a t on Thus the form
are purposefully
ornamented, and w
ecuirlents. Often humble things
of serviceability and
beauty nr most everyday
come to expect an nrtegration wuh whtch you
terns
21l£and 295). If you count the things
FiTs'llSA,
Form Follows Function -
301
come in daily contact, you will find that a high percentage are of this sort.
Finally, we come "Fine Arts" in which esthetic and spiritual expres-
to the
sion and satisfaction areparamount concerns. These include most paintings
and sculpture; churches, temples, and monuments; and many smaller articles
that transcend utility.
Thus, art ranges from those products that are almost entirely (but sel-
dom exclusively) practical to those created out of spiritual necessity (but
which may or may not have useful aspects).
The short history of American automobile design (Fig. 300) illustrates

the complexities of developing appropriate forms for anything that has
several purposes. Early designs resembled carriages— minus the horse. They
were economical and straightforward but visually uncoordinated. As greater
speed became possible, engineer-designers developed more coherent bodies
that implied morion. Then, manufacturers began to realize that the relation-
ship of many an American to his automobile goes so far beyond usefulness
that it can best be described as a love affair. He regards it as a symbol of
independence and prosperity, as something to be admired. This introduces
problems that have little to do with utility. Advertisements now put about
equal emphasis on mechanical performance and on social and esthetic fac-
tors. Most of the new models introduced each year are changed just enough
to arouse the buying urge in new-car customers, but not so much that last
year's cars will look old-fashioned and fail to sell on the used-car lot. The
designers' task of finding forms to satisfy such diverse, often contradictory,
needs and whims is indeed complicated. Many innovations have been super-
ficial, faddish, and esthetically questionable. Others, such as senseless bigness,
have lessened efficiency: New York City \vould have the equivalent of eighty
additional miles of usable streets if cars were one foot shorter! In the midst
of this change-for-the-sake-of-change philosophy, it is reassuring to find some

cars that are altered only when they can be improved (Fig. 301).
The design of some cars, the

Bentley for example, is modi-
fied only when superior per-
formance or greater beauty
can be attained. {Rolls-Royce,
Incorporated)
arches make an esthetic event out of structural

(A and B) Greek columns and Gothic
necessity. {Drawings by Raymond E. Brose)
(C) The inventive ornament

on Louis Sullivan's Wain-
wright Building (1890-1891),
also illustrated in Chapter 17,
is an integral part of the
building. (Photograph by Bill
Hedrich, Hedrich-Blessing)
.fSTi
^,^7^|?'/iJ'''7-'i7-''7"/'>' l/î/'/'/'/"''/''.!^"-''^'
Form Follows Function -
303
Sullivan on Function
Architects face problems related to those of

automobile designers because
they also create multipurpose forms. An
unparalleled creative opportunity
came with the innovation of the skyscraper in the latter
part of the nine-
teenth century. The development of steel
construction and of elevators
made high-rise structures feasible. Buildings were shooting up
to un-
dreamed-of heights because rapid growth of cities greatly
increased land
values. Yet most architects failed to realize
that the history of significant
architecture is a continuous finding of fresh forms to satisfy
new needs
(Figs. 302A and B). They continued to burden magnificently engineered
steel frames with ornaments created for and copied fiom Greek temples,
Roman baths, and Gothic cathedrals. Louis Sullivan, a
young architect work-
ing in Chicago, saw the absurdity of frosting these
new kinds of structures
with anachronistic Classical columns and cornices or
Gothic pinnacles. He
began to search for
forms that ^vould eloquently express the use, structure,
and materials of new edifices; that would be consonant with
the time and
place in which they ^vere built; and that would nourish the spirit of con-
temporary man (Fig. 302C). (See also the Wainwright Building in Chapter
17.) It ^vas he who reminded his contemporaries that form follows func-
tion.
Sullivan did not originate this concept, for, as we
mentioned, it is as
old as the universe. Nature inevitably exemplifies it.
Early man not only
fitted his pottery to its intended task but shaped
and decorated it to delight
the eye. It underlies such achievements as Greek columns
and modern type-
Avriters. But when the Industrial Revolution disrupted the civilized world,
it was forgotten by all but a few.
The Meaning of Form Follows Function

FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION deserves careful thought. First, we would benefit
from knowing more about Sullivan's buildings and writings. In basic shape
his buildings nobly expressed their use, structure and materials, time and
place. But they did not do this in a deadening, solely practical way. They
^vere exquisitely proportioned and subtly detailed. And in appropriate
places they were richly ornamented. Why? Because they were built for peo-
ple ^vho have souls and hearts as well as minds and bodies. In his ^vriting,
Sullivan emphasizes his quest for an organic (vital, living) architecture for
that "large abundant moment which we call today." He writes of man who
with "five awake" pursues "realities-a word I love because I love
.senses all
the sense of life it stands for, the ten-fingered grasp of things it implies, the
." Even this glimpse into Sullivan's

animation and spirituality of it. . .
know that he was not talking about utility alone.

character should let us
Second, let us consider each word in the phrase.
more to intrinsic character, essential nature

than to shape or
FORM refers
external appearance.
. FOLLOWS means comes from, or even better, is iyiterde-
after, results
acceptance of author-
pendent with rather than suggesting obedience or
ity.
action or purpose
. FUNCTION means natural, appropriate, and complete
utilitarian but also esthe-
on all the levels important to man; not merely
tic functions.
interpretation because the phrase has been

more widely ac-
We stress this
cepted than understood.

must
Certainly, form follows function does not mean that all objects
our only goal.
be stripped to meager minimums or that the serviceable is
lead to dis-
Nor does itmean that systematic analysis of use will inevitably
an (although this is one basis from which to start and
is a logical
tinguished
planning, and industrial de-
beginning in such fields as architecture, city
sign). Only by meeting our needs for
beauty as well as use will an article
and inspiration, discrimi-
be truly functional, and this requires imagination
are primary concerns, al-
nation and judgment. Even when use and economy
to all others. Fairly often
most never is one design unquestionably superior
possibilities may be equally efficient but
not equally beautiful.
several
of designs of almost the same
Typically, though, there are at least a handful
merit (Fig. 304). designer-manufacturer alliance decides
Then each
total
Much, but not all, of what they
which one it thinks will have appeal.
select is mediocre. There however, tremendous variety of furniture,
is,
what he deems best.

fabrics, and the like from which each person can choose
significance in painting and

Does FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION have any
sculpture? We think that it does. Created by
and for people, art always has
bulbs demonstrate that there is seldom i£

The diverse shapes of efficient electric light
ever one "best" shape. {Drawings by Raymond £,
Prose)
Form Follows Function - 305
Piet Mondrian's "Composition," an oil

painting done in 1936, expresses the
essentials of pure, universal order
through intensely restrained forms.
{Collection, the Museum of Modern
Art, New York. Gift of the Advisory
Committee)
its purposes. Sometimes these are quite clear and tend toward the useful.
Religious art (Chapter 3) aims to communicate intensely the beliefs and the
spirit of the faith from which it develops. Community art vivifies group
ideals and achievements. O'Gorman's mural (Fig. 79A) seeks to make those
^vho see it a^vare of Mexican history, but it is a powerful expression
in excit-
ing form and color, not a prosaic description. Ewing's mural (Fig.
79B) tells
something about the TVA program, but its function is to impart the excite-
ment and grandeur and diversity, not the factual details, of the gigantic
project, and it does this by appealing to our esthetic sensibilities.
Many paintings have a less specific but equally valid intention: to arouse
a heightened sensitivity to emotions, perceptions, and intuitions. In doing
this, the artist awakens us to the realization that life is more than
ma- a
terialistic systemization of human energy. The three paintings reproduced
in Figs. 305, 307B, and 31 IB, done in 1936, 1939, and 1940, exemplify the
boundless range of experiences open to the artist and his public. Mondrian's
"Composition" satisfies a need to explore pure, subtle order free from any
specific application. Siqueiros' "The Sob" reawakens us to the potency of
grief. Davis' "Hot Still-Scape for Six Colors" fills us with the brilliant
energy, the excitement of freedom and contrasts found in jazz and many
other phases of contemporary life. In each of these works, the painter has
vivified form and color to allow us to share the potent discoveries he, as a
sentient individual, has made.
animals, such as amoebae and
diatoms display
Fven simnle sinole-celled plants and (Drawing by Raymond
when seen under the microscope.
marked diffe;en;iation of plrts
E. Brose)
most basic concepts in art. It is

oiie o£ the
FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION is
and easily.
not a formula by which art can be created or appreciated quickly
applicable rules o£ rhythm
Nor does give us laws of balance, or universally
it
attention on the excitemem o£
or emphasis. Quite the opposite, it focuses
spiritual and practical gratification. In this
freshly discovering sources of
way art makes a celebration of its function.
VARIETY IN UNITY
unity is almost inevi-
When form and function are integrated, variety in
than one function and because some
table Because every object has more
the parts are differentiated to
perform their
functions are very complex,
because inefficiency results when the parts do not work
specific roles. And
is essential.
well together, some degree of unification
object that does not show both unity
and
Can you think of any natural
Even an amoeba (Fig. 306A) displays
a microscopic unit such as
variety?
den-
enveloping protoplasm that varies in
a nucleus differentiated from an
the
sity and has discernable contractile
and food vacuoles. As we go higher in
parts
scale to orchids or humming birds,
we find a multitude of diversified
variety in unity is fundamental;
functioning together as a whole. In art also
useful but it is one source of lasting satisfaction.
not only is it
Unity Is Oneness
unavoidable when anything develops
unity or a quality of oneness, is almost
Contemporary aircraft are examples,
out of a strong, clear purpose or idea.
paintings of children. When a child
makes a painting, he
and so are the
to him most characteristic of his subject.
expresses directly whatever is
there
307A), painted by a seven-year old,
is
In "My Playmates (Twins)" (Fig.
Twins look alike, and there are two of them.

no faltering or indecision.
Variety in Unity -
307
In all integrated art, whether done by

children or professional artists, each
part contributes to the whole.
(A) Above. In "My Playmates
(Twins)" seven-year-old Margaret Ann
emphatically communicates the simi-
larity of her friends. {Courtesy of the
Department of Art, Texas State Col-
lege for Women)
(B) Right. "The Sob" (1939) by
David Alfred Siqueiros powerfully and
directly portrays human sorrow. (Col-
lection, the Museum of Modern Art,
New York)
Two Aims of Organization
"twin-
It is hard to imagine a painting that would more directly emphasize
ness" than does this painting.
Mature penetrate superficialities in their search for unifying
artists also
expectedly, in a more complex and skillful way. In

"The Sob"
essentials but,
communi-
employed each brush stroke to
(Fig. 307B), Siqueiros purposefully
fiber of the strong arms and
cate his insight into human sorro^v. Every
grief. Not so richly
clenched fists conveys the tense weariness of convulsive
complex as are the masterworks illustrated in Chapter 3, "My Playmates
o^vn way, concentrates vividly on one

(T^^'ins)" and "The Sob" each, in its
idea.
Unity in art affects us in several important ways.
step to-
helps to attract and hold our attention, which
is a first
> First, it
ward understanding.
easier to "grasp" than is one marked by
. Second, a unified work of art is
uncoordinated diversity.
memory by providing a central theme to which
. Third, oneness aids
we may cling.
work because it helps put the sales

Advertisers seek unity in their
customers
message across. Merchandisers want their displays unified so that
sculptors, and architects aim for "an
mner
will not be perplexed. Painters,
of a genuine spiritual event," but
they
consistency that is always the mark
excitement of tamed
may prefer a subtle unification of discrepancies, the
harmony. Great art often
opposites, to a barren unison or commonplace
mystery and clarity.
brings together paradoxes and tensions,
are five that are easy to
Of the many ways of achieving unity, here
understand and to use.
colors, etc. Enforced con-

I Limiting the number of objects, forms,
centration on one or a few things insures
some degree of oneness,
the basic idea. But unless skill-
for there is nothing to distract from
Figs. 305 and 336A, interest
in
may not be held
fully done, as it is
for long.
alike in shape, size, or

9 Repetition of elements. Having the parts
related to one
color tiesthem together, especially if they are strongly
as architecture (Figs. 302 and
another. Although basic in such fields
quickly lead to dullness
313B) and textile design, repetition can
in themselves-and the pattern
unless the elements are interesting
they establish is distinctive.
Variety in Unity - 309
3. Similarity or harmony of parts. If the components share some com-
mon qualities but are not identical, our interest is likely to be
aroused and held. Notice that in Fig. 31 lA the basic shapes have a
family relationship to one another but they are not uniform.
4. Surrounding the object with an enclosure. Frames around paintings

and fences that enclose gardens are examples of an elementary unify-
ing device. A frame separates a painting from its surroundings and
visually holds it together. Garden walls and hedges shut out distract-
ing views and keep our attention within bounds.
5. Heeding the principles of design. A well-composed building, such

as the Farnese Palace (Fig. 313B), may have more windows than we
care to coimt. But if they are balanced and rhythmically related,
if some units are more domiriant than others, we see the building
as an integrated entity. There are no limits to the number of colors
that a painter may use on one canvas if he organizes them well.
These devices are among the A B C's of unity. They have been used
effectively by amateurs and geniuses, contemporary and historic. But they
are devices, rules-of-thumb that used alone almost never produce anything
beyond a complacent lack of unpleasantness. Complete artistic unity is not
gained merely by limiting the number of objects or ideas in a painting, nor
does a garden become genuinely integrated by fencing it in. Deep and fruit-
ful unity comes from a powerful, significant oneness that develops out of dif-
ferences with inevitable consequence. Two identical buttons make a weak

unity quite imlike the active unitedness of a button and a button-hole. One
or a few identical circles do not give the strong singleness of effect amidst
variety that Kandinsky discloses in Fig. 310A with its many, diverse circles
brought together by their contrast with straight lines. To put it simply, vital
interaction is important in unity.
Variety Is Diversity
VARIETY', the other partner of this pair, arises from contrast or opposition
—diversity of materials, differences in forms, colors, or textures. It ranges
from just noticeable differences to open conflict. Although it is at the oppo-
site pole from unity, the two are joined in art and nature. Diversity intensi-
fies unity. It keeps us alert by inviting us to participate actively in the
search for unity among variants.
the fundamental unity

(A) Left. Wassily Kandinsky's "Circles in Circle" (1923) underlines
of all circles, no matter how varied they are in size, texture, or color, by opposing them
with straight {Courtesy Philadelphia Museum of Art)
lines.
(B) Right. A
kernel of corn holds the forces that will direct its growth into a sizable
plant. (Drawing by Raymond E. Brose)
Here is an example of variety developing out of unity in a quite com-
mon experience.
he gets a pair of the most im-
A boy decides to learn to ski. First, skis,
snow. Then
portant element in the situation aside from himself and the
pants, then a ski jacket,
he is likely to purchase ski poles and a pair of ski
and scarf. He improves his skills. He studies types of snow;

cap, mittens,
he practices a variety of turns-stem
he buys different kinds of wax;
turns, Christiania turns, jump turns. Thus a complex pattern of behavior
yet wholly
develops out of a simple interest in skiing-a complex pattern,
unified by a central idea. Art, too, can be as organically unified
and varied
as nature or our behavior patterns when it grows from a central idea.
VARIETY can be developed in a number of ways:

One way is in the unfolding and expansion of a basic idea. This
large plant with
occurs when a small, simple-appearing seed grows into a
device of "theme-
many contrasting parts (Fig. 310B). In music there is the
and-variations" in which the parts, different as they may be in tempo,
rhythm, or key, evolve from a central theme. Often some of the variations
completely different
depart so radically from the theme that they take on a
Artists, too, may take this evolutionary course of
developing vari-
character.
ety out of unity (Fig. 311 A and B).
Variety in Unity -
311
Complex art usually develops from a simple idea or theme.

(A) Upper. Stuart Davis' sketch for "Hot Still-Scape for Six Colors" shows the com-
paratively simple pattern on which the painting was developed. (Collection, the Museum
of Modern Art, New York)
(B)Lower. The final painting (1940) is a fully orchestrated development of the theme
in which one can almost hear the simultaneous juxtaposition of different groups of in-
struments. {Collection of Edith G. Halpert, Courtesy of the Downtown Galler\)
.
Two Aims of Organization
contrasting, are pitted

In other works, two or more themes, usually
against each other, interwoven, and eventually
brought into some kind of
agreement (Fig. 3 1 5 A)
at a harmonious
At times strong contrasts stand alone with no attempt
opposition providing a unifying
resolution, with only the tension of their
crystalline geometric
link. So Philip Johnson's house (Chapter 1) affirms its
line against nature's organic complexity.
and painting humorously titled "Hot Still-Scape

Stuart Davis' sketch
for Six Colors" (Figs. 311 A and B) show
one way of tackling this prob-
basic theme-the dynamic inter-
lem. The sketch states in simple terms the
of contemporary living. This
play of forces that characterizes many aspects
diagonal organization of intensely colored, overlapping
and
is expressed in a
interpenetrating planes. In the final version, this
theme has been contrasted
only un-
with spirals intertwining lines, crosses and circles that are not
and
planes they enliven.
like one another but are not repetitious of the angular
underlying framework is not
At first glance it seems almost chaotic, for the
individuality while working
obvious. Yet all of the shapes preserve their
make the painting as
toward a common goal. The abrupt changes of pace
prefers forging order out of
exciting as jazz-or Beethoven. Davis obviously
soft harmonies. In a similar
dissonances and conflicts rather than accepting
Marcel Breuer (see Frontispiece) has written, "The real
vein, architect
the extent to which unifies contrasting notions-op-
impact of any work is it
posite points of view. / mean unifies and not compromises."
Great Architecture Fuses Variety into Unity

built early in this century,
Compare the Brooklyn Courthouse (Fig. 313A),
about four hundred years ago.
with the Farnese Palace (Fig. 313B), designed
Which looks like
Which looks like one building developed from one idea?
a series of separate units piled together?
Which is richer in variety? Both
three horizontal divisions,
buildings are basically simple cubes, both have
similarities cease.
both expose a masonry surface. But at about this point the
clearly horizontal. It is noticeably longer than it is
The Farnese Palace is
of windows is accentuated by con-

high; the horizontality of the three rows
capped by a magnificent cornice.
tinuing moldings; and the structure is
higher than it is no such definiteness.
long, shows
The Courthouse, a little
no real conviction
One feels no consistent force integrating the three units,
form, and consequently one gets no
dominant single impres-
about its basic
in the esthetic sensitivities of
sion of the whole. Quite apart from differences
there is one important factor. The Far-
the architects of the two buildings,
c^^^ ^^m WJW M^B ^MBH ^^B
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Two buildings can have similar architectural
details yet show great differences in
esthetic
'''''' '- ^°"^^' ^'^'^'

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spirit of its time. But the

nese Palace is a masonry structure created in the
dis-
Courthouse is a twentieth-century steel-and-concrete structure
large,
coating of stone. This ts the approach
to
guised with a pseudo-Renaissance
architecture that Louis Sullivan fought.
Certainly the diverse window shapes
and sizes as well as the ditterent
variety but the variety seems dull
surfacing materials give the Courthouse
windows are bland
and unmotivated. Both the rounded and rectangular
neither by an inclusive rhythm
nor an
holes in the stone facade, linked
Farnese Palace encompasses more
variety
energizing juxtaposition. The
around the win^
example, at the detail
within a restricted range. Look, for
it is fundamentally
similar, yet each
dows On each of the three stories
The rectangular windows on the ground
floor
shows enlivening differences.
horizontal moldings; the windows
on the second
are topped by projecting,
pediments,
floor are rectangular, but
have alternating pointed and arched
fit nicely into
triangular pediments^
while the rounded top-floor windows
shapes are progressively integrated
Thus straioht, rounded, and pointed
analyses can be made of other
details.
into a rhythmic pattern. Similar
each successful in its individual

Now us look at two other examples,
let
comes the rococo bedroom shown in
way From eighteenth-century Venice
rectilinear framework, there
spreads a profusion
Fic^ 3 15A Over a reassuring
forms move from the formalized
of'fanciful ornament. The curvilinear
pilasters and the panels between
them, through
foliage in the capitals of the
bed, to the playfully modeled
and disposed
the freer, twisting forms of the
diversity, all of
richness, inventiveness, and
cupids. It is a room marked by
complex unity.
which has been creatively guided into a
is notable for its
simplicity
The contemporary bedroom in Fig. 315B rectangu-
rectangular, but the theme of
and repose. Almost everything is
contrasted, or inter-
larity is expressed in
variations that are reiterated,
The room becomes a frame and foil
for
locked in low-keyed harmony.
natural forms outside, much as
the rec-
the intricate multiformity of the
room emphasizes the curvilinear ornament.
tangularity in the Venetian
one could be successfully
Each rooil wonderfully consistent: no part of
is
taken away
complete, but nothing could be
Transposed to the other. Each is
of and conducive to a way
of living.
without loss. And each is expressive
are fundamental in art. A

pair of op-
In summary, unx.y and variety
to ord
supplement each other. Unity ^-ds
posites, they complement and
contrasts. They interact
with -d
^^ "
variety brings vitality through
chaos. If variety
oneness precludes monotony or
each other so that an active
is endangered. Then
the whole is lost in the parts^
ge s out of control, unity
collection of doors, windows,
and walls; and a painting
a building becomes a
Variety in Unity -
315
Variety-or unity— can be emphasized, with equally effective but quite different results.
(A) Above. From eighteenth-century Venice comes this playfully elaborate bedroom.
{Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art)
(B) Below. In twentieth-century California, a peaceful, simple room promises relaxing
repose. Richard Neutra, architect. {Photograph by Julius Shulman)
316 - Ttco Aims of Organization
looks like an assemblage of forms and ideas.

But too much consistency or
greatest art is that which
sameness is deadening. It has been said that the
well-organized object the differing
intensely unites the most variables. In a
citizens in a democracy, interact without
losing their indivi-
parts, much as
because the
duality. Unity does not imply conformity or regimentation,
maximum effectiveness. But the con-
units have to be differentiated for
flicts and contrasts mature into an unfettered totality.
follows function
few of the many worthwhile readings on form
A
and VARIETY IN UNITY are:
Autobiography of an Idea: Louis H. Sullivan (New York: Dover, 1956).
philosophy of archi-
An eloquent statement of the formulation of Sullivan's
tecture.
Form and Function: Horatio Greenough, edited by Harold A. Small (Berkeley,
Cahf.: University of California, 1958).

careful reading today.
stimulating nineteenth-century statement that bears
A
Forms and Patterns Nature: Wolfe Strache (New York: Pantheon, 1957).
in
photographs showing unusual examples of "de-
Excellent, well documented
sign" in nature.
University of Min-
The Idea of Louis Sullivan: John Szarkowski (Minneapolis:
nesota Press, 1956).
Superlative photographs of Sullivan's architecture
accompanied by pertinent
quotations.
Braziller, 1960).
Louis Sullivan: Albert Bush-Brown (New York:
achievements well illustrated with photographs,
Concise account of Sullivan's
plans, and drawings.
(New York: Whitney Publications, 1962)
The Measure of Man: Henry Dreyfuss
many human factors important in the design of
A comprehensive study of
serviceable, satisfying industrial products.
Contemporary American Architecture: Lewis Mumford

(New York:
The Roots of
Grove Press, 1959).
A collection of essays on the background of present trends.
The Shape of Content: Ben Shahn (New York: Vintage, 1960).
An outstanding statement on the creative process which emphasizes

the rela-
tion of form to purpose.
The Tastemakers: Russell Lynes (New York: Harper & Row, 1954).
in this country.
A penetrating study of how tastes have been formed
Form and line modulate space in Paul
Rudolph's design for Yale University's
new School of Art and Architecture
(1961). {Courtesy of the architect)
12 -The Plastic Elenaents:

Form, Line, and Space
POETS AND NOVELISTS use words to make known their verbal ideas.
Musicians use varied sounds to convey their musical ideas. And artists,
whether painters, sculptors, architects, designers, or craftsmen use the plastic
elements— FORM, line, space, texture, and color— when they express their
plastic or graphic ideas. Plastic means formed or molded and implies, but
is not limitedto, three-dimensional art objects. Graphic refers to
drawing,
painting, writing, and printing, which actually have only two dimensions
but typically give some feeling of the third dimension.
Anything that we see can be analyzed in terms of the plastic elements.
A human arm, for example, is generally cylindrical in form, variable in
317
318 A\
\/
w //,
w
w // \\
\\ // w
^
Optical illusions demonstrate tl>e significance
\\ // \\
of relationships. (A) LeftThe two central
m
Middle. The two segments of the line are equal
circles are exactly the same size. (B)
length. (C) Right. The vertical lines are parallel.
be interpreted as
color, and more or less smooth in texture. Its edges can
exists in space. Artists pay attention to each of these

/Jne5 (Fig. 328) and it
interrelated components of what

elements, not as separate entities, but as
they see, touch, and know.
than words, the plastic
Although only five in number and less specific
meanings and feelings, often with
elements can convey an infinite variety of
When illiteracy was
more immediacy than verbal statements (Fig. 330).
painting, prints, and sculpture were major
means of communica-
common,
but their significance has changed. The
spread
tion. And they still are,
of photography decreased the need for
of literacy and the development
descriptive or story-telling and has
pictures and statues that are merely
potentialities of their media. Like
encouraged artists to explore the unique
induce experiences that cannot be
music, the plastic and graphic arts can
completely translated into words (see Fig. 322).
Relationships Are Important

surroundings, and these
The plastic elements are seen in relation to their
relationships determine the total effect. If
the Pyramid of Khufu were trans-
Egyptian desert to a Rocky Mountain
ported from the expansive sands of the
pyramidal. But in comparison with the
valley it would still be large and
smaller and less impressive. Or
towering peaks, the Pyramid would seem
think of the community of Williamsburg set
down on a New Mexican
try to
welcomes these buildings, while the bril-
desert The soft light of Virginia
would make the colors seem weak and the
liant New Mexican sunlight
ornament too delicate.

319
^"^W-
The inner structure of a fish, which determines its

external shape, is revealed by X-ray
photography. {Courtesy of the American Museum
of Natural History)
Figure 318 demonstrates that identical shapes may not always appear
the same size in different contexts and that parallel lines do not always
look parallel. We have all observed how conditions affect and the appearance
our estimation of a person or thing. Thus the successful
businessman seems
VTry important in his well-furnished office with his
organization at his finger
tips. When seen in swimming trunks
on the beach, he may seem less signifi-
cant than a college athlete. Movie heroines without
benefit of make-up,
lights, and set may or may not retain their glamour. Everything is modified
by its context, and this is true of each form, line, space, color, and texture
that we see. Aware of this relativity, artists make the necessary adjustments.
FORM*
To understand what form is and what we can look at it isolated
it can do,
from the other plastic elements (even though in actuality it is always bound
up with them). If we use the word form to describe
the inner structure as
well as the visible shape of objects, it is their most
distinctive and unchang-
ing quality. Form is more fundamental than
outline and external surfaces.
It refers to the unseen but basic skeleton
and muscles of a body (Fig. 319)
more than to the covering skin, to the structure of a tree's
trunk and
branches more than to the protective bark.
* A word of warning is in order here. Form has two meanings. In the larger sense in
which u IS u.sed in form follows FUNcr.oN, it refers to total organiza<ion. In the smaller
sense
as used here m connection with the plastic elements, form means
simply mass, shape, or struc-
320 -
The Plastic Elements: Form, Line, and Space
"^
exemplified by a small Chinese ceramic tomb

figure (934
Mastery of significant form is
igh
inches high, k inches long) from the Wei Dynasty (a.d. 386-557). {Courtesy of the Metro-
Form -
321
Form in Sculpture
The sculptor's creativity shaped the Chinese camel (Fig. 320) from clay
that at first was an unformed mass with as little plastic meaning as bread
dough. The subject matter is a camel, but the result is not a literal copy.
The sculptor studied camels not only with his eyes but with his
mind and
feelings. External appearances ^vere less consequential to him than the forces
and structure underneath. Notice that he did not attempt to imitate surface
textures,but his sculpture conveys a vivid sense of the hidden muscles and
frameu'ork. He emphasized those qualities that differentiate camels
from
other animals-the small head and large neck, the peculiar differences
be-
tween the front and hind legs, and the humped back (even though a saddle
pack covers it, one knows full well that it is there). Yet he also strengthened
the head, neck, body, and legs by stressing their similarity to such basic forms
as cylinders, cones, and spheres. This is an example of one of the many
paradoxes found in art. The sculptor particularized his forms to empha-
size the "camelness" of his subject, and at the same time he generalized
his forms to relate them to many other natural shapes. By such
means he
imbued the sculpture with individuality and a timeless universal quality.
Some of the many other -ivays of achieving sculptural form can be
seen in
the sculpture illustrated in Chapters 2, 3, 5, 12, 13, 14, and
16.
Form in Painting
Pamters, too, deal much of what was said about sculpture

\\'ith form, and
pertains to painting. Let us take an example of an artist painting a
picture
of a young man. The subject wears a coat and his arms are bent.
Folds appear
in the sleeves, and each time he moves the folds take a different pattern.
Even if the sitter is motionless, the folds look different under different light-
ing. \Vith natural illumination the sleeves do not look the same at noon as
in late afternoon. On a cloudy morning the details are less sharp than when
it is sunny. We know that the structure of the arms remains the same, but
what we see changes and this may lead to varied emotioyml responses.
If the painter wants to emphasize essential forms, he concentrates on their
basic shape established by bones and muscles. To some artists this is most
important. But the essence of physical structure is not necessarily the most
significant aspect of
our world; certainly, it is not the whole truth. We see
our world onl) through the changing light and color that objects reflect or
transmit; this, too, is a reality. And, whether we are conscious of it or not,
everything is in motion. Some painters and sculptors (Figs. 380, 388, and
426) regard light, movement, and change of all kinds as deeply revealing
aspects of existence.
322 -
(Collection of Dr. Edgar F. Berman)

spirit.
nonspecific
these objective facts is the universe of the spirit, of
Beyond
trans-
They may or may not be most vividly
subjective feelings and insights.
objects permanently stationed in static space.
mitted through recognizable
Many contemporary artists in all fields, responding to
îllem de
^^^^^^^
ing environment, have evolved
new approaches. In Fig. 322
discover
bare a tense struggle to
Koonings disquieting brush strokes lay
Form -
323
meaningful order in a world marked by conflict and tension. Additional ex-
amples of diverse treatment of form can be seen on pages 324, 325, and 339.
Form in Architecture and Industrial Design

\'aried handling of forms in architecture and industrial design can also
evoke a wide range of responses, as can be seen by looking at the buildings
on pages 332 and 333 and the four chairs in Chapter 4. Unlike form in paint-
ing and sculpture, it usually satisfies a specific utilitarian need, and
the
inside is at least as important as the outside. We get inside buildings and
automobiles, and we put our hands in refrigerators and chests of drawers.
But because these matters have been discussed in the preceding chapters and
are dealt with in Chapter 17, we simply remind you at this point that
to
architects, industrial designers, and craftsmen, form is a primary concern.
Families of Forms
In art and in nature, there are "families" of forms. In looking at the illustra-
tions on pages 324 and 325, you can see that each family has its own generic
character. In other illustrations in this book, however, you can see that each
type can be infinitely varied.
Rectangular forms usually seem clear and definite, perhaps rigid and
unyielding, or sometimes assured and certain (Figs. 324A and 332) because
a right angle is always ninety degrees. Stressing the abrupt contrasts of
forms going up and down, crosswise, and lengthwise, as in Fig. 317, gen-
erates a sense of considerable activity.
Triangular forms, when low and broad as in the Egyptian pyramids,

suggest stability and permanence. But tall, slender pyramids lead eyes and
spirit rapidly upward in an aspiring way, as in the Washington Monument
or the steeple of the Bruton Parish Church (Chapter

3). If a pyramid stands
on its becomes unstable, suggesting top-heaviness, uncertainty, or
apex, it
imminent change. These variations of position only introduce the pos-

inherent in one basic form. Triangles can be large or small; rough
sibilities
or smooth; and any color. They can be as solid as the Egyptian pyramids or
as open as radio towers. And they can be made of paper, wood, stone, con-
crete, metal, or glass. No matter how they are treated, triangular forms re-
tain their distinctive characteristic of progressing toward one or more points.
Geometric, curved forms affect us differently from those that are angu-
lar. bounded by one continuing surface on which all points are
Spheres,
equidistant from the center, have no top, sides, or bottom. They seem self-
324 - The Plastic Elements: Form, Line, and Space'
of expressive meanings.
Anaular forms have an extensive repertory . . ^
to k»
be
lithograpfi called "Sanctuary" (1942) seems at first
?MAbovT]osei Albers-
(Courtesy of The Contem-
move wh^le we are looking at it.
rigMly statrC'tilrseems to
^"'(S'bcIow Lyonel Feininger's woodcut,

"The Gate" (1920). demonstrates the almost
with triangular and diagonal forms. iCollectwn,
exptosxveenergy' that can be'expressed
the Museum of Modern Art, New York)
Form - 325
Curvilinear forms come in almost infinite variety.

(A) Above. Josef Albers' woodcut titled "Aquarium"
(1954) expresses in semigeometric
curves the rhythms of swimming fish. {Courtesy Philadelphia Museum
of Art)
(B) Belou: Jean (Hans) Arp's "Automatic Drawing"
(1916) is composed of biomorphic
or free-form curves. {Collection, the Museum of Modern Art, New York)
326 - The Plastic Elements: Form, Line, and Space
they are also un-
contained, with all forces in stxstained equilibrium. Yet
in any direction. In durability
and perma-
stable for they can roll easily
or
even the pyramid: there are no corners
nence' however, spheres exceed
group-cylm-
ancles' to break off or wear
away. The other members of this
have one
ellipses-seem more active because they
ders, cones, parabolas, and
dominant directional force (Fig. 325A).
Free-form, or biomorphic, curves

abound in nature-pears and squash,
and hearts are but a few examples.
Thus
eacs and amoebas, our eyes, ears,
related to and growth. They have been copied
life
these forms seem directly
completely
or modified in painting
and sculpture; and they have been
nature with-
are reminded of the essence of
abstracted (Fig. 325B) so that we
object. Contemporary architects
and
particular
out specific relation to any
organic
appreciation of the ways in which these
designers have come to a new
336A and B).
forms can vitalize their work
(Figs.
Form and Ornament

form, and the two complement and
supple-
Ornament, at best, is a partner of
patterns and textures that are
inherent in the
ment each other. It includes
are
materials, such as the gxain of
wood, or that develop as the materials
of yarns. It can also be applied.
As mentioned
processed, as in the weaving
can satisfy a
fn preceding chapters,
ornament is not always necessary, but it
than unadorned
dee'p, persisting urge
toward a greater range of -P-ssion
the ceramics shown in Fig. 327.
On each
form permits. This is illustrated in
leaves intensifies the
of the Chinese vases,
the pattern of flowers and
vase at the
spheroidal, swelling, rising
shape-but not in the same way^The
are le
left shows a much larger
amount of white, the flowers and foliage
and to the vase, the dominant
movement i
formally related to each other
definitely framed by the dark
bands a
upward and the ornament is more other
There are less decisive contrasts in the
the base and near the neck. top
areas at the
almost merge with the darker
vase. Flowers and foliage
the eyes around the vase
rather than ^^m
and bottom, the movement leads over-all, formal
gives a more pronounced
bottom to top, and the ornament
is always your pre-
better than the other-that
character. You may like one
to prove that one is
superior.
ro-ative-but it would be difficult
° ornament.
factors to consider in looking
at
These are some
size of the basic form of which
. Size. Ornament should correspond to the
vases, this does not preclude
the Chinese
it is a part. As we have seen in
textile
variations. But there are For example, a boldly patterned
limits.
a dress.
large room might not do for
suitable for draperies in a
Form -
327
Two Chinese vases from the Sung Dynasty (a.d. 960-1280) with sgraffito ornamentation
demonstrate that although enrichment should be appropriately related to form, it can
be handled in more than one way. Which looks larger? Which do you prefer?
Why?
(Courtesy of The City Art Museum, St. Louis)
Shape. Although ornament should be related to the basic shape, this does
not mean slavish reiteration. Shapes can be enhanced through contrasts
as well as repetition.
Material. The nature of materials and processes should affect any enrich-
ment. Wood and metal, for example, are better suited to outstretched
shapes than are clay and glass.
Quality. Finally, ornament in itself ought to be significant and expres-

sive—lively, peaceful, or whatever the function, form, and material indi-
cate. Sterile, unimaginative patterns that merely clutter surfaces have
little to recommend them.
Check these generalizations with a few of the examples of ornamented
form you have already seen, such as that shown in the Brush-Everard House
(Chapter 1), the fifteenth-century Finnish church (Chapter 3), the Baroque
sealers (Chapter 4), the

and Victorian musical instruments and the package
ornamented metal, clay,
Morris Store (Chapter 5), and the examples
of
glass, and textiles in Chapters 6, 7,

and 8.
as well as func-
Form and ornament express ways of living and thinking
tions and materials. The buildings
and furniture of Williamsburg tell us
much about thepeople who designed, built, and used them. Contemporary
expressions tell us just as much-if we really see them. What about the forms
Are they strong and
and ornament on the furnishings in your own
home?
Neither intrinsically better-but one
sturdy, or delicate and graceful?
is
not
may be more appropriate for you. Let us hope, though, that they are
clumsy and awkward. How do you feel about letting your home speak for
expressed in what we sayand do, the objects
you? Much of our character is
or buy, and the furniture, dishes, pictures,

and houses with which
we make
we live.
A drawing by Pablo Picasso

in which solid forms and
empty space are convincingly
represented through line
alone.
Line - 329
In this brush-and-ink drawing Diego

Rivera has used heavy lines to depict
a Mexican peasant and child (1936).
Contrast the hne quality with that in
Picasso's drawing; in both, line has
been used to express as well as to
represent the subject. (Courtesy of
The San Francisco Museum of Art)
yis^vi<{
LINE
Look at the drawing of three youths by Pablo Picasso (Fig. 328). There is
no shading or modeling, yet without these devices Picasso has convincingly

defined human forms. Observe the three-dimensional quality of the figures
and how the differences between hair and textiles have been indicated.
Form, space, and texture have been represented by line alone, but much
more remarkable is the feeling of tender sensitivity expressed with a few
lines.
Contrast Picasso's drawing with the one of the Mexican mother and
child by Diego Rivera (Fig. 329). Notice in particular the hands and faces
in the two drawings. Do you get different reactions from them? Why? One
is delicate and reposed, the other is strong, plodding and somber. Forget
the subject matter: turn the pictures upside down. The difference still exists
because it lies in the quality of the lines used by the two artists. Try this
with the drawing and prints by Albers, Arp, and Feininger on pages 324
and 325.
ACTION BONDAGE HUMOR
Abstractions representing Action, Bondage, and Humor show the expressive possibilities
of line and form.
can express ideas

For proof that lines and shapes, even when abstract,
labeled and you
and feelings, look at Fig. 330. If these drawings were not
were asked to guess their meaning, you would probably
come close to the
words in the caption. Try with your friends by telling them the three
this
titles and asking them to match

the titles and drawings. Or make some
drawings of your own to express whatever you wish.

expressive power
The list of adjectives that could be used to indicate the
as form, space, color, and texture) is
extensive. Here are a
of line (as well
obtuse; straight, curved, or
few: long or short; thick or thin; pointed or
zigzag; vertical, horizontal, or diagonal;
ascending or descending; advancing
or slow; staccato or legato;
or receding; expanding or contracting; fast
only pairs or sets of
vigorous or serene; majestic or playful. These are
extremes between which there are infinite gradations. And these qualities
A line may be long, thick, straight, and vertical;
never occur in isolation.
and vertical. The two will not give the
or it may be short, thick, straight,
same effect. A computer would be required to work out the potential permu-
tations.
Why is it, however, that an artist with a few simple lines on a flat piece
and stones organized in space as architecture, can

of paper, or with sticks
human experience? Perhaps we will never
project to us certain essentials of
a thought: When we are tired and lie down
know the answer, but here is
invariably the things that mean

to sleep, we assume a horizontal position;
repose to us are horizontal objects, such as large,
calm bodies of water or
are up and about, we move
low, gently rolling hills and meadows. When we
lines are seen in pictures with
in vertical positions, and when vertical
horizontal lines, the vertical ones look more
awake and strong. When we
diagonal position, head
run or are otherwise active, our bodies assume a
elbows and knees forming
thrust forward, balance somewhat precarious,
It seems, then, that the
angles like those in the sketch called "Action."
in human experience.
expressiveness of the plastic elements has its basis
space - 331
Certainly, we know that an artist may make a building, a statue, a painting,

or a piece of furniture look restful, or imposing, or excited and moving.
Line, however, is not always used to express human experience in this
manner. Often it is used merely to represent objects— the line drawing of a
building prepared by an architect, or the drawings of a bridge made by an
engineer; the lines dra^vn on maps to represent rivers, roads, or contours; or
the lines drawn on paper to represent words. Such use of line is primarily
utilitarian, a convenient way of commimicating our ideas to other people.
Whichever the emphasis— expression of human emotion or representation

of factual materials— line is an important plastic element at the disposal of
the artist. Architect Henry Van de \'elde wrote that, "A line is a force;
it derives its force from the man who drew it."
SPACE
When Mozart was asked what he thought was the most beautiful music, he
replied: "No music." He meant, of course, the moments of pause and rest,
of total silence, that occur in music. In some of Mozart's own scores there are
moments of "no music" a himdredfold more eloquent than the music that
surrounds them. We are also familiar with the dramatic pauses used by
actors and by speakers to emphasize a mood or a point. Often no words have
far more effect than a thousand could. We think of the saying: Silence is
golden.
Space is the corresponding element in the plastic and graphic arts. Cen-
turies ago a Chinese sage said that the reality of architecture resides in its
space rather than in its mass. Certainly, it is the space that we use, and for
spiritual and utilitarian reasons contemporary architects are focusing their

attention on spatial organization. Walls, floors, and ceilings are, of course,
necessary, but today they derive their most significant meaning from the
space they make usable and satisfying.
Space Is the Vital Element in Architecture
In the living room designed by Mies van der Rohe and the outdoor living
area by Shweikher and Elting (Figs. 332 and 333), notice the positive
character of the space. Both are basically rectangular, but there similarity
stops. The room by Mies, defined rather than enclosed by a minimum num-
ber of smooth-textured planes, is precise and serene. The outdoor area is a
rugged complex of many rough-textured forms. Since prehistoric times man

has sought space sufficiently enclosed to protect him, and yet open and
flexible enough for his body and soul. Natural caves were a ready-made solu-
man, but he soon began to construct simple huts. In the

tion for early
columns provided security but
massive Egyptian structures, thick walls and
Gothic builders erected
minimized openness. Later the Greek, Roman, and
space. Recently these trends have
buildings with greater, and more flexible,
materials, new ways of construction, and an
urgent
been accelerated by new
desire for spaciousness.
a superb ex-
Tugendhat House (1930), Brno, Czechoslovakia
is
The living room in the
forms. It ex-
precision possible with rectangular
arnple of the simplicity, clarity, and
of "less is more. u. that nothing
empifies archit ct\liJ van dL Robe's
philosophy
indoor-outdoor flow of space. (Courtesy of M.es
unnecessary distracts from the serene
van der Rohe)
space -
333
Designed by architects Schweikher and Elting for a rugged desert setting, the Upton
House (1949) in Paradise Valley, Arizona, is boldly rectangular. (Photograph by Julius
Shulman)
Space Can Be Expressed in Two Dimensions
in the graphic arts three-dimensional

In architecture, space is tangible, but
two-dimensional surface. In Fig. 328,
form and space are expressed on a
devices-overlapping planes,
Picasso handled this problem with simple
position on the vertical plane, and converging lines. We know that the
overlap, and
middle fi-ure behind the others because their bodies
is
his head and body higher on the

thereby partially obscure, him. Placing
vertical plane also pushes
The converging lines of the stool and
him back.
make room for the figures. Picasso in-
lightly indicated walls and floor
feet too low in the picture to
make
tentionally misplaced the central figure's
is standing on the floor
and leaning
them visible, to reaffirm that the figure
forms really seem
to the left But it is Picasso's
uncanny skill that makes the
could reach into it.
rounded and the space so tangible that we feel we
329) considerably flatter, not because Rivera
Rivera's drawing (Fig. is
but because his subject suggested a more compact spatial or-

lacked skill
Even so, some parts stand in front of others. The shawl overlaps
ganization.
to carry around to
the woman's left shoulder, envelops the boy, and seems
the woman's right hand.
324 and 325 you will see some

modern ap-
Looking back to pages
any attempt to fool you into be-
proaches to spatial organization. All forego
lieving that there is where you know that there is none, yet
actually space
composed of thick horizontal and thin-
they do not seem flat. "Sanctuary" is
as though a series of planes as flat as play-

ner vertical lines that make it seem
another. Close inspection, however, re-
ina cards are stacked on top of one
Four
are continuing, mazelike meanders.
veals that nearly all of the lines
points, but whether they advance
or
black rectangles provide temporary focal
A similar, intentionally ambiguous spatial pattern is
recede is up to you.
interweaving paths of motion go from side
to
seen in "Aquarium." Ceaseless,
of the
side, up and down, over and
under, but the exact spatial location
the movements of fish with no
place to go.
forms is as elusive as
away from literal
The hundred years have brought a notable shift
past
of form in drawings, paintings,
and
perspective and sculptural modeling
two-dimensionality of the paper or canvas
prints toward a respect for the
hard-hewn forms belligerently
on which the artist works. In "The Gate."
to extend. Although the compo-
push each other in quest of space in which
of foreground, middle
sition is organized on the conventional pattern
of "Wheatfields
ground, and background, it has none of the expansiveness
simply as a light-and-
(Fig "Automatic Drawing" can be looked at
338).
undulating in paper-thin space are not
dark pattern, but its animated shapes
seen in a drop of swamp water
viewed through a microscope.
unlike those
space - 335
Contemporary Concepts of Space
^\'hat are some of the more important contemporary concepts of space?

First, greatly increased emphasis is placed on its continuing character.
Architecture tends to join with the space around it (Fig. 333); cities ex-
tend into the countryside with no moats or walls to mark their limits. Less
emphasis is put on enclosure and boundaries, more on extension and inter-
penetration.
Second, space is regarded as being integral with and as important as
form, line, color, and texture. In fact, it often transcends the forms and
materials that define it, as in Fig. 332.
Third, the multidimensionality of space has been recognized and ex-

ploited. Although strictly speaking there are still only three spatial dimen-
sions, we are conscious not only of verticals and horizontals but of an infi-
nite variety of diagonal and curvilinear relationships as expressed in such
examples as the lobby of the United Nations Assembly building (Fig. 336B),
the highly sculptural wood and shown in Fig. 3 36 A designed by

glass table
the sculptor Noguchi, and Charles Fames' boldly molded plywood chair (Fig.
183), all of which vigorously shape their enveloping space into new dimen-
sions.
Fourth, mobility and fluidity, two potentials of space, have been the
subject of experimentation. Alexander Calder (Figs. 380A and B) has
incorporated actual movement into abstract design through the use of free-
swinging shapes. Touched by the hand or a gentle breeze, his discs suspended
from wires cut through the surrounding areas to describe fascinating
rhythmic patterns. Highway engineers have designed complex traffic inter-
and print makers have expressed

sections for fast-moving traffic (Fig. 337),
the dynamic, often turbulent, experiences of contemporary life with lines
and forms weaving through space (Fig. 297B).
These concepts were not invented in our century. The builders of
Gothic cathedrals, the painters and sculptors of the Renaissance, and the
artists of the Orient were well aware of effective spatial organization. But
modern artists have added their unique contributions to organizing space
for maximum effectiveness in an age when it has become one of our
primary concerns.
This discussion is brief because the useful and expressive organization of

space has already been dealt with extensively in Part I and will be con-
sidered again in Part IV. Space, far from being merely "what is left," stands
with form as one of the two major plastic elements. Our understanding of
its complexity, diversity, and significance has greatly expanded ^vith scien-
336
:!
'
'I
space - 337
Vigorous, simple, free-curves carve space in a way similar

f f IT'' , :,^'
to clouds, waves, boomerangs, airplane wings,
and pro-
peller blades.
(A) Opposite, above. Isamu Noguchi brought his
sculptural talents to bear in designing this coffee table
(1947) which might be called "useful sculpture." (Her-
man Miller Furniture Company) (B) Opposite, below.
The free-form balconies in the lobby of the United
Nations Headquarters Assembly Building appear to
float in space.Wallace K. Harrison and Associates, 1950.
{Courtesy of United Nations)
Another kind of curvilinear form and line makes one

think of the interlacing fibers in textiles, vines,
veins,
and nerves and in the structure of some woods.
(A) Above. Our highway systems are woven
into
more complex patterns every (Courtesy of New
year.
York City Construction Coordinator) (B) Right.
In a
microphotograph of wood from the Australian tree,
Banksia serrata, one can almost see the rhythmic
flow
of vital forces-or automobiles traveling on
highwaysl
tific advances. With telescopes and other space-probing devices we explore

the interstellar vastness, and with electronic instruments we delve into the
this age, artists, too, avidly explore
forms and voids of tiny bits of matter. In
and experiment with many new spatial
concepts.
FORM, LINE, AND SPACE IN TWO PAINTINGS

In conclusion, we will look at how and
why form, line, and space were em-
ployed in two landscape paintings.
In "Wheatfields" (Fig. 338), painted
around 1670, Ruisdael shows his
first glance the painting may
look
mastery of expressive form and space. At
easily recognized fields, trees, and
almost photographically realistic. The
three-dimensional forms existmg at definite
clouds oive the illusion of being
as they do the system of
points L an expansive atmospheric space, following
century. But then we may begin to
perspective developed in the fifteenth
vitality. It is not an isolated
chunk
notice that each form has its own inner
Form, Line, and Spare in Tiuo Paintings -
339
Opposite. "Wheatfields," painted by

Jacob van Ruisdael around 1670, is a
Dutch landscape of seemingly infinite
spaciousness. {Courtesy of the Metro-
politan Museum of Art, Bequest of
Benjamin Altman, 1913)
Right. "Landscape at Ceret," painted

by Juan Gris in 1913, shows the cub-
ist's interest in simultaneity, interpene-
trating planes, and angular forms.
of inert matter but a lively part of great natural forces. In this painting line
is of little consequence, but space is tremendously important. We see the
landscape from one fixed viewpoint and progress from the
foreground along
the road and on through the grove of trees. In this
movement into space!
sweeping, horizontal curves propel us into, across, and beyond
the fields up
into the limitless sky. Not content merely to reproduce
a pleasant scene,
Ruisdael reawakens us to the power and grandeur that lies
beneath the
surfaces of what we see. Compare this painting with Ben Shahn's "Wheat-
field" (Fig. 297A).
One year before the beginning of

World War I Juan Gris painted
"Landscape Ceret" (Fig. 339) while in the Pyrenees Mountains. His
at
outlook, and that of many other persons in 1913, had little in
common
with the unbounded assurance that Ruisdael enjoyed. Bearing slight
relation
to a natural scene, the form, line, and space present a new way of seeing,
thinking, and feeling. In searching for forms that reveal the dynamism of
the modern world, Gris analyzed what he saw into many flat, angular planes.
Many everyday objects, such as a brass

boat propeller, designed before 1934,
show unexpectedly sensitive form-space
relationships. {Collection, the Museum
of Modern Art, New York)
which are accentuated by a few curved and shaded forms. Instead of por-
space, he
traying objects as self-contained entities each in its own allotted
shows'facets of many things or multiple views of the same thing presented
simultaneously. Vigorous diagonals, interpenetrating planes, and sudden

contrasts of light against dark lead our eyes abruptly from one place to
single, static viewpoint has given way to
multiple, changing
another. A
We are free to "enter" the canvas at any point and to move
vie^^'points.
flat, crowded,
around in it as weplease. With study, the first impression of a
Some forms are clearly in front of others, and the
cut-up canvas changes.
considerable penetration
diagonal areas diminishing toward the top suggest
that this is an actual scene,
into space. Gris did not want to make us think
see our sur-
and yetcorresponds surprisingly closely to the way we actually
it
one thing to an-
roundings when moving rapidly or looking quickly from
other.
notice how appropriate the generous
In "Wheatfields" (Fig. 338)
curves are to the painting's horizontal format, and

how the rugged, angular
composition. Three small,
branches and tree trunks intensify the majestic
which, in
unemphatic people increase the apparent size of the landscape
dwarfed by the boundless sky. In the vertical format of "Landscape
turn, is
upward moving diagonals carry our eyes rapidly in many

di-
at Ceret," the
its actual dimensions. Clear,
rections and seem to push the painting beyond
make it seem as though there
consistent juxtapositions of dark and light
And these decisive color contrasts
are lines where there are actually none.
Form, Line, and Space in Two Paintings -
341
produce a kaleidoscopic vibrancy. Oversize roof tiles shrink buildings
and trees, diagonals assume added importance because of a few
horizon-
tals and verticals. The list could be continued, but these
few specific ex-
amples point up the great consequences of relationships.
What you have

learned in reading this chapter can be put to work by
scrutinizing the form, line, and space you see in the next week or so.
How
many you find? Where in your surroundings do you
optical illusions can
see apredominance of angular or curved forms? What types of objects are
most richly ornamented? In looking through magazines how many examples
of a genuinely expressive line can you see? In what buildings in your com-
munity do you find the most satisfying spatial organization? Which are least
efficient and visually interesting? Ask yourself such questions
as: Why was
it done the way it was? How could it have been improved?
These books are worth reading:
Architecture As Space: Bruno Zevi (New York: Horizon Press, 1957).

A contemporary Italian critic discusses the significance of space in architec-
ture.
Art and Visual Perception: Rudolf Arnheim (Berkeley, Calif.: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1954).
An enlightened discussion of "the psycliology of the creative eye" in terms of
Gestalt psychology.
The Book of Signs: Rudolf Koch (New York: Dover, 1961).

Fascinating, beautifully printed account of the development of abstract
symbols from early days to the middle ages.
Conversations with Artists: Seldon Rodman (New York: Capricorn,

1961).
An inside report on discussions with thirty-five American painters, sculptors,
and architects.
The Creative Process: Brester Ghiselin, editor (New York: Mentor, 1959).
Statements by contemporary and historic and
artists, scientists, writers on
how they work.
Handbook of Designs and Devices: Clarence P. Hornung (New York- Dover '
1946).
A collection of 1836 designs classified according to their
basic geometric
shape.
Modern Art: Charles McCurdy, editor (New York: Macmillan,

1958).
Comprehensive survey of painting, sculpture, architecture, and design.
Nature in Abstraction: John I. H. Baur (New York: Macmillan,
1958).
Beautifully illustrated study of the way in which varied painters and sculp-
tors transform nature in their creative work.
342 -
(Chicago: Theobald, 1956).

The New Landscape: Gyorgy Kepes relation
fabulous collections of essays and illustrations pointing out the
A
ships between contemporary
art and science.
(New York: Praeger, 1960).

Picasso- Frank Elgar and Robert Maillard
who has revolutionized our concepts of form
One of many books on an artist
and space.
ArchileMe: Sigfried Giedion (Cambridge, Mas,.: Harvard

space, T,me. and
""" and .echnoiogica.
AtuHaT:; 'ud?oi archUectural space as U rela.e. ,o social
change.
Two contemporary ceramic vases made
by Gertrud and Otto Natzler show how
textures can alter the look and feel of
similar forms. {Courtesy of the Ameri-
can Craftsmen's Council)
13 - The Plastic Elements:

Texture and Color
IN THE DISCUSSION of form, line, and space you probably noticed that
two other elements tried to assert themselves. You will feel one of these if
you close your eyes and run your fingers over this page or the clothes you are
wearing. Do the same with sandpaper, fur, and glass. Your fingers will report
differences— roughness, softness, sleekness. This is texture. Open your eyes
and you will see the other element, color, which is a visual phenomenon
dependent on the radiant energy of light
343
The Plastic Elements: Texture and Color
TEXTURE
as the struc
texture, which can be defined
Every substance has an internal
tural.uaUty resulnn, ^ro.n tke
Men^.n, or ^nteâtion of tke cornpojênt^
texture tnay be the organtcal y -^^
"^ "^^^
of the material. This ^^ or th
of metallic crystals (Fig. 348),
âin of wood, the geometric balance materia
into a tweed textile. Each
Secular integration of wool yarns by th
texture, the surface ,uaHty
eterm.ned
also\as an external tactile
the material . treated.
Glass can be lef
inner texture or tke u.y in .Inch
patterns, or etched to a slight
smooth impressed with three-dimensional
satin
yarns in a vigorous, plain weave;
Iln ss. Burlap has coarse hemp
sleek surface^
such a way as to give a smooth,
h°sline silken yarns woven in
as they are in printed
Finally, visr simulated textures can be applied,
Jor
cloth or wallpaper.
be divided into two types:
For our purposes, textures can
of struc-
three-dimensional surface manifestation
Tactile texture, the
It is the way things
related to the sense of totich.
ture or finish, IS directly
to soft, smooth to rough.
feel when . run our hands over them-hard
get ft:om sitting
rJao^îe the pleasure that a
small child, or anyone, would
three-dimen-
and exploring by hand us
on George Wells' rug (Fig. 345A)
sional patterns.
can be seen but not felt. But long

Visual texture is two-dimensional. It
we resp^rd to
has so conditioned us that
familiarity with touch sensations
we do to the real
texture almost as much as
the look or appearance, of color dffer
they imply texture throug.
n Anists depend on this when
would. \Vhen Matt
responses that tactile textures
ences to evoke the sensory
fabric (Fig.
;::: ..shed to design a lively, informal ^^^f^^^f^
by the angles
essentially flat surface with
a printed pattern inspired
crushed rocks.
correspond to or
In any Avork of art tactile
and visual textures may
vases (Fig. 545), t e .re
on
dilfe fll each other. Of the two Natzler on the le ha
the right looks and feels
rough and corroded, but the one
that comes from various
ts bland surface
enlivened with a visual texture
pattern rem-
produces a flowing, light-and-shadow
olors in the glaze. This e pro
Great textural interest can a
so
n ceVrof structural unlulations.
structure, and this may
result in
vided by disclosing inner
visual sensations. Polishing
and
wood reveals ^^^^^ its organic
ture of tactile
surface is smooth to touch.
pattern, which may look rugged, but the
Texture - 345
Textures can be actually three-

dimensional or simulated in two
dimensions with color.
(A) Above. A detail from
George Wells' handmade wool
rug (1952), called "Pastorale,"
demonstrates some of the three-
dimensional possibilities of tex-
tiles. Executed in blues and
greens, it reminds one of land-
scape forms seen from the air.
(^Courtesy of the artist)
(B) Right. "Crushed Rock"
(1950) by Matt Kahn, screen-
printed on cotton, has a lively
but undemanding textural pat-
tern. The diversified, nondirec-
tional shapes are not repeated
for about thirty inches. Notice
how the effect changes when the
size is reduced, as it is when one
sees the pattern at a distance.
(Courtesy of Konweiser, Inc.)
The Plastic Elements: Texture and Color
Effects of Texture
When we think of texture, we invariably use a touch-sensation adjective to
describe it. Textures from one another in many ways, two of which
differ
are the range from smooth to rough, and from soft to hard. The
adjectives
we use tell us much about what texture does for an object, and how it makes
us feel.
Smooth textures are usually unobtrusive and undemanding; they
underscore form, color, and spatial relationships

seem cool, tranquil, and precise, sometimes unfriendly if hard
are typically pleasant lo touch

reflect light evenly if soft and mat-finished, have brilliant highlights if
hard and polished

shed dirt and are easily cleaned, but also show dirt.
Rough textures attract attention; they
activate surfaces and may overshadow form and color

tend to look warm and informal
feel pleasantly irregular to painfully harsh
break up light and therefore have shadows
catch dirt and may be hard to clean, but also do not flaunt dirt or minor
damage.
But we must take into account two other adjectives when thinking
about texture and its effects:
Soft surfaces tempt us to touch them for they seem friendly and appeal-
ing (until they become so soft that they are flabby).
Hard surfaces are less inviting, especially if they are rough, but the
bark of trees and fieldstone walls are reassuringly strong and vigorous. As
hard surfaces approach the brilliance of crystal or polished marble, their
smoothness is visually and tactually satisfying.
Sculptors, working in one of the most tactile branches of art, have great
concern for texture. The surface treatments of the "Greek Horse" and
"American Bison" (Figs. 347A and B) markedly different but both ap-
,
propriate to metal, vitalize the basic forms and strengthen the expressive-
dignified,
ness of these two pieces. The handsome, well-groomed horse has a
sensuous attractiveness— we want to stroke the muscular shoulders and the
decisive curves of the proud head. Notice how the grooved crest of
mane
accentuates the spirited lift of the head, the smoothness of the body. We
respond to the statuette with respect and appreciation of its tactile beauty.
347
Textures in sculpture range from the

ingratiatingly sensuous to the inten-
tionally harsh.
(A) Left. A
bronze statuette of a
horse (Greek, century b.c.) suits
fifth
texture to form and purpose, evoking
the dignity, power, and lustrous
beauty of its subject. (Courtesy of the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher
Fund. 1923)
(B) Below. In "American Bison"
(1953) Tom Hardy has depicted the
gauntness and woolliness of a pugna-
cious animal with sheets of hammered
steel and welded bronze wire. {Eugene
Fuller Memorial Collection, Courtesy
of the Seattle Museum of Art)
348 - The Plastic Elements: Texture and Color
Microphotography reveals the intricate, inner textures of natural materials. Paniters

create textures that function in expressing and communicating their ideas.
hornbeam wood {left) shows its organic pattern of
growth.
(A) Above. The grain of
crystalline structure. {Courtesy of Curt Valentine)
Cast iron (right) discloses its sharp,
I'Etang-la-Ville" (1893) is a small oil
(B) fie/oa;.Êdauard Vuillard's "The Interior at
painting in which elusive textures suggest without clearly defining the compressed form
and space of a small room. {Courtesy of the Smith College Museum of Art)
Texture -
349
"American Bison," belligerently ready to attack, is taut and angular.
Thin steel plates with the hammer marks that shaped them much in evi-
dence compose the body, ropelike bronze wire expresses the shaggy fur. This
sculpture would be no more pleasurable to touch than the animal himself
would be to meet, but looking at it is a vivid experience. Often we need
something that is startling. If everything were smooth, soft, and rounded,
boredom would soon take over.
Use of Texture
How should texture be related to purpose, to material, and to form,

space, and color?
We have noted some of the effects of texture, which are there whether
we intend them or not. Therefore, we need to handle them affirmatively, to
make them work for our purposes, sometimes giving most weight to one or
two of the prosaic factors as being most important, at other times deliber-
ately stressing the esthetic for its liberating quality. Dinner plates almost
always have smooth, hard surfaces because these are pleasant to touch and
easily cleaned, but in a vase visual and tactile delight may be more conse-
quential than day-to-day maintenance, and we can indulge in whatever
textures we like best. In Chapters 6 through 8, the textural potentials of
many materials were discussed, and we have just noticed how two sculptors
used the properties of metal in their work.
Painters, too, are aware of the power of textures. Impatient with the
academic artists who monotonously limited themselves to porcelainlike sleek-
ness, many modern innovators have explored the range of textural possibili-
ties and their relationships to form, space, and color. In Vuillard's painting
(Fig. 348B), a profusion of patterned areas imparts a soft, intimate character
to a domestic interior. Figures seem to emerge from and then almost dissolve
into the background. To Vuillard, who is said to have been in love with
wallpaper, merging textures were more important than sharply delineated
form or line. Not so ^vith Leger (Fig. 358A) who expressed the tense power
of a contemporary city with large, clear-cut shapes. At first glance, "The
City" appears uniformly smooth. Then one notices brush marks, brusque
and unexpected, that energize some of the larger forms. Small areas of linear
fretwork, which give the illusion of distance behind them and also function
as texture, accentuate the painting's monumentality. For Leger, textiire was
a way of shaping form, creating space, and tempering color.
How should textures be related to each other?

Textures endow surfaces with significance, but, as always in art, rela-
tionships largely determine the final effect. Textures used in combination

close harmony of a
should be coherent, but the possibilities range from the
Bison." The designers
Vuillard painting to the abrupt contrast of "American
a basic textural idea and
of the rooms in Figs. :558B and 359B each took
informal living room,
then implemented it imaginatively. In looking at the
metal with rough
our finger tips tingle as we compare smooth glass and
brickwork, and then enjoy the reed rug, cane chairs,
and varied woods and
fabrics. The beams are regular and vigorous, the plants informal and
ceiling
the actual textures of materials have been
exploited;
delicate. In this room
there has been a consistent juxtaposing of
smooth and rough to enliven
a predominance
and enrich the architecture and furnishings. In contrast,
crisp and easy to maintain.
of smooth surfaces make the efficient kitchen
tops are unpatterned lam-
Ceiling and walls are painted plaster, counter
birch in the cupboards,
inated plastic. The natural grain of varnished
the slightly mottled hardboard cabinet doors,
and a lightly flecked vinyl
is seen in the gleam of
polished
floor are subtle variations. More contrast
cement-asbestos board on which
pans, which is heightened by the perforated
textural organization. But it is
they are hung. This comprises the interior
at the richly patterned woods
not until we look through the big windows
of these rooms the textures
outside that the composition is complete. In each
our privilege to see and
were purposefully and coherently organized. It is
use texture knowingly for its capacity to enrich
and diversify otir environ-
ment.
COLOR*
In one of Dickens' books there is a conversation between two stable
visualize a world without
boys in which one of them tries to get the other to
color. The other boy is not able to handle
such an idea and wonders about
his companion's sanity. It is so difficult to

imagine a colorless world that we
enter the discussion.
can hardly blame the second boy for refusing to
perceived visually.
Color is the one plastic element that can only be
With our eyes closed we can no differences between black, white, or
detect
varied responses
red plates. But with eyes open the plates may evoke more
Typically, colors that are
than they were round, square, or octagonal.
if
rooted emotional reactions. Not
clear and positive arouse immediate, deeply
but there are few who
many of us have strongly preferred forms or textures,
do not have definite color likes and dislikes.
obtained with pigments. Colors produced

. Ourdiscussion will be concerned only with color
the system ^^^^ ''P'^'^ ."^^ °
we follow
by light behave differently. Furthermore,
Brewster, which is the simplest of the several
will
theories and the one typically used f "^ .^"^
by pa.nters.
The color systems evolved by Albert Munsell and Wilhelm

Ostwald, -^d m commerce and^.n^
color notation are based o" different
pumaiy
dustry because they have a precisely standardiêd
several theories differ sUghtly, if at all.
hues. In practice the results produced by the
Color -
351
The history of color is a fascinating study of human diversity, for atti-
tudes toward color have varied enormously from one age, one community,
one gToup to another. In our culture, for example, there have been great
changes in the past few decades. Not long ago many homes were almost with-
out noticeable color: clear, positive colors were thought to be in poor taste.
In the commercial and industrial arts, color was used timidly. Advertise-
ments were mostly black and white, kitchen and bathroom fixtures were al-
^vays ^vhite. And a well-known automobile manufacturer is reported to have

said, "You may paint my automobiles any color you wish as long as they are
black!"
In recent years we have learned more about the power of color and
^vith knowledge came courage. The automobiles made by the company of
the manufacturer quoted above now come in a wide range of hues. Women's
clothes have new sparkle. Advertisements are gay, and kitchens and bath-
rooms need no longer be white. Shops, offices, and restaurants that glow with
color lift our spirits, and color is used in industry to increase efficiency.
Employees in a factory said that they felt cold when the temperature was
72 degrees, but faultfinding ceased when the blue-green walls were painted
coral. Men lifting black metal boxes in a factory complained of strained
backs, but when the same boxes ^vere painted pale green, they reported that
the "new, lightweight" boxes inade a real difference. One chain of restau-
rants speeded its turnover of customers and increased its receipts 50 percent
by changing its color scheme from quiet gray-green to stimulating red and
yellow. Other reports are equally amazing: flies tend to avoid blue, and
night insects do not like orange light; barnacles, a pest of the shipping in-
dustry, dislike hulls of ships painted white or light green. Clearly, color is
an actual force.
The Nature of Color
White (or apparently colorless) light, such as that from the sun at noon,
contains all the colors of the spectrum: violet, blue, green, yellow, orange,
and red Avith their intermediate gradations. These are so balanced and
blended that the effect is colorless, but the fact that they are there can be
demonstrated by passing white light through a prism which refracts it into
a full spectrum. Whenwhite light strikes an object, some of the colors

are absorbed and others are reflected. A
lemon, for instance, absorbs almost
to our eyes, give the lemon
allcolor rays except the yellows, which, reflected
its color. Leaves reflect primarily green rays,
and therefore we say that leaves
A red apple reflects a predominance of red rays. Thus the color of

are green.
determined by the rays that are reflected to our eyes. In
trans-
an object is
being reflected from the
parent objects the light passes through instead of
surface, but in passing through all but the
dominant rays are filtered out.
This, however, only begins to describe color. If
you have ever tried
to a friend, you know the difficulties. You
might have
to describe a color
"The carpet was red."
seen a carpet that appealed to you, and you
began,
the rug you saw was
But that was not enough; was it scarlet or maroon? If
three terms, something like

dull dark red, you probably found that at least
the color with even reason-
those we have just used, are needed to describe
able accuracy.
can be diagrammat-
Color has three dimensions or attributes, which
ically visualized. You should memorize them.
HUE is the name of a color, such as

^^=;i red, blue, or green. Hue indicates
the color's position in the spectrum

and the color wheel (Fig. 353A). It
also indicates the warmth or cool-
ness of a color— red is warm, blue

is cold, and green is intermediate.
VALUE refers only to the lightness or
darkness of a color, the amount of

light reflected or transmitted by the
object. Any hue can vary in value:
red can become light pink or dark
maroon.
The three dimensions of color are often shown
by a "color solid." Pure hues are shown on the INTENSITY indicates a color's degree of
outer edges. Value is represented on the verti-
the purity, strength, or saturation. This
cal axis, going from the lightest value at
top to the darkest at the bottom. Maximum in- isdetermined by the quantity of the
tensities occur on the periphery and become
dominant hue. Scarlet, which is red
increasingly neutralized as they approach the
central axis. of high intensity, is almost pure red.
Rose beige is neutralized red.
A
1
B COLOR WHEEL
VALUE SCAl E INTE NSITY S CALE
High light
Full
^^^^1 ^H
Light
DD Low
Middle
light
High dark
Dark
Low dark Full ^^^H ^^^H ^1
(A) Top. The color wheel shows a sequence of hues in the following order, beginning
with yellow at the top and proceeding clockwise: yellow, yellow-green, green, blue-green,
blue, blue-violet, violet, red-violet, red, red-orange, orange, yellow-orange. The numeral
1 indicates primary hues. 2 secondary hues, and 3 tertiary hues.
(B) Lejt. The value scale shows seven values each for three hues: green, orange, and
violet. Those containing white disks are at normal value.
(C) Right. The intensity scale shows two different degrees between full intensity and
neutral for six hues. {Figs. A, B, and C adapted from The Art of Enjoying Art by A.
Philip MacMahon as adapted from Commercial Art by C. E. Wallace; by permission of
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.)
Color -
353
Hue Refers to the Position of a Color in the Spectrum
Notice that the color wheel 353A) has the same progression of hues
(Fig.
as the spectrum but bent into a circle and with the two end colors blended
into red-violet, a color not in the spectrum. The twelve hues on the color
^vheel can be divided into three categories:
Primary hues, labeled (I), are red, blue, and yellow. They cannot be
obtained by mixing other hues, but, if combined in the proper amounts,
these three will produce nearly every other known hue.
Secondary hues, labeled (2), are gxeen, orange, and violet. Each stands
midway between the two primaries that produce it when mixed in
right amounts— green comes from blue and yellow, orange from red and
yellow, and violet from red and blue.
Tertiary hues, labeled (3), stand between a primary and a secondary
hue and from a mixture of the two. Their hyphenated names—

result
yellow-green, blue-violet, and red-orange— tell us their components.
Hues new ones produced by combining neighboring hues,

are changed, or
as is indicated above. Blue, for example, becomes blue-violet when it is
combined with violet. If even more violet is added, the hue is changed
again. The twelve hues on the color wheel are only a convenient beginning,
for there can be an almost infinite number of hues.
When placed next to each other, hues produce effects ranging from
harmony to contrast. Some combinations, such blue, blue-green, and
as
green, produce a harmonious and restful sequence. But if blue is placed next
to orange, there is excitement and contrast. Looking at the color wheel, we
can see that hues adjacent to each other are the more harmonious, those
opposite each other the more contrasting. Two adjectives are used to de-
scribe these relationships:
Analogous hues are adjacent to each other on the color wheel, as are
blue, blue-green, and green.
Complementary hues lie directly opposite each other. Blue and orange,
red and green, or yellow-orange and blue-violet are examples.
Any two complementary colors can either cancel or intensify each other.
If they are mixed proper amounts, they will produce a grayish neutral
in
tone. But if they are placed next to each other, each hue will seem brighter,
as though its power had been released. Red next to green appears redder
than when and the green appears greener than when seen in isolation.
alone,
pair of comple-
Blue and orange, yellow-green and red-violet-in fact, any
ments-affect each other similarly. This phenomenon, known
as simultane-
Thus, if a sun-
ous contrast, is of great importance in combining colors.
the comple-
tanned person wishes to look even more bronzed, he will wear
sector of the
mentary blue or blue-green because his skin is in the red-orange
color wheel.
This leads to a basic generalization that applies to

almost every phase
differences. Black looks blacker
of art: Distinctly visible contrasts accentuate
seen with rounded
next to white, angular forms seem more pointed when
units are so
shapes-the list is almost endless. If, however, the contrasting
effect-cancelling
small or indistinct that they blend visually, the opposite
out or neutralizing— occurs.
Opposites, such as black and white or

complementary hues, intensify each
other if the areas of each are suffi-
ciently large and distinct to be seen
separately.If, however, the units are so
small that they merge or blend, they

neutralize each other.
The relative warmth and coolness of hues affect us and our environ-
warm hues, associated with sun, fire, and
ment. Red, orange, and yellow are
heat. Conspicuous, cheerful, and stimulating, these hues stand out so promi-
nently that they seem to come toward us. In contrast, blue-green, blue,
cool, inconspicuous, and restful. They
and blue-violet are comparatively
are often bluish.
suggest distance, in part because faraway trees or mountains
larger and to soften
Additionally, warm hues tend to make objects seem
their outlines while cool hues do the opposite.
Artists make good use of these characteristics. If a painter wishes a land-
scape to impart gaiety, he may emphasize warm hues.

For the opposite effect,
will his painting be uni-
cool hues might predominate. But in neither case
formly warm or cold because contrast Important objects in the
is vital.
forms would be
foreground would be in warm, advancing hues; background
of implying distance. If,
in the cooler, receding hues. This is one means
two-dimensionality of his
however, he wants to keep a feeling of the actual
deliberately reverse this illusionistic relationship
in some
canvas, he may
Color -
355
parts. Look for such exceptions the next time you have the opportunity.
Architects, landscape architects, and interior designers also utilize the ways
in which color warmth and coolness affect our emotions as well as the
apparent size, distance, and outlines of objects.
Value Describes the Lightness or Darkness of a Color
The degree of lightness or darkness depends on the amount of light reflected

or transmitted. In Fig. 353B, the value scale shows seven steps of green,
orange, and violet, which are labeled high light, light, low light, middle,
high dark, dark, and low dark. There can, of course, be an almost limitless
number of degrees of lightness and darkness, but (excluding black and
white) seven is a convenient number that corresponds with the value steps
in the color wheel. Notice how the hues in the color wheel differ in value.
Yellow is very light, violet is dark, and the other hues range between these
extremes. The values in which the hues are shown in the color wheel are
known as normal values; that is, the values at which each hue reaches its
greatest purity. Thus, starting at the top of the wheel and going down either
side we get:
Hue Value Step Hue

Yellow High light Yellow
Yellow-orange Light Yellow-green
Orange Low light Green
Red-orange Middle Blue-green
Red High dark Blue
Red-violet Dark Blue-violet
Violet Low dark Violet
A moment's reflection will show that we ordinarily think of hues in some-

what this way: yellow, for instance, usually comes to mind as a light, bright
yellow— the color of a lemon or a dandelion. \'iolet usually is thought of as
dark— the color of violets or grapes or plums. To be sure, there are dark
yellows, such as olive drab, and light violets, such as orchid, but these are
not the most characteristic values. Tints are values above the normal, shades
are values below the normal. Thus pink is a tint of red, maroon is a shade
of the same hue; sky-blue is a tint, navy-blue is a shade.
How is the value of color changed? When we raise the value of a color,
we make it reflect more light. If we wish to lower the value, we reduce the
light it reflects. With pigments this is most readily done by adding white
or black (which also usually changes the hue and intensity as well as the
value).
Lk^^ background.
affected by its
shows how greatly the appearance of anything
is
"a value scale
The gray circles are identical.
to change with different

The liohtness or darkness of values seems
value, but they
backoroundl In 356 the gray circles are identical in
Fig.
against black. Or. you can prove
this
look darker against white, lighter
black paper plus a pair of scissors.
From the
yotirself with white, gray, and
half the size of the black and
white
oray paper cut two squares less than
the
white paper side by side, then center
Sheets 1 ay the pieces of black and
two identical grays look the same? It
is a
gray squares on them. Do the
seemed just right in the store
common experience to find that draperies that
another background in your home. A
appear too dark or too light against
middle-value gray wall in the store may
dark blue fabric seen against a
Hung at the sides of a window at home against light
appear rich and lively.
the difference
walls, it may look much darker, perhaps gloomy. Sometimes
was made. But it is all a
marked that you think a substitution
seems so
matter of relationships.
Purity and Saturation

Intensity Refers to the Degree of
quantity of the dominant hue that

is
\ny value of any hue can vary in the
as pure and saturated as it is
in the outer
present. Red, for example, can be
this pure red is mixed with
neutral gray o the
circle of the color wheel. If
wheel), the amount of red
same value (as in the middle circle of the color
only slightly changed. If red
pigment is
is much reduced, but the value is
with water or oil, the red is less

mixed with white or light gray, or diluted
Mixing red with black or
saturated-and the value is much lightened.
and the value.
very dark gray lowers both the intensity
hue can be varied, the fullest
Although the intensity of any value of any
that hue is at its normal value.
Thus, the
intensity of any hue occurs when
pink (light red) that we can make is
less
most intense maroon (dark red) or
the value of a
value. Raising or lowering
intense than red at its normal
intensity. This is worth remembering when
hue from normal reduces its
maximum intensity is wanted.

lowered by reducing the relative
amount of
The intensity of a hue is
Color - 357
the dominant hue in a color. In water colors the addition of more water
thins the color out. Mixing any color with white, gray, or black— or with its
complement— decreases its purity. Notice that midway between each pair
of complementary hues, both in the color wheel and the intensity scale
(Figs. 353A and C), is neutral gray.
The apparent intensity of a color is affected by its surroundings. An-
other simple experiment will illustrate this far better than words can. Hold
a piece of moderately intense green paper or cloth in front of (1) neutralized
red, (2) intense red, (3) neutralized green, (4) intense green, (5) intense
blue or yellow, (6) white, (7) gray, and (8) black. Does the backgroimd ap-
pear to change the intensity of the green? Against which backgrounds does
it seem most intense? With intensity, as with hue and value, relationships
are potent factors. Colors can be made to seem more or less intense, depend-
ing on their surroundings.
Effects of Hue, Value, and Intensity
Color is an inexhaustibly rich, powerful means of expressing ourselves and

communicating to others. It has direct bearing on our emotions and our
attention. Color also affects the apparent size of forms, their spatial position,
and the sharpness of their outlines. Hue, value, and intensity each makes its
special contribution, but the three properties of color are usually regarded
as integrated components dependent on each other for their total impact.
Artists heed these multiple effects in their creative activities, and there are
many ways in which you can use them in daily living.
Color Arouses Emotions. Fernand Leger and Vincent van Gogh had full
understanding of the emotion-arousing power of color when they painted

the canvases illustrated in Figs. 358A and 359A. Thus they were able to
transfigure their visual and emotional insights into color-form relationships
that convey to us what they felt. Leger was exhilarated by cities, and his
painting proclaims the clamorous dynamism of industrial communities by
means of abrupt value contrasts and the impact of warm, saturated colors.
About half of the canvas is starkly black against white, which is the maxi-
mum value contrast a painter can attain. In the chromatic areas intense
reds, red-violets, and oranges predominate, and their hotness is
yellows,
heightened by amounts of neutralized greens and blues. Forms are
lesser
sharply defined by flat, opaque colors. Van Gogh has given us an atmospheric
landscape all but dissolved in rain and mist. Grayed blues, greens, and
lavenders, closely related in value, are relieved by streaks of yellow, brown,
and pink. Outlines are blurred in a pearly opalescence. The feeling is
(A) Above. "The City," an

oil painting by Fernand L^ger
(1919), employs maximum
value differences. The result
is strong and stimulating.
(Courtesy of Philadelphia
Museum of Art)
(B) Left. In this kitchen in
Highland Park, Illinois, cook-
ing utensils and dark brown
cabinet doors stand out
sharply against their light
background. George Fred and
William Keck. architects.
(Photograph by Hedrich-Bless-
ing)
Color -
359
,?
î-^
;^'
Closely related values minimize outlines and spatial relationships.

(A) Above. In Vincent van Gogh's "Rain" (1889) the individual units in a landscape
lose their separate identities in a web of neutralized colors with little value differentia-
tion. {Courtesy of Francis P. Mcllhenny)
(B) Below. A limited range of values, neutral colors, and natural textures make a
living room in Portola Valley, California, calm and restful.William Hempel, architect.
(Photograph by Rn!:er Sturtevant)
tender, wistful, pensive. Although there are profound differences between

creating a masterful painting and furnishing a room, colors
behave in similar
ways in both.
Color Catches Attention. Attention can be guided by choice

and organ-
hue, value, and intensity. "The City" demands attention,
but
ization of
"Rain" quietly invites us to observe. Warm hues, we have observed, attract
is more
more notice than cool, but a vigorous contrast of hot and cold
green, and orange
strongly noticed than either one used alone. Red, black,
on yellow the most legible com-
are conspicuous against white, but black
is
Because we tend
bination at a distance, which explains its use on road signs.
to look first, and often longest, at anything
out of the ordinary, very light
and very dark values draw our gaze as do marked contrasts. The more in-
tense the color, the greater its pulling power; and painters and advertisers
parts of their pictures.
typically reserve their brightest colors for important
do the same thing with colors in your garden or a table setting.
You can
The ways in which color
Color Influences Apparent Size and Distance.
seems to alter the size of objects is often dramatic. Painting the walls of a
room in light, neutral, cool colors seem more spacious than would
makes it
values, and low in-

bright red or dark brown. Clothes of cool hues, low
tensities-with minimum contrasts of any kind-tend to
make overweight
persons look smaller.Warm hues, lighter values, higher intensities, and
noticeable contrasts can make an underweight person seem heavier. BUT
and background usually calls it to
marked difference between an object its
attention and thereby makes it seem larger. Thus, a dark blue sofa against
may look larger than it would if upholstered in light tan. In

a white wall
general, warm hues, high values, and strong intensities increase apparent
size— but not always.

drastically affected by color. In a view that in-
Apparent distance is
look bluer, lighter, more

cludes distant as well as nearby trees, the far trees
Interior designers and land-
neutral, and show less light-and-dark contrast.
decrease apparent dis-
scape architects, as well as painters, can increase or
instance, can be made to
tance with color. A ceiling that is too high, for
chosen to seem farther
look lower. Background plants in a garden can be
away. How?
Color Affects Outlines. Even a glance at Leger's
and van Gogh's paint-
well as the rooms shown in Figs. 358B and
359B, will show you
ings, as
conspicuous value differences emphasize outlines and
that closely re-
that'
photographs of "The City" and the
lated values minimize them. In the
lights and
kitchen, the individual parts are clearly delineated by decided
hue and intensity can contribute almost as much as
darks. In full color,
does value: bright reds and yellows sund clear from dulled blues and
Color - 361
greens in "The City." Quite different are "Rain" and the living room in
which close values of grayed, harmonious hues subordinate outlines to
create a quieter, o\er-all effect. In Rubens' "Descent from the Cross" (Fig.
370) a complete range from subtle nuances to bold distinctions produces
effect. Observe how differently the nine heads relate to their
an orchestral
backgrounds— no two are the same. Painters, advertisers, architects, and
sculptors normally strengthen the outlines of important parts of their
composition by contrasts, minimize the subordinate with subtly connected
colors.
Color Preferences. Color preferences have been extensively studied.

Under laboratory conditions, red and blue are the most favored hues, orange
and yellow-green the least. Fairly intense colors win out over the neutrals,
and women prefer colors lighter than those liked best by men. But there is
little agreement on combinations of colors. Outside the laboratory, these
findings may or may not be valid. For example, men like red but seldom
wear red clothes, and most of us find pleasure in orange sunsets and the
yellow-greens of spring foliage.
Summary of Effects of Color
Hue Value Intensity

Warm hues increase ap- High values increase ap- Full intensities increase
parent size of objects. parent size, but strong apparent size.
contrast with back-

grounds can have simi-
lar effect.
Warm hues bring ob- Low values advance, Full intensities decrease
jects forward, cool hues high values recede. apparent distance.
make them recede. Marked value contrasts
within an object bring
it forward.
OUTLINE OR Warm hues soften out- Value contrasts empha- Intensity contrasts em-
CONTOUR lines slightly more than size outlines. phasize outlines.
do cool hues; contrast-
ing hues make outlines
clearer than do related
hues.
ATTENTION Warm hues attract more Extremely high or low Full intensities attract
attention than do cool values attract attention, our attention, especially
hues; contrast of warm but contrasts or sur- when contrasted with
and cool is also atten- prises are e\en more neutrals or complemen-
tion-getting. effective. taries.
FEELINGS Warm hues are stimu- High values are cheer- Full intensities are
lating, cool hues quieting, low values restful heartening, strong, ex-
ing. Warm and cool to- to depressing; contrasts citing; low intensities
gether give a balanced are stimulating. are peaceful and relax-
effect. ing.
On Using Color
proved by
There are no laws governing the use of color, as is abundtantly
of constricting
widespread differences of opinion and by the sterile results
notable for divergencies,
systems. Color usage throughout the world is its
not its consistency, and for the courageous innovators who have broken
anyone, including the writers of this
through stifling formulas. Do not let
not to say that
book, dictate a series of do's and don't's. This, however,
is
or no body of experience worth

there are no factors worth considering
texture, to
knowing. Here are two questions, similar to those regarding
which you can react.
should color be related to purpose, to material, and to form

How
and space?
Is color, like form or texture, most grows out of and con-
vital when it
to material, to form
tributes to function? When it is meaningfully related
it a completely independent element?
Obviously, it can
and space? Or, is
varying kinds of inter-

follow either of these directions, and it can also have
integration that you want and
dependence. Much depends on the degree of
Holiday and party
on the specific situation with which you are dealing.
and temporary, can be giddy in color. Their rela-
decorations, light-hearted
tion to material, form, and space is of little import. The semipermanent
art is a far
colors in a kitchen deserve more thought. Long-lasting religious
more serious matter.
Suppose that you are deciding on colors for your kitchen.
You might
begin by thinking of the colors you like most and least.
But there are other
breakfast on a dark
concerns. Which colors would best help you prepare
dishes on a hot August
January morning and also see you through the
evening. Inevitably,you would be reminded that a kitchen takes punishing
wear and demands much cleaning. How would you
minimize the effects of
will be in the
wear and tear and also lessen cleaning time? Others, too,
kitchen, and they have personal color preferences.
preferences and activities
So far we have mentioned only the personal
of the persons using the kitchen, which are the
most important factors. But
of materials. If the shape,
the kitchen has form and space, and it is made
all that you could ask for, your prob-
size, illumination, and materials are
justice. Perhaps,
lem is simply one of finding colors that do them, and you,
though, the kitchen is sufficiently large but seems constricted, or the shape
pleasing. Perhaps the refrigerator andseem too glaringly
stove
may not seem
white. In such cases you will make use of what you know about color's power
to alter appearances.
Color • 363
Or imagine that you are an interior designer with a client who wishes
to have two rooms redecorated. One, a bedroom for a young girl, is to have
graceful, slender furniture. The other is a man's den that is to have sturdy
fiuMiiture, masculine in appearance. Would you use deep, rich colors on the
delicate furniture or the heavier pieces? Rich, dark colors would underscore
the qualities of the heavier furniture, but they would tend to contrast with
the lighter forms. A choice is necessary, but there is no right or wrong.
art, color is an indivisible component of the total communica-
In great
tion.High imaginative capacity, buttressed by years of study, enables first-
rank artists to make common materials compellingly expressive. In "The
City," "Rain," and "Descent from the Cross" color is integral with the pur-
pose of each painting and with form-space configurations. Such works offer
us opportunity to participate in a profound imison of all means at the
artists' command. Do not mistake this for a cut-and-dried consonance. Great

artists introduce tension and dissonance to keep us alert. Not always is this
possible or necessary but ^vhen achieved, a rare magic results.
How should colors be related to each other?

In addition to the relationships of color to other aspects of our world
is the interdependence of the colors themselves. Principles of color harmony
have been studied intensively by philosophers, scientists, and artists, but
no one has evolved a foolproof system. Harmony is often thought of as "a
consistent, orderly, or pleasing arrangement of parts." Most people agree
that consistency and order are basically desirable but, especially in art, they
can be deadening if not sparked by something unexpected, even discordant.
Agreement on what is pleasing is far less precise. Worth noting is another
dictionary definition of harmony— "Mu5zc . . . any simultaneous combina-
tion of tones"— which is remarkably liberating.
There are several somewhat formalized types of color schemes that can
be put into two major categories. Stressing easily recognizable, ordered rela-
tionships, these are worth thinking about— chiefly, as points of departure.
Related color schemes tend toward quiet, restful effects— ?/ strong value
contrasts and high intejisities are avoided.
MONOCHROMATIC coloF schemcs, the simplest of all, use only

one hue. You could, for example, use only blue, but the blue
could range in value from almost black to near white and in
ijitensity from saturated cobalt to an ashen gray. Orange
RO ^ BG
could go from light tan through Chinese orange to cocoa
brown. To avoid monotony, such schemes are often vitalized
with white, gxay, and black and with varied textures. RV BV
ANALOGOUS schcmes on from three to five hues, in

are based
YO YG
any of their degrees of vahie and intensity, that are adjacent
to or near each other on the color wheel
and all of which
contain a common hue. Examples are blue-green, blue,
and
RO BG shown in the diagram; or yellow-orange, yel-
blue-violet, as
low, and green. Analogous schemes obviously have more

variety than do monochromatic.
RV BV
Contrasting color schemes are based on opposing hues.

They are likely
to seem stimulating and balanced
because they include warm and cool hues.
YO YG
COMPLEMENTARY schcmes are built from any pair of hues
directly opposite each other on the color wheel. Orange and
blue, yellow and violet, and red-orange and blue-green are BG
RO
examples.
BV
YO YG
DOUBLE-COMPLEMENTARY schemcs usc two adjacent hues with
example, red-orange and
their respective complements as, for
orange with blue and blue-green.
RO BG
RV BV
YO YG
the two hues
SPLIT-COMPLEMENTARY schcmcs use any hue and
If we start with yel-
located on each side of its complement.
and blue-violet (because BG
low, the other hues will be red-violet RO
into red-violet and
violet, yellow's complement, was split
blue-violet).
YO YG three hues that are located

TRIAD schemes are made from any
yellow, and blue; or yellow-
equidistant from each other-red,
orange, blue-green, and red-violet.
RO BG
RV BV
Color - 365
TETRAD schemes include any four hues equidistant on the

color wheel, as exemplified by red, yellow-orange, green, and
blue-violet.
Ro -.-^\ BG
These schemes are all based on an orderly relationship of hues that is
sufficiently obvious to be recognizable. By no means do they cover all of the
possibilities. They do, however, allow for considerable individuality. Re-

member that everyhue can vary tremendously in value and intensity. A
triad scheme can bring together scarlet, chrome yellow, and cobalt blue,
or it can include these same hues as rose gray, chartreuse, and slate blue.
Identical hues are found in the combinations of ultramarine violet and
golden glow as of charcoal gray and beige. With practice you will be able to
see the basic hue regardless of how light or daik, intense or dull it is. Fur-
thermore, the proportional amounts and disposition of the hues is unlimited.
But many artists, painters in particular, want to explore beyond the familiar.
Notice the paintings, rooms, advertisements, and packages that you see in
the next week. How many belong to one of these typical schemes? How
many do not?
Additional Factors in Color Use
Intense colors demand more attention and seem visually stronger and
heavier than do neutral ones. Thus a small area of saturated color will
balance a much larger amount of low intensity. Sometimes called the
law of areas, this is merely a safe guide quite generally followed. The
large elements in interiors— walls, floors, ceilings, and furniture— are
usually gTayer than such small accents as vases, lamps, and pillows. In
many— but not all— paintings small patches of pure color seem even
more vivid against a background of lesser intensity. But in all art mani-
festations there are exceptions. See how many you can find.
Equality of hue, value, and intensity is seldom as satisfying as inten-
tional diversity, because equality gives little emphasis or contrast. Just

as some sections of a symphony are louder than others, some parts of art
objects are usually warmer or cooler, lighter or darker, more or less
intense.
m Equality of size in color areas is usually as dissatisfactory as sameness of

or gardens become more
hue, value, and intensity. Fabrics, bedrooms,
all
interesting if the color areas are of different magnitude.
hues tend to
Warm hues tend to bring objects together whereas cool
furniture in your
separate them. If you want to draw together the
furniture is not
room, give it a warm background, provided that the
predominantly cool. you wish noteworthy pieces to stand out,
But if
cool colors on your walls and floors would

lend their assistance.
Begin making use of these and suggestions about color

facts, principles,
in your everyday life. Your clothes, your home,

and your community all have
color. Ask yourself many questions: to
which, if any, type of color scheme
does your room belong? Is it completely satisfying, or could it be improved?

cluttered, monotonous,
Does it have too many colors-or too few? Does it look
would you put on the walls if you
or just right? What color, or colors,
could repaint them?

you
would you describe the color organization of the clothes
How
from those you own?
now have on? Could you have made a better selection
Think of the future: which colors are most suitable for you?
Why?
and colorful or monotonously drab?
Is the town you live in cheerful
subtle
Would you prefer more color in architecture? Have you noticed the
among varied woods, stones,
colors of natural materials-the differences
metals'-nickel, chromium,
and fibers? Or the color differences in the "white
aluminum, stainless steel, and silver?
great paintings,
But do not focus entirely on everyday art. Look at some
Search your community
preferably originals but good reproductions will do.
for outstanding examples of color in man-made
or natural objects. Becoming
around you an awakening, cost-free pastime. Enjoy

sensitive to the color is
it!
THE FIVE PLASTIC ELEMENTS VIEWED TOGETHER

Although looking at the plastic elements separately permits us to concentrate
on each one, they are almost never experienced in isolation. We will now see
how they have been used together in a contemporary showroom and a

seventeenth-century painting.
A Showroom for Italian Typewriters in New York City
is a
Praised for adventurous showmanship, the Olivetti shop (Fig. 367 A)
its
Avenue. Instead
continued source of delight for many who walk along
Fifth
367
The Olivetti showroom (1954) in

New York City underscores the
quality of its products with
the
exceptionally handsome setting in
which they are displayed. Lodovico
de Belgiojoso, Enrico Peressutti,
and Ernesto M. Rogers, architects.
(Photographs by Ezra Stoller)
(A) Left. Daringly different from
the other shops in this area, the
display room beguiles those who
pass by with its authentic beauty
of materials and design.
(B) Below. An inventive sculp-
tural mural and
marble floor that
a
swells up into pedestals under glow-
ing Italian lamp shades invite closer
inspection. Very subtly our atten-
tion is directed toward and held
by the typewriters and computers.
of blatantly shouting its merchandise, it concentrates on making the pros-

pective customer feel better than he usually does.
There is no chicanery,
just inventive attunement with human needs,
consummate sensitivity to
desio^n, and rare and humble materials impeccably crafted.
feet wide,
Form, Line, and Space. An uninspiring cavern, about 24
vacationlike grotto with
70 feet long, and 16 feet high, was made into a
typewriters and computers poised on pinnacles of ocean-green
marble Hecked
but brought to
with white. The boxy rigidity of the space was not denied
life. A sheltering foyer, slightly angled, invites the passerby to step out of the
crowd and on an unguarded typewriter. A weathered bronze

test his fingers
overhead. The magnifi-
panel, dignifying the company's name, is suspended
sidewalk beyond the
cent marble floor leads one from the commonplace
plate-glass wall, through a sixteen-foot high doorway
with a solid walnut
The Mediterranean-blue ceiling
door, to the innermost recesses of the store.
or bodily.
is an almost equally persuasive inducement to enter visually
none confining. Space sweeps
Each of the four walls is different, but is
sculptural mural,
through the transparent street wall. Constantino Nivola's
cast in beach sand with forms evocative of sea,
land, and primeval figures,
Smooth yellow paint coats the end
stretches the full length of the left wall.
Bands
wall, and the right wall is grayed-lavender, subordinate but not inert.
walls seem to float in
of light at the floor and ceiling make the three inner
balcony like a ship's deck with an angled, deep blue staircase
and
space. A
a slender white balustrade provides additional
space and visually broadens
the room. Near the window at the right a five-foot wooden wheel, painted
machines.
yellow and constantly turning, carries bright orange ofiice
the effect. The Imes
Although unobtrusive, line is important in total
module
demarking floor, ceiling, and mural panels indicate the one-meter
from which the design expands. The linear chair legs and
lamp cords, ex-
contrast call
posed without embarrassment, repeat these lines and through
attention to the sculptural mural, marble pedestals, and
lamp shades. Sur-
were
prisinglyenough, this is an example of prefabrication: some parts
coordi-
made in Italy, some in the United States, but all are esthetically
nate.
Texture and Color. The major one notable exception,
surfaces, with
polishing lets one see
are smooth but the visual textures are varied. High
in the walnut door.
the marble's translucent depth and the matched grain
The ceiling and two walls are coated with opaque, mat-finish paint, the
typewriters and metal furniture legs are lightly textured. Tactile interest
patterns
reaches a climax in the mural, whose inventive three-dimensional
and accentuated by the sur-
are unified by their consistent sandy texture
rounding smoothness.
The Five Plastic Elements Viewed Together - 369
Thecolors do not follow any standard scheme, although the three large
areas ofpronounced color— the yellow back wall, green floor, and blue ceil-
ing—represent equal intervals on the color wheel. The slightly warm, sand-
colored mural complements the slightly cool, lavender-gray wall opposite.
Beige and brown folding chairs, blue-black typing chairs, and pink marble
tables are subtle punctuations. The deep blue staircase and balcony are high-
lighted by the white balustrade. Color reaches its highest saturation and
most vivid contrasts in the prismatic hues of the glass lamp shades and in
the intense yellow "Ferris Wheel."
One might think that this dramatic setting would detract from the
products it aims to sell. Quite the contrary, this is prestige advertising.
The plastic elements create a holiday mood and entice potential customers
and casual strollers inside. They remain long enough to be impressed by

the excellence of the product.
Peter Paul Rubens' "Descent from the Cross" (1611-1614)
In a religious masterwork (Fig. 370) we see how the plastic elements can
impart momentous human Rubens' painting was one of many works

values.
through which the Catholic Church reasserted its doctrines in compelling

emotional terms. Three and one-half centuries have not diminished its
power.
The body of the dead Christ sinking into a white shroud commands first
attention and implores us to participate compassionately in the tragedy.

And although every inch of the painting holds interest, we repeatedly return
to the central figure. Basically, the design is simple— a strong diagonal sup-
ported by an almost vertical ladder— but its ingenious development is an-
other matter. Eight figures are grouped around His body in a dynamic
organization of downward curves expressive of tragedy. Fluent and painterly,
the forms are plastically modeled: sharply defined at times, merging into the
enveloping space at others. Flesh is softly rounded; the robes fall in folds.
Although the figures are stretched and twisted, an uncommon feeling for
balance and rhythm brings repose. Line is subsumed in the plenitude of
form.
Set in fathomless space, the figures advance toward us. Those at the
top, pushed forward by the sky, seem almost as near as those at the bottom,
but within the group there is complex interplay of advancing and receding
forms. Notice how the top left figure stretches back into space while com-
ing forward to touch Christ's shoulder in contrast to the tensely hunched
figure at his right. The vehement stances of the men at the right cleave space
sharply, the three Marys supplely modulate it. Only when we look from
Peter Paul Rubens' "Descent from the Cross" (1611-1614) magnificently integrates all of
the plastic elements in a proloundly impressive painting. {Fro7n Harper History of Paint-
ing by David M. Robb. By permission of Harper ir Row, Publishers.)
The Five Plastic Elements Viewed Together -
371
the ladder's base to the horizon at the left do we sense the great space that
surrounds the figures.
Although brush marks are visible, the painting's surface is tactually

quite smooth. Visually, the oil paint ranges from thick impasto to trans-
parent glazes. The textures of fabrics, wood and metal, giound and sky,
flesh and hair strengthen the representation of form and add visual enrich-
ment.
To communicate deep-felt grief, the colors are mostly neutral and
dark. The lightest values are concentrated in Christ's body and shroud but
spread outward into the surrounding faces and arms. Nearly all else is
below middle value. The one large, intensely colored area is John's red
robe, which makes Christ's body seem more pallid and seems to imbue John
^vith strength to support the Master. At John's left, Mary Magdalen's dark
green robe complements the nearby red.
Paintings such as this show how noble subject matter can be made emo-
tionally vivid through the evocative use of the plastic elements that consti-
tute all visual art.
Of the books on the subject we suggest:
The Art of Color: Johannes Itten (New York: Reinhold, 1961).

Comprehensive, lavishly illustrated volume based on the Brewster color
theory.
Art and Illusion: E. H. Gombrich (New York: Pantheon, 1960).

A thorough look at the many ways in which realistic art differs from the
objects that the artist paints.
Basic Color: Egbert Jacobson (Chicago: Paul Theobald, 1948).

An intensive interpretation and application of Ostwald's theory.
Color, Form, and Space: Faber Birren (New York: Reinhold, 1961).
Color is treated as a component of three-dimensional design.
Color Fundamentals: Maitland Graves (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952).

Well-organized introduction to color.
A Color Notation: Albert H. Munsell (Baltimore: Munsell Color Co., 1946).

A clear account of the Munsell theory.
The Color of Life: Arthur G. Abbott (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1947).
Readable, comprehensive account of color usage and significance.
A Dictionary of Color: A. Maerz, M. Rea Paul (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950).
Authoritative and comprehensive; samples of 8064 different colors with ac-
cepted names.
Encyclopedia Americana and Encyclopaedia Britannica. Articles on color are

good introductions to some of the fundamentals.
The Language of Vision: Gyorgy Kepes (New York: Theobald, 1944).
Stimulating account of visual elements and their psychological effect.
The shell of the chambered nautilus
illustrates the great beauty of purpose-
ful design often found in natural ob-
jects. {Courtesy of the American
Mu-
seum of Natural History)
14 - Principles of Design
MAN HAS AN INBORN DESIRE to find, or to make, meaningful order

to his
in his world, and in the arts he seeks a special kind that appeals
all of
esthetic sense. Design, at its best, is not "applied" but is integral with
that determine a work
the multiplex factors discussed in earlier chapters
of art. In this chapter, however, we shall
concentrate on those aspects of
another and to the
coherent, expressive relationships of the parts to one
and satisfaction. This leads to imme-
whole that offer esthetic stimulation
diate concern with our sensuous, emotional,

and spiritual needs, but we
intellectual and
shall keep in mind that these are organically related to the
of purposeful planning,
the practical. Design typically involves some degree
372
Two Houses - 373
conceiving, and expressing in tangible materials what the artist knows and
feels. The planning may precede the making of the object, as it usually does
in architecture, orit may occur while the work is being produced, as it is
in much contemporary painting, sculpture, and handcrafts. In any case, the
higher goals of design transcend obvious clarity and routine orderliness.

Useful principles, but no certain-success formulas, exist. The natural
world reveals myriad examples of design in which beauty and utility are
one (Fig. 372), but the diversity of ways in which this is achieved is enor
mous. Hummingbirds and seashells, liliesand mineral crystals each have
their own distinctive pattern. In nature and in art the fundamentals do
not change, but their specific formulations do. Equilibriimi, for example,
was as dear to Frank Lloyd Wright as to the Greeks of the Golden Age
(Chapters 1, 4, 5, and 17), but Wright's dynamic resolution of forces differs
greatlyfrom the serene poise of the Parthenon.

We will begin with an analysis of two commonplace house exteriors—
you can see similar ones in your community— to show that design of varying
degrees of excellence exists everywhere. The facades tell us that they shelter
unpretentious family living. But one is more attractive than the other, and
in discovering why this is true we may also derive some common criteria that
will be useful in evaluating any design.
TWO HOUSES
Look at Figs. 374A and B. For clarity, we will focus attention on external
appearance, ruling oiu the other home-planning problems discussed in
Chapter 1. One house looks orderly and inviting, the other haphazard and
ungainly. These are total impressions of the houses as wholes. But total im-
pressions, important as they are, do not suffice. In many ways the houses
are similar: both are of wood, have sloping roofs and small porches, and
have approximately the same number of openings. The difference lies in
the Avay the components have been selected and organized.
Both houses have a large, dominant mass with projecting, smaller units.
In the first house the major mass is symmetrical; one half is the mirror image
of the other. This produces an assured, quickly understood stability. The
subordinate wing at the right softens the formal equilibrium of the main
section and makes the total design appropriate to a modest home.
In the second house the door is off-center, thereby weakening the
dominant symmetry of the mass. The exactly centered point of the gable
sets up a central axis that deserves respect. But the designer ignored this
centrality and tried to make another center of the doorway by emphasizing
it with a small porch. Then he underlined his error by placing one in-
Two houses derived from

^' 1^ r „
' >
eighteenth-century American
Colonial architecture are
markedly different in quality
of design.
(A) Above. Pleasantly pro-
portioned masses and well-or-
ganized patterns of doors and
windows make this house visu-
ally satisfying. (Courtesy of
Ira P. Jones)
(B) Left. Why is this house
less attractive than the one

above?
Two Houses - 375
significant window on Look at this house with half-closed eyes,
the real axis.
and you will see too much dark on the left— and the attic window and
gable peak fighting with the doorway for the center of balance.
The word balance is one we oughto' to remember.
If we analyze the relationships in these houses another way, ^ve see

that in the first example the main mass has two horizontal sections that
express the t^vo floors within. The openings in the dominant first floor
achieve horizontal continuousness through their consistent heights, repeated

shapes, and almost, but not quite, identical spacing. In the upper section
the subordinate dormers energize this theme through a contrasting, yet
related, pattern of repetition. Notice the satisfying axial relation between
the center dormer and the door. The end dormers, placed midway above
the windo^vs below them, accent the strong beat of the first floor windows
and door. Furthermore, if you cover all but the left end of the house, a
trians-ular relation amono; the three windows becomes evident, and this
triangularity echoes not only the dormer roofs but the roof of the ^vhole
house. The dominant horizontality is reinforced by the roof, clapboards,
and cornice and accentuated by the repeated verticals of the shiuters, dor-
mers, and chimney. Curves in the porch openings, cornice detail, and
window subdued and subordinate, give zest to the basic
lights in the door,
rectangularity. Further study discloses that the doors and windows have
proportions similar to those of the main mass, only turned the other way.
The other house suffers from disconnectedness. Windows and door
are not consistently aligned horizontally or vertically. Although there are
only seven openings, they are of five different sizes and proportions (as
compared with eight openings of three sizes but similar shapes in the
first). All are rectangular, but their unpatterned placement and heterogene-
ous sizes and proportions make their similarity in shape count for little.
The detailing of the portico is inconsistent with the rest of the building and
awkward in itself. Aside from the repetition of horizontal and vertical
lines, the house stands as an assemblage of shapes without continuity.
Continuity is a second word worth thinking about.
Now let us scrutinize these houses in a third way. In looking at their

basic shape, we have noticed that one is definitely horizontal, while the
other has no dominant direction. Is this important? In looking more

closely at the first house, we find that all major forces are parallel to the
ground: the walls and roofs, viewed separately or together, and the visual
units of doors and windows. This horizontality is challenged by verticals,
but, serving as subordinate contrasts, they are less strong. The other house
The Taj Mahal (completed in a.d. 1650), at Agra, India, has been called the most ex-
quisite tomb in the world. The basically simple design has been enhanced with intricate
ornamentation. (Courtesy of the GovernmeJit of India, Tourist Office)
looks boxy. Neither verticals nor horizontals dominate. They neutralize,

rather than complement, each other. Sometimes such neutrality is effective.
Generally, though, forms with a definite direction are more satisfying. But
before we try to deduce a principle, let us concentrate on one feature of
each building.
Look Both have been given importance with archi-
at the doorways.
tectural details. This is sensible because the doorway, through which we
enter and leave a building, deserves attention. In one the doorway holds
attention because of its central position, size and color, and small panes
of glass; but one feels its kinship with the other openings. In the other,
the portico stresses the doorway, but it is obtrusive rather than effectively
important. It door cringing and insignificant and makes the rest

leaves the
of the structure look bald. Thus, in one house the doorway is appropriately
emphasized in terms of its own importance and its relation to the whole
Why Design? -
377
house. In the other house the doorway clamors for more than its just share
of attention.
Emphasis, then, is also an important concept to keep in mind.
We have used these two houses to start you thinking about design
because they are simple in organization and represent what you can see
almost any place. The superiority of one to the other can be easily ex-
plained. Do not think, though, that design in all art is this rudimentary.
Although the most complex and intense compositions can usually be reduced
to simple outlines, this is a serious reduction. In expanding their ideas into
full-fledged plastic organizations (Fig. 376), great artists show an enormous
range of imaginative yet ordered relationships, unexpected yet coherent
nuances, dynamic yet controlled contrasts. Forms express their functions
intensely; unity pervades each individualization. In the presence of master-
works one shares the exhilaration of magnificent creativity transcending the
fundamentals on which they are based.
WHY DESIGN?
Design serves us in several important ways.
First, design is a kind of universal syntax through which artists com-

mimicate their ideas. A comparison of the designs of the "Great Buddha"
and "Grand Arabesque" 382A and 383B) shows how much can be
(Figs.
expressed through design. In the "Great Buddha" a relaxed equilibrium

is achieved through quiet symmetry. The rhythms are gentle, and the serene
face and joined hands are emphasized. The effect is contemplative, peaceful,
and self-contained, in keeping with the religious beliefs the sculpture por-
trays. "Grand Arabesque," in contrast, depicts a difficult moment in the
dance, when motion is temporarily stopped but every muscle is actively
straining. Dynamic asymmetry and tense rhythms convey this vividly. Be-
cause Degas wished us to concentrate on the precarious balancing of the
whole body, no parts have been stressed. These sculptures came from differ-
ent periods and countries, but we can appreciate the emotional content of
each because the language of design knows no national boundaries. Artists
in all fields, intuitively or consciously, employ the kinds of balance, rhythm,
and emphasis that will most vitally convey their concepts.
To communicate his ideas an artist must engage our attention and hold
it until his message is comprehended. Designs that are easily understood but
forceful attract attention, and this is basic in commercial art (Fig. 378)
because an unnoticed advertisement is a failure. Furthermore, design in
378
Herbert Leupin's poster for a

Swiss newspaper (1949) is a com-
pelling composition. Silhouetted
against a dark background, the
newspaper and the "world"
stand out sharply, but our atten-
tion returns again and again to
the name of the paper. (Collec-
tion, the Museum of Modern
Art, New York)
commercial art must be such that we get the basic idea

quickly. But paint- m
profound and complex ideas
ings, sculpture, and architecture embodying
designs will be planned
more time is required for full understanding. Their
it ^vorthwhile to
return
to hold our interest for longer periods and to make
Swiss advertisement with that
again and again. Compare the design of the
of the "Maesti" by Duccio (Fig. 382B).
Both have a strong, attention-get-
richer in its complex develop-
ting composition, but the painting is much
ment.
readily comprehensible.
Second, design makes our environment more
Industrial designers attempt to make the
switches on kitchen ranges, the
dials and buttons on automobile

dashboards easy to see and convenient to
spaces in their buildings to produce
use. Architects compose the forms and
degenerate into dull ob-
understandable configurations but these need not
Painters organize form and color in
coherent compositions that
viousness.
life (Figs. 383B and 388).
present their interpretations of some aspects
of
should be stimulating and

Third, the design of any work of art can and
satisfying in itself. A vase, for example,
can arouse us esthetically through
use or
its form" and color alone,
quite aside from any concern with its
us a vitalizing experience through
materials. A statue or a building can give
Oriental
its rhythm. Magnificent
organization of color, whether in a sunset,
Three Principles of Design -
379
rug, or abstract painting, can lift us out of the humdrum of many daily ac-
tivities. They bring zest to living and produce sparks that can release pent-up
spiritual feelings. But do not wait until you see a sunset or painting. Look
closely at the design of the textiles you are wearing (a magnifying glass will
help), at the rhythms of the furniture around you, at the structure of a tree
or at the veins in one of its leaves. You may be awakened to countless pleas-
ures that you have been missing.
This kind of appreciation is incomplete because it lacks the breadth and
depth that comes with an understanding of all aspects of a work of art; but,
even so, it is rewarding. Too often ^ve spend so much energy seeking effi-
ciency, comfort, or economy that beauty of design is almost forgotten. In

much contemporary architecture \\'e too readily excuse monotonous rhythms,
lifeless balance, and uninspired emphasis because the structure is solid, the
plan is workable, and the mechanical conveniences save labor. The satisfying
of practical human needs and the sensible use of materials are important,
but we also need spirited design.
THREE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Every culture has faced and solved in its own way the problems of organiz-
ing the plastic elements. The Japanese, the Italians, and the Africans have
stated in their art the concept of design most sympathetic to them. TSIot
only each group but each genuinely creative artist makes his own interpreta-
tion. Far from being constraints, the principles of design can be guides that
expand creativity and appreciation. It is only when they are handled as
immutable laws by the unimaginative that they become restrictive.
There can be as many or as few principles as one wishes, and each per-
son is free to take those he finds most companionable. "We have found that
three— balance, continuity, and emphasis— are sufficiently inclusive without

being cumbersome.
Balance Is Equilibrium
Our sense of balance is fundamental to our ability to function well. If it is
seriously disturbed, we are unable to walk and feel disoriented. It is only

natural, then, that we seek some kind of equilibrium in what we see. If an
object is clearly balanced, we feel secure. But if the stability is too obvious,
we may become bored. Often a work of art is more stimulating if it chal-
lenges us to work out for ourselves just how the equipoise was attained. The
illustrations in this chapter show many ways of obtaining balance, each of
which is vital to the expressive content of the work of art.

Alexander Calder's "Hanging

Mobile" (1936) is made of
aluminum discs and steel wire.
Whether at rest or in motion,
it an invigorating interpre-
is
tation of balance and rhythm.

(Collection of Mrs. Meric Gal-
lery, photographs by Herbert
Matter)
(A) Above. When at rest,
the sculpture resembles an un-
usually subtle diagram of
asymmetric balance. The discs
progress rhythmically from

large to small; their supports
go from long to short.
(B) Left. When revolving, a
continuous balancing creates
a succession of nonrepeti-
tive, curvilinear movements
through space.
381
The classical illustration of balance is a pair of scales with identical
weights equidistant from the center. These weights, responding only to the
downward pull of gravity, seem motionless. But balance is more energetically
shown in such sports as skiing. The skier must balance himself in ever-
changing ways or suffer a spill. As he speeds down a slope, he continually
shifts his weight to maintain equilibrium. When his is equal on
weight
both feet, he goes in a straight line. If he wants to change direction, he
shifts his u'eight. In life, equipoise is almost never stationary because change
is ever-present; and
can present actually moving forces and tensions, as
art
is illustrated in the photographs of Calder's mobile (Figs. 380A and B).
And can be vividly portrayed in painting and sculpture that does not
it
move but almost seems to, such as "Grand Arabesque" (Fig. 383A), "Demp-
seyand Firpo" (Fig. 383B), "St. Francis in Ecstasy" (Fig. 386A), or "Nude
Descending a Staircase" (Fig. 388).
There are three basic types of balance: symmetrical, asymmetrical, and

radial, each of which has its own distinctive characteristics and effects.
There is, however, much variety possible within each type and great over-
lapping of effects among them.
Symmetrical Balance. Sometimes called formal or passive, this is the

type in which one half of the object is the mirror image of the other. It
occurs in many aspects of nature, such as animals or leaves when viewed from
above or the human body standing at attention when viewed from front or
back. Because of man's bilateral symmetry, many of the objects he uses-
clothes, chairs, tables, and desks— are symmetrically balanced. Formal bal-
ance is seen in the Taj Mahal (Fig. 376) and it is also a determining factor
in classical architecture, of ^vhich the Governor's Palace in Williamsburg
Symmetrical balance (upper left) is

strictly defined as bilateral sym-
metry which identical forms
in
equidistant from the center equalize
each other. In asymmetrical bal-
ance (upper right) forms that are
not of the same visual weight are
counterbalanced by being placed at
unequal distances from the center.
There are, however, intermediate
steps (lower left and right) in which
forms that are dissimilar except in
visual weight are the same distance
from the center.
Through balance, rhythm, and em-

phasis, artists can create effects of
quiet serenity or vigorous activity.
(A) Left. "The Great Buddha" in
Kamakura, Japan, was made of
bronze in a.d. Symmetrical
1252.
balance, slowly descending rhythms,
and emphasis on the placid face
produce a calm repose. {University
Flints)
assured nobility of the

Duccio di Buoninsegna's "Maesti" (1308-1311) signifies the
(B).
exactly symmetric composition. Repeated vertical forms
Madonna and Child in an almost
circular hales build up to the central figures. (Alinari
photograph)
and
383
Emphasis on asymmetric equilibra-

tion and decisive, diagonal rliytlims
are often used to portray active
movement.
(A) Right. Edgar Degas' "Grand
Arabesque, third time" (1882-1895)
calls attention to the intense action
of every muscle in an arduous bod-
ily position in ballet. {Courtesy
of
the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
H. O. Havemeyer Collection)
(B) Beloio. George Bellows' oil
painting "Dempsey and Firpo"
(1924) vividly reports a dramatic
punch. Forces are pitted against
each other in slashing diagonals en-
ergetically counterbalanced. (Col-
lection of Whitney Museum of
American Art, New York)
Parthenon (Chapter
(Chapter the Farnese Palace (Chapter 11), and the
2),
17) are examples. It is

not often found in painting or sculpture, although
(Figs. 382A and B) show a high degree
the "Buddha" and the "Maesti"
of symmetry.
gives a sense of stateli-
As these examples show, formal balance usually
the effect is poised rather than
ness dignity, and formality. Generally,
about the Wayfarer's Chapel
dynamic" passive rather than active. But what
sym-
(Chapter Cathedral at Rheims (Chapter 17)? These, too, are
3) or the
forms in both structures
metrical-but they are active. The rising, pointed
activate these buildings; sym-
and the lively ornament on the Cathedral
demonstrates that every single
metrical balance helps stabilize them. This
all of the others, and that there
characteristic of an art object is affected by
are exceptions to every generalization.

Whencan formal balance be effectively used?
The preceding para-
namely, when we wish to produce
oraphs provide the basis for the answer:
a reposed, formal effect, or when
we wish to steady a design that might
symmetrical balance is used
otherwise be hyperactive. Often, however,
easy. Hanging a picture or placing a window or fire-
merely because it is
produces equilibrium, even
place in the center of a wall automatically
394B. Less
though it uninteresting and unmotivated as that in Fig.
be as
picture, window,
often than many of us think are the absolutely centered
workable. Thus, formal balance, use-
door, or fireplace both attractive and
should be employed only when it is genuinely purposeful.
ful as it is,
weights or attractions
Asymmetrical Balance. An object in which the
illustrates asymmetrical balance,
on each side are equated but not identical
side view of the human figure
which is also called iriformal or active. The
of the lever, as used in
shows type of equilibrium. The principle
this
physics, further illustrates the idea of

informal balance: a man could hold
In
his own against a freight car if
the proper leverage were supplied him.
by another man his own size.
symmetrical balance a man must be equalized
of symmetrical
The effects of asymmetrical balance differ from those
to
stability. It stirsmore quickly and more vigorously, arouses a curiosity
us
it in equilibrium. Asymmetrical
explore the object and find out what keeps
balance suggests movement, spontaneity,
and sometimes casualness. Em-
much dead stops placed in the center as pauses
phatic points are not so
strategically located in a dynamic design.
advertisements
Many problems suggest informal balance. Notice the
art
5. Very few are symmetrical because
in any magazine or those in Chapter
attracts and holds attention. Ob-
advertisers krtow that an active design
and sculpture depicting action, such as Bellows'
serve, too. that paintings
385
"Dempsey and Firpo" and Degas' "Grand Arabesque," or expressing passion,
such as "St. Francis in Ecstasy," are usually asymmetric. But not all in-
formally balanced art is highly activated: sometimes it is peacefully quiet, as
in Figs. 374A and 394A. Ifyou study modern homes that are planned func-
tionally, such as those in Chapter 1, you are likely to find that rooms, win-
dows, and doors are seldom symmetrically located. In furniture arrano-e-
ments planned for use and visual pleasantness this is also true. Thus, in-
formal balance can be used to depict action, attract attention, or convey
strong emotion, but it is also used for efficiency and comfort.
Radial Balance. In this type the major parts radiate from a center like
the spokes in a wheel or the petals of a daisy. The center is thus a potential
focal point, but it may or may not be emphasized. Usually there is a sense
of circular movement. When symmetrical, the effect tends toward the formal
as it does in radial city plans, many dinner plates (Chapter 7), or the rose
windows in Gothic cathedrals (Chapter 17). Asymmetrical examples include
expanding spirals and off-center mobiles (Figs. 372 and 380A).
Continuity Is Organized Movement or Rhythm
It is satisfying to watch the organized movements of a good dancer, but it

is
another matter to watch one whose motions are without pattern. The varied
kinds of dances, from the stately minuet to the energetic twist, have earned
their popularity because they are rhythmic patterns of bodily movements
expressing the feelings of the dancers. Such continuing, recurring, and
developing patterns, although most obvious in the dance, pervade all phases
of art.
Looking back
at the preceding illustrations in this chapter shows that
continuity can be a decisive unifying factor and also convey highly diversi-
fied feelings. The clear-cut, cadenced rhythms of the first house are measured
and stabilizing, while the erratic placement of elements in the other house
gives a feeling of uncertainty and discontinuity. Gentle, harmonious curves
reinforce the Buddha's peaceful nobility and assurance. The basic rhythmic
pattern of the "Maesta" is firmly established in the rectilinear throne, steady
and strong as can be, but a succession of curved, gently swaying forms dispels
rigidity. The flowing contours and delicate poise of Degas' dancer captures
the essence of classical ballet with its sequences of fleeting moments of bal-
ance set into a lilting rhythmical continuity. In "Dempsey and Firpo" the
rhythm comes from the predominance of diagonals pitted against each
other in a harsh, aggressive counterpoint befitting the subject. But, as we
shall see, not all rhythmic patterns are as immediately comprehensible as in
these examples.
386
Two oil paintings show markedly

different rhythmic organizations be-
cause the two artists did not have
the same intent or abilities.
(A) Right. El Greco's "St. Francis
in Ecstasy" (1585-1590) conveys the
painter's passionate commitment to
express intense religious feelings.
To this end, forms have been
all
vitalized with compulsive, all-

a
pervading continuity. {Courtesy of
the Collection of the Detroit Insti-
tute of Arts)
(B) Left. John Singer Sargent's

"The Fountain" (1907) displays his
interest in surface impressions de-
lineated with bold strokes of the
brush. There is little rhythmic pat-
tern within each object and almost
none binding the varied forms to-
gether. {Courtesy of the Art Insti-
tute of Chicago, Friends of Ameri-
can Art Collection)
Three Principles of Design - 387
A comparison of "St. Francis in Ecstasy" and "The Fountain" (Figs.
386A and B) illustrates how differently continuity can be handled in com-
positions of figures and landscape. In "St. Francis" a pulsating, driving
movement pervades every inch of the canvas— inflaming the background, the
figure, and the foreground with intense vitality. All parts of the painting
coalesce into one powerful continuity. "The Fountain," in contrast, has no
comparable rhythmic oneness. The woman, it appears, just happened to be
perched on the stone pier. The water gushes from a spot between the
man's head and the easel, shoots out of the top of the picture, and then falls
back into it.Between these two paintings there is vast difference in organized
repetition and progression because the two painters sought and achieved
widely separated goals. One is a casual pictorial comment, dashed off with
great flair. The other carries a message from a man who committed himself
to exploring some of life's profundities.
As fundamental in nature as in art, continuity occurs in the beat of the
heart, the ebb and flow of tides, the change of seasons. We have a right to
expect that the rhythms in art will go beyond humdrum reiteration, that
they will be part and parcel of the total expression, and that they will con-
tribute to our spiritual well-being.
Repetition, alternation, and progression are the rudimentary rhythmic

devices (Fig. 387). Repetition pays well in advertising. A slogan or trade
name is used again and again until a remembered pattern is established.
In architecture, textiles, and many other art forms repeating the same motif,
usually at equal intervals, brings regularity. Repetition, though, must be
well handled, lest the constant reiteration either become irritating or go
The three elementary rhythmic devices are repetition (top) in which the same form is
duplicated; alternation (center) in which two (or more) forms follow one another; and
progression (bottom) in which the forms undergo sequential change.
388
in 1912 was
Staircase," an oil painting done
Marcel Duchamp's "Nude Descending a
and time fep.cted abs trac y by
1 oi the pioneer explorations of
movement n, space
motion. Compare wuh the pho ograph of Calder s
simultaneous views of an object in
Philadelphia Museum of Art)
"Hanging Mobile" in motion. {Courtesy of the
389
unnoticed. The child who repeats, "Mama, I wanna cookie, I wanna cookie,
I ^vanna cookie," may get the delicacy, but he risks so irritating his mother
that he may get an overt expression of her annoyance. In contrast, the cease-
less ticking of a clock sinks unnoticed into the background. Alternation, the
interspersed repetition of two or more units, is more active and complex
than a repeated single unit. The effectiveness of either device depends on the
appropriateness of what is repeated and how sensitively the recurrence is
handled.
more dynamic than repetition or alternation, involves
Progression,
sequential change of one or more quality. The sizes may range from
small to large; shapes may change by degrees from angular to rounded;
and colors may move from gray through a sequence of dull greens up to
pure green. Notice in "St. Francis in Ecstasy" the gradations in size, shape,
and direction of the V-shaped forms in the left sleeve that pull attention
down toward the hand and over toward the skull. Throughout the painting
elongated, pointed forms are dominant, but no two are identical. "Nude
Descending a Staircase" (Fig. 388) is built on countless progressive changes
that suggest downward movement.
Not always, though, is it this easy to point specifically to classifiable
devices in works that are imdeniably rhythmic. In "The Moment in and
out of Time" and "Hudson River Landscape" (Figs. 390 and 391), con-
tinuityand discontinuity are harnessed together, much as they are in con-
temporary life. Perle Fine's painting is marked by unfettered motion, abrupt
shifts, unexpected juxtapositions. Why did she forsake the well-understood
and well-worn devices? Because she was exploring realms of experience that
have hitherto hardly been touched by painters. Sparked by a theme from
T. S. Eliot's Four Quartets, the painting deals with the intricate network of
past, present, and future happenings and the emotions they arouse. Big
thrusts penetrate wispy forms, angles and curves are orchestrated but not
tidily fitted together. It is as though she let her mind and paintbrush wander
freely in perpetual yet transitory time. The rhythms are appropriately elu-
sive.
David Smith's sculpture is of hard, heavy steel coerced into the shapes
he wanted by machine-shop techniques. As with "The Moment in and
out of Time," it is technically impeccable but with none of the smooth
polish too often associated with technique. Inspired by what he sees, feels,
and knows about the Hudson River, his sculptural statement rises above a
specific locale to symbolize the vigorous, multiplex forces of rivers in general.
In it we can and progression but not the same

see repetition, alternation,
kind as in the "Great Buddha." Smith lives in the United States, and he
lives today. His rhythms disclose the brash vigor of our time.
In the painting entitled "The Moment in and out of Time" (1954) Perle Fine relied on
rather than intellect, and on deliberately disquieting brush strokes
the discipline of feeling
gray, and generally dark shapes converging
that present an impulsive complex of "Blue,
upon a second of bright lucidity." (Courtesy of the artist)
Continuity makes several important contributions in art:
It helps attract and hold attention by giving the object vitality

and in-
tensity. Half close your eyes and look at "St.
Francis in Ecstasy" and
"The Fountain." Forget the subject matter and look only at the rhyth-
mic patterns. Which holds your attention longer?
It can make objects more orderly and
therefore more readily compre-
of this chap-
hensible, as illustrated by the two houses at the beginning
ter.
David Smith's steel "open-space" sculpture, "Hudson River Landscape" (1951), has a
hard-wrought singleness of purpose reminiscent of seventeenth-century American carving.
His philosophy includes approaching "each work with new order each time." (Collection
of Whitney Museum of American Art, New York)
Repetition and progression can lead toward unity and variety. Repeat-
ing certain forms, colors, or textures establishes unity, while developing
any quality provides variety that grows out of unity. A study of the Taj
Mahal reveals inniunerable repetitions and progressions of form that
result in a clear statement of Variety in Unity.
Rhythmic patterns emphasize the ideas that the artist wants to com-
municate. In "Dempsey and Firpo" the rhythms are violent and unre-
strained, quite different from those in the "Maesta." The fleeting,
searching movements in "The Moment in and out of Time" and the
tough, confident circuits in "Hudson River Landscape" embody the
emotional and intellectual content of these works of art.
The caption ot this cartoon

is, "If you want my advice,
I'd get plain curtains. There's
so much going on in your
rug." (Courtesy of Helen

Hokinson and The New
Yorker Magazine.)
Emphasis Is Dominance and Subordination

in the cartoon (Fig. 392) is facing
Perplexed by many patterns, the lady
selection of
lives of many homemakers-the
a crisis that occurs in the
"there is
draperies. Her friend suggests that
she buy a plain textile because
a good phrase to remember. Imagine
so much going on" in her rug. This is
surfaces-rugs, chairs, draperies, and

walls-were
a living room in which all
patterned say, with flowers. Unless done with exceptional skill, everything
The process of differentiating the more impor-
would clamor for attention.
all life's activities. In art, emphasis
important is basic to
tant from the less
discussed under continuity.
functions in ways similar to those
captured and maintained by stressing
some
Attention or interest is
quickly
concrete wall, for example, is
things more than others. A blank
ornament,
passed over- but if that wall is
accented by doors, windows, or
satisfaction. Holding and releasing
we look at it longer and with greater
attention is fundamental in art.
we comprehend quickly is valued in a complex world.

Order that
letting the observer know
what is
This too isa function of emphasis, of
between an advertisement
important. There is, though, a vast difference
Complex works of art have many
and a cathedral.
and a painting, a package
grasped immediately.
levels and kinds of importance that cannot be
Unity is markedly strengthened by stressing the salient characteristics
of a work of art. Buildings, for example, can be made predominantly hori-
zontal or vertical, paintings can be active or passive.

Design is a venerable but lively channel of communication, and ap-
propriate emphasis helps put the artists' ideas across. In Figs. 382B and 383B
the majestic Madonna and the powerful boxers are unmistakably emphatic.
In other works, such as Figs. 388, 390, and 391, there are no sharply
delineated centers of interest because emphasis is placed on a series of rela-
tionships that express their creators' ideas.
Here are a few elementary ways of gaining emphasis:
Limiting the dominant points to an appropriate number. The number,

however, varies with specific situations. A large mural painting can
have, and probably needs, more high points than does a small etching.
Size relationships are important. A sofa usually demands more atten-
tion than a chair, a horse more than a cat. Notice how Duccio and
Bellows made their principal figures larger than the others, and note
the exaggerated nose in Fig. 393.
Decisive character is quickly noticed. Bold shapes or intense colors are
more prominent than neutral ones. Thus a scarlet pillow may seem
more dominant than a large gray sofa on which it rests.
Unusual or unexpected elements rivet our gaze. When first exhibited,
"Nude Descending a Staircase" startled, intrigued, or irritated almost
everyone who saw it. After fifty years it still does not seem ordinary.
The unique interplay of straight and curved lines, of spontaneous and
reasoned forms in "Hudson River Landscape" set it apart from the
ordinary.
This advertisement visually

stresses tlie fact that the prod-
uct "for those who have a
is
strong sense of smell." (From

Package Design: The Force
of Visual Selling by Ladislav
Sulnar)
in which the handling

As with house exteriors, Hviug rooms can be dissimilar in the way
rhythm, and emphasis explicitly indicate an attitude toward the visual aspects
of balance,
of home design. . r .. j • ••
conscious ot design
Above. This room seems so easy and natural that one is not
(A)
with the room's use and materials. Richard
because it is completely assured and integral
Neutra, architect. {Photograph by Julius Shulman)

to design is easy to detect. (Courtesy
(B) Beloxu. A superficial, stereotyped approach
of Homasote Company)
Conclusion - 395
Finally, grouping elements gives them significance. In Fig. 394A

notice ho^v the fireplace, allied with bookshelves and a sofa, dominates
that part of the room. But if a typical fireplace, such as in Fig. 394B,
is forced to stand by itself, it may lose its potential
importance or it
may be obtrusively conspicuous. In paintings, the major forms— figures,
buildings, or trees— are usually organized in one dominant group.
CONCLUSION
Let us look at two living rooms (Figs. 394A and B) as a conclusion to our
discussion of principles of design. Both are contemporary, but one looks at

today and tomorrow while the other casts a blurred gaze back to the eight-
eenth century. Probably the greatest "design" difference between the two is
that the first looks like space for living, the second like an assemblage of
furniture enclosed by walls. But let us consider them in terms of our three
design principles.
First, balance. In the upper room, one feels a homelike, informal equi-
librium, restful but not inert. In the other, one stares at an aggressive, self-
conscious effort toward symmetry: major elements are centered and minor
elements are paired with a vengeance. One wonders if the people, too, would
have to participate in this rigid pseudoformality! We say pseudoiorma.\ity
because the room is too small, the furniture too undistinguished to achieve
genuine precise ceremoniousness, a way of living rapidly waning in popu-
larity.
Second, continuity. Space in one of these rooms is continuing and ex-

panding as though to tell the occupants that they can move their eyes
or bodies if they do not wish to remain still. There is an abundance of repe-
tition and progression that is noticed less in specific than as a general
continuity of movement. The other room, too, has its full share of repe-
tition and progression-and it well-nigh insists that you stare at every specific
application. Application is, we think, the right word because the continuity
seems applied rather than integrated, pulled out of the past rather than
growing out of the present.
Third, emphasis. In the lower living room there has been a brave at-
tempt to build up "centers of interest" both by grouping objects and by
stressing certain objects. Regrettably, the result is like eating a piece of
sugar, and
poorly stirred cake-instead of cake, you taste eggs, flour, butter,
room, some units (the fireplace wall, for ex-
vanilla separately. In the other
ample, with its bookshelves and sofa) offer a satisfying place to rest
your
you that they
roaming eyes, but they do not rivet your gaze. Always, feel
are contributing to the whole rather than shouting for your

appreciation.
When you look during the next few weeks, concentrate on design
at art
and the
but do not forget the importance of the purposes of the work of art
materials from which it was made. In order to sharpen your
observations
and judgments, ask yourself questions similar to these:
Does the work of art, whatever it may be, convey a basic idea?
in a unified
Architecture is most gratifying when it expresses its functions
composition, not when it looks like a miscellany of walls, windows, and doors.
Is there enough variety to hold your attention for a suitable length of time?
Without diversity, becomes boring. The amount and kind

any work of art
character, and size of the object.
of variety needed depends on the purpose,
A city hall merits more variety than a service station because its functions
are more complex and significant.
Is the over-allorganization of the object expressive of its purposes?

informal fam-
Horizontal rather than vertical masses suggest contemporary,
ilyliving, and consequently most of today's houses
and furniture are hori-
zontal. In churches, verticality suggests to many of us the lofty aspirations
of religion.
Is the object rewarding to look at?
and movement been purposely directed, or do they look

Have the forces
haphazard or dull?
Specifically:
Are the and weights sensitively balanced?

forces
room,
Few of us would place all of the furniture against one wall of a living
one side of their
and sculptors do not usually concentrate all interest into
work (unless this is deliberately intended to produce a special effect).
Does the whole design have appropriate continuity?

related to one an-
Fabrics in which the forms and colors are rhythmically
are awkward. There are,
other afford us greater pleasure than do those that
get the one that is
though, many kinds of rhythm, and it is rewarding to
best suited to each situation.
Are the parts emphasized in proportion to their significance?
in an advertisement are made dominant, the less im-

The important words
we call attention to those parts that
portant are subordinate. In our homes
are most consequential to us, much as we accent the salient words in a
sentence when we talk.

of these single aspects is the
Far more important, though, than any
hard-to-define inner vitality found in all significant art.
Conclusion - 397
Wassily Kandinsky's painting
called "White on Black"
(1930) organized a number of
varied forms with comprehen-
sible but not obvious balance
and orderly but not dull con-
tinuity. Grouping the larger
forms made them dominant.
Two sketches show (left) the
forms as Kandinsky placed
them, and {right) the same
forms randomly scattered on
the background and restive in
their never-ending search for
coherence.
The following books are but a sample of the many worthwhile publica-
tions related to design.
Art and Visual Perception: Rudolf Arnheim (Berkeley, Calif.: University of

California, 1954).
An exhaustive psychological treatise on design as we see it.
Basic Design: Kenneth F. Bates (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1960).

Good practical introduction to design with emphasis on practice.
Modern American Painting and Sculpture: Sam Hunter (New York: Dell, 1959).
A highly readable account of twentieth-century developments in this country.
On Art and Artists: Aldous Huxley (New York: Meridian, 1960).

Brilliant critical essays on literature and music as well as architecture and
painting.
The Philosophy of Modern Art: Herbert Read (New York: Meridian, 1952).
The course of modern art is discussed with pertinent emphasis on creativity.
Point and Line to Plane: Wassily Kandinsky (New York: Solomon R. Guggen-
heim Museum, 1947).
One of the few books that penetrates the relation of expression to design.
Survival Through Design: Richard Neutra (New York: Oxford, 1954).

A profound philosophic discussion of "design" in its largest sense.
Vision in Motion: L. Moholy-Nagy (Chicago: Theobald, 1947).
A book unequaled for inspiration and insight into contemporary design.
What Is Design?: Paul Jacques Grillo (Chicago: Theobald, 1960).
A refreshing, realistic, and philosophical approach to design, especially in
architecture.
398
are often referred to as the fine arts. Here are ex-

Painting, sculpture, and architecture
amples from each area: , . . >t- i,
(1893-1898), an oil painting by the French
i
(A) Top, opposite. "Frieze of Dancers"

by the
in which an effect of movement is
created
artis Edgar Degas, is a rhythmic study
varying posture! of the young girls. (The Cleveland
Museum of Art, Gift of the Hanna
the American Leo Amino

^""m Middle, opposite. In "Creature of the Deep" (1953)
qualities of the plastics of which it is made. {Sculp-
exploits the translucent and reflective
ture Center, New York) ( ,.,11 K„;irlin<r<:

with its cluster of tall buildings
(C) Bottom, opposite. The skyline of lower New York
by Jan Jachmewicz)
conveys the vigor of American architecture. (Photo
J
^/p
PART IV Painting:,
Sculpture, and Arclxitecture

Painting has been a preoccupation of man since prehistoric times. These two reindeer
from a cave at Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne, France, may have been painted 17,000 years
ago. (Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, New York)
Introductlorx
IN THE FIRST THREE PARTS of this book you have seen many exam-
ples of painting, sculpture, and architecture because there could be no
valid discussion of the problems of Human Needs, of Materials and Proc-
esses, and of Organization as they pertain to art without frequent reference
to these three major Throughout history they Irave provided great
arts.
opportunities for varied and intense expressions of man's thoughts and feel-
ings, for the development and use of his highest technical skills, and for the
exercise of his capacity for organization. Rightly, these areas are often called
the fine arts.
Although all of the arts express and communicate feelings and ideas,
painting and sculpture, being less determined by utilitarian considerations

401
402 - Introduction
statement and intensity

than other art areas, admit the greatest freedom of
spiritual needs and concerns
of expression. Their chief concern is with the
with his hopes, ideals, and aspirations; as well as with
his fears,
of man;
anxieties, and frustrations. Throughout most of the history of art, however,
roles-general ly
painting and sculpture have also been assigned utilitarian
sculpture were created for
in support of religion or the state. Painting and
specific locationsand purposes. They were used to instruct, to intensify
of the government
religious thoughts and feelings, and to encourage support
They served as a means
by glorifying the rulers and conveying their ideals.
of enrichment of public edifices and of the

homes of the wealthy and
powerful.
are freed of even
In most of today's painting and sculpture, artists
paintings and
minor utilitarian considerations, for only a relatively few
sculptures are commissioned. Artists are free to create as they wish with
mind other than producing statements that they feel im-
no purpose in
the artists can explore
pelled to make. Being freed of the limitations of use,
obscure, experimental, and
ideas of a highly personal nature. They can be as
themselves to please;
revolutionary as they wish, for in a sense they have only
be considered. Much paint-
the wishes of a patron or sponsor do not have to
are other reasons), become
ing and sculpture have, therefore (although there
in both form and
individualized and subjective and thus enormously varied
expression. At no time in history have painters and sculptors (not including
countries) dealt with as broad a range of
human,
those in most totalitarian
esthetic problems. It interesting to note, too, that when
technical, and is
were generally
artists had patrons (religion or the government), their works
off from support,
supportive of the ideals and ideas of the patrons. Now, cut
the artist is frequently a strong cultural critic.
The freedom of modern painters and sculptors has its price, and
it is a
support, they are

high one. They are free to work as they wish-but, without
also free to starve. By both choosing and being
driven into personal and
often obscure statement, they may become alienated

from broad public un-
recognition is de-
derstanding and acceptance. In the case of many artists,
layed rather than withheld permanently. A striking
example is van Gogh
paintings
who, now regarded as one of the great modern artists, sold only two
Even delayed recognition means that we are deprived for a
in his lifetime.
life that is possible through an en-
period of time of the intensification of
Within recent years there has been
joyment of the works of particular artists.
an increasing tendency through writings, exhibitions, and

to encourage,
development is en-
purchase, artists who are daring and experimental. This
couraging but we are still a long way from accepting
on a broad basis the
whether encouraged
contemporary artist as an essential in our culture. But,
Introduction - 403
or not, there are large numbers of painters and sculptors who, to our ulti-
mate benefit, are pouring out an astonishing array of expressions that de-
light, baffle, annoy, and stimulate us.
Diversity is characteristic of contemporary architecture, too, as our de-

mands on structures become increasingly varied and as the range of and
knowledge about building materials increases. As it always has been, archi-

tecture is basically utilitarian, and buildings are constructed only \vhen they
are sufficiently needed to pay the cost of constructing them. Because struc-
tures such as churches, office buildings, law courts, schools, theaters, air, rail
and bus terminals, city halls, and state capitals are used by many people,
much architecture has a broadly social basis with little of the highly personal
quality of much recent painting and sculpture. Furthermore, because both

in construction and use such architecture involves many people, it is nievi-
buildings.
table that the interests and ideals of a group are expressed in its
Gothic cathedrals, growing out of the Christian religion of the Middle Ages,
dominated their communities as the religion they represented dominated

the lives of the people in the community. In our century, towering sky-
scrapers in large American cities are evidence of the importance we attach
to commerce and each individual building has its own expressive qualities-
democratic or autocratic, inviting or forbidding, courageous or timid-and

these qualities come from the many persons who bring it into being.
In this concluding part of the book, we look at painting, sculpture and
architecture from the viewpoints of the three preceding parts: expression
of human needs and interests; materials and processes; and organization.
Both contemporary and historic examples will be included but emphasis
will be placed on recent productions. Historic arts reveal much
about the
character of the people who created them. In the same way, present-day
paintings, sculptures, and buildings tell us much about ourselves and
the
times in which we live.

by Conrad Marca-Relli, the edges
In ••Tunction" (1958). a collage of painted canvas
of the cut canvas add vigor and liveliness to
the painted forms. {Gift of the Friends of the
Whitney Museum of American Art,
Whitney Museum of American Art, Collection of
New York)
15 - Painting:
ONE NIGHT IN the American painter James McNeill Whis-

LONDON,
tler was invited to a friend's
home for dinner. It was at the time he was
arrivmg
doino- famous paintings of London fogs. Shortly after
one of his now
him and exclaimed excitedly:
host's house another guest rushed up
to
at his
just crossed the Thames River, and it looked exactly like
"Mr Whistler, I
and replied: "Thank you, madam.

one of your paintings!" Whistler smiled
Nature is improving."
also a remarkable
This an amusing anecdote about a painter who was
is
painting. Whereas the usual assumption

wit But it raises a basic point about
one) is that the artist fol-
about painting (although a basically unthinking
that appear in his work. Whistler is
lows nature in the forms and colors
404
A Landscape and a Cityscape - 405
saying the reverse, that we see in life that which the artist has chosen to
portray. What, then, does the artist do? Does he "hold a mirror up to na-
ture" and attempt to make his pictures a reflection of the visible world,
or does he interpret his subjects and thus provide for observers' new in-
sights into the world about them? We know, too, that pictures by many
recent artists (though it is also true of other periods in the past) bear little
or no resemblance to our visual world. One might well ask: What are these
artists painting? What are the subjects of such works? Before attempting to
answer such questions, let us take a look at two pictures, examining them
in some detail, to see what insights they might provide.
A LANDSCAPE AND A CITYSCAPE

These two paintings are both recent when viewed in the context of the
history of painting. Edward Hopper, an American, painted "Early Sunday
Morning" (Fig. 406) in 1930, and Vincent van Gogh, who was Dutch,
painted "Starry Night" (Fig. 408) in 1889. The paintings provide strong
contrasts in subject and in treatment. Both men have used commonly per-
ceived subjects: Hopper, an unpretentious stretch of small shops with livmg
quarters above such as are found in many American cities; van Gogh, a
brilliant star-filled and moonlit sky. Hopper's subject is so
commonplace
that we hardly notice itvan Gogh's subject is compelling
when we see it;
for its own intrinsic beauty and grandeur. "Early Sunday

Morning" is
illuminated by the clear, steady light of day; "Starry Night" has evoked
the mystery and awesomeness of the night. Both artists were faced with the
necessity of transformation: Hopper to take an ordinary and unattractive
subject and make it a work of art; van Gogh, to capture within the con-
canvas the great energies and vastness of a starlit night.

fines of a small
Hopper's "Early Sunday Morning"
On looking at "Early Sunday Morning" one might at first glance say

that Hopper has done nothing to his subject but record it. But
such a reac-
tion ignores the fact that even the simplest painting involves
many de-
cisions. Hopper, first of all, had to decide what he wanted to paint and any
artist is drawn to some subjects more than others. In fact, to produce a
painting of vitality, it is essential that the artist feel deeply about his subject;
the attraction cannot be half-hearted or desultory. One might then ask
further: did he choose a subject which seems so unartistic? Rather

Why
than answer that question directly, let us look at some of the decisions
he
made and the picture he produced.

406 - Painting
the American Edward Hopper con-

"Early Sunday Morning" (1930) an oil painting by
emphases on horizontal forms. {Collection of
veys a calm, restful effect through the
Whitney Museum of American Art, New York)
hori-
The first thing we note about "Early Sunday Morning" is its
This effect
zontality. As has already been noted, horizontal lines are restful.
morning, contrast to other
entirely in keeping with the title, for Sunday
in
is
mornings of the week, is a time when the practical affairs of life are tem-
porarily in abeyance, when we can enjoy the luxury of sleeping past the
when a general air of peace and quiet is most likely to
usual rising time,
This last point is especially pertinent here, for this is an area with
prevail.
shops and stores, and on weekday mornings the street
and sidewalk
many
would be alive with activity.
of the picture essentially a series of horizontal bands

The composition is
unbroken,
running lengthwise across the painting. The top one, the sky, is
only by the line of

except at the extreme right. The bottom one is broken
shadows they cast. The
the curb, the water plug, barber pole, and the long
interestingly treated areas are the two center ones.
Note that both
more
forms which serve as a foil for
have been divided into a series of vertical
The repetition of the second-story window forms

the major horizontal areas.
perfectly regular across the painting (alternating
with the cornice brack-
is
up a sort of counterpoint but is varied at

ets); the rhythm of the shops sets
the right side of the picture. Through such means as the shapes of awnings
and the curtaining of windows, the openings in the building are interest-
ingly and variously treated.
Hopper has introduced two gentle yet important contrasts in the pic-
ture. All of the basic forms are rectangular, and opposing them are a num-
ber of circular and curved forms; the water plug, the barber pole, the three
little metal forms on the ledge in front of the second-story windows, the
scallops on the awnings. The other contrast is in direction. The front of the
building establishes a flat plane across the picture. Opposing this are three
signs which project from the building, all casting long diagonal shadows.
The dark entrances into the stores and apartments carry this same opposing
direction past the plane of the building. The placement of the water plug
and barber pole relates to the same system of diagonals set up by the shadows
of the signs. Note also how the dark area in the upper right corner and the
low-value treatment of the shop windows at the right serve to stop the
diagonal and depth movements and the rhythms of the window forms. The
picture abounds in other subtleties which repay study. Find, for example,
the diagonals which oppose the shadows from the signs.
\Vith the identification of the subject never in doubt, "Early Sunday

Morning" is But the painting has many over-
readily classifiable as realistic.
tones that stem from Hopper's treatment rather than from the subject.
Although highly realistic in effect, the picture also conveys a feeling of
mystery. It is at early morning that we wonder what the day will bring and
in the picture the uncertainty is suggested by the long shadow running the
length of the sidewalk— but we do not know what is casting it. Without
portraying people, Hopper produced a human document; by an exception-
ally tender and meticulous treatment of an unprepossessing subject, he con-

veyed a feeling of stillness and quietude.
Van Gogh's "Starry Night"
By contrast, "Starry Night" impresses us by its tremendous vitality and

sense of movement; a restless energy pervades the canvas. The universe is
portrayed as a system of mighty and tremendous forces which make the

works of man, typified by the church and houses, appear puny and static.
It is the might of nature, the natural laws that order the stars and that de-
termine the forms of hills and the gro\vth patterns of trees, to which the
artist is responding.
\Ve have all experienced starry nights in which we feel the gigantic
forces of nature and realize ourselves as only tiny parts of a universe which
is awesome in its magnitude and magnificence. It is these feelings that van
408
"7?^'
'^j^-
'fÂ
t*"^!**-**-.
"Starrv Niriit" (1889) by Vincent van

Gogh, a Dutch painter, is an excited and im-
of nature. The liberties he has taken
passioned reaction to an impressive phenomenon
he has used of applying the oil paint both contribute
with his subject and the technique
to the total effect. {Collection, the Museum of Modern Art, New York)
strongly
night
Gogh is and he accepted the fact that the magic of a starlit
stating,
than by literal photography.
can no more be portrayed by literal painting
movements
To convey his ideas he has used distorted sizes and shapes;
of light pattern the sky with all the energy
and much of the form of nebulae;
brilliance take on tremendous size (compare
them
individual stars in their
sky as is usual in night
with the buildings); the moon, not dominating the
scenes, takes a lesser place in the firmament.
The cypress tree in the fore-
restless energy as the
ground-also a part of nature-is filled with the same
sky. The small village in the foreground
seems secure and protected, and m
the repose both of the forms of the buildings
and the technique used to
explosive vigor in the rest of the
depict them offers a contrast to the almost
picture. "Starry Night" romantic subject, romantically portrayed, highly
is a
its ideas. It is the
emotionalized both in content and in means used to convey
feels deeply and intensely
work of a passionately sensitive individual who
the wonder and the awesomeness of nature.
In looking at "Starry Night," one is immediately conscious of van

Gogh's technique, because it is in large part responsible for the dynamic
quality of the canvas. Every stroke is visible, and each falls into place as
part of a large moving pattern. Even more basic, ho'ivever, are the composi-
tion and forms. The areas occupied by sky and ground are generally hori-
zontal, as are the lesser forms within them. Opposing these, both in direction
and value, is the form of the cypress tree (with a faint echo in the church
spire). Its startling darkness adds brilliance and luminosity to the sky; its
verticality makes the earth forms appear more stable and placid. We have
already commented on the tree's restless quality, which serves as a link
bet^veen it and the sky, giving the two a basis of unity even though in other
respects— direction, hue, and value— they are drastically opposed. It is within
the sky, and properly so, that the most compelling and unusual forms are
found. Almost directly in the center are two large interlocking spiral forms
(with a lesser one slightly below and to the right) that are part of a great
movement entering and climaxing in the spirals. The

the picture at the left
spiral, with its constantly changing direction and speed, is an admirable
form to give a sense of movement and energy. Filling the rest of the sky
are the stars and the moon, all burning with a terrible intensity. These are
all circular, and they appear restless and mobile. The unstable forms hang-
ing in the sky are in stunning contrast to the stable, rectangular solids of
the buildings. The hills, with their gently rounded forms, serve as transition
between ground and sky. In color, the hot piercing yellow of the moon and
stars is in strong opposition to the cool greens and blues in the tree, land,
and sky.
There is another compositional arrangement that should be observed,
one based on a system of diagonals. A strong line is set up along the lower
right edges of the cypress tree extending generally to the upper left-hand
corner. Note in how many places this direction is repeated in the building,
ground, and sky forms. These diagonals are opposed by another set at right
angles to them, most sharply defined in the lines defining the tops of the
hills but which also appear in every part of the composition. The picture
involves horizontals, verticals, opposing diagonals, circles, spirals, rectangles,

triangles, all skillfully interwoven and further unified in large measure by
the bold technique.
Thus we see some of the means which van Gogh used to get his effects:
the impulsive technique, the rhythmic forms, the vibrant color, the dynamic
contrasts. Study the picture closely and see what other devices he used to
communicate his ideas.
These two paintings are examples of differing facets of modern paint-

ing. One is a calm and reasoned yet compassionate portrayal of an ordinary
410 - Painting
The other is highly emotional-a passionate

feature in an environment.
an impressive aspect of nature. Whereas
Hopper
outpouring in response to
appearance of his subject, he has been
has remained rather close to the
highly selective in what he has
portrayed and the conditions under which
contrast, has gone far beyond the appear-
he^'presents it to us. Van Gogh, by
painting, and it has become a more
personal and
ance of his subject in his
different reasons,
But both men, although for quite
subjective statement.
artistry and power.
have produced works of compelling
THE FIELD OF PAINTING

was discussed
The paintings by Hopper and van Gogh make it clear that, as
the "form" of a
in Part 1 (and as we shall take up further in this section),
Painters vary widely in what they want
work of art grows out of expression.
"say"; therefore, they make use of
widely differing means and forms of
to
expression. Let us look now at some general considerations.
the Arts of Representation
Paintinc and sculpture are often called
painters and sculptors bears a marked
because in many instances the work of
other objects we see. Often the
resemblance to the persons, trees, skies, and
approximate the appearance of
de-ree to which painting and sculpture
and many persons look only for
nature is taken as a criterion of excellence,
naturalistic perspective, proportions,
and colors. If a picture or statue looks
good. If it does not, many persons
"natural" or "real," they regard it as
careless. But as the problems of
assume that the artist was incompetent or
it becomes evident that
literal imita-
painting and sculpture are investigated,
painters or sculptors themselves.
tion is seldom held as a goal by
as they always have, painters deal

with problems or aspects o£
Today,
the physical and spiritual
life thatthey feel are important. They explore
express their discoveries. Some-
world in which we live and devise ways to
that have passed unnoticed. Painters
times they direct us to aspects of nature
machine esthetic;
may experiment with mechanized forms and thus provide a
they may investigate space and movement and thus be as much a part of
the space age as any scientist. They may be involved with feelings and sensa-
matter, deal only with forms and colors.
tions and, discarding all subject
may express their fears and frustrations, comment on social
And painters
injustice, or reaffirm the dignity of
man. In many varied and wondrous ways,
into man's understanding of
himself and his
painters offer vital insights
relation to the world.
not treat
Although two artists may paint the same subject, they will
paintings may be radically different. For
it in the same way. In fact, their
The Field of Painting - 411
example, two painters may choose a dilapidated house as subject matter;
one may emphasize its picturesque, charming or quaint aspects, while the
other may make of it a social commentary on the conditions that produced
such a d\velling. Thus we can distinguish bet^veen subject matter and con-
tent. The subject matter of both paintings is the same dilapidated house,
but the content of the first is the charm of the quaint and picturesque while
that of the second is social comment. In the paintings of Maria Lani (Figs.
418B to 419D) you can see how identical subject matter has been used to
express such di\ersified content as healthy optimism, delicacy and reserve,

gaiety, and tragedy.
In some paintings, such as those by Marca-Relli and Miro (Figs. 404
and 452B), there no subject matter directly and specifically related to
is
objects in the visible world. But clearly there is content, for these painters
have chosen to portray in a generalized, philosophic way their thoughts and
feelings about such abstract but basic concepts as the interrelations of or-
ganic forms and about order and regularity. In fact, the more we study re-
cent painting, the more we discover, to our astonishment and delight, the
range and intensity of ideas that can be conveyed without recourse to subject
matter.
Another problems centers around materials, tools, and techniques.

set of
Almost any surface— paper, canvas, plaster, ^vood, or metal— will hold paint,
but each has its own characteristics that in part determine the final effect of
a painting. For each of these surfaces there are suitable paints and brushes,
not just one kind of paint and one type of brush for each, but a considerable
variety. And after the painter has chosen a specific surface on which to paint,
a suitable kind of paint, and appropriate brushes, he can use these tools
and materials in extremely diverse ways. The wise painter chooses the
tools and materials most compatible with his basic idea, then develops a
technique through which it can be sympathetically expressed.
Finally, the painter concerns himself with organizing the plastic ele-
ments with which he works to give order and intensity to his idea. He thinks
not merely of balance, rhythm, and emphasis, but of which kind of balance,
which rhythm, which degree of emphasis will best convey his content.
sort of
In the process of creating a painting, the painter must react deeply and
strongly to his basic idea. It must inspire and stimulate him, and he must
devise means of communicating his feelings to those who see his ^vork. Out
of the basic idea grows the technique and the organization of the painting—
if it is an integrated expression. And out of the intensity of his feelings
comes the spirit that makes a painting vital.
412 - Painting
These three important factors— expression, materials, and organization-

each be dealt with in this chapter. Note that this considers and
applies
will
Parts
specific field of art the three fundamental problems treated in
I,
to a
II, and III of this book.
EXPRESSION: SUBJECT MATTER AND CONTENT

or to
Many people, in looking at a painting, are afraid to respond to it
express an opinion. "Am I having the 'proper' reaction?" "Is
this the way
I am 'supposed' to feel when I look at this painting?" "This picture does
not affect me-perhaps I have no esthetic sensibilities." These are all-too-
typical reactions.
many respects, paintings are like people: they are richly
varied, and
In
They can be serious, profound, trivial,
each has a distinct personality.
any of a wide range of characteristics that could also be
humorous, sad, or
his behavior
applied to people. In meeting an individual, you react to
traits, his speech, his clothes, his ideas, his
responses to situations. On such
bases you form your opinion: him; you dislike him; you are neutral;
you like
Sometimes
you wish to withhold judgment until you have seen him again.
further acquaintance you reverse your opinion: a person
on the basis of
as various
toward whom you were neutral may become a valued friend
seemed who
aspects of his personality are slowly revealed; another
at first
and
to possess charm and graciousness may before long seem superficial
shallow.
Carrying the analogy of pictures and people further,
we may state a
persons repays one

few generalizations. First, the cultivation of paintings and
in abundant measure, because in the process new
and richer aspects of both
of time can no more reveal
are revealed. A profound picture in a short space
depths
all that it than can a profound individual. In fact, the real
has to offer
of either are never fully plumbed; hence their continued appeal. Second,
people and with pictures: the
we have something in common with all all
And your reactions are

basis for an acquaintanceship with both exists.
last,
to modify them,
your own: do not be afraid of them! Do not be afraid
and beliefs and understand-
either, for only through a revision of attitudes
ings can true growth take place.
turn to two more paintings which we will scrutinize closely.
We now
The subject matter same in both-people-but they differ widely in
is the
content. As with the Hopper and van Gogh, we

can compare divergent
treatments. In discussing them we will focus mi

such questions as: What is
What the artist trying to "say"? What
the general effect of the picture? is
means has he used to communicate his idea?

413
Grant Wood's literally stated "American Gothic" (1930) is a penetrating study in oils of
a Midwestern farmer and his wife. {Courtesy of The Art Institute of Chicago, Friends of
American Art Collection)
Two Paintings of People
"American Gothic" (Fig. 413) is a comforting picture to many people

because Grant Wood left no doubt as to what he was painting. It is a portrait
of an American farmer and his wife against their Gothic Revival farmhouse
and one of their barns. It is a picture of two people (in actuality, Grant
Wood's sister and an Iowa dentist) who, to the artist, typified Midwest
American farm folk. The couple appear severe but not unkind, hard-work-
ing and thrifty, clean and unpretentious. There is much evidence of pride
414 - Painting
king would
in their well-kept farm: the farmer grasps his pitchfork as a
wife implies a humorless concern for
hold a scepter, the expression of his
the thriving house plants, the
shades m
her neatly kept home as indicated by
curtains
the rug from fading, and the lace
the living room drawn to keep
in the bedroom. .
organized
Yet for all its unpretentiousness, the composition is artfully
held to-
generally triangular and stable, the two
figures
and unified. It is
between the two
gether, pictorially, by the gable and porch roof. The area
that they, too, take
given importance by the dark windows
(note
heads is
form). The pitchfork, serving as a

symbol in the picture (its
on a triangular
resemblance to a scepter has already
been noted), appears significantly in
the open coat,
many stitching in the overalls re-vealed by
variations: in the
the vertical-leafed plant on
in the hand grasping the pitchfork handle; in
the porch to the left; and, somewhat
more modified, in the tracery of the win-
roofs, and the pleating on the
mans
dows, the joint lines of the sheet metal
of thin verticality, echoed in
shirt Thepitchfork, in addition, strikes a note
vertical siding of the house and
barn. These
the variations just cited and the
associated with the man. Opposed
to these
linear, angular, vertical forms are
of the
chiefly on the left, or woman's
side
are the rounded forms found
lines which delineate her dress
and apron,
picture. Note the softly curved
pattern on the apron. In the
background behind the
tlie cameo pin, and the
the begonia repeating the
woman are some house plants, the leaves of
observe the placement of the figures
shape of her cameo. It is interesting to
the man stands in front of the
barn side of
in relation to the background:
living and bed-
of the kitchen side, and the
the house, the woman in front
standing slightly ahead of and
room areas are between them. The man
what it tells us of their personal
dominating the woman is significant in
relationship. ,• a
persons rendered with realism and
, .
,
Here a skillful painting of two

is
situation, at a particular time,
composed with subtlety. It presents a specific
and a definite place.
(Fig. 415) does not attempt

to
In contrast, "Girl Before a Mirror"
fidelity. The girl is not
someone we could
depict a particular person with
has the
looked like that. What then
recognize because no one has ever
painter, Pablo Picasso, done? r ,u^
easy to identify the
clearly a picture of great complexity.
It is
This is
young girl, the mirror, her reflec-
major elements in the composition-the
mirror is quite different
But we note that the girl reflected in the
tion.
from the one looking into it. We can see at once that Picasso is "O^ P^""?
interests him little: he feels free
surface appearance: in fact, in this
picture it
to alter and transpose as necessary.

415
Pablo Picasso's "Girl Before a Mirror" (1930), in oil, is abstracted and expressionistic.
Numerous views and aspects of the figure are vigorously shown and combined. {Collec-
tion, the Museum of Modern Art, New York, Gift of Mrs. Simon Guggenheim)
Let us look at the total picture. It is bold and vigorous in treatment,

rich and sumptuous in color. The figures, and the mirror, are composed
of curved and circular forms of great variety which dispose themselves
handsomely over the canvas. Both the girl and her reflection are painted
generally in cool hues of low intensity with a few areas of warm color. By
contrast the background is made up of vigorous diagonals painted in bril-
and yellows with a few touches of cool green. There is at

liant reds, oranges,
once a tension set up between the quietude of the figures and the energy
of the background. The composition is cut into two almost equal parts
by the edge of the mirror but the arm of the girl as it reaches across connects
the two halves.
416 - Painting
The figures are the dominating element of the composition and they are
clothed, nude, and X-rayed." On the left the
head is shown
"simultaneously
and we see both a profile and full-face view. This is a time-
as a full circle,
other sets up a sensation of
space treatment and looking from one to the
movement. This head with its full, bold forms is serene and out-going m
In the head in the mirror the profile is more dominant and the
its effect.
effect is one of introspection and

withdrawal-an impression suggested
chiefly by the sunken and heavily shaded
eye as well as the color. It is as
into rather than at herself. The mirror
is,
if the young girl were looking
therefore, given another connotation.

life very differently from
In "Girl Before a Mirror" Picasso looks at
than by
Grant Wood. He shows us that people can be painted in other ways
different views, what ^ve know
depicting surface appearances. By combining
to our responses. But the
with what we see, he has added other diinensions
its strong forms and rich
painting is first of all a powerful work of art with
its variety in unity.
colors, its tensions and harmonies, and
painted within
"American Gothic" and "Girl Before a Mirror" were
respectively, and illustrate two
two years of each other, in 1930 and 1932,
People are the content
among the many trends in contemporary painting.
dissimilar. Wood's painting is a literal,
in both, but the content is markedly
of their house and barn. Picasso's
factual document of two lowans in front
portrayal of many physical and
painting is an imaginative and inventive
psychical attributes of a young girl. Whereas
"American Gothic" is specific,
"Girl Before a Mirror" is generalized. Another

way of saying this is to refer
as abslract^the latter term meaning
that
to the one as realistic, to the other
essentials of tlie subject are portrayed without imitating appearances.
The Man Behind the Easel

4I8A to
Look photograph and seven portrayals of Maria Lani in Figs.
at the
immediately the wide
419D. Although all are of the same person, we note
the fact that seven markedly
range of interpretations. What is responsible for
different portraits have resulted? It is obviously
due to the artiste and to the
mediums used, and since each artist chose the
they
medium he wished, all of
it comes back to the artist himself.
of these portraits, is an actress of great talent
Maria Lani, the subject
done (in the late 1920s), she was
and beauty. When these paintings were
of artists either painted or modeled
her re-
living in Paris, and a number
markable head. It has several distinguishing characteristics: the lovely tri-
eyes and heavy eyelids, the
angular shape of the face, the large lustrous
strong arched eyebrows, the wide, full
mouth, the general fullness of form.
Expression: Subject Matter and Content - 417
All these combine to make a head that is beautiful and distinguished. Hers
is a beauty of structure and form; it is not superficial or skin-deep.
We cannot help noticing that although all seven portraits are different,
they are at the same time very much alike— they all look like the subject.
Interestingly enough, five out of the seven have chosen a three-quarters
view, only one a profile, and one a full-face view. All have taken note of the
characteristic shape of her face; of the wide forehead tapering to the full
chin; and of the heavy-lidded eyes.

Yet it is the differences which we note even more than the similarities.
In Kramstyck's picture we see a serene, healthy woman who gazes upon the
world with assurance and equanimity. It is a literal portrait, because her

physical appearance has been set down with little change either in form or
value. Gromaire, while still literal, is clearly interested in design, for the
forms of the head and shoulders have been organized as large, simple, closely
related areas. The Soutine has a general aspect of somberness, and the elonga-
tion and distortion of the forms give us a portrayal that is ascetic and
neurotic. In the Rouault she is portrayed as tragic, her face a mask, the eyes
full and unseeing. In contrast, the Matisse is gay and alive with sparkle and
vitality. Kisling has given great emphasis to her eyes. He has made them
appear even larger by head downward, and the sketchy quality of

tilting the
the rest of the figure further centers attention on them. They are the
troubled eyes of a woman, perhaps not sure of herself, who looks to others
for assistance and assurance. Of all the portraits, the one by Lurcat is the
most depersonalized. He has seen the sitter not so much as a woman but
as a design with richly varied forms and strong contrasts. But even that tells
us something about the effect of the model on the painter.
How can we explain all these varied interpretations? True, the model
was a person of rich and varied personality, as the wide range of interpreta-
tions testify. But the artists saw different things in the model, and they saw
different things because they themselves were all different people with differ-
ent backgrounds, experiences, and goals. We cannot help concluding that
Rouault has something of the somber and tragic in his personality, Matisse
the gay and cheerful, Kramstyck the healthy and untroubled, Soutine the
moody and introverted, Lurcat the intellectual and impersonal. A study of
other works of these artists will bear out these generalizations, because the
characteristics exhibited in these portraits are found there. We conclude that
artists interpret their subjects in terms of their interests and experiences.
In this case they have done it with a living subject, but the same is true
when the subject is a mountain or a bowl of fruit. Every aspect of our

environment is capable of such varied interpretation as we have seen in the
above portraits.
418 - Painting
••^^^\-'•^>;l'.•'l;'•
Lani and the seven portraits of her done

In this photograph of the French actress Maria a.id
mediums, one is struck by both the snn.lant.es
by well known artists in various
the same, but the co.uent is
the dissimilarities in the portraits. The
subject matter is
the of the personality of the artist on his work.

varied-a striking example of effect
Expression: Subject Matter and Content - 419
'.
#
Y
t
/ j
'
K t
> '•-
1
Opposite, above, left to right: (A) Photograph (Life photograph by Harold Carter); (B)
Romain Kramstyck; below, left to right: (C) Georges Rouault; (D) Henri Matisse.
Above, left to right: (A) Marcel Gromaire; (B) Cluiim Soutine; below, left to riglit:
(C) Moise Kisling; (D) Jean Lurât.
420 - Painting
therefore ask: Where does reality lie? In the subject, or in

One might
the experience of the artist? The
answer is that it lies in both. All of the
pictures look like Miss Lani, yet

each of them looks like the artist who
possessed such rich possibilities of
painted her The subject was one who
fmd a reflection of his own interests
interpretation that each artist could
carrying this point one step further,
and personality within the subject. And
reader, see a work of art through
your per-
it isequally true that you, the
different to everyone who sees it, depending
sonality Every painting looks
An individual who has
experiences and the kind of a person he
is.
upon his
different understanding to the
experienced inconsolable grief will bring
a
touched. The gay, cheerful quality

Rouault than one whom tragedy has not
like char-
especially meaningful to a person of
of the Matisse portrait will be
although we bring our
acteristics.But equally important is the point that
experiences to a picture, we find them broadened and deepened by
own
The seven artists who painted Miss Lam have
contact with works of art.
that would not be apparent to
any
interpreted aspects of her personality
single person. . ,,. j
basic to an intelligent under-
We have looked at another factor which is
Out of the richness of life and nature

standino of a work of art-the artist.
meaning for him and constructs
the artiest selects those aspects that have
we are equally selective
his own artistic reality. In looking at a work of art,
things that have meaning for us.

But just
in seeing and reacting to those
portrayal
as the artist can develop and
grow in his study of a subject and his
art. Appreciation can be-
of it can develop and grow in our study of
so we
worthy of the name-an experience
whereby our
in fact should be, if it is
own lives are made richer and more meaningful.
MATERIALS AND PROCESSES IN PAINTING

paintings
results that artists obtain in their
In spite of the great variety of
the mediums used are few in
number. Each medium exerts a pronounced
yet each is capable of varied
and individual
effect on the finished product,
the three most commonly
used in
treatment. In the following sections,
discussed.
painting-oil, water color, and fresco-are
Painting in Oil
of the fifteenth
Ever since oil paints were developed around the beginning
other medium.
century painters have used them more frequently than any
that
They have many advantages. Therange of hues, values, and intensities
themselves to extraordi-
can be obtained is practically infinite: they lend
Materials and Processes in Painting - 421
narily varied handling; they can be worked and reworked many times; and
tliey are durable.
Three Landscapes. Interesting contrasts in the use of oil paints as a
medium are pro\ iticd by "\'iew of Toledo" (Fig. 422A), "La Grenouillere"
(Fig. 422B), and "Door to the River" (Fig. 423A) painted by El Greco,
Claude Monet, and W'illem de Kooning. The El Greco is not only of interest
historically— it is probably the first landscape painted in Europe where the
subject ^vas treated on its own merits rather than being a backgioimd for
people— but it is a magnificent composition. The great free curved forms of
the groimd contrast, both in nature and scale, with the geometric architec-
tural forms that on them. Belo^v, the foliage has been varied in texture,
rest
value, direction, and scale to support and enhance the middle ground.
Above, a massive sky, its warm grays contrasting strongly with the sharp
greens on the ground and in the foliage, partakes of the same enormous
energy ^vhich permeates the rest of the canvas. To achieve this result. El
Greco took full advantage of the versatility of oil paints. The comparative
smoothness of the sky and ground forms accentuates the varied textures
of foliage and buildings, and the direction of the brush strokes not only
models the forms but vitalizes the whole canvas.
This idea is carried further in "La Grenouillere," for here one is con-
scious of the medium in all parts of the composition; every brush stroke is
clearly visible. The technique is extraordinary for it is perfectly suited to

capturing the brilliance of a landscape bathed in light. This is an Impres-
sionist painting where detailed appearance is not desired but where, rather,
the impressioji of a scene is sought. Notice that in most of the painting
(especially the water, the small boats, and the figures) the brush strokes
One could almost say that they are the forms.
coincide with specific forms.
It seems odd to us now to understand why the Impressionists were accused
of having no technique when they were first exhibited.

In the de Kooning we sec a painting in which clearly there is even
greater concern with how the pigment is applied. Whereas in the Monet
we "discover" that a highlight of water has been painted as a stroke of
pigment, in the de Kooning we do the reverse; we see the handling first.
We note such things as the vigor of the brush work, the texture left by the
strokes, the splash of pigment when heavily loaded brushes were struck
against the canvas. These compel our attention. The basically simple forms
of the composition reveal themselves to us but they are not particularly
emphasized. \'ery obviously the medium has been exploited as a source of
pleasure: we are almost a witness to the act of painting for every step of the
painting process is there to be seen. "Door to the River" is part of a long
train of developments in art in which interest has tended to shift from con-
422 - Painting
Oil pigments have been a

major medium of artists for
hundreds of years.
(A) Left. In "View of To-
ledo" (1604-1614) by El
Greco, the first pure land-
scape in the European tradi-
tion, the land and sky forms
are welded into vast restless
patterns. {Courtesy of the
(B) Below. Claude Monet's
"La Grenouill^re" (1869), an
Impressionist painting, has
caught the brilliance and vi-
brancy of light as it falls on a
festive scene. {Courtesy of the

Contemporary artists have de-
veloped new ways of using oil
paint.
(A) Right. The act of painting
is conveyed in abstract expres-
sionist Willeni de Kooning's
"Door to the River" (1960). We
can readily distinguish the vari-
ous brush strokes in this dynamic
painting. {Gift of the Friends of
the ]Vhitney Museum of Ameri-
can Art. Collection of Whitney
Museum of America?! Art, New
York)
(B) Belo-w. William Congdon
in "\'enice. No. 1" has applied
pigment thickly, then suggested
detail by scratching through the
pigment with a sharp point. The
distortion of the forms has pro-
duced an effect of energy and
excitement. (Courtesy of the City
Art Museum of St. Louis) jOI mi
V""^"' ~ "JW;-, -. - -^^ -^*Sy|Hi"<5^~
I-.- •^L
^^^:^
w-
,.'?*.. ,:i-':J:.-::V^
f--'
424 - Painting
an acceptance of a painting as an object
to
tent or message in a painting
This concern for the qualities of a
medium and its
of interest in itself.
potentialities for expression and

enjoyment are, therefore, logical outcomes
°^ pigments and
The Process. There is no limit to the ways of handling oil
'^'
effects^The
possible to get as wide a range of
in no other paint medium is it
heavy
strokes (Fig. 408), in thick and
pigment may be applied in separate
almost water-color transparency
opaque masses (Fig. 423B), or in washes of
subtle modeling of form are
/Fie 45''B) Variations and nuances of color,
characteristic is
ingenuity and skill. Another
limited only by the painter's
painter begins
In water-color painting the
also of considerable importance.
and each touch of pigment dark-
with white paper to which he applies color,
water color,
ens the paper. Thus, unless
opaque white pigment is added to
true of fresco.
light to dark. The same is
the painter necessarily works from
In oil painting, however, one may
work either from light to dark or from
to cover
used, oil paint is opaque enough
dark to light because, as typically
what is beneath it.

,:„* ,-, ,
suitable surface on which to
paint-
In oil painting an artist needs a
and yet not absorb it. that will with-
one that will receive oil paint freely
Canvas is the
stand temperature changes and
not crack the pigment on it.
been
wood, paper, and metal have
most widely used support, although
were
used. Many of the great paintings
up to the time of the Renaissance
cheapness, and flexibility of good
hemp
painted on wood, but the lightness,
the practice of painting on
wood. Recently,
or linen canvas have made rare
paintings. It. like
hard-pressed wall boards have been
used increasingly for oil
canvas, is usually given a sizing

coat of white lead.
coal
Pigments come from many sources: minerals, vegetable matters,
These are ground until the grams
tars and other chemical combinations.
with oil-Unseed oil is most
commonly used
are extremely fine, then mixed
suitable consistency. They vary
-and sometimes with wax to bring them to
fade; others-
in their permanence:
some-particularly earth pigments-never
ones-are quite impermanent. In
and this includes some highly desirable
those pigments that can be
counted on not
general, painters depend upon
to change through the years.
round, with soft
The oil painter's brushes are of two general types: (1)
which are excellent for precise detail such as that

hairs (sable are the best),
bristles for larger, bolder
in "American Gothic," and (2) flat, with stiff
generally is wanted. For each type there
strokes where some textural effect
visib e in the
varieties. Where brushwork is
are many different sizes and
fairly easily recognize the
kind of a brush
finished picture an observer can
used a large
the River" de Kooning clearly
the painter used; in "Door to
flat brush with soft hairs.
Some painters do not use brushes but apply their pigments with a
palette knife or other tools, or directly from the tube or can. With these
methods the paint is often applied thickly and produces bold, textural
effects. In painting "Number 27," (Fig. 453) Jackson Pollock placed his
canvas on the floor and poured pigment on it, getting his effects from the
fluid quality of the paint as it fell on the canvas. But even with this seem-
ingly free technique he exerted many controls— color, direction, and thick-
ness of the paint, to mention only a few. In fact, Pollock's technique was so
highly developed that, like van Gogh, he has had no successful imitators.
As pointed out above, the texture of pigment itself is a newly discovered
value in painting and one which has been developed largely in the last
century. Prior to that time, in most paintings, pigment was applied smoothly
and texttires arising from it as a material were avoided. Now painters treat
it in varied ways to give it an interesting surface. We have already men-
tioned the textural effects from bristle brushes and palette knives. William
Congdon, in "Venice, Number I" (Fig. 423B), has gone to considerable
pains to apply the paint so as to produce a richly textured surface that
glows with the opulence of a tapestry. In addition, he has used a sharp point
to scratch into the moist pigment some of the details of the buildings he is
painting. This is particularly apparent on the right side of the painting.

Sometimes the texture is related to the object that is being painted; some-
times it is something to delight us just on its own qualities.
Modern oil painters are a highly experimental group and they have
extended greatly the range of possibilities of their medium. The ways in
which they use it are as varied as the ideas they express. After over five
hundred years of use, oil paint as a medium can still astonish and delight
us with its versatility.
Painting in Water Color
"Lower Manhattan" (Fig. 426), a water color painting by John Marin, is a

spontaneous, vibrant picture. It is a view of downtown New York with sev-
eral of the tall buildings that characterize the area in the backgrotuid, and
the elevated railroad (now gone) in the foreground. The sketch with its
headlong diagonals, its sharp contrasts, and its impetuosity, captures the
dynamic quality characteristic of a throbbing business and commercial
center. It would be difficult to get the effects Marin achieved in any
other medium than a watered pigment applied freely on paper. Good water
color paintings are not easy to make, despite their impromptu appearance.
Water color painting, as much as any other medium, requires a high degree
of technical dexterity.
426 - Painting
strong and bold treatment coiiveys the

Tohn Marin's "Lower Manhattan" (1920) with its
the Museum of Modern Art, New
energy and dynamism of a great city. (Collection,
York, Philip L. Goodwin Collection)
water colorist must have a suitable surface, and

most
The Process. A
This makes possible a greater
painters like a paper that is rough in texture.
lightly over the paper so that
variety of treatment: the brush can be passed
the pigment; or a wet
only the tops of the "bumps" on rough paper catch
in the hollows be-
brush can be applied so that the pigment tends to settle
textures. Smooth paper

tween the bumps. Both treatments give interesting
is sometimes used by painters, with a
marked difference in effect. In particu-
source of texture. The colors dry more evenly
and
lar, it them of a
deprives
textures must be secured by means of brush strokes applied to a dry surface.
"soft-
The water colorist's brushes are also carefully selected. Generally
camels, oxen, or red
brushes are used, made of the hair of such animals as
sable. The last are expensive but much the best, for brushes made from them
are very pliant, yet spring back into their original shape when the pressure
is released and they are raised from the paper. Hard or bristle brushes are
also used, and these are best suited to paintings in which a dry, textured ef-
fect is wanted.
A most important part of the water colorist's kit is his collection of pig-
ments. These come in tubes or cakes and are soluble in water. Colors that
are mixed on the palette (which for water colors must be white so the
painter can see how the colors will look on white paper) generally produce
an even tone when applied to the paper. Or the artist may load his brush
ivith two or more colors by pressing it directly into the pigment and then
applying it to the paper. A particular brush stroke, therefore, can be richly
\'aried in color if the separate colors in the brush remain unmixed. A wide
range of colors can be mixed from a few basic ones. A glance at Marin's
palette (here the term is used only to refer to the colors that an artist uses)
shows what a small number of colors an artist needs to get striking and
complex results: blues— French, ultramarine, cerulean, cobalt; reds— rose
madder, light red, spectrum red; );e//oit;5— aureolin, yellow ochre, cadmium;
greens— \iridian, oxide of chromium; gray— Fayne's gray; black— \amp black.
Paper, brushes, palette, and water is all that the water colorist needs.
"Lower Manhattan" shows all these materials at work. Even the paper itself
"works": its handsome texture enriches the painted areas; lightly painted
and unpainted areas provide brilliance. The brushes and pigment, too, work
well: we see the directions of the strokes; the energetic interplay between
light and dark areas, between verticals and diagonals.
It is evident from Marin's water color that he approaches his work as a
means of recording his response to the forces implicit in his subject. He is
not concerned with literary, social, or imitative values. He tells no "story,"

fights for no cause. But he presents the urban scene (and in some of his
other paintings, the deserts of our Southwest or the coast of Maine) in a
way which uniquely reveals their essential qualities. He offers the observer
the possibility of an invigorating, intense experience.
John Marin on Painting. Marin has written convincingly on painting.

Here is a quotation:
Consider the material side of today with its insistence: glass, metals, lights,
buildings of all kinds for all kinds of purposes with all kinds of materials.
Lights brilliant, noises startling and hard, pace setting in all directions,
through-wires, people movements, much hard matter.

The life of today so keyed up, so seen, so seemingly unreal yet so real
and the eye with so much to see and the ear to hear. Things happening most
428 - Painting
is it? But the seeing
eye and the
weirdly upside down, that it's all-what
hearing ear become attuned. Then comes
expression:
taut, taut
loose and taut
electric
staccato
that
To eet to my picture ... I must for myself insist that when finished,
place and are working, that now it has become
is when all the parts are in
boundaries as definite as that the prow,
an object and will therefore have its
bound a boat I am not to be destruc-
the stern, the sides and bottom
fight going
tive within. I can have things
that clash. I can have a jolly good
there are living things. But 1
on There is always a fight going on where
a Blessed Equilibrium.
must be able to control this fight at will with
Speaking of destruction, again, I feel that I am not to destory this flat
that exists for all workers in all

mediums.
working surface . . .
that all things within the

picture
Too it here comes to me with emphasis
in their playground, as the
dance
should have a chance. A chance to play
for the dance.
should have a suitable playground as a setting
I am curiously interested.
I
Too it comes to me a something in which
downward pressure on the
refer to Weight Balances. As my body exerts a
floor, the floor in turn exerts an
upward pressure on my body.
my body against the air, all
Too, the pressure of the air against my body,
picture.
this Ihave to recognize when building the
perforce go from time to the elemental
Seems to me the true artist must
Plain-and those things pertaining thereto,
bis forms-Sky, Sea, Mountain,
recharge the batteiy. For these big forms
to sort of re-true himself up, to
you have to love these, to be a part
have everything. But to express these,
very far without this love, this love to
of these in sympathy. One doesn't get
that grow on he mountain s back.
enfold too the relatively little things
recognize the mountain.
Which if you don't recognize, you don't
various pieces of paper
And now, after looking over my scribblings on
what wanted to say, the gist of
think that what I have put down is about
I
I
may show different facets on the
it anyway. My present-day creed, which
morrow.*
consideration on many points and

Marin's comments merit serious
to ex-
painting. First, his explicit reference
give us added insight into his
of things" gives a direct clue
pressing "his today" through "relationships
to his reason for painting. Objects
and things are less important to him than
them; consequently, the identity of
are the relationships existing among
interests of relationships. His
refer-
things is frequently disregarded in the
today-"lights brilliant, noises startling
and
ence to the "material sides" of
-demonstrates his sensitivity to the
hard, pace setting in all directions"
• Printed with the permission of John Marin.

characteristic flavor of contemporary life. Second, his references to the or-

ganization of his work— to the definite boundaries enclosing a "jolly good
fight" within a "Blessed Equilibrium," to "Weight Balances," and to giving
all things in the picture "a chance"— show his interest in producing a lively
design in ^vhich forces play against and with forces. His mention of the
fact that he is not to destroy the flatness of the working surface shows gen-
uine respect for the two-dimensional quality that distinguishes painting

from sculpture or architecture. To him, painting is not creating illusions of
three-dimensional nature on paper or canvas, but rather re-creating the essen-
tial relationships on a plane surface. Finally, his sympathetic love
and ad-
miration for the "elemental big forms" reveal the source of his inspiration.
He constantly returns to nature to "recharge the battery." From this pene-
trating study of natural forms and forces comes much of the strength and
freshness that make his paintings a landmark in American art.
We have discussed in detail a work by Marin because he had so thor-
oughly mastered the difficult art of using transparent water color quickly,
boldly, and expressively. His brilliantly direct and spontaneous handling
of this fluid medium exploited some of its most distinctive characteristics.
Cezanne's "Mont Sainte-Victoire." There are many other ways of paint-
ing with u'ater-soluble piginents and each has its merits. A great contrast to
tiie Marin is provided by Paul Cezanne's "Mont Sainte-Victoire" (Fig. 429).
A more restrained use of water color is apparent in "Mont Sainte-Victoire" (1900-1906)

of
by Paul Cezanne. Form, color, texture, and space are all depicted with the sparest
means. (Courtesy of Mr. Henry P. McIUienny)
430 - Painting
of a Distant Temple Bell" 1594

shows the
Chu.u Luno Chang's •'The Evening Tolling
brilliantly drawn and dehcately rendered
Oriental love of rtamre. The serene"landscape is
in water color on silk. {Courtesy

The Philadelphia Museum oj Art)
only small areas are painted

Here the medium is used with restraint: actually
responsibility of the pamtnig. But
and the blank paper carries most of the
great scale has been achieved and the
mountain towers massively
the effect of
foreground even though it is mostly whue
over the trees and buildings in the
well
flat paper Note, ho^vever,
how both the forms of the pigmented areas as
of
suggest the basic structure and nature
brush strokes .vithin them
as the
the photograph of the mountam ^vh.ch
the various elements. Look ahead at
looks more like a mountain
Cezanne sketched (Fig. 439A). The painting
than the photograph.
Chinese Water Color. The Chinese have a tradition of water colors
A
hundred years. Chang's "The Evening Tolling
of a
which goes back many
many paintings of this sort, is done
Distant Temple Bell" (Fig. 430), like
very light in color, has become
on silk which, though originally white or
brilliance has been lost. Chinese
artists
dark with age so that much of its
atmospheric effects and they use subtle
have traditionally been interested in
of
to suggest the softness of mist,
the forms of mountains, the flow
washes
and small in scale, are painted in with
streams. Foliage forms, both large
of dazzling dexterity. Colors are
muted: much use is made of
brushwork
Manhattan" celebrat-
and browns. Whereas Marin in "Lower
is
dull -reens
of man, Chang is contemplating the
ing the energy and accomplishments
grandeur and vastness of nature.
have mentioned only transpar-
Other Types of Water Colors. So far we
painters prefer to use one of the
ent water colors, but many contemporary
being new, opaque
several types of opaque water-soluble paints. Far from
Tempera, a medium that lends itself to precise treatment, was used by Andrew Wyeth
in "Christina's World" (1948). A feeling of melancholy pervades the painting. (Collec-
tion, the Museum of Modern Art, New York, Purchase Fund)
water colors are among the most ancient of painting mediums. Tempera,
a mixture of ground pigments and an albuminous or colloidal vehicle
(egg, gum, or glue), was used by Egyptian, Medieval, and Renaissance paint-
ers, and it is still used today as we can see in "Christina's World" (Fig. 431)
by Andrew Wyeth. Sharp and precise detail is possible with this medium.
Gouache is made by grinding opaque colors with water and mixing the
product with a preparation of gum, or by adding Chinese white to transpar-
ent water colors. Poster paints are the most familiar, least expensive, and
least satisfactory (as far as permanence and flexibility are concerned) of the
opaque water colors. Casein paints, which have an alkaline solution of casein
as their vehicle, are comparatively new and hold many possibilities, for they
can be used as transparent washes or as thick, opaque areas, either smooth or

textured.
Any medium is used well when it serves the artist as a suitable means of
expressing his ideas, and almost any exhibition of contemporary water colors
will show the great ingenuity with which today's painters approach their
432 - Painting
Fresco painting lends itself to monumental effects.
Michelangelo, a portion of a larger composition on

the
"Adam" a50a-1512) by These
the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, Rome.
creation of man. is from
of Western art, and this detail gives some
frescoes are one of the great achievements
conception of their power. (Alinari)
colors or use water color

work. Often they combine different kinds of water
with charcoal, crayon, chalk, and the like.
Although water colors are still
likely to be smaller than oil paintings,

many of them are far larger than they
were thirty years ago. They have increased in boldness, richness, and variety
and
of expression. You can learn much by experimenting with water colors,
you will find them a fascinating and challenging medium.
Painting in Fresco
Chapel in Rome is magnificently decorated with

The ceiling of the Sistine
paintings by Michelangelo, a tremendous project
on which he worked for
years. The figure of Adam larger than life-size, is but one part
(Fig. 432),
one of many compositions. Today, four centuries

later,
of a panel that is
greatest achievements in
this series of frescoes remains as one of the world's
art.
Fresco in Italian means "fresh," and it is used to designate the process

of painting on fresh, wet plaster. The pigments are mixed with water, and
a glance at "Adam" shows that fresco has something of the transparent, fluid
quality of water color. But here the similarity ends, because fresco is a
medium suited to monumental painting that becomes integral with the

building.
The Process. Usually, fresco painting begins with preliminary sketches,
later enlarged to full-size cartoons that are transferred to rough plaster. The
fresco painter, faced with the problem of covering possibly hundreds of
square feet of ^vall or ceiling area while working on a high scafiôld finds it
more than a convenience to have his project well planned before he begins
painting. He decides on an area that he is certain he can complete in one
day, or whatever length of time he will work at one stretch, covers it with
fresh plaster, and sets to work. When he stops he carefully cuts away the un-
painted plaster. Areas painted on plaster that has been put on at diffêrent
times can never be accurately matched: a line always appears to show where
the break occurred. Therefore, the limits of each work period are made to
coincide with the edge of a figure or other object where they will be in-
conspicuous and unnoticed.
The coloring substance, of course, must be ready to use as soon as the
plaster is put on the wall. It is prepared by mixing a pigment with water
or with water and lime; when this is applied to the wet plaster, the lime
binds the pigment to the plaster and makes the painting actually part of
the wall. A certain amount of touching up with tempera paint is often
done, but colors applied to dry plaster lack the permanence of those bonded
into the plaster, so that this touching up is avoided as much as possible.
Colors in fresco are less brilliant than in water colors or oils. But they can
be very rich and the somewhat muted quality they often have is entirely in
keeping with the impression of permanence and monumentality that they
give.
Fresco painting has a long history. However, aside from the fact that
contemporary painters have at their command a wider range of colors than
did earlier workers, the present-day methods of painting are similar to those
used by Michelangelo and, in fact, by painters centuries before him. During
the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries the interest- in fresco
painting declined, but the twentieth century has witnessed a renewed inter-
est inmural paintings done in this medium.
Two Frescoes. Jose Clemente Orozco's "Gods of the Mqfiern World"
(Fig. 434), is part of a large fresco that this Mexican artist painted for the
library of Dartmouth College. It would be difficult to imagine a greater

contrast than between the Orozco and Michelangelo's "Adam." The latter
434
"Gods of the Modern World" (1932-1934) by the

Mexican artist Jose Clemente Orozco
part of a larger fresco in the library of Dartmouth College in New Hampshire
is
arid scholarship. (Courtesy of
Orozco is commenting here on the dangers of lifeless and
Dartmouth College)
the moment of
was painted with the greatest o£ reverence. Adam is shown at
Bible tells us,
creation receiving life from the hand of God, and he is,
as the
history, and "Adam-
created in God's image. This is the beginning of man's
life. Man, all too soon, will show
his weak-
is the promise of the wonder of
nesses; at this instant we see only his beauty

and nobility.
Although painted for a
The Orozco, on the other hand, is satirical.
college library, it comments bitingly in this section on the hollowness and

The central figure a skeleton, lying on long
aridity of much scholarship. is
baby skeleton already

rows of impressive books, which is giving birth to a
board. In attendance are many other skeletons
all
adorned with a mortar
erudition. Orozco
wearing impressive academic robes in keeping with their
education is valid
had great faith in education, but he is saying here that
to life, and dead scholarship giving
birth to dead scholar-
only if it relates
ship is a mockery of education.
Experimentation in Mediums
The wide ranging investigations and experiments of modern painters in-

"Junction"
volves not only what they paint but the mediums they use.
(Fig. 404) made of pieces of painted canvas that

by Conrad Marca-Relli is
435
Technically, 'Composition 8" (1953) by the Italian Alberto Burri is not a painting, for
it is made of burlap which has been sewn, patched, and glued
over canvas. By this
treatment of an unusual medium he has produced a picture of considerable power.
(Collection, the Museum of Modern Art, New York, Mr. and Mrs. David M. Solinger
Fund)
have been cut and glued to make a careful pattern of edges. On the pieces
of white canvas strong figures have been painted, mostly in blacks with
touches of the primaries away from the center. The freedom of the brush-
work contrasts with the preciseness of the cut edges: the overlapping of the
pieces of canvas adds an actual, even if slight, dimensionality to the painting.
"Composition 8" by the Italian artist Alberto Burri is made of burlap, a
material that to begin with is highly and interestingly textured. In "form-
ing" his medium he has sewn, patched, and glued it to a canvas. We respond
not to a painted surface but to one of an actual material that has been
manipulated, and "Composition 8" achieves a considerable intensity by the
direct presentation of torn and mended surfaces and edges. A handsome
abstract pattern is formed by the disposition of forms and textures.
also
Although works such as these are framed and hung, they are not, strictly
speaking, paintings. In a sense, then, paintings are becoming harder to de-
fine. At the same time and for some of the same reasons, the line between
painting and sculpture is disappearing. Frequently, three-dimensional ob-

436 - Painting
such as pieces of wood, metal, glass, and stones are embedded

in pig-
jects
ment or otherwise secured to a background. The result has some of

the
characteristics of both painting and sculpture.

terms have, of necessity, been introduced to refer to art works
that
New
involve innovations in materials. Collage describes those in which various
two-dimensional materials are used, such as papers, cloth, and pigment.

Marca-Relli's "Junction" is a collage, as is the Burri. Assemblage, a broader
term than collage, is made of different materials,

used to describe art ^vorks
Nevelson's "Dark
including those that are three-dimensional. Look ahead to
Shado\vs" (Fig. 486A), an assemblage of wood. The
breaking down of for-
shows as much
merly accepted distinctions between painting and sculpture
transition. Former classifications
as anything that we are living in a time of
and divisions are no longer acceptable. Artists are looking for

new patterns
and relationships and using new materials to secure them.
ORGANIZING A PAINTING
How does an artist organize a painting? One has only to look at the variety
know that there are many different kinds of or-
of paintings that exist to
of the four exam-
ganization. This was demonstrated, too, by the discussion
portraits of Miss Lani. As one
ples at the beginning of the chapter and the
great diversity in the ^vay in ^vhich artists go
about
would suspect, there is
paintings, resulting both from individual differences

among
organizing their
ardsts and from differences in what they are organizing. However, two broad
of a picture should
generalizations might be stated. First, the organization
second, the artist should
be the result of what the artist is expressing; and,
matter he dealing
have an intimate and detailed knowledge of the subject
is
with.
modifies the visible world in doing a painting, even if he is in-
Any artist
most realistic effects possible. Whereas any
terested only in getting the
object exists in three dimensions, the painter has only
two in which to work.
greater than can be achieved
Also, the value range in nature is many times
possibly be achieved
with pigments; the brightness of a sunny day cannot
of the artist, is not light
by realistic means since white, the lightest pigment
to sunlight. For example, a piece of white
paper indoors
at all compared
comparison some-
isdarker than a black car standing in the sun. (Try the
does not have any definite
time.) Again, a scene looked at by an observer
is circular in shape
boundaries because the image on the retina of the eye
and grows gradually less distinct as its distance from the center of the image
increases; but a painting has a definite and, m most cases, rectangular
boundary. Finally, there are always factors of change

and movement when
Organizing a Painting - 437
we look at actual objects. We almost invariably move our eyes and our
heads, we may shift our bodily positions or the light may change on the
subject. This results in a total visual impression that is not static but is
compounded of a series of slightly, or markedly, different images. Although

we may move while looking at a painting and the light may change, the
resultino- differences are considerably less than when we look at real objects.
Organization for Expression
Thus, the painter and moves through a changing three-dimensional

sees
world that has enormous range of color and no sharp visual boundaries.
Beyond the purely visual aspects are the equally, or possibly more, impor-
tant psychological factors giving greater importance to some objects than to

others. Two trees, for example, may be of equal size, but one may be attrac-
tive in color, the other interesting in form and growth pattern; one may
be part of a large orchard, lost among many other similar trees, the other
may be silhouetted against the sea and sky above a stretch of lonely beach.
Each has its own values, each its own significance. From many
the existing
possibilities the painter selects those having meaning for him and subjects
them to his own interpretation. His job is to transform the raw materials
of life into artistic realities that will objectify his own significant experiences
and that will have meaning for those individuals who will see his paintings.
Harnett's "After the Hunt." Let us suppose that an artist is interested in
portraying with great fidelity the object or scene which interests him. He
might then produce a painting like William Harnett's "After the Hunt"
(Fig. 438). This painting is a masterpiece of the "fool-the-eye" {trompe
I'oeil) type of painting in which a major aim is to produce an illusion of
actual objects. It is, however, more than a convincing record, for the in-
tensity of the presentation of the objects in the picture

conveys to the
viewer a refreshing sense of discovery. Even though it is no longer the most

important function of painting to act as a record of people, objects, and
events, we can still get pleasure from paintings such as this. But we must re-
member there are many things that painting can do and copying the appear-
ances of the things around us is only one of the many functions it can fulfill.
Assuming that Harnett painted "After the Hunt" from an actual arrange-
ment, he had a considerable task in selecting and arranging the objects in
the composition. And certainly, they are composed with great
discrimination.
We note ^vith pleasure the repetition of circular and near-circular forms and
their contrast to the straight ones; the opposition of smooth metal surfaces
all the objects
Furthermore,
with the textures of wood, feathers, and fur.
in the composition were ones that Harnett could control; he
could move or
438 - Painting
The oil "After the Hunt" (1885)

by the American William Harnett
is carefully and attractively com-
posed and striking in its realism and
sharp detail. (Wlllinms Collection,
California Palace of The Legion of
Honor, San Francisco, California)
raise the rabbit; lie could change the size of the hat; he could discard objects
that did not Such direct means are not available to a landscape painter
fit.
in organizing a composition. He rearranges objects,

but he does it on canvas.
his ingenuity
And, of course, his only limit on compositional possibilities is
and artistry.
Cezanne's "Mont Sainte-Victoire." The extent to which a landscape is re-
photograph
ordered in doing a painting is shown in the comparison of the
Cezanne's painting of it
of Mont Sainte-Victoire in southern France and
oil
and what are the similari-

(Figs. 439A and B). What are the differences
ties? Which one is easier to look at? Which do you prefer? What has been
into "art"? It also interesting to compare

done to "nature" to transform it is
discussed earlier
the oil painting with the water color of the same subject
(p. 429).
Artists "re-order" nature in composing and painting a picture.

(A) Above. The pliotograph of Mont Sainte-Victoire in Southern France, although a
pleasant view, is in no sense unusual or dramatic.
(B) Belotv. In the oil painting "Mont Sainte-Victoire" (1886-1890) of the same scene,
the French painter Paul Cezanne has given order and clarity to the scene. Note how
cluttered the photograph appears by comparison.
jg, i" » ' iMyAi'.%.J- ..;Vt

'
S ^"
'
w ^ :h
440 - Painting
that the painting is easier to

Perhaps the first thing you will notice is
as a unit. The foliage and gTound

shapes have been changed from a
look at
less hit-and-miss pattern into an
orderly arrangement; the sky, in-
more or
stead of being merely a light area, has
become an integral part of the pic-
ture. The foreground is organized
into two major planes, the first being
the second the mass of foliage
the light wall at the bottom of the picture,
series of planes,
extending from extreme left to extreme right. Then follow a
delineated by horizontal lines, contrasts of dark
and light, and trees and
the dominant object which,
houses that lead our attention to the mountain,
grandeur. Whereas the
through the ordered foreground, achieves a noble
kinds of trees, the
photograph appears to be a jumbled mixture of many
shapes of the foliage
the painting has a pleasing rhythm due to the
foliage in
masses and the consistent brush strokes.
Throughout the painting, move-
and opposition to one
ments and forces have been organized in relation
the left-to-right direction of
another: notice in the large tree at the left how
the right-to-left direction of
the tree trunk has been counterbalanced by
the brush strokes in the foliage, or how
the left-to-right movement of the
the strong right-to-left direction of
three tree trunks has been opposed by
are only a few of the many and
the light wall in the foreground. These
organized,
varied" meanswhich Cezanne has used to give his painting an
not just a literal representation of what
rhythmic vigor. His painting is
to make them more

he saw, but isa reorganization of the essential features
picture have
forceful and more pleasing. In particular, all the parts of the
forces of nature have been
been given a compelling unity: the forms and
ordered.
A different kind of problem faces an artist
Picasso's "Guernica:' still
uses highly abstracted or non-objective

forms. Basically, he utilizes the
who
principles of design, but he has greater
freedom in the choice and
same
treatment of forms, and he may introduce different compositional devices
wishes.
or treatment of forms to secure the effects he
in content and treatment
Let us look closely at another work, different
is acknowledged
from the preceding two. Picasso's "Guernica" (Fig. 442)
twentieth century. Everyone agrees
to be one of the great paintings of the
horrors and senselessness of war-
that it is an anguished protest against the
it has been described as a
"piercing, gripping, strident and everlasting
controversy over the
shriek"-but there has been endless discussion and
painting.
meaning ofand relationships among the various symbols in the
to paint a mural
For the Paris Fair of 1937 Picasso was commissioned
for the Spanish Pavilion. The Spanish Civil War was in progress and on
who were assisting in the rebellion against
April 28, 1937, the Germans,
saturation bombing attack on
the Loyalist government, carried out an aerial
the Basque town of Guernica. There was no military reason for the attack;
it uas an experiment to see if a town could be entirely destroyed from the
air. It was— and there was a world-wide reaction of horror to the event.
Picasso, a Spaniard, was deeply moved and in a little over a month executed
the mural, along with a large number of preliminary sketches of the entire
composition and various parts of it.
"Guernica" is a remarkable fusion of formalism and expressionism.

Many of the forms are clearly Cubist— an essentially formal style— that
enabled Picasso to sho^v multiple views of heads, bodies, and buildings,
and there is a general economy of line and color. Along with this, ho'ivever,
there is an emotionalism of the most extraordinary sort that carries with it
an inescapable feeling of terror and horror. No color is used; only blacks,
grays, and whites. Contrasts occur only in value changes: it is as if all color
has been drained from the terrible scene we view.

There is one large dominating form in the composition, a triangle,
which extends across the bottom from the hand on the left to the foot on
the right and which has its apex in the hand holding the small lamp. This
is basically a stable form but Picasso has shattered it by the angular, con-
trasting, and convulsive forms which it includes. The two sides of the tri-
angle also set up diagonal movements which are carried strongly through-
out the composition. Note also that the major triangle— and the entire com-
position—is bisected and that to the middle right a large white triangular
area appears resting on one of its points. Thus we see in the composition
the use of stable and unstable forms; of serene, yet exploded, areas.
The actual objects in the composition are few. In the major triangular
form there is to the left a fallen and dismembered warrior; above him a
dying horse which has been gored from above; at the apex, the small lamp;
and to the right, the figure of a woman struggling into the area of light
cast by the small lamp. Immediately above her head is the head of another
woman, moving toward the light. To the left is an anguished mother

also
holding a dead child and over her— and looking away from the light— a bull.
To the right we see another woman trapped in a burning house.
It is over the meaning of the various elements in the composition, espe-
cially the bull, the horse, the lamp, and the radiant eye-like form slightly
to the left of center at the top that differences of interpretation have cen-
tered. Picasso has made extensive use of highly personal symbols in "Guer-
nica," and his observations on them have not clarified their meaning. The
obscurity of these symbols has also lessened the impact of the painting for
many people. But we must remember that Picasso is a Spaniard, and the
horse and the bull both figure prominently in the bull fight. Picasso, in
much of his work, has used the bull as the symbol of brutality; the horse
A many studies for a major painting.
painter eenerally makes
war.
(A) Above. "Guernica" (1937) by Pablo Picasso is a powerful protest aganist
of the composition, highly expressionistic devices
Along with the strong geometric basis
on exteJided loan from the artist to
have been used. {"Guernica" and the studies below
the Museum of New York)
Modern Art, ,,
general elements
, ,
(B) Below left. study for the entire composition, the same
In this
disposition.
appear as in the final painting but in a different
V
443
(C) opposite right. This study of a woman's head is one of a series that Picasso did. He
continued making studies such as this even after the painting was completed.
(D) Below left. Another study of a woman's head. Anguish has seldom, if ever, been
conveyed with such intensity as in the Guernica drawings.
(E) Below right. .\ study of parts of the painting testing expressive ideas.
\m:,
444 - Painting
is little doubt. Seldom
as thesymbol of innocence. About the people, there
with such agoniznig nitensity as
have the horrors of war been depicted
the fallen hghter, and the women
on the right and left and the dead
in
is violent, we are never
child Even though the distortion in the figures
treatment of figures, faces, hands, feet, we
distracted by it, but through the
are made aware of suffering of the
most intense nature. Perhaps the major
It occurs at the apex of the
major form
clue is the small lamp in the center.
the
area of greatest brilliance. Although
in the picture: it illuminates the
includes the dead warrior and a
trianoular form which it dominates also
it is the light of the
human spirit
part of the body of the expiring horse,
the least anguished in the mural,
perhaps towards which the two women,
sides, we
in the areas of darkness at the
are drawn. Beyond this central form,
the scene of desolation and
suffering.
see the triumphant bull surveying
of the many sketches Picasso
Fioures 442B through 443E are only a few
for Guernica. Early in his planning,
he seems to have decided upon
made
that is, the large central triangle,
the basic compositional arrangement,
of major fig-
but he experimented extensively with problems of placement
of details. Some possibilities had
ures their relationships, and of treatment
used which seemed to contribute
most
to be discarded; only those were
in these various sketches we have
a re-
forcefully to the total statement. But
may do in planning a picture. The tenta-
markable record of what an artist
alternatives, the decision as to

basic or-
tive planning, the exploration of
forms, and finally the welding
ganization, the testing of ideas and specific
form is typical, rather than an unusual procedure
of all these into a final
The final decisions are made on the effectiveness of the con-
for an artist.
relation to the result. This is the overriding
tribution of each part and its
concern.
three pictures we have examined

Harnett, Cezanne, and Picasso in the
colors, and relationships because
they were painting
all used different forms,
at all three, the reader must
certainly
different kinds of pictures. In looking
of this
criteria presented at the beginning
agree that each artist fulfilled the
expressing, and
in terms of what he was
section: each organized his painting
subject matter he was dealing with.
each had a deep understanding of the
Organization of Space
compose his pictures he has been
Since man as a painter first started to
is im-
suggestion of space
concerned with the organization of space.
Some
values or
plicit in any painting or design
in which there are changes in
suggests
forms. Each of these devices
hues, lines that cross, or overlapping
that certain parts of a composition are in front or behind other parts. Space
as a plastic element has already been discussed in Chapter 12. In paintings it
is implied space which the painter works with and it is his decision as to
\\hether he wishes to make the space in his picture deep or flat. Early in
history painters learned about the effects of some elemental relationships

that, related to our perception as they are, suggest space to us when we
seethem occurring in a painting. Here are a few of these:
Size. \Vhen several similar objects are portrayed, the larger ones have
more importance and also appear to be nearer the spectator. This is an

optical effect that we all know well. A person standing nearby looks larger
than one who is a block away: in actuality, a larger image appears on the
retina of the eye than when looking at a person who is close. Note in the
mural by Orozco that some of the figures gain prominence by their size. In
\\'yeth's "Christina's World," the figure in the foreground is larger than the
house and barns in the background, even though we know that each of the
latter are many times the size of the -ivoman in the picture.
Vertical Location. "Christina's World" also shows the effect of the verti-
an element. With objects that are below eye level the further
cal location of
down they are in a picture the nearer they appear to be. Conversely, with
objects that are above eye level-clouds, for example-the higher they are
in a picture, the closer they appear to be.
Overlapping Forms. When
one form overlaps and partially obscures a
second form, the first one seems nearer than does the second. In Grant
Wood's "American Gothic," the farmer and his wife overlap their farm
buildings and the farmer's right arm overlaps the figure of his wife, thus
establishing a definite spatial organization. Even in an abstract picture such
as "Girl Before a Mirror" there is spatial relation suggested by the overlap-
ping of forms.
Linear Perspective. For centuries artists were concerned with ways of
suggesting space realistically in a painting, for the devices that are men-
tioned above are only partial means of achieving this. It was the discovery
of the principles of perspective in the fifteenth century that provided the
precise means. Linear perspective is the depiction of space by means of
diminution of size in relation to lines that converge as they approach the
horizon line. Railroad tracks or the edges of roads on flat terrain clearly
show the operation of the principles of perspective in their convergence as

they recede from the spectator. More complex examples appear in views of
streets lined with buildings— or open landscapes with trees, streams, and
mountains. An image of a scene falling on the retina of the eye is composed
in terms of linear perspective. We are accustomed to this method of space

depiction also because of the camera: sets of parallel lines converging toward
446 - Painting
especially of urban
vanishing points can readily be identified in photographs,
subjects. Western artists have made
considerable use of linear perspective
during the last five centuries and through its use an effect of great "natural-
"American Gothic" and "View of Toledo" are both
ness" can be achieved.
limitation that
clearly based on it. Useful though linear perspective is, its is
to the picture and may pro-

it freezes the position of the spectator in relation
duce a static, lifeless effect.
Even though perspective an "accurate" method of depicting space,

is
considerable psychological evidence to prove that we do

not always
there is
"seen" by
"see" according to the laws of perspective. Thus a round table is
a viewer as an ellipse, but "appears" round to him. In other words,

it still
things in terms of what we know. There have

been many
we see many
which art of the highest excellence
periods, the Medieval for example, in
was produced without recourse to linear perspective. A great deal of Oriental
which lines, instead of converging in

art makes use of inverse perspective in
in the picture in relation
the picture, diverge. Thus, instead of closing space
to the observer, it is opened up and a sense
of spatial freedom is achieved.
means of depicting space by the weakening
Aerial Perspective. This is a
and the alteration of hues as they recede from the

of values and intensities
contrasts
spectator. For example, a tree in sun seen nearby presents strong
and intensity. The parts in sunlight are bright greens and
of hue, value,
yellows; those in shade or shadow are dark in value and mostly blue-greens
the contrasts of hue and
in color. If this same tree is seen from a distance,
entire tree becomes
value tend to disappear, the edges become softer, the
also clearly seen in ranges of mountains.
bluer in color. Aerial perspective is
"La Grenouillere" and "The Evening Tolling of a Distant Temple Bell" are
both paintings in which aerial perspective is used to suggest depth.
Interpenetration and Transparency. The relationships among various
inanimate, have always been a

objects in a painting, whether animate or
of these relationships
concern of painters, but it is the intensity and extent
that has led to current experiment and
innovation. So conscious are many
that, in their depictions, they
artists of the effect of one object on another
make the objects literally penetrate one another. To make these

penetrations
apparent, objects are frequently made transparent. This treatment can be
"The Table" by Georges Braque and Joan Miro's "Composi-

observed in
by such developments as the X-ray
tion." Pictures like these are influenced
concern with
and fluoroscope as well as, more importantly, a culture-wide
interaction, which is observable not only in art
but in physics, psychology.
areas of inquiry. Note, also,
the social sciences, and practically all modern
in a painting and a lively
that these devices achieve both a sense of flatness
space, as when one opaque
sense of movement. The clear articulation of
447
Freedom of treatment character-

izes "The Table" (1928) by the
French artist Georges Braque.
Based on Cubist ideas, the ob-
jects are variously distorted and
made transparent to produce a
strongly composed and tightly or-
ganized picture. (Collection, the
Museum of Modern Art, New
York, acquired through the
Lillie P. Bliss Bequest)
object appears in front o£ another, has been destroyed and an ambiguous

one is substituted.
Although present-day painters feel free to employ the older systems of
representing space, they have been impelled to explore fresh ways that are
dynamically related to the age in which they live. It is the expressive intent
of each painter that determines whether he depicts space realistically or
flattens, distorts, or abstracts it.
448 - Painting
In "Venice, Number 1" (Fig. 423B) the American, William Congdon,

aerial perspective in order
has disregarded the principles of both linear and
to achieve other values. In this highly
emotionalized painting, Congdon
much of the atmosphere of the spectacular St. Mark's Square but

has evoked
without using literal means Note that the cornice lines of the
of portrayal.
right and left converge, not to one point as they

would in a
buildings to
camera shot, but to several points. His treatment flattens the picture and
thrusts into prominence the cathedral itself. The bell tower does not rise
vertically and generates tension by its inclination. In the most distant object
he has used his warmest brightest Everywhere, too, the softness of
colors.
static view we have one that
the edges is about the same. Instead, then, of a
is dynamic: by such devices as
distortion, free drawing, and the rich use of
characterize
pigment he conveys the sense of brilliance and animation that
the Square. Turn back photograph of the Square which introduces
to the
painting to see how he
Part III (Fig. 293) and compare it with Congdon's
expressionistic devices.
has caught the spirit of the place through
DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY PAINTING

This chapter will conclude with a brief look some additional examples
at
painting. Never before have
to indicate further the diversity of recent
painters presented a public with such an array of
content and treatment;
never before has there been such extensive exploration

and inventiveness.
the divergent
There are probably few persons who can comprehend all
trends in contemporary painting. No one could possibly like them all, but a
be narrow-minded, indeed, who could not find some trends in
person would
contemporary painting that had particular meaning for him in
illuminating
his experiences and that could open up new

areas of understanding. Not all
We are so close to it that it is not
recent painting is good, by any means.
what significant and what is not. But it is certam
always possible to tell is
that contemporary painters are responding to our age with vigor and con-
purely physical, we cannot
cern. If we are alive today in any way beyond the
ignore contemporary painting.
"The Cow with the Subtile Nose" (Fig. 449) by the

Frenchman Jean
Dubuffet leaves no doubt as to its subject: it is a cow. But there is no attempt
though crude, interesting; the forms and spaces
at shading. The outline, is
and varied in shape. Chiefly, the colors and

that are created are attractive
textures are compelling: the former are mostly
warm and rich; the latter
the subject but

handsome and varied. The textures relate only slightly to
of mediums, in this case, oil
result from an imaginative and exciting use
449
Unusual subjects and large are not uncommon characteristics of recent painting.
size
The subject of "The bow with the Subtile Nose" (1954) is clearly a cow, but the
paint and
French painter Jean Dubuffet has used it to experiment with media. With oil
Duco on canvas, he has created a surface of great beauty in both color and texture.
{Collection,the Museum Modern Art, New York, Benjamin and David Sharps Fund)
of
and Duco, which Dubuffet has combined to utilize particular qualities of
both. In fact, few recent painters have secured surfaces in their canvases that
are so beautiful in colorand texture.
Brutal a term
is that has been used to refer to Dubuffet's style. It is
brutal in the sense of lacking refinement in the grand tradition of Western
art. But if Dubuffet has rejected some values, it is
because he is inter-
ested in others. In writing of this and related paintings (he has done a series
of pictures of cows), he states that he wishes to portray things by making use
of a complex set of impressions of what he knows about a subject rather

than through close visual scrutiny.
Referring more specifically to the subject, he also states that he often
liked to portray the cow as "a kind of preposterous Punch" and there
is
something of the preposterous in the title, for subtile means delicate, rarified,
and keenly perceptive, or wily, cunning, and crafty. But what he hopes to
accomplish is more intensely alive reality "by means of unreality." He thus
a
turns his back on the visual image and uses images as they are formed
and colored by reactions and feelings about the subject.
450 - Paijiting
The American Adolph Gottlieb in "Unstill Life" (Fig. 451 A) is prob-
ably poking a little fun at the many inert still-life paintings which exist. Per-
haps he is saying that in the twentieth century life is not still. In any event, he
has given us a painting of great liveliness. It is dominated by large horizontal

forms traversed by a series of vertical lines, which, by their subtle changes
of thickness and direction, establish a feeling of vigor. Note that the design
is not centralized: there is no strong center-of-interest in the traditional

sense. Instead, the feeling of movement pervades the canvas, although it is
true that the strong dark lines are less animated at the two sides. In the
sub-areas of the picture he has provided contrasts in scale and color. The
forms are calligraphic and not representational, but certainly lively. In this
picture, Gottlieb, using only lines and colors and without recourse to any
representational forms, has created an intense feeling of life.
"Sleepers, 11" by George Tooker (Fig. 45 IB) is, in keeping with its title,
made up ofrounded forms with slight contrasts. We see only the faces of the
sleepers, and the flowing and restful folds of the covers are related to the
shapes of the heads. But the figures themselves, the "sleepers," lie with their
eyes open; they are troubled, anxious, and lonely. In spite of the harmonious
relation of forms and its generally restful composition, this is a haunting
and disquieting picture, but painted with compassion and understanding.
"The Jacket" by Bernard Perlin (Fig. 452A) is a picture of a man's
jacket lying on a thick carpet of small and interestingly leaved plants. The
lovely and diverse textures of the leaves, their softness, and their organic na-
ture are emphasized by the two boulders which appear among them.
The
arresting quality of the picture, however, comes from the incongruous con-
trast of the plants and the jacket: the one, symbols of growth
and life; the
other, an evidence of life, empty and disembodied. This, like the
yet here
Tooker, suggests much more than one sees. Although highly realistic, defi-
nite, and precise in every detail, something mysterious, or even ominous, is
implied. The observer has to look anew at what he sees.
The effect of Joan Miro's "Composition" (Fig. 425B) is serene and

elegant. None of the forms in the painting is anchored; they seem to
move
and float on the soft, slightly differentiated background of red, green, and
blue areas. The forms overlap and interpenetrate, are transparent and
opaque, and this treatment produces new and intriguing forms which, as
we study the picture, seem mysteriously to appear. In this picture, and

their
others that he has done, Miro was investigating elemental life forms,
plastic possibilities and organization. Rather than the mechanical forms of
Diversity in Contemporary Painting - 451
1
fifteen feet long, and the

(A) "Unstill Life, 3" (1954-1956) by Adolph Gottlieb is over
strongly composed oil painting. Tlie liold
large size adds to the impressiveness of this
contrast-
dark bands that move vigorously through the picture are gi\en emphasis liy the
ing textured areas. {Collection, the Museum of Modem Art, New
York)
Contrary to the title, in "Sleepers 11" (1959) by George Tooker all the figures
are
(B)
fully awake. The picture conveys a sense of tension and anxiety. The
medium is egg
tempera on a gesso panel. {Collection, the Museum of Modern Art, New
York, Larry
Aldrich Foundation Fund)

452
(A) Left. The coat in Bernard

Perlin's "The Jacket" (1951)
set off against the rich carpet
of foliage mysterious
seems
and unreal. painted in
It is
casein tempera. (Wildenstein

Benefit Purchase Fund, Col-
lection of Whitney Museum
of American Art, New York)
(B) Below. An effect of
serenity and elegance is con-
veyed in "Composition"
(1933) by the Spaniard Joan
Mir6. In this oil painting, the
handsome organic forms ap-
pear to float against a soft and
misty background. The over-
lapping and penetration give
a sense of movement. (Collec-
tion, the Museum of Modern
Art, New York)
With his technique of pouring pigment directly on a canvas, the American Jackson
Pollock created fascinating labyrinths of varied lines as in "Number 27" (1950). A re-
markable sense of spontaneity is achieved. (Collection of Whitney Museum of American
Art, New York)
the machine age, he chose to experiment with biomorphic forms. If you look
again at the Eames chair (Fig. 183), you will notice how similar their shapes
are to those of Miro's painting. Here, again, the relationships among diverse
art forms of one age becomes as explicit as they did in the photographs of
the commimity of Williamsburg. "Composition" is a painting of liveliness
and vitality and an important work in a movement that has done much to
redirect the attention of designers and people generally to organic forms
and forces.
The method of picture making that Pollock developed, pouring pig-

ment on to a canvas laid on the floor, has already been commented on
and the effect of the example shown here, "Number 27" (Fig. 453) is as
startling as one would expect. A complex of lines of different colors and
width, it fairly bursts with a restless energy. The lines have different edges
and velocities; they overlay one another and interweave to create a labyrinth
of marvelous intricacy. The black and lower value colors which he has used
under the white and light value lines suggest thickness and depth. There
is a fascination in exploring the various lines and areas of the picture, of
noting soft against hard, of light against dark, thick against thin. By looking
closely at the painting one can see exactly how it was done, what color was
laid on top of another, where thin paint splashed, where thick pigment left
454 - Painting
But at the same time, it is a painting that would be impossible

a firm edge.
to duplicate.
of a
There is something of the accidental in it, for perfect control
impossible to achieve. It is
stream of pigment being poured on a surface is
this suggestion of the random and
accidental that accounts for the great
and freedom in the canvas. It is these factors, too, that

sense of spontaneity
basic to his increasing ac-
constitute Pollock's achievement: they also are
ceptance in an age of threatening conformity.
Some Major Styles in Modern Painting

this and the
Although the recent paintings we have been looking at in
preceding chapters are different from one another in
many respects, there
are, nevertheless, a few large categories

into which practically all of them
present a classification.
can be grouped. In summary, it might be helpful to
some will fall
Not all paintings will fit snugly under any one heading;
several of the major
under more than one. But the categories do suggest
interests and concerns of painters from which their varied expressions spring.
the people and
Objective. In paintings of this type, the artist portrays
colors or forms as seen. His
things he paints with little alteration of the
portrayal may be naturalistic or idealistic, and he
may dramatize his subject
composition, but it is always
matter by such devices as posture, lighting, or
clearly recognizable. "American Gothic" by Wood
and Harnett's "After the
before the
Hunt" are both objective. Whereas most Western painting
has been away from
twentieth century was objective, the trend since then
mimetic portrayal.
this term as used now
Abstract. All paintings are partially abstract, but
refers to those in which the essentials or
fundamentals of a subject, rather
in an abstract painting
than surface appearances, are portrayed. The objects
the degree of
may or may not be readily recognizable, depending upon
disciplined in structure in com-
abstraction involved. Abstractions tend to be
highly emotionalized. Pi-
parison with expressionist paintings which are
casso's "Girl Before a Mirror" and Braque's
"The Table" are paintings
which are clearly abstract.
Non-objective. Paintings which use no subject matter
but are dependent
non-objective. Miro's
upon pure form and design for their effects are termed
"Composition" and Burri's "Composition 8" are both non-objective.
Expressionist. In expressionist paintings the
emphasis is upon emotions
accordance with the
and inner sensations rather than upon appearances. In
to convey, the painter selects and
emotion or sensation which he wishes
result, distortion common
emphasizes certain aspects of his subject. As a
is
whether in drawing, lighting, or color. Rouauit's and Soutine's portraits

of Maria Lani, Congdon's "Venice, Number 1," and Marin's "Lower Man-
hattan" are all expressionist paintings. During recent years there has de-
veloped a type of painting referred to as abstract-expressionist of which ,
Pollock's "Number 27" and de Kooning's "Door to the River" are examples.
Although the paintings may be very abstract or non-objective so far as sub-
ject matter is concerned, the emphasis on sensation, feeling, and highly
emotionalized content is so strong that this type is included in this classifi-
cation. A large percentage of the avant-garde painters in the United States
are abstract expressionists and this movement is gaining increasing world-

wide attention and acclaim.
Magic Realist. This type includes paintings in which objects are por-
trayed with great fidelity but where, because of tonality or surprising or un-
usual combinations of objects, overtones of a nonrational or super-rational
sort are introduced. Tooker's "Sleepers 11" and Perlin's "The Jacket" are
both magic realist.
Surrealist. The term is French and means super-realist. Paintings of this
type draw upon the fantasies and imaginings of the unconscious. The subject
matter is often bizarre and symbolic, the effect dreamlike.
Within each of these categories great variation is possible for the broad
potentials of each for expression have been inventively explored by artists.
Look through the book for other illustrations of painting and see if you
can classify them according to the above headings.
Diversity one of the few obvious characteristics of modern fjainting.

is
Never have artists attempted to express in pigment such an array of ideas or

so many and varied aspects of life, and the diversity that exists has only been
hinted at in this chapter. This is a reflection both of the complexity of our
age and of the increased scope of painting. It should be borne in mind that
artists today are as much concerned with what they feel as what they see and
that if we use the standards of visual appearance to judge their works we will
miss their message.
Modern painters have often been accused of turning their backs on life,
of ignoring the public, of willfully becoming obscure and difficult to under-
stand. Study, however, would reveal that artists are deeply involved in to-
day's concerns, on new problems of vision, of space, of motion. It is true that
many modern paintings seem highly subjective and individualistic. But at

the same time it is true that this is an emphasis that we sorely need
today. We live in a period of increasing standardization and regimentation.
Machines produce hundreds of thousands of identical products and presses
456 - Painting
For many people, work has be-
print magazines that are read by millions.
small and insignificant part
come so fragmented that an individual is only a
Developments such as these tend to lessen and
of a vast impersonal system.
uniqueness of the individual. Indeed,
even destroy the sense of dignity and
of the great dangers which we face. It
is
the threat to the individual is one
with the keen sensitivity which
preciselyto this problem that many artists,
efforts. By being highly subjective,
characterizes them, have directed their
they are insisting on a basic value
which is in danger: by being mdividual-
every person is different from every other
and
istic, they are asserting that
utterance. Few, if any, more important
that' each has a right to individual
things could be said today.

painters difficult
Remember, you find the ideas of many contemporary
if
shortcoming, rather than theirs. Give them a

to understand, it may be your
being open-minded. A first thing to
chance to enlarge your experience by
as you can find in galleries, in
do is to look at as many original paintings
of the excellent modern
museums, in special exhibitions; then look at some
but not all, of the vitality and
color reproductions which convey much,
not once, but many times, studying,
beauty of the originals. Look at them,
water color
analyzing, interpreting. See how many different uses of oil and
Ask yourself whether each painter used his
medium to
you can discover.
Make every attempt
best advantage to express and communicate his ideas.
new techniques, new expres-
be open-minded about new experiments,
to
sions Give the painter the same
encouragment accorded the experimental
scientist: both have duties to open
our eyes to new fields of knowledge and
before." And be
experience.Neither is here "to do what has been done
equally open-minded and sympathetic
toward historic paintings. Look at
then try to see them as they were
them in terms of your own experience and
masters" of today were the "new
masters
seen when first painted. The "old
controversial.
of their times and were generally
with
Another activity might well precede or be carried along
which
See what the possibilities
the above is that of engaging in painting yourself.
Experiment freely as an aid to a
and limitations of various mediums are.
involved in organizing and expressing

an
better understanding of what is
idea in paint.
For historical and general discussions:

Tradition: David M. Robb
Harper History of Painting: The Occidental
(New York: Harper & Row, 1951).
A detailed and comprehensive history of painting.
York: Holt, Rinehart
A History American Art: Daniel M. Mendelowitz (New
of
and Winston, 1960).
Covers all the visual arts from prehistoric Indian era to the present. Highly
readable.
History of World Art: Everard M. Upjohn, Paul S. Wingert, and Jane Gaston
Mahler (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949).
Covers the development of painting, sculpture, and architecture.
A Treasury of Art Masterpieces: Thomas Craven (New York: Simon and Schuster,
1952).
Profusely illustrated with superb color reproductions.
Voices of Silence: Andr^ Malraux (New York: Doubleday, 1953).

One of the most brilliant of modern men has written this highly original
treatise on the arts.
For contemporary trends and appreciation:
Concise History of Modern Painting: HerbertRead (New York: Praeger, 1959).

A leading critic writes perceptively about recent developments in paintmg.
Mainstreams of Modern Art: John Canaday (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1959).
A discussion of the major movements in painting during the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries.
Modern American Painting and Sculpture: Sam Hunter (New York: Dell, 1959).
A champion of avant-garde art writes of modern developments.
Modern Painting: Contemporary Trends: text by Nello Ponente (New York:

Skira, 1960).
This handsomely illustrated volume deals with the developments in modern
painting since the end of the second World War.
Painting in the Twentieth Century: Werner Haftman. 2 vols. (New York:

Praeger, 1960).
Deals not only with developments in painting during the first sixty years
of this century but the world of ideas reflected in them. Very
comprehensive.
Picasso, Fifty Years of His Art: Alfred H. Barr, Jr. (New York: Museum of
Modern Art, 1946).

A study of the development and works of the most influential and perhaps
the greatest of twentieth-century painters.
What Is Modern Painting?: Alfred H. Barr, Jr. (New York: Museum of Modern
Art, 1952).
An exceptionally clear, brief statement on the aims of modern painting.
On materials and processes:

The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques: Ralph Mayer (New York:
Viking, 1957).
Comprehensive reference book on mediums and techniques of painting m
oil, tempera, fresco, and water color; pastel drawing;
graphic arts; and sculp-
ture.
t'- i. «r«' IS..
In the bronze "Camargue X" (1958), the

German sculptor Fritz Koenig has given us an
Camargue is an area in France where
large herds
engaging study of cattle and horsemen.
Modern New York, Matthew T. Mellon
are ntised. (CollecUon, the Museum of
Art,
Foundation)
16 Sculpture
many ways,
BECAUSE SCULPTURE AND PAINTING are related in so
and much
equally well to sculpture,
much in the preceding chapter applies
painting. But the two fields are by
of the material in this chapter applies to
between them lies in the
no means identical. The most obvious difference
two-dimensional and relies heavily on color with
form
fact that painting is
sculpture three-dimensional
and space being suggested or implied, while
is
chiefly
Thus, even though
from actual form and space.
and gains its effects
similar ideas, the final products-and
artists in the two fields may express
their effects on us-wiU not be the same.

Relief sculpture (that type in which
as in Fig. 474A) falls between
the figures are attached to a background
458
Six Sculptures of Women - 459
painting and free-standing sculpture with some of the characteristics of

l)oth. It has about the same range of subject matter as painting,
and, like
I hat field, the results can only be viewed from the front. But in relief, as in
liee-standing sculpture, the forms actually exist in three dimensions and

\vhen color is used, it is apt to be less important than the form it covers.
In the various periods of the history of art, painters and sculptors have
had Medieval painters and sculptors both used
closely related concerns.
repre-
religious subjects, \'ictorian artists were preoccupied with realistic
sentation, many contemporary painters and sculptors are developing
new
concepts of space. There exists an easily perceivable congTuity among
the
works during any one period. It is the similarity of the basic interests and
problems of artists who are contemporay one with another and the fact
that they live in the same cultural milieu which accounts for the relation-
ship among their products. The sculpture and painting of any particular
period exhibits, of course, considerable diversity of expression. In the pre-
ceding chapter we mentioned that ^Vood's "American Gothic" and Picasso's
"Girl Before a Mirror" \vere painted only a few years apart and yet
are
radically different in intent, technique, and organization. In the same way

the sculptures of Archipenko and Lehmbruck (Figs. 460B and 463B) have
many points of difference.
Although some kinds of subject matter, such as figures, animals, and ab-
stractions, are equally appropriate for both painting and sculpture,
the latter
field is more limited in the kinds that can be handled effectively.

The rea-
son is simple. Because sculpture (excepting relief sculpture) can be seen from
those subjects that involve perspective from a fixed viewpoint, such
all sides,
like architects,
as landscapes and interiors, are seldom suitable. Sculptors,
have the problem of planning their compositions so that they can be

viewed
with satisfaction from all sides. Painters, in contrast, know that their work
will be seen only from the front.
As a means of introducing some of the expressive problems of sculpture,
let us look at several examples.
SIX SCULPTURES OF WOMEN

the six sculptures illustrated on pages 460, 462, and 463, one
is old:
Of
sixth
the "Hera of Samos" was done by an unknown Greek sculptor in the
century before Christ. The others are recent: all are the work of twentieth-
century sculptors. "Walking" by Alexander Archipenko, an American,
"Young Girl" by Reg Butler, an Englishman, "Woman Combing Her Hair"
Ameri-
by Julio Gonzalez, a Spaniard, "Aurora" by Saul Baizerman, also an
460 - Sculpture
The female figure a favorite subject of sculptors and has been

is
treated m many ways.
550 formalized and stately, is an early Greek

(A) Left. The "Hera of Samos" (c. b.c),
sculpture. This marble figure now in the Louvre. (Marburg)

is
in accord
(B) Right. The "Walking" (1936) by Alexander Archipenko
terra-cotta
is,
with its title, dynamic and full of movement. (Courtesy of the sculptor)
can, and "Standing by Wilhelm Lehmbruck, a German. Even a

Woman"
superficial glance at the illustrations makes it clear that each of the artists
had quite different expressive purposes in mind.
"Hera" is a religious figure, carved for a Greek temple on the island

of Samos during an early period of Greek art. It is formal, impersonal, al-
most austere. This is a sculpture of a goddess and her resemblance to the
human beings over whose fate she has control is limited. (Contrast it with
"Hermes" (Fig. 103A), a Greek figure of a later era when the gods had
become more human.) "Hera" is carved from a block of marble and the
sculptor respected the solid compactness of his material. The details are
subordinated to the columnar form; the arms are held close to the body; the
folds of the garment, highly stylized, repeat the vertical line of the figure;
the louver edge of the dress curves outward and serves as a transition to the
base the
base on which the figure stands thus extending around the entire
same line as that formed by the outward curve of the feet from the legs.
This gives the figure a pleasing stability. "Hera" is generalized and stylized
in its details, subtle in its relationships, noble and monumental in effect.
In contrast, the forms in "Walking" are sinuous and dynamic;

they
are feminine and, in a sense, intimate. While still impersonal, it has none
of the monumental character of "Hera." The figure is presented
not at one
instant in the process of walking but at several instants much as in "Nude

Descending a Staircase" Note the two kinds of forms: those
(Fig. 388).
the
toward the edges of the sculpture are convex and positive while those in
center are concave and negative. The opposition of the concave
and convex,
the smooth and the rough, the advancing and the receding gives the figure
a great deal of its vitality. "Walking" is a terra-cotta sculpture
and shows that
it was built up from clay. This is especially apparent in the coarse texture
Note, also, the
that was clearly made by pressing on small pieces of clay.
disposition of the differing textures.
more obviously a female figure than the first two,

Butler's "Girl" is
also less feminine. The forins are lithe and taut, rather than full
but it is
putting
and rounded. The girl is engaged in a simple act of removing (or
concerns her. She
on) an article of clothing. Yet it is not this activity that
conveys the idea of great nervous energy, of tension and anxiety,
of restless-
and unease. Here is a person so subject to present-day pressures which

ness
pervade her every action that she hardly presents herself to us
as a woman;
we feel her inner life as pointedly as we see her physical form. And bronze,
hardness and toughness, seems appropriate for the tense

and at-
with its
tenuated forms of the figure.

462 - Sculpture
(A) Left. "Girl" (1953-1954), in shell (very thin)

bronze by Reg Butler, conveys a feeling
of tension and nervousness. Note that the figure does not rest directly on the base.
(Collection, the Museum of Modern Art, New York, A.
Conger Goodyear Fund)
(B) RMt. Tulio Gonzalez' "Woman Combing Her Hair" (1936) is highly abstracted an^
(Collection, the Museum of
has caught the essence of the subject. It is of wrought iron.
Modern Art, New York, Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund)
(A) Left. In "Aurora" (1950-1957) by Saul Baizerman, the hammered copper forms are
full and rounded, the effect noble and serene. {The World House Galleries, New York)
(B) Right. The mood of Wilhelm Lehmbruck's "Standing Woman" (1910) is one of
pensiveness and introspection, but the treatment of the figure is idealized. {Collection,
the Museum of Modern Art, New York)
464 - Sculpture
Even though Gonzalez' "Woman Combing Her Hair" is in wrought

iron— not a soft or pliant medium— it possesses remarkable freedom and
spontaneity. The salient characteristics of the figure are presented in a
highly abstracted manner: from the major movements we get a

sense of
posture; the small forms catch the essence of gesture. Gonzalez

was a major
artist asan innovator in the use of metal. His \\ork has been of enormous
influence on a younger generation of sculptors, for, as we shall see
later,
forming and combining of metal

the production of sculpture through the
forms has been developed with vigor and ingenuity.
"Aurora" by Baizerman is made of hammered copper. Beginning ^vith

working on the reverse side, has
a large thick sheet of this metal, the artist,
gradually raised the forms that comprise the figure. are always kept We
was created; a rough
mindful both of the material and the way the figure
texture resulting from the tool marks covers it in its entirety. Furthermore,
kind of elemental energy pervades the figure as it background. rises from its
a
The method used to create the figure is not conducive to hard or sharp
edges. Consequently, softly rounded forms predominate and give a serene
and womanly effect.
Lehmbruck's "Standing Woman," with its full, rounded forms, has some
of the same quality of "Walking." Both are markedly
feminine. But whereas
Archipenko has used highly abstracted forms, Lehmbruck has used idealized
appeal, but
natural forms. We see a figure of great physical beauty and
she is more than that. She is a person of
sensitivity and modesty, and she
gazes at the world with a melancholy sadness. The sculpture is of bronze.
The nature of the various materials accounts for a part of the differ-
ences among But more fundamental are the differences in

these six figures.
what is being conveyed. Or put another way, artists are drawn to the
par-
ticular materials that will lend themselves to what they

wish to convey. Still
the range
one cannot fail to be struck by the diversity of statement and by
of ideas and values that are embodied in these works. It is clear that sculp-
painting. Let us now
ture has no less potential as an expressive area than
turn to some of the considerations of sculpture.
A SCULPTOR ON SCULPTURE
turn now to
For a firsthand discussion about sculpture and its problems, we
a statement by the sculptor Henry Moore.* He is
England's greatest living
• Reprinted with the permission of Penguin Books, Inc.

A Sculptor on Sculpture - 465
siulptor, perhaps the greatest that country has ever had, and he is sensi-
tively aware of the complexities of the field. He has described both his feel-
ings about sculpture as well as his methods of working. As you read his
statement study the figures by him (Figs. 467A and B) to see the relation
befiveen his utterances and his work.
It is a mistake for a sculptor or a painter to speak or write very often

about his job. It releases tension needed for his work. By trying to express
his aims with rounded-off logical exactness, he can easily become a theorist
whose actual work is only a caged-in exposition of conceptions evolved in

terms of logic and words.
But though the non-logical, instinctive, subconscious part of the mind
must play its part in his work, he also has a conscious mind which is not
inactive. The artist works with a concentration of his whole personality,
and
the conscious part of it resolves conflicts, organizes memories, and prevents
him from trying to walk in two directions at the same time. . . .
This is what the sculptor must do. He must strive continually to think
of, and use, form in its full spatial completeness. He gets the solid shape, as
it were inside his head— he thinks of it, whatever its size, as if he were hold-
ing it completely enclosed in the hollow of his hand. He mentally visualizes
a complex form from all round itself; he knows while he looks at one
side
what the other side is like; he identifies himself with its center of gravity,
its mass, its weight; he realizes its volume, as the space
that the shape dis-
places in the air.
And the sensitive observer of sculpture must also learn to feel shape
simply as shape, not as description or reminiscence. He must, for example,
perceive an egg as a simple single solid shape, quite apart from its signifi-
cance as food, or from the literary idea that it will become a bird. And so
with solids such as a shell, a nut, a plum, a pear, a tadpole, a mushroom,
a mountain peak, a kidney, a carrot, a tree trunk, a bird, a bud, a lark, a
From these he can go on to appreciate more
lady-bird, a bulrush, a bone.
complex forms or combinations of several forms. . . .
As far as my own experience is concerned, I sometimes begin a drawing

with no preconceived problem with only the desire to use pencil
to solve,
on paper and make lines, tones and shapes with no conscious aim; but as
my mind takes in what is so produced, a point arrives where some idea be-
comes conscious and crystallizes, and then a control and ordering begin
to take place.
Or sometimes I start with a set subject; or to solve, in a block of stone
of known dimensions, a sculptural problem I've given myself, and then

consciously attempt to build an ordered relationship of forms, which shall
express my idea. But if the work is to be more than just a sculptural ex-
ercise, unexplainable jumps in the process of thought occur; and the
imagination plays its part.
It might seem from what have said of shape and form that I regard
I
them as ends in themselves. Far from it. I am very much aware that associa-
tional, psychological factors play a large part in sculpture. The meaning and
466 - Sculpture
sio-nificance of form itself probably depends on the countless associations of

man's history. For example, rounded forms con\ey an idea of fruitfulness,
maturity, probably because the earth, women's breasts, and most fruits are
rounded, and these shapes are important because they have this background
in our habits of perception. I think the humanist organic element
will al-
ways be for me of fundamental importance in sculpture, giving sculpture
its vitality. Each particular carving I make

takes on in my mind a human, or
occasionally animal, character and personality, and this personality controls

design and formal qualities, and makes me satisfied or dissatisfied with
its
the work as it develops.

My own aim and direction seems to be consistent with these beliefs,
though it does not depend upon them. My sculpture is becoming less rep-
resentational, less an outward visual copy, and so what some people would
call more abstract; but only because 1 believe that in this
way I can present
the human psychological content of my work with the greatest directness
and intensity.
A great artist can only hope to suggest a few of his major concerns in
as short a statement as the one above: he can never "explain" all aspects
of his \vork by words. But Moore has made a number of
penetrating obser-
vations and comments. He speaks, of course, of his own views on sculpture

and from his own experience. He calls attention to conflicts or contradictions
of these. He
to which he as a sculptor must pay heed. Let us note several
makes clear that he depends both on the "non-logical, instinctive, subcon-
scious part of the mind" and on the "conscious part of the mind," but ponits
out at the same time that the sculptor must not "walk in two directions
at
the same time." Through preliminary sketches he arrives at a

point where
"idea becomes conscious and crystallizes" or he may start with

a "set
his
subject" but as he works "unexplainable jumps in the thought process
occur." Moore insists that a sculptor must "learn to feel shape simply as
shape" be it an egg or a but at the same time shape and form

tree trunk,
cannot be regarded as ends in themselves but have a signficance dependent

on association. Moore does not atteinpt to resolve these conflicts m the
making them disappear, but rather to accept and live with them.
sense of
His sculpture, therefore, has in it a strong feeling of vitality and energy
from the incorporation of these opposing considerations into
his
resulting
work.
Reclining Figures by Moore

467A and B) use the
Although the two reclining hgures by Moore (Figs.
completion
same subject-the female figure-twenty-five years separate their
dates. The earlier one is in wood, the later one
in bronze. We are thus
A Sculptor on Sculpture - 467
The Englishman tlciiiy Moore has used the same subject for two sculptures in different
materials. j t-u
grain of the wood. Ihe
c . .
(A) Above. •'Reclining Figure" (1935) is of elm and utilizes the

Albright-Knox
forms are abstracted, powerful yet subtle. {Room of Contemporary
Art.
Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York)

(B) Below. Twenty-five years later (1960) the bronze
"Reclining Figure II" was com-
Moore, in suggesting cliffs and promontories
pleted. The same general forms are used but
has invested the figure with a grandeur of scale. (Collection, the Mu-
in the treatment,
seum of Modern Art. In memory of G. David Thompson, Jr., by his father.)
468 - Sculpture
provided with a fascinating comparison of the same basic idea carried out in
different materials and at different times in the artist's life. It is clear that
in both examples Moore has used the figure only as a point of departure:
the unity that he has created is sculptural rather than anatomical. In both
one feels an elemental quality.

In the ivooden figure the forms are full, sensuous, and powerful. Con-
tributing its full share to the total result is the elm wood from which it is
carved. Because he has a deep respect for the materials with which he
works,
Moore not only revealed the grain but used it to accentuate the forms. He
has oîven the whole sculpture an organic rhythm that is reminiscent not only
of wood but of the great forces of nature. We
are reminded of a great tree
trunk that has felt nature's own sculptural forces of wind, sand, and water.
The later figure is more abstracted, being composed of two masses that,
although related, are separated. But it is larger both in size and scale, and
we feel it is a more mature work. This, too, is clearly a figure, but at the
same time it is like a vast geography with crags, cliffs, and caves. It is as if
Moore, even more than in the earlier work, sees the relation between the
enduring nature of man and our physical world; or, perhaps, that we are
shaped by the forms of nature and, in turn, see nature in our own image.
Both of these figures possess enormous and compelling power.
PROCESSES IN SCULPTURE
There are three major processes by which sculpture can be executed— by
subtraction, by addition, or by replacement. The carving of stone is an
example of the first, a process in which unwanted material is cut away. The
construction of a sculpture by putting together bits of clay or by welding
together pieces of metal typifies the second. Sculpture cast into molds where
a more permanent material replaces that with which the sculptor worked
is the third major process. We will look at each in turn.
Sculpture by Cutting Away— the Subtractive Process
In the subtractive process the sculptor begins with an unformed mass and,
by the removal of material, brings into being the finished sculptural form.
The Materials. Stone and wood are the two major mediums used to
make sculpture by the subtractive process. In many respects they are notably
dissimilar. Stone hard and durable, inorganic and almost without limita-
is
tions of size. Indeed, many hundreds of years ago entire temples were carved
out of both in Egypt and in India. More recently, at Mount Rushmore
cliffs
in South Dakota, an entire mountain side has been carved into gigantic por-
Processes in Sculpture - 469
trait heads of famous American presidents. Wood, on the other hand, is rela-
tively soft and subject to decay. It is an organic material, showing through its
grain the fact that it came into being by a process of growth; furthermore, it
is limited in the size of the pieces obtainable. But both materials occur
pretty generally throughout the world, and both occur in diverse types.
Stone is extremely varied in all respects— in color, in hardness, in tex-

ture. Colors tend to reds, bro-ivns, and grays, although there are stones which
are ^vhite, blue, or green. In hardness it ranges from soapstone, so soft it can
be scratched with the fingernail, to granites, which are harder than many
metals. In texture it ranges from the fine even grain of marble to the coarse-
ness of sandstone. Many stones are streaked, mottled, or otherwise variegated.
All in all, stone offers an engaging array of possibilities. During the last
century, white marble was especially favored because its fine grain made
possible carving it in great detail. But today sculptors are working in many
kinds of stones. In Chapter 6 we have already discussed the range of color,
texture, and hardness in wood.
The Tools and Processes. Chisels and hammers are the sculptor's basic
tools in the subtractive process, and these are different for wood and for stone.
The task of chipping and carving even a modest piece of sculpture not only
demands judgment but great stamina. Power tools have materially
artistic
lightened the physical effort that a sculptor must expend, but it is still
true that the resistance of the material itself has its effect on the result. The
artist is, in a real sense, pitted against the stone or wood on which he is
working, and the toughness of the material makes its own special demands.
This is one reason why there is so much less sculpture than painting. It is
also one explanation for a difference in the kinds of ideas that are treated.
Since stone and wood sculpture involves sustained physical effort and can-
not be "dashed off" like a pencil or water-color sketch, the subjects which
are treated tend to be monumental and deliberate, and the transitory and
trivial are avoided.
Direct carving as a process is not attracting many sculptors at the present
time. As we shall see further on in the chapter, they are now drawn more to
sculpture that involves either new materials such as plastics, or new proc-
esses such as welding and brazing. But, from an historic view, a large part
of the great sculpture in the world is of stone or wood.
But let us return to a consideration of process. When sculpture assumes
monumental proportions, it becomes necessary to make a carefully studied
small model in some easily workable material, such as wax, in which the
sculptor plans the basic organization of the sculpture. Because wood sculp-
tures are generally smaller in size and the material is more readily worked.
470 - Sculpture
preliminary models are less frequently used. Often the artist makes his
on the block of wood itself and begins carving.
initial sketch directly
In both materials the sculpture is first "roughed out" in general masses

and attention is given only to the major proportions, the movement, the
relation of parts. As the cutting continues, the work becomes more care-
ful and precise. Details begin to emerge, the swell of a muscle, the folds
all the
of a drapery, the curl of a lock of hair. In the final finishing,
needed details are made evident and the surface is treated to bring out the
qualities which the sculptor desires. Many stones and woods are capable
of a high polish which emphasizes all the subtleties of form and modeling.
It is then that some of the special qualities of the
material become most
apparent, the fine texture of marble, the crystalline character of granite,

the grain of wood.
Michelangelo is reported to have said that it should be possible to roll
a stone statue down a hill without breaking it. This drastic criterion of
sculptural excellence emphasizes the necessity of keeping in mind the solidity
both of the original mass of material and of the finished product. Michel-
angelo worked chiefly with stone, a fact which should be remembered, be-
cause his statement applies only to sculpture made of brittle material.
This
"rolling-down-the-hill" criterion of good sculpture grows out of the basic
structural properties of stone. The maxim thus leads to the conclusion
that
compact forms. Wood, being a relatively

well-suited to flexible mate-
stone is
rial, can be given freer, more open and attenuated forms.
Carving in Stone and Wood. In Fig. 471 A we see the head of Michel-
angelo's heroic statue of David. He is shown as he prepares himself for
with the giant, Goliath, and the anticipatory tension is evident in
combat
his facial expressionand the taut tendons in his neck. For this work Michel-
angelo wisely chose Carrara marble, which is almost white and exceptionally
fine grained, because it shows to advantage both the
powerfully simple,
major forms and the subtle detail of the smaller features. Imagine how
its contrasting
different the effect would have been had he used granite with
dark and light crystals.
The head of Christ (Fig. 47 IB) is carved of wood but it has much of the
compactness associated with sculptures in stone. It, too, has strong basic
hair, and
forms which are enhanced by the detailed carving of the eyes, the
expression. Other-
the beard. But it was painted to emphasize its form and
wise, the wood's darkish color and its grain might have minimized the effec-
tiveness of the more Although not much sculpture is

delicate carving.
painted today (because we like to see the basic materials from which our
art
is allowed to tell their own story), the painting of both wood and
fashioned
Sculptured heads from different periods offer contrasting treatment.

has
(A) Left. The head of Michelangelo's full-length marble statue "David" (1501-1503)
features and the same physical vitality that pervades the figure. (Alinari.)
full, classic
(B) Right. The Romanesque headof Christ, done in the twelfth century, is ascetic and
compassionate. Note the stylized, almost geometric, forms that compose it. The head is
either French or Spanish and is of painted wood. {Pitcaim Collection)
Stone sculpture was common Middle Ages and in many other periods
in the
and places. The Greeks and Romans, the Chinese and Japanese, and the
carvers of the South Pacific frequently added color to make their
forms and
their messages more vivid.
These heads contrast with each other, however, less because of their ma-
than because each of the sculptors created forms appropriate to his idea.
terial
Michelangelo created an image of David as a physically vigorous youth. His

head held confidently erect and the forms are full and rounded. Quite
is
different is the head of Christ which expresses intense spiritual

compassion.
To convey this, the sculptor tilted the head strongly to the side and the
forms are attenuated, comparatively flat, and even concave. If you will com-
pare similar parts, such as the eyes or hair, in these two heads, you
will see
how vastly different they are in treatment. And as you look at each head as
a whole you can see the compelling consistency of the forms and their rela-
Each sculptor released from his material the forms he

tion to the total effect.
wanted us to see.
472 - Sculpture
Stone and wood have different potentialities.

o£ detad and
(A) Left."Jonah and the Whale" by John Flannagan combines fineness
and compactness of the stone. {Collcclion oj Mr. and
subtlety of surface with the solidity
Mrs. Milton Lowcnlhal)
(B) Right. This primitive carving from New Ireland in
the South Pacific, with its
openness and slender forms, is well suited to wood. {The Brooklyn Museum)
A comparison between stone and wood as materials is provided by John
Flannagan's "Jonah and the Whale" (Fig. 472A) and the carving from New
Ireland (Fig. 472B). The former is heavy, compact and "stoney"; the latter
is light, open, and comparatively delicate. With the Flannagan, one has the
feeling that he was as interested in the form and surface of the stone as a
piece of stone, as he was in its suggesting a whale. He has used the density
and weight of the appearance of the material to convey the feeling of mas-
siveness. The figure of Jonah is finely modeled, but simply too. Certainly
this sculpture could be rolled downhill with safety so carefully has the
nature of the stone been kept in the sculpture.
The carving from New Ireland shows a warrior with his shield sur-
rounded by four free, tipright forms. In spite of its openness, the general
form of the sculpture reflects the source of the material— a columnar tree
trunk. In order to give this sculpture a specific meaning to the group for
^vhich it was made, the sculptor has elaborated its surfaces with a variety of
intricate traditional symbols. To the New Irelanders, these symbols have a
significance which we, as products of a totally different culture, can only
partially understand. That, however, need not keep us from appreciating
the rich interplay of solids and voids of this carving, for the space is quite
as important as the solid masses it defines. Color has been used to intensify
symbolic meanings and to emphasize form and space as well as for the
sensuous enjoyment of color for its own sake. In its openness of treatment
the relation of the New Ireland carving to Harwood's "Winged Figure"
(Fig. 486B) is very apparent.
Although there are dissimilarities between stone and wood sculpture

because of differences in the material, the important relationship between
them is that with both mediums the finished sculpture is brought into being
by a process of removal of material— the sculpture emerges as the luiwanted
stone or wood is cut away. We now turn our attention to the second major
^vay of creating sculpture.
Sculpture by Joining or Combining Materials—

the Additive Process
In sculpture that is built up, the expression of the sculptor's idea is achieved
through the joining or combining of small pieces of material. These mate-
rials may be very plastic, such as moist clay, which is worked by building
up the finished form with small pieces and modeling them into the desired
form. This may then be subjected to intense heat to produce a ceramic
known as terra cotta, or may be cast in metal or artificial stone. Other
474 - Sculpture
(A) Left."Madonna and Child" (1474-

1477) by Andrea del Verrocchio, a mas-
ter of the Italian Renaissance, is a
lovely and appealing interpretation of
one of the great themes in Christian
art. It is of painted and gilded
terra
cotta. (Courtesy of the Metropolitan

Museum of Art, New York, Rogers
Fund, 1909)
(B) Below. "The City" (1942), a

terra-cotta sculpture by Peter Grippe,
shows the soft plastic nature of the
clay from which it is made. He has
combined many aspects of the city in
an arresting manner. (Collection, the
Museum of Modern Art, New York)
Processes in Sculpture • 475
materials may be rigid or semi-rigid, such as metal wire, rods, and plates,
which are combined by soldering or welding.
Sculpture in Terra Cotta. Fe^v materials are as immediately responsive
to a sculptor's hands and tools as clay: it yields readily to the slightest pres-
sure, and can be worked and re^vorked any number of times. More than
it
sculptor
most other materials, it seems to leave a vivid record of what the
did (clay sculpture has even been identified by the sculptor's
thumb-
print!)
We know that unfired clay is and that sculpture
a fragile material
possibilities are open to
in this material would have a short life. Several
a sculptor who wishes to make more durable a work
done in clay. If he
original
wishes only one permanent record of his work, he can fire the
in a kiln as was discussed under Ceramics in Chapter 7. To do this, however,
the piece must be so built that the clay in various parts does not vary much
built around a
in thickness. Large clay figures, for example, are generally
hollow core. Or the sculptor may make a plaster of Paris mold similar to
number of replicas of his piece, and
those discussed in Chapter 7, cast a
then fire them. (This, then, becomes cast sculpture, which is discussed more
fully in the following section.) In either case the result is usually referred to
as terra cotta,an Italian term meaning "cooked earth," that describes a

temperatures.
coarse earthenware clay product fired at comparatively low
Although much more durable than unfired clay, terra cotta is not
strong;
cannot stand any great strain or weight.

it breaks and chips quite easily and
is it suited to the sharp and

It is not strong enough for very large work, nor
nonetheless, a
thin shapes in which metal behaves so well. Terra cotta,
is
handsome, relatively inexpensive medium for sculpture.
Archipenko's "Walking," Andrea del Verrocchio's "Madonna and

Child," and Peter Grippe's "The 474A and B) suggest
City" (Figs. 460B,
the sculptor who chooses to work in clay and
have
some possibilities open to
cotta. In "Walking" Archipenko has made use

of
his final product in terra
This can be seen particularly in the textures,
clay's soft plastic quality.
both the coarse pebbly one on the outside of the figure

which he secured
and the finer one next to
by pressing on and flattening small lumps of clay,
itachieved through treatment with a modeling tool. In this
as well as m
bold rounded
Verrocchio's "Madonna and Child," which is done in
relief,
sculpture as they do
forms predominate, for these come as naturally in clay
conspicuous variety. The
in pottery. But in Verrocchio's work, too, there is
softly rounded forms of the Madonna's face and hands and the Child's body
somewhat angular treatment of the clothing.
are accentuated by the crisp,
476 - Sculpture
Exquisitely fine detail contrasts with broadly handled, simple masses. The
relief by Verrocchio differs from the figure by Archipenko
in that the sur-
face has been richly painted and gilded to enliven the underlying forms.
Grippe's "The City" has been fired but not glazed, and therefore, as
in "Walking," one is especially conscious of the plastic nature of the clay
from which it is made. Clay slabs, some flat, some curved, form the basis of
details such
the composition, and to these have been added the various
fascinatmg
as facial features, windows, hands, feet, dates, and symbols.
It is a
work that changes as we look at it. A head suddenly becomes a building; an

eye which is part of one face suddenly becomes part of another. The city
is buildings, then people, then history and tradition; then it is all of them
together.
Sculpture Built Up from Rigid Materials. A second kind of built-up
sculpture is that in which material of a rigid or resistant nature is formed
and joined to produce the finished work. We have already discussed the
wrought-iron figure by Gonzalez and the fact that these techniques set in mo-
tion a method of working that has been attracting an increasing
number of
artists through the years. Succeeding sculptors have diversified not only the
materials but the methods of handling them and the effect secured. An im-
portant reason for the popularity of this method of working is that it
utilizes
both materials and processes of the machine age— iron, steel, copper,
and
brass; and and brazing with oxyacetyline torches. The re-

cutting, welding,
sults that have been secured could have emerged only in the t^ventieth cen-
tury.
"Sanctuary" by Seymour Lipton (Fig. 477A) is made of a combination
of metals. Nickel, silver, and steel are all cold in color and highly reflective.
But they also vary slightly in color and the surfaces the silver resulting from
and nickel having been melted over the steel are richly varied. The title
of the sculpture
suggests protection or refuge from some threat. In the center
and shielded by large
we find a group of small geometric forms enclosed
organic shapes. The work suggests a plant-seeds perhaps ^vithin a pod.
The strong rhythmic forms are compelling: they become more open and
more fully curved at edges of the work. There is also a handsome interplay
with
between concave and convex forms. Compare Lipton's "Sanctuary"
thatof Albers (Fig. 324A). Two gifted artists have used the
same theme but
have pursued it in different mediums and with vastly different interpreta-
tions.
The term "disquieting" describes James Rosati's "Interior Castle, Num-

not exclude
ber 1" (Fig. 477B). In spite of its name (although the title does
the possibility), the work is reminiscent of a head or a head covering. At times
(A) Left. Seymour Lipton has used nickel-silver over steel in "Sanctuary" (1953). The
large, outerforms enclose and protect the cluster of small ones in the center. (Collection,
the Museum of Modern Art, New York, Blanchette Rockefeller Fund)
(B) Right. 'Interior Castle, Number 1" (1959) by James Rosati suggests a head or a
covering for the head such as a helmet. The sheet metal exterior provides protection
from a hostile world. {Gift of the Friends of the Whitney Museum of American Art,
Collection of Whitney Museum of American Art, Nezv York)
itreminds us of a medieval helmet, but there are no openings for seeing,

breathing, or talking: it is completely sealed and closed. Made of sheet
metal, the joints between the pieces are clearly visible. The consistent hori-
zontality of the metal strips is varied with smaller pieces that serve as verti-
cal contrasts. They give the impression of being patches which have been
added to insure security for the "castle." The title also suggests that, al-
though rough and forbidding on the outside, the inside, which, of course
we cannot see, is secure, elaborate, and attractive. There are many overtones
to this work. We know that increasingly, in the twentieth century, man is
developing an inner life where his secrets are carefully guarded. In the pres-
sure of the public world in which we move, with numerous forces competing
for our attention and loyalties through such mass media as radio and tele-
vision, we must have some place secure and protected into which we can
retreat. It is ideas such as these that seem implicit in Rosati's work.
Built-up works in other materials commented on later are Nevelson's
"Dark Shadows," Gordin's "Rectangular Number 5," Gabo's "Linear

478 - Sculpture
Construction in Space, Number 5," and Roszak's "Spectre of Kitty Hawk"

Recall also Calder's mobile (Fig. 380A),
(Figs. 486A, 488, 489A and B).
work that of great sculptural significance because movement

a type of is
is an integral part of it. Movement is basic to the space age.
Other materials also lend themselves to built-up sculpture. Paper

sculp-
and crisp effects because

ture, although very fragile, is capable of surprising
paper-creased, folded, twisted, torn-is a highly plastic medium.
Papier-
mache is used for such things as masks and stage properties and is both
light
plastics, wire,
and tough. Sculptors are also using such mediums as mosaics,
and glass with ingenious and varied effect.
Sculpture by Replacement— Casting
In this process a mold formed around the original model and into
is
it
is cast the material of which the final version of the sculpture is made.
Sculpture in Cast Metal. Building a model in clay is usually the
first
finished product is in
step toward sculpture in cast metal. In most cases, the
bronze and four examples are illustrated here, Butler's "Girl"
and Moore's
"Reclining Figure Benin head and Epstein's "Social Consciousness"
II," the
(Figs. 462A, 467B, 479, and 480). Bronze is hard, strong, and durable with
none of the softness of clay. Nonetheless, the cast piece may reflect the plastic
quality of the clay from which the original was made.

If a sculptor is making a piece to be cast in
bronze, he will design it
neither to clay
with metal in mind. Long, or extended, forms are suited
nor to stone. In both the Epstein and the Butler the arms and
legs are
slenderand attenuated. Yet in bronze, because of its great strength, they are
so often given
entirely justified. Bronze, too, can take intricate detail,
it is
complex surfaces.
Bronze castings are generally made by the lost wax or cire perdue proc-
The prepares a model
ess which dates back many hundreds of years. artist
of the piece to be cast exactly as he wishes it to

appear when finished-in
detail. Over this a gelatin piece mold is prepared.
Because
form, size, and
of its softness and and can be removed
flexibility, gelatin reflects all details
this mold is
from the undercut areas without losing shape. The inside of
bronze-about one-
coated with wax to the thickness that is wanted for the
eighth inch. A core of investment material (mostly plaster of Paris and

silica) is poured into the mold and the gelatin mold isremoved leaving the
and the Wax rods are attached to the shell. These will
wax shell core.
a system of canals for the bronze to enter and the air to escape. The
form
with
core is held in place with iron nails. A plaster-silica mix, reinforced
The wax covering, and outer
wire, is used to build up the outer mold. core,
^^,-iiv3.ni^î^^
The sixteenth-century bronze

altar head from Benin, Nigeria,
is of a royal personage. Regal
and imperious, it exhibits the
expressive distortion character-
istic of African sculpture. (Cour-
tesy of The Museum of Pri/nitive
Art, New York)
mold, together, are called the flask and when it is heated to 600 degrees Fahr-
enheit the wax melts and runs out through the canals. It is then heated to
1500 degrees Fahrenheit to burn out any remaining wax. What remains is
the core separated by a narrow space from the surrounding mold. Into this
free space the molten bronze is poured. The outlets enable the air to
escape
as the bronze fills the mold. When mold and core are re-
cool, the outer
moved and the final finish is given to the sculpture. Whereas in stone sculp-
ture there is only one "original," in bronze a number of replicas can be
made.
The casting of sculpturean old process which was employed by such
is
diverse peoples as the ancient Greeks and Romans, by the Chinese,

and
Benin in Nigeria,
by some African tribes. From about 1500 to 1900 at
bronze casting was developed to a high level, and the head in Fig. 479 is a
superb example from the sixteenth century. Bronzes such as this exemplify a
court style and were dedicated to the ruler's glorification. Like most African
sculpture, this example is distorted for expressive purposes, especially
apparent in the forward thrust of the lower part of the face. The forms that
connect the head covering with the ornament around the neck give the piece
a simple basic shape. But our attention is directed chiefly to the features,
which are full and bold in form and strong, regal, and imperious in effect.
480 - Sculpture
bronze by
Consciousness" (Fig. 480) is a recent important
"Social
the controversial American-born
English sculptor Sir Jacob Epstein. Planned
keep-
for in size and monumental in effect. In
an outdoor setting, it is large
with compassion, yet it is not in the
in- with its theme, the work is filled
a magnificent piece of design:
there are majestic
lea'st sentimental. It is
and verticals, in the relation of

rhythms in the repetitions of the diagonals
and of taut But the humanity which
to relaxed forms.
straioht to curved
Here is
pervades the work is more than equal to the strength of the design.
concept that man is his brother's keeper
and it is
a great human theme; the
nobility. Significantly, too, Epstein
given an expression in keeping with its
could give an idea of this nature

was one of the few modern sculptors who
treatment. During the last
compelling form and avoid trite and hackneyed
noble titles and empty forms. In
century we had a surfeit of sculptures with
sculptors, like painters, have largely
turned to ideas
the twentieth century,
rather than outer
that are subjective and that deal with private inner worlds
meaningfully
and public worlds. It is to Epstein's credit that he could deal
with great human themes of the public world.
also used for casting sculptures,

such as lead, alumi-
Other metals are
can be
num, and copper. Through electroplating a sculpture in one metal
Cast sculpture, utilizing an

old process, is still given im-
pressive and varied form.
Opjjosile. "Social Conscious-
ness" (1954), a bronze group
in Philadelphia, by the Amer-
ican-born English sculptor Sir
Jacob Ejjstein, is a noble
treatment of a great theme.
The figures are strong yet
compassionate, monumental
yet mo\ing. (Photograph by
Frederick Meyer)
Right. The sand mold that
Julius Schmidt has used for
casting "Iron Sculpture"
(1960) accounts for its granu-
lar surface. He has incorpo-
rated an engaging array of
heavily textured areas in the
work. (Collection, the Mu-
seum of Modern Art, New
York. Gift of Mr. and Mrs.
Samuel A. Marx)
covered with another. In some instances gold leaf is applied. Many of the
Victorian statues which ornamented the lawns of old houses were made of
cast iron. Julius Schmidt's "Iron Sculpture" (Fig. 481) is also of cast iron,
but there its resemblance to the iron sculpture of the nineteenth century
ceases. The fact that itsand accounts for the granular surfaces.
was cast in
In form it is reminiscent of a table for it clearly has a top and legs, but each
plane is inventively and richly textured. Schmidt has used machined forms
in preparing his model, but these occur next to one another in an
almost
random fashion. In making the casting he has not wanted sharp edges
on forms or smooth As can be seen, there are holes in the casting
surfaces.
where the metal did not run; there are projecting slivers of iron where it
ran into fissures in the mold. But he has given us fascinatingly varied
sur-
faces in which machine-produced areas, usually sharp-edged, precise, and

ordered, are here corroded and seemingly disordered. He may be
saying
that the world of handsome and refined forms as we have

known them
(as suggested by the table image) is being corroded
away by the proliferation
of machined forms.
Sculpture cast in metal is attractive to the artist because the result is very
durable, yet it enables him to prepare the model in a material that is

482
With no direct reference to

the appearance of birds, the
Rumanian Constantin Bran-
cusi in "Bird in Space" (1919)
has exquisitely conveyed the
impression of flight. It is in
bronze. (Collection, the Mu-
seum of Modern Art, New
York, given anonymously)
worked and the great physical effort required

that does not demand
easily
in wood. In spite of their durability,
in carving sculpture in stone or even
survive. This is
however, comparatively few cast metal statues of gTeat age
materials, but because metals,
not, however, because of a limitation of the
especially bronze, are in themselves
materials of some worth and many won-
Diversity of Form and Expression in Modern Sculpture - 483
derful sculptures have been melted down for re-use, sometimes to make
cannons. But because of its many advantages, metal will continue to be an
important sculptural medium.
Sculpture Cast in Other Materials. "Creature of the Deep" (Fig. 399B)
by Leo Amino is made of a material new in sculptural history— plastic— to
^vhich the artist has given distinguished tieatment. He first made a model
of the inner form, and a black plastic was poured into the mold made from
the model. Around this a new form was built with clay and a second set
of molds was prepared for the transparent plastic. The result is a casting
within a casting. Plastic is a material which offers new possibilities for the
sculptor. Transparent and translucent plastics have an aqueous quality.

They lack the brilliance of glass but are softer in effect. Amino has capital-
ized on their special qualities, particularly in relation to the subject he has
chosen. He is pioneering with a material that has great promise, for the
variety of plastics is great and they lend themselves to varied treatment.
Other materials may also be used for reproducing sculpture. Lipchitz'

"Man with a Guitar" (Fig. 485B) is of cast stone, a material that can be
extremely varied in both color and texture. Made of stone dust and a binder,
it has the same general characteristics as stone— heaviness, hardness and dur-
ability. Plaster is also used for casting sculpture. While it lends itself to the
making of precise copies and can be given a variety of finishes, it is fragile
and chips and breaks easily.
DIVERSITY OF FORM AND EXPRESSION

IN MODERN SCULPTURE
Recent sculpture shows a great range of subject matter and of content
because sculptors, like painters, have been intensively exploring the subjec-
tive ^vorlds of feeling, the new materials and new techniques of our age, the
modern concepts of space, and the forms that are characteristic of our cen-
tury. We have already looked at a number of recent works, and the final sec-
tion of this chapter will deal briefly with several others to extend further
an understanding of the many directions taken by modern sculpture.
Varied Treatments of Form and Space
Solid Abstracted Forms. The "Bird in Space" (Fig. 482) of Constantin

Brancusi, done in 1919, stands today as a classic example of abstract art. Yet
it was a radical work at that time. Several years later a copy was brought to
this country for exhibition, and customs inspectors, declaring that it was not
art at all, demanded duty on it as a piece of metal. The shape bears no literal
484 - Sculpture
swelling and diminishing form, the ex-

relationship to a bird flying, yet the
quisitely subtle silhouette, and the
highly reflective surface that becomes
extraordi-
alive with each ray of light,
especially changing light, all give an
It seems not to be restnig
on its
nary sense of swift, ascending movement.
Brancusi's sculpture is a purified ab-
base as much as floating free in space.
straction of organic forms, unencumbered
by superfluous details, and real-
ized in a material suited to his

theme. Thus, in essentials it resembles
"
although it is far less representational.
Few modern artists have
"Hera
had as' widespread influence as Brancusi.
Not only painters and sculptors
have learned from his work-but designers as well.
(Fig. 485A) although done in marble has much
Noouchi's "Integral"
We have already remarked on the fine
of the shnplicity of the Brancusi.
in carv-
trained nature of marble and its ability to respond to fine nuances
The s^velling of the form in the
hio "Integral" is simple yet subtle in shape.
depressions on the flat sur-
center oives it a quality of aliveness: the slight
notches on the edges suggest heads.
And these ap-
faces a'ong with the
pear from whatever angle we view the work-even upside-down.
"Man with a Guitar" (Fig. 485B) by Jacques Lip-

A Cubist Sculpture.
in
It represents a figure
done around 1915, is angular and mechanized.
chitz,
geometrically structured, and
which the forms have been highly simplified,
Al-
reoroanized to express the interdependence of form, space, and time.
his guitar are discernible, we are more conscious of
though the man and
forms stridently complementing one
the structural organization with its
another in size, movement, and shape.
Thus it is comparable to Duchamp s
semiscientific study of structure,
"Nude Descending the Staircase." The
of twentieth-century
which is of Cubism, is in part an expression
a basis
has had marked influence, especially on architec-
interest in science, and it
ture and some phases of industrial design.
"Dark Shadows" (Fig.

An Assemblage of Wood. Louise Nevelson's
shapes and sizes that
486A) is composed of many pieces of wood in varying
rectangle. Some twenty generally
have been ordered into a long slender
edges, comprise the basic design
and
rectangular blocks, with even-sa^ved
them slyly break the edges of the large form.
On most of these
several of
shape.
pieces of wood that are freer in
are fastened one, or several, smaller
are split and show the
some are geometric and regular, others
\lthough
There is a handsome
orain of the wood. Some of the pieces are clearly worn.
horizontal and vertical, machined and
interplay between small and large,
a multitude of new shapes
worn The positioning of the units has created
unifies the
total. A coat of black paint
and of small compositions within the
Shadows" that it is composed of
work and we forget as we look at "Dark
(A) Lejt. In "Integral" (1959) Isamu Noguchi has used fine-grained Italian marble in a
simple, compact, form on which there are subtle surfaces and details. {Giji of the Friends
of the Whitney Museum of American Art, Collection of Whitney Museum of American
Art, New York)
(B) Right. The geometrically simplified and abstracted forms in "Man with a Guitar"
(r.1915) by Lithuanian-born Jacques Lipchitz are characteristic of much Cubist sculpture.
{Collection, the Museum of Modern Art, New York. Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund)
486 - Sculpture
Nevelson, incorpo-
(A\ Left "Dark Shadows" (1957), an assemblage in wood by Louise
shapes
gly varied forms. It is painted a flat black which unifies the d-erse
aLs in rigui
Museum, Newark, Ne.
dark mystery' (Courtesyof Tke Newark
ancrsSls a'kind of
Harwood utilizes space ^^^n integral

^'7Aieht In "Winged Figure" (1955-1956), Stuart Ai.
and tapered forms convey the sensation of fligl t
cart of he sculpture The sinuous WkUney

Lostlx felt ta7Tt is of chestnut. (G^ft of WUUam HeWurn,
Collection of
Museum of American Art, New York)

wood. A poetic geometry is evoked by the rhythm of the forms and the
shadows they cast.
Openness and Space. In contrast to the preceding examples, Stuart

Harwood's "^Vi^ged Figure" (Fig. 486B) shows as great a concern for voids
as for solids. In its general shape and openness it reminds us of the New
Ireland carving, for it, too, retains the cylindrical form of a tree trunk.
But whereas the New Ireland carving was symmetrical and generally
static, "Winged Figure," in keeping with its title, is alive with movement.
The forms \vhich move upward are flamelike in shape: their pointed ends
seem to pierce the space they are traversing. The eye is intrigued into ex-
ploring the various forms and voids which have a remarkable coherence and
similarity.
Sidney Gordin's "Rectangular, Number 5" (Fig. 488) is an expression of

man's preoccupation with geometric order, and it is no surprise to learn that
Gordin \vas trained as an architect. His work bears more than a casual resem-
blance to contemporary large steel construction, and it conveys the same
drama and breath-taking tenuousness that we find in the skeletons of sky-
scrapers, bridges, and radio towers. But this is no imitative work: the
rhythms of the planes and lines develop a poetic reality of their own as they
oppose, support, and extend each other in size, direction, density, and color.
And it carries forward a search for an indisputably secure geometrical logic
that goes back to the designs prehistoric man put on many of his utensils.
Responses to Technological Developments
"Linear Construction in Space, made by Naum Gabo and

Number 4"
"The Spectre of Kitty Hawk" by Theodore Roszak (Figs. 489A and B)

are recent in time but opposed in content. The Gabo, like Gordin's "Rec-
tangular Number 5" is a work in which the chief concern is a search for
rational, logical form. It is a descendant of the movement known as Construc-
tivism which developed shortly after World War I. Based on "an optimistic
acceptance of scientific and technological progress," Constructivists regarded
space and time as the essential elements of real life and, therefore, of art.
They must cease trying to represent the surface
also believed that artists
appearance of objects if they are to be creative and to produce work that

is spiritually satisfying. One would expect in works based
on such concepts
a cordiality toward new materials. In "Linear Construction" the major
shapes are made of plastic and they are related with webs of nylon cord
which, though strung with mathematical regularity, produce patterns that

cross, converge, and diverge in visually exciting ways. There is a consistent
purity in "Linear Construction." The forms are sharp, clear, and open.
488 - Sculpture
"Rectangular, Number 5" (1952), a precise, painted steel construction by Sidney Gordin,
ischiefly concerned witli tlie geometric definition of spatial areas. Strong colors are
used
on many parts of the sculpture. (Courtesy, Grace Borgenicht Gallery, New York)
480
Sculptors, depending on their outlook,

may respond very differently to scientific
and technological developments.
(A) Lf'ft. "Linear Construction in Space,
Number 4 (1 957- 958) by Russian-born
1
Naum Gabo is an example of constructiv-

istsculpture. Constructivism accepted sci-
ence as a basis for art and universal under-
standing. (Gift of the Friends of the Whit-
ney Museum of American Art, Collection
of Whitney Museum of American Art,
New York)
Below. "Spectre of Kitty Hawk"
(B)
(1946-1947) by Theodore J. Roszak ex-
presses and terrors of the air
the fears
age. It is and hammered steel
of welded
brazed with bronze and brass. (Collection,
the Museum of Modern Art, Neiu York)
490 - Sculpture
The tension achieved only in ways that are clearly visible: no psycho-
is
logical overtones are suggested. It has the same kind of

beauty as a mathe-
matical equation, with majestic and clearly perceivable relationships.

And we
involvement.
enjoy this poetry of form and tension with little emotional
Nodetachment is possible, however, in viewing "The Spectre of Kitty
Hawk." It has no smooth, reflective surfaces or simple, handsome forms
we see surfaces that are rough and
that invite us to touch them. Instead
coarse, forms that are melted, twisted, eroded and eaten. Reminiscent of a
terrifying animal about menaces and threatens us. The
to take flight, it
reader undoubtedly knows that it was at Kitty Hawk, North

Carolina, that
first successful flights with heavier-than-air

craft were made and that
the
these ushered in the air age. Sculptor Roszak is disturbingly aware of the
air-age spectre of destruction and annihilation, and that the same discoveries
that have enabled us to conquer space may, in perhaps equal likelihood,

progress, but
destroy us. This is no optimistic acceptance of technological
impressed with the
a protest and a warning. Yet we cannot help being
richness of the surfaces, the strength of the forms, the
dynamic rhythms-
powerful
and the message it communicates. This is not "pretty" art, but it is
sculpture expressing some contemporary anxieties.
De Creeft's "The Cloud"
But not all recent work is and we will close this chapter with
abstract,
(Fig. 491). In her full
Jose de Creeft's deeply expressive "The Cloud"
vigor the mother supports and sustains the tiny child she holds and caresses.
The forms are appropriately full, rounded, and soft, and like a cloud they
cloud and
seem to float because de Creeft has seen a relationship between a
a small but noble sculpture that tells us with
mother-child love. This is
warmth and tenderness of the beauty and of the wonder of life.
CONCLUSION
Sculpture one of the major fields of art and has been important in
is
great diversity-in
every great culture. Recent work has been marked by
mediums, in methods of working, in content. Like painting, much of it is
abstracted or non-objective. The human image, which during
man's
either
history has been the subject of greatest interest to the sculptor, is
now
exhibiting a
used only occasionally. But sculpture in recent years has been
remarkable vitality. New forms and techniques are being explored, new
will continue its
ideas are being conveyed. It seems likely that sculpture
full flood. But what-
explorations into new areas for these tendencies are at
Conclusion - 491
"The Cloud" (1939), by the

American Josi de Creeft is a
lovely and tender sculpture.
Note the use of rounded
forms and soft edges and the
sense of lightness resulting
from the small point of con-
tact of the with the
figure
base. (Collection of Wliitney
Museum of American Art,
Neio York)
particular forms, sculpture will continue to express the hopes,

fears,
ever its
ideals of man. It will continue to be a record of the human

spirit.
and
Further readings:
of Sculpture: Herbert Read (London:

The Art Faber, 1956).
Handsomely
Discussion of unique aspects of sculpture and its new freedom.
illustrated.
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and

The Creation of Sculpture: Jules Struppeck
Winston, 1952).
Contains clear and detailed descriptions of the construction
and reproduc-
also discussed.
tion of sculpture. A wide variety of sculptural materials
is
The Encyclopedia of World Art: (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959-).
This 35-volume work one of the most ambitious art pub-

in preparation is
include brilliant
lishing ventures ever attempted. The published volumes
by an
and authoritative statements on all forms of art, including sculpture,
international group of scholars.
492 - Sculpture
A Histoiy of Western Art: John Ives Sewall (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1960).
A history of art that integrates architecture, painting, and sculpture in its
discussion of each of the great styles of Western art.
Modern Art, A Pictorial Anthology: Charles McCurdy, ed. (New York: Mac-
millan, 1958).
Eight authorities have collaborated on assembling the extensive pictorial
material on modern art and in writing the concise and effective commen-
taries.
Looking into Art: Frank Sieberling (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1959).
A general appreciation text in which sculpture, along with other art areas,
are interestingly and intelligently discussed.
Sculpture of the Twentieth Century: Andrew Carnduff Ritchie (New York:

The Museum of Modern Art, 1954).
Heavily illustrated, book includes excellent summaries of major trends
this
of the period and statements by many of the important sculptors.

In this framework for a small structure
the light steel is given the necessary
rigidityby the use of the triangle as a
basic unit. Designed by George Cody.
(Photograph by Zack Stewart)
17 Arclxitectuire
-
ANCIENT EGYPT'S RULERS thought chiefly of building for eternity.

This purpose drove the earlier Pharaohs to build massive stone pyramids
against decay,
in which their dead bodies \vould be stored and preserved
that time when, according to their religion, their souls would

once
until
more return to their bodies. The Great Pyramid of Khufu has already been
in materials,
illustrated and discussed in Chapter 3. In return for its cost
transportation, and hinnan toil and s^veat, it gave little in the way of
useful-
ness, and judged by that standard it is probably the most extravagant build-
ing ever constructed.
In striking contrast, the buildings of Rockefeller Center in New York
concrete, and stone-house offices, stores,
City (Fig. 494)-thin shells of steel,
493
494 - Architecture
Rockefeller Center in New York City is the first large

group of office buildings planned
constructed between 1931 and 1940 were designed by Reuihard
as a unit. The buildings
and Hoffmeister; Corbett, Harrison, and McMurray; and Hood and Fouilhoux. Since then
the Center has been extended. {Thomas Airviews)
Architecture • 495
restaurants, and broadcasting studios. (Compare the size of the two develop-
ments in the dra^ving below.) Many thousands of people work in the build-
ings, and thousands more enter them every day. They were built to be used.
The diagram conveys the relative sizes of some

of the buildings in Rockefeller Center and the
Great Pyramid of Khufu. Whereas the former
are light in construction and contain offices for
many thousands of people, the latter is almost
solid masonry.
not by mummies waiting for eternity, but by television and radio stars,
executives, secretaries, janitors, office boys, and the visiting public. Thus
the human needs which the Pyrainid and these skyscrapers were constructed
different. However, our concern in this chapter is
not
to meet are vastly
only with human needs but with organization of space and with problems of
materials and methods of construction and ho^v they relate to and are in-
tegral parts of the design and appearance of buildings.

usable
Man's problem in architecture has always been one of enclosing
necessity) to use mate-
space. Almost always, too, he has the desire (and the
most fields of art is difficult,
rials economically and efficiently. Progress in
not say that the
ifnot impossible, to point to directly. Thus, one would
earlier men. Change
work of modern painters is more significant than that of
we not easy to determine. In architectural con-
are certain of; but progress is
there has been enor-

struction, however, one can state with certainty that
mous progi-ess in the use of materials, that today man is
able to enclose
of con-
more space with less material than ever before. The
development
of Egypt to the light, open
struction from the massive, ponderous pyramids
structures of steel and concrete such as the Seagram
Building and the TWA
Flight Center (Figs. 502A and B, 538B, and 540A and B) demonstrates a line
kingdom.
of evolution as exciting as that in the animal
But man has other purposes in building than enclosing space he can
use. It must also serve his spirit by

expressing his ideals and aspirations.
and govern-
And we find that such structures as homes, churches or temples,
^vorld tell us as much
mental buildings in different cultures throughout the
about the people who built them as the activities they shelter. Architec-
496 - Architecture
ture thus combines the highly expressive and the directly utilitarian, the
esthetic and the practical.
This is not the reader's exposure to architecture, for the preceding

first
chapters in this book have included many examples. Here, the attention
will be directed to the general problems of architecture, its design, construc-
tion, and expressiveness. Let us begin by looking at a form that has evolved
only in recent years.
FIVE SKYSCRAPERS
Skyscrapers are an American art form. Representing new conquests of
space and materials, these "poems in steel"

to have added a new beauty
in their domination
the urban scene. At the same time they are expressive,
over the rest of the community, of the place which commerce and
industry
cathedral occupied
occupy in contemporary life. In the medieval period, the
cultural and visual center of community life; in
twentieth-century
the
America, the "cathedrals of commerce" tower above all else.
What are criteria of judgment for these structures? What should a
skyscraper "look" like? Does the architect, like the painter, have
problems
of expression? What are the forces, the new materials, the

techniques which
occupied
should be given visual expression? These are problems that have
steel construction
the attention of architects since the development of
and the invention of elevators first made tall buildings possible.
The Wainwright Building
One of the early skyscrapers was the Wainwright Building (Fig. 497)
in St. Louis; though it was built in 1891, it still has a refreshingly "modern"
one of America's great architects,
look. It was designed by Louis Sullivan,
who was the first to realize that the skeletal frame of a skyscraper should be
reflected in the design-that a tall office building should
look like what it
and
isand not like a Greek temple or a Gothic cathedral. Sullivan's sensible
revolutionary ideas were temporarily rejected in the stifling wave
of eclecti-
cism during which most architects used historic forms and

ornament inap-
skyscrapers are
propriate to high-building design. Sullivan recognized that
typically used as office space. The Wainwright
Building
lofty, steel structures
Height
shows forms that not only follow but clearly express their functions.
is stressed by emphatic vertical piers. The character of the space inside,
rooms similar in size and shape, is expressed by an
which is a series of small
regular but human in scale and
organization of windows that is strictly
Five Skyscrapers - 497
The Wainwright Building (1890) in

St. Louis was one of the early tall
buildings in which Louis Sullivan
formulated the basis of modern sky-
scraper design. (Photograph Cour-
tesy of the Museum of Modern Art,
New York)
subtly proportioned. His great contribution, ignored for several decades

but now fully appreciated, is a major influence in contemporary work.
The Chicago Tribune Building
The tower Tribune Building (Fig. 498A) shows the extent

of the Chicago
to which Sullivan's appeal for honesty went unheeded. It was
built in
the mid-1920s, and as we look at it today we wonder why a twentieth-cen-

tury structure is given a fifteenth-century Gothic cloak. The prototype of
this building is the Butter Tower of Rouen Cathedral in France, which is
an excellent example of late French Gothic architecture. Built of stone, it
employed the Gothic system of construction of piers, arches, and buttresses,

the forms being outgrowths of a method of building which was integrally
related to medieval life. Essentially a vertical style, the Gothic imparts a
feeling of aspiration entirely in keeping with the religious preoccupation

of the period.
498 - Architecture
WM»8 si,
11!! Ill ! '''J-^^
(A) Left. In the eclectic Tribune Tower (1923) in Chicago,

Raymond Hood used a
medieval cathedral tower as the model for the design. {Kaufma7in and Fabry Co.)
(B) Right. A by Hood, the New York News Building (1929), makes use
later building
of precise machined forms in its stark vertical treatment. (Courtesy oj the
New York
Daily News)
Perhaps it was the common factor of verticality in a medieval tower and

a modern skyscraper that led architect Raymond Hood to use the Butter
Tower as a model. But obviously he had to make many concessions and
changes. For example, the Tribune Building was very much taller than
its model and, because of its height and in order to meet the demands of
space and economy, was built primarily of steel. Still Hood decided it should
look like a Gothic to^ver; hence, even though everyone knows the shell of
a modern building is hung on a steel frame, the stonework is designed to
look like masonry construction. Yet the slender piers of stone could not
possibly stand if they were built apart from the steel frame. Near the top
of the tower, where the first setback occurs, the designer (foUo^ving the
model) has introduced a series of flying buttresses which, in the original,
resisted the thrust of the arches in the center. Here again the forms are
false; there is no reason for flying buttresses in skyscraper construction.
However, the building does possess a large measure of attractiveness.
One cotild apply to it, with favorable results, all the principles of design.
It is handsomely detailed and proportioned and was clearly conceived by an

individual of taste and discrimination. Yet, while making use of modern
technology, the Tribune Building attempts to conceal it; while housing the
complex of activities involved in the production of a newspaper for a large
American city, it takes on the appearance of an architectural style long out-
moded.
The New York News Building
Hood also designed the New York News Building (Fig. 498B), which
was built six years after the Chicago Tribune Building. It is definitely in
the Sullivan tradition, but in starker terms. Here, in bold and simple forms,
the verticality of the skyscraper is proclaimed, the bands of masonry are
clearly nonsupporting, and the space between is given over to the windows
and the medium brown panels that separate them between floors. On the
shafts themselves, there is no detail; their great effectiveness comes from the
design inherent in the structure. The facing is light in value, almost white,
and presents a dazzling contrast with the sky, especially on sunny days. The
window shades in the entire building are a soft rust color, and these provide
a note of warmth in the generally severe design.

The extent to which the design of the News Building was revolutionary
can be seen by contrasting it Wainwright and Chicago Tribune
with the
buildings. Here, in this original twentieth-century structure, an esthetic
based upon the preciseness and duplication of machined forms has been util-
ized. As a result, the building has an impersonal quality. Even the individual
500 - Architecture
use of further technological

Lever House (1952) by Skidmore, Owings. and Merrill makes
concrete structure with glass and staniless steel.
developments in sheathing a reinforced
(Lever Brothers Company)
windows have disappeared in the general design and there is no way of
relating the building to human scale. It served to direct the attention of
architects to franker statement, to the utilization of the structure of

the
building itself as a basis for the design. As we look at some of the skyscrapers
designed after it, we see how the innovations introduced by Hood have been
further developed. We have become used to them and accept the absence
of human scale and the use of machined forms in recent buildings as a mat-
ter of course.
Lever House
A next great stride in skyscraper design is exemplified in Lever House
(Fig. 500) which is situated on New York's Park Avenue. It was designed
by Gordon Bundshaft of the firm of Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill.

The
of the
surfacing materials of stainless steel and glass mark it as a product
machine age-there is no carry-over of the masonry tradition that has
is an
characterized most western architecture for thousands of years. Here
utterly frank and lucid architectural statement: it is a steel
and concrete
cage which has been sheathed in a glass and stainless steel

envelope. The
"skin" has been separated from the structure.
There is At the base of the building
a brilliant clarity about the design.
is a horizontal unit supported one story
above the ground on gleaming metal
piers. Except for the glass-enclosed lobby, the major
area at the street level
is open. Above this horizontal form, but

separated from it by an indentation
or "notch" rises the main mass of the building. The tower occupies less
than twenty-five percent of the site so that it stands free and uncrowded.
cool green of the glass contrasts with the luster of the

stainless steel.
The
The glass surface is also highly reflective and we see in it the
image of clouds
main
and adjacent buildings. The openness at the base, the notch below the
shaft and the reflective nature of the skin all give the
building an impression
of great lightness: it almost seems to float above the street.
The Seagram Building
502 A and B), another office structure of great

The Seagram Building (Figs.
impressiveness, was erected diagonally across the street from Lever House
in 1958. Designed by Mies van der Rohe with Philip

Johnson as collabora-
tor, it presents many distinctive features. It has been given a spacious
setting-rare in crowded urban areas-and a plaza of

pink granite, in-
out the street. Only
laid with two clear pools and beds of planting, extends
to
fifty percent of the site is covered by the building.

From the plaza rises the
502 - Architecture
=!•!!»!"" iiiiiiiiiii niimwiw*!!* *
•1 I
illlllllllllllllli
'uiiiiiitiiiniii
,,„„!
iiiiiiiiii
iiiiiiiiiimil
nil
III
iiiiiiniimil
""""•"•"«;:
K!
IIIIIIIIIIHill
nil iiiiH'JlLmiiH niiiiiiii iM
•iiiiiii iiiiSMHiiiiiiiiiirm itiii;
•iiiiiiiiiiip'!|iiiiH,H,;;!j|[ lljiiif
Mies van der Rohe

A day and a night view of the Seagram Building (1958) designed by
and Philip Johnson.
the building rises gives it an
(A) Left. The open plaza from which the austere shaft of
impressive approach. {Photograph by© Ezra Sloller)
(B) Right. At night the entire building glows with warm light.
Then the glass sheathing
become especially apparent.
of the building and the horizontal division of the floors
{Photograph by Maurey Garber)

Architectural Construction - 503
building— a thirty-eight story cliff of glass and metal. The ground floor is en-
closed with large sheets of glass. Above that are closely spaced ribs and bands
of bronze and between them tinted glass. The color of the building is rich
and warm, the forms are of the utmost severity and refinement; the effect is
one of restraint and elegance.

Like the Lever House, this, too, is a frank statement of modern con-
struction with a covering envelope or skin. The vertical members of the
enclosing cage, the bronze uprights, are more prominent in the Seagram
Building than their counterparts in Lever House. At night, fully lighted,
the Seagram Building looks like a great jewel gleaming with a warm light.
The horizontal divisions of the building, the floors, then become more
prominent, but the effect of precision and refinement is not lessened. Mies
has had as his dictum, "Less is more," meaning that more is gained than
lost by severity and austerity. The Seagram Building is proof of the validity
of that doctrine.
Lever House, the Seagram Building, Philip Johnson's house (Chapter 1),
and the United Nations Headquarters (Chapter 2) exemplify the Interna-
tional Style in architecture, which is a major trend today. Rejecting the
picturesque, it develops expressive shapes from the functions the buildings
serve. Structure is clearly stated and the surfaces are clean and even stark.
Rather than looking back, as does eclecticism, the International Style readily
accepts the present and finds within it the basis for an esthetic that expresses
these times.
The design of skyscrapers has changed considerably since they first
became possible in the closing years of the nineteenth century. The sky-
scraper continues to be a vital art form in the technological age, and as our
ideas change and new technical discoveries are made, their design, too, will
change, and architects will continue to give us structures which embody
these ideas and discoveries.
ARCHITECTURAL CONSTRUCTION
In general, architecture has three components directly comparable to the
human body: the skeleton or frame which supports the building; the skin
which encloses it; and the equipment or "vital organs" through which air,
light, sound, and sanitation are controlled. In early architecture little dis-
tinction was made between skeleton and skin, and little provision was
needed for equipment; today each of these components has been the sub-
ject of careful study, although in some recent work the distinction between
skeleton and skin is again disappearing as new materials and techniques
make possible new methods of construction.
504 - Architecture
Historic systems of architectural construction are generally classified in

four categories:
1. which horizontal beams are laid across the spaces

Post-and-lintel, in
between upright supports (see the diagram on page 508). If the upright
support is a continuous wall instead of separate posts, the system is
more aptly called wall-and-Untel.
2. CaiUilever, in \vhich load-carrying beams, or members, project beyond

their supports (see the diagram on page 529).
3. Arch, in which small wedge-shaped pieces of material are placed with
joints at right angles to the curve (see the diagram on page 510).
This
defines the true or radial arch, but the term has come to describe any
structure with curved elements.
4. Truss, in which members such as beams and bars are assembled into a
rigid triangular framework (see the diagram on page 526).
From these basic systems of construction the great variety of architec-

tural styles in the world has been developed. But useful as these categories
in studying
are in studying historic work, they are completely inadequate
contemporary practice. Today architects and engineers usually divide build-
ings into two major categories:
1. Bearing wall construction, in which the wall supports not only itself
but the floors and roof as well: skeleton and skin are one and the same
thing. For example, in a log cabin or a solid masonry building, the
the walls are the structure. Two specialized variants deserve mention.
Monolithic construction, in which the material is continuous-that
is, not jointed or pieced together-as in concrete structures (Figs. 520A
and 540).
Structural skin construction, in which sheet materials (such as ply-
wood or sheets of metal) are placed and held under stress to assume a
structural form. Skin and skeleton are fused, but they are more or
less continuous thin, sheet materials rather than
"chunks," and their
shape exploits their potential strength. Typical examples are the shell
of an egg or turtle; a gas-filled balloon; silos, grain elevators, and oil
storage tanks of wood, concrete, or metal, such as the Hortonspheres

(Fig. 534B). This is also called stressed skin, shape engineering, and,
in the airplane industry, where it is used for wings and fuselages,
monocoque.
2. Skeleton frame construction, in which a framework supports the build-
ing, and the walls (or skin) are merely fastened to it (Fig. 520C).
This
is called "balloon framing" in wooden-house construction and "steel-

Building in Stone - 505
cage" in skyscraper construction. Two specialized types of skeleton
frame construction merit attention:

Cantilever construction, as explained above.
Suspension construction, in which the structure is suspended from
a to^ver mast, as in suspension bridges (see the Mackinac Bridge, Fig.
532A), and the roof of the Livestock Pavilion in Raleigh (Fig. 532B).
The remainder of this chapter is largely taken up with a discussion of
architecture in terms of the four major materials that have shaped it-
stone, concrete, wood, and steel. The systems of construction have grown
out of the properties of these and their use, and the various systems listed
above will be discussed in greater detail as they relate to the different ma-
terials.
BUILDING IN STONE
Most of the world's great architecture is in stone, because until recently
this was the material used in practically all buildings where monumentality
and permanence were desired. Thus the stone tradition has permeated much
of our architectural thinking and has determined much of our taste and
judgment.
To say that the history of architectureembraced entirely in stone
is
structures is not accurate, for this neglects the remarkable work of the
Romans in concrete and many structures of wood and brick throughout
the world. Nevertheless, the architectural tradition of western Europe, our
major source of knowledge and ideals, is one of stone, and it is probably
safe to venture the assertion that the structural and esthetic possibilities of
stone architecture have been more completely developed than have those of
any other material.

In this country there is not, and there never has been, a genuine stone
tradition. In the early days the need for quick shelter led the colonists to use
wood creatively. By the time brick became common, colonial architecture

was a reflection of English work, and stone was not used extensively until
our thinking had been stultified by revivals of Greek, Roman, Gothic, and
Romanesque forms. True, there are many buildings in this country in which
stone and brick are important, but their use has often been traditional,
derivative, or false. It is only natural, therefore, that the examples chosen
for this section should be historic and foreign.
506 - Architecture
simple
(A) Above. Even in its partially-ruined state, the Parthenon (454-438 b.c), with its
post-and-lintel construction, conveys an impressive

grandeur. (Royal Greek Embassy and
Information Service)
archeological findnigs) shows how it
(B) Below The model of the Parthenon (based on
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
might have looked when first constructed. {Courtesy of the
New York)
Post-and-Lintel
Post-and-lintel construction was superlatively employed in one of the most

famous buildings in the Western ^vorld— the Parthenon in Athens, Greece.
Built about 2500 years ago (454-438 B.C.) as a temple to the goddess Athena
Parthenos, become synonymous with perfection in art in the minds
it has
of many people. The illustrations (Figs. 506A and B) of both the building
and a model show the building in its present state and the way it looked
^vhen originally built. The temple has suffered a large number of vicissitudes
(including a gun-po^vder explosion when it was used as an arsenal by the
Tinks), and today only a part of the columns remain standing and most
of the sculpture has been removed. Even so, in its present state it retains a
captivating magnificence.
The plan shows the rectangular simplicity of the building— it was
surrounded by a colonnade with a second row of columns at both ends.
Of the two rooms composing the interior, the larger housed an ivory and
gold statue of Athena; the smaller was a treasury. The black areas designate
the parts of the building that were still standing before it ^vas partially re-
stored (Fig. 506A). The plan shows that the temple was not designed to hold
large groups of worshipers. Instead, the religious festivities took place
mainly outside the building.
The Parthenon, like any great flowering, did not emerge full-blown.
That it had awooden parentage can be observed from a study of the build-
ing itself. Columns such as those surrounding the building are a natural
form in wood, for a single tree will provide a column. Their translation
into stone is less natural because they are built up of a number of separate
pieces called drums. The triglyphs— those rectangular forms that appear di-
Plan of the Parthenon.
• • •
oaanDDnat
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508 - Architecture
rectlyabove the columns in the frieze— are modified beam ends. The Greeks
turned to stone because it was a more durable material and because
Greece itself is blessed with some of the finest marbles in the world. The
Parthenon is constructed of Pentelic marble, which becomes a rich glowing
yellow as it ages.
It is built on the basically simple post-and-lintel system of construction,
which consists of upright posts supporting horizontal beams (or lintels).
Diagram of post-and-lintel construc-

tion. The distance between uprights
is limited by the length of the
lintels.
This can be readily demonstrated by standing two books on end and bridg-
ing the gap with a third. Through this system builders and architects have
given us some of the most distinguished buildings in the world. The
Parthenon, however, reveals one of the major limitations of post-and-lintel
construction when stone is used. Notice that the columns (posts) are set
relatively close together, not necessarily because the designers, Ictinus and
Callicrates, wanted them that way, but because stone lintels of great length
are not feasible. As a building material, stone is enormously strong in

compression but weak in tension (that is, when stretched or strained). Stone
posts can be high because the weight above merely compresses them.
Lintels, however, are another matter: the upper half is in compression;
the lower half is Therefore the tensile strength of the material

in tension.
used is a determinant of the design— lintels of wood or steel can be much
longer than those of stone.
A brief description of the parts of a classical building such as the
Parthenon is pertinent because the forms themselves have been in recur-
rent use ever since they were developed, and there are few towns in this
country that do not have one or several buildings that are classical in design.
The temple rests on a sturdy base of three high steps, called the stylobate.
Above this rise the surmounted by simple but deli-

columns, vertical shafts
cately curved capitals; the columns are chaimeled to make them seem more
slender, and the capitals form an admirable transition between the vertical
columns and the horizontal entablature. The architrave, adorned with
bronze shields, acts as a good foil for the sculptured panels in the frieze,
above which is the cornice. Architrave, frieze, and cornice make up the
entablature just as the shaft and capital make up the column. Surmounting
all is the pediment filled with sculpture subdy adapted to the triangular
space. The Parthenon is built in the Doric Order-order in architecture

signifies a coUimn and the entablature which it supports.
To attempt to describe the beauty of the Parthenon is difficult for
beauty is something which can never be fully explained. To be sure, the
proportions are exquisite; the glistening Pentelic marble of which the tem-
superlative
ple is built is one of the Avorld's finest building stones; the
sculpture both inside and outside the building, originally painted with
vibrant color, enriched it immeasurably. Yet none of these alone can explain
why the Parthenon is symbol of the beautiful. It is a basic fact, however,
a
that every part is inextricably related to the whole design. Beauty is often
considered a matter of harmonious, functional relationships, of adjusting
each part to its neighbors through careful refinements, and the Parthenon
shows many remarkable refinements.
Of the many ingenious devices employed by the architects, only those
concerned with correcting optical illusions will be mentioned here. Al-

though we are not generally aware of it, forms and lines do not always
appear to the human eye as we know them to be. For example, long hori-
zontal lines seem slightly concave; identical spaces do not always appear
equal. Through Greek builders observed these phenomena
several centuries,
in their temples and developed means of overcoming them. The architects

of the Parthenon used a number of refinements to help give the building a
vibrant, living quality which accounts, in part, for its enduring
reputation.
Some of the major ones are listed below; the optical illusions are in one
column and the refinements used to overcome them in the other.
Optical Illusion How It Was Corrected

Long horizontal lines in a building ap- All the long horizontals such as the
pear to sag. steps and the cornice are bowed up
in the center. The amount of this
correction across the front is about
two and one-half inches.
The columns are given a slight bulge
Columns with straight sides appear con-
j.jyg or swell, called entasis.
A building rising straight up from the The whole front of the Parthenon is
tilted backwards slightly (about two

giound often appears to be leaning
forward. and one-half inches).
Equal spaces between columns in a Distances between columns are differ-
colonnaded front do not appear ent to make them all appear equal,
equal. The one in the center is the largest
and they get progressively smaller
towards the corners.
Columns silhouetted against the sky The corner columns, often seen against
appear slenderer than when seen the sky, are heavier than the other
against a darker background. columns in the colonnade.
510 - Architecture
It is a testament to the sensitivity of the Greeks that they built with

such refinement. In its purity and elegance, the Parthenon represents the
finest qualities of classical architecture. It is a building of great repose be-
cause its major mass is horizontal. The contrast of the vertical columns, the
enrichment of the capitals, moldings, and sculpture all give it an air of re-
strained vitality. It remains an ultimate achievement in post-and-lintel con-

struction in stone.
The Round Arch

The aqueduct built by the Romans at Segovia (Fig. 511) shows clearly
the characteristics of arch construction. Unlike the Parthenon, in which

each opening was spanned by a single beam or piece of material, each open-
ing in arch construction is spanned by a number of pieces of material. The
^B^V^B^
VOUSSOICS,—
Diagram of the round arch. Arches
\^Sr ^^^k
^K^ ^'â m^lê possible the spanning of large
^M Vmkust^ ^B openings with small pieces of mate-
IH H
H
H
rial. Their dynamic nature is con-
veyed not only by the lively form
but by the thrusts which develop in
this type of construction.
advantages of the arch are immediately apparent; an opening is not limited

by the length of a beam and, by the use of relatively small pieces of mate-
rial, areas of great dimension can be spanned. The Greeks knew the prin-
ciple of the arch, but they made little use of it. Perhaps the arch form was
incompatible with their ideals of beauty, concerned as they were with
harmony and repose. It was the Romans, their immediate followers in the
march of architecture, who developed the possibilities of arch construction.
Indeed, was the development of the arch in its varied forms that was one
it
of the chief concerns of builders for about two thousand years.

The type of arch which the Romans used was the round or semicircular
one and it became so integral a part of their building that arches of this
form are still referred to as Roman. Its development was intimately related
to the development of the Romans as a people. We know that they were
more aggressive and materialistic than the Greeks. Their commercial activi-
big public assemblies, fabulous banquets, and renowned trials demanded

ties,
buildings with larger, more flexible interiors. The arch provided a structural
basis for such buildings, but the Romans found other uses for it as well.
The Roman aqueduct (a.d. 10) at Sego\ia, Spain, shows clearly the use of small units of
materials in arch construction and its restless dynamic character.
Monumental triumphal arches commemorated the conquests of victorious

leaders. Vast amphitheaters permitted multitudes to enjoy circuses and
pageants. Arched bridges over rivers, together with good roads, enabled
armies to march swiftly. And arched aqueducts, built so well that some are
still standing, brought water great distances to key cities. The arch was a
dominant motive in Roman architecture.
As can be seen in the Segovia aqueduct, an arch is made up of wedge-
shaped pieces of materials (voussoirs) with joints at right angles to the curve.
Stone is a material uniquely suited to arch construction because all material
in an arch is in compression. Stone can stand great pressure and is, of course,
extremely durable.
The arch, by its nature, is subject to lateral thrust or spreading. This
may be easily demonstrated: arch a piece of paper, and then slo^vly bring
the weight of your hand to bear on top of it. The arch, while dropping in
the center, spreads at the sides. These movements, indicated by ihc arrows
in the diagrams, are characteristic of all arches. Fiiiilicniiorc, the ll.iucr die
arch, the greater the tendency to spread. Tall, pointed, or parabolic arches
show less tendency to spread and therefore need less support. To counteract
this lateral thrust, arches need to be supported or braced at the point of

512 - Architecture
weakness. This is done in various ways-with a solid wall, another arch, or
a buttress.
The difference in effect between post-and-lintel and arch construction
is apparent you compare the Parthenon with the Basilica o£ St. Peter (Figs.
if
with
513A and B) and the aqueduct at Segovia. Whereas the former,
is static and reposed, the last two
its balanced verticality and horizontality,
suggest movement and easy continuity from one form to another.
The arch, therefore, is dynamic architectural element compared

a very
to the relatively static post-and-lintel, and the buildings in which it is used
are apt to have a lively and vigorous character.
The Vault and the Dome

coverings
The principle of the arch gave rise to vaults, which are arched
in masonry. The simplest form of vaulting, the
projection of a simple arch,
is a barrel vault, and the name is an apt

one, since in appearance it looks like
a barrel cut lengthwise. The barrel vault has the characteristics of the sim-
ple, round arch. There is the same tendency to spread, the same need for
the
support at the place where the lateral thrust makes for weakness. In
interior of the Basilica of Peter the voluminous spatial quality of a large
St.
barrel vault is evident. Here the surface is enriched with coffers, depressed
rectangular forms that lighten the weight of the vault and
supply interest
of both color and shape.

There are many variations of vaulting. When vaults intersect each other,
cross-vaulting results and the support can be localized rather than having
be continuous as it is in a barrel vault. The intricate
development of com-
to
discussed in the succeeding section on the pointed
arch.
plex vaulting is
The dome is another extension of the principle of the arch. In the

instances where semicircular arch forms are used, the dome is a hemisphere
like a tennis ball cut in half. A dome is a round arch which has been rotated
using its mid-point as the center. It becomes, in a sense, a multitude of
on a circle and the tops all cross at
arches so arranged that all the bases rest
dome the characteristic weak points of the arch
a common point. In the all
remain, and, consequently, it requires support at the points of lateral thrust.
Usually, but not always, this is taken care of by properly designed buttresses
which may become a decorative feature of the exterior.
The dome of the Basilica of St. Peter crowns this largest of all churches.
impressive both
Here, the intent was to construct a form which would be
is a magnificent
asan exterior and interior part of the total structure, and it
after his
dominating element. Designed by Michelangelo and completed
513
St. Peter's Basilica in Rome is one of the most impressive monuments in Christendom.
(A) Above. The chief feature of the exterior is the dome (begun
1564) designed by
Michelangelo. A spacious plaza enclosed with a colonnade provides a setting for the
Basilica. (Alinari)
(B) Below. In this view looking up the nave, one can see the base of the dome and
the main altar beneath it. Many designers worked in St. Peter's and its construction
extended over a long period. (Alinari)
514 - Architecture
death in 1564, the culmination of the type developed in Italy during

it is
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It is also the

prototype for the dome
and
on the Capitol at Washington, D.C. (which is constructed of cast iron),
for many of our state capitols as well.
building, the
In order to be a spectacularly dominant element in the
dome of St. Peter's towers high above the church proper. To counteract the
base sixteen
spread of this great construction Michelangelo placed at its
buttresses which also serve as transitional elements to the main mass of the
the thrust of
building. Even these have not proved sufficient to counteract
the masonry, for at various times ten encircling chains
have been placed in
the dome to keep it from spreading. The dome itself,

including the lantern
(the windowed superstructure at the top), is 450 feet

high, and is constructed
of an outer and inner shell, the latter 137 feet 6 inches across. The base
of the dome nearly 250 feet above the floor; the distance from the floor
is
greater than a thirty-

to the top of the internal cupola, 335 feet, a height
story building! In the interior, the altar is centered under the dome, the
lower part of which can be seen on the plate of the interior. This
dome is
one of the most impressive architectural monuments in the world.
of this sort have an imposing effect, which accounts largely for

Domes
their use on important public buildings. We get from the exterior an im-
pression of power, a sense of crowning achievement. The interior
gives a
vision or physical
feeling of spaciousness because no supports interfere with
movement. A strong feeling of centrality is also produced-the place im-
mediately beneath the center of the dome becoming the point of focus.
Today few domes on the true arch principle. But the

are constructed
basically simple, geometrically satisfying form of domes

has merited their
however, they are
continuance in modern architecure. In place of stone,
constructed of a newer material such as steel in the Pittsburgh
Public
Auditorium (Fig. 530C), or of an old material such as concrete in the TWA

Flight Center (Figs. 538B through 540A and B), which has been reinforced
with steel. These are but two of the new structural techniques by which
domes can be built today.
The Pointed Arch

Scarcely any record of man's accomplishments more dramatic than the
is
development of the Gothic cathedrals, of which Rheims Cathedral (Figs.

516A and B and 517) is an important example. Like the Parthenon, it is
actions,
the result of many factors-of climate and geography; of thoughts,
and aspirations; of knowledge of architectural construction. As we look
at
Rheims Cathedral, we are impressed chiefly with its ascending, aspiring,

uplifting character, the product of highly God-minded people who were
eager, literally, to reach heavenward ^vith their lofty houses of worship.
The Gothic period was a deeply religious one; men were intensely in-
terested in all matters having to do with the saving of the soul. In order
that the people, most of whom ^vere illiterate, might know more of the life
of Christ, of holy men and ^vomen, and might visualize and feel more of the
great glory of their God, Biblical incidents and stories from the lives of the
saints were depicted in richly carved stone and glowing stained-glass win-
dows. Thus these glass ^vindo^vs and stone images which are an integral
part of the Gothic style are there, not as technical flourishes, but as direct
answers to deeply rooted human interests and needs.
Still another factor affecting the construction and the appearance of
Gothic cathedrals ^vas climate. The Greeks did not have to build against the
rigors of bitter winter weather; they took advantage of the mild climate by
erecting buildings with open porticoes and colonnades. But farther north
the architects had to reckon with severe weather. Northern France has
periods of driving rains and snow with long, gloomy days. This coldness,
wet, and gloom had to be kept out of the buildings, not only physically but
psychologically, and architects made windows richly colored so that the dull
light from the outside ^vas transformed into warm, glowing
o tones.
In Rheims we find the pointed arch used— a form that is found in all
Gothic cathedrals. It possesses structural advantages in having less lateral
^^^ Diagram of the pointed arch. The

Vhkust/ ^B principle of construction is basically
same round arch
IH
^^g }g/g the as for the but,
due to the difference in form, the
^M thrust is less.
thrust than a round arch and greater flexibility. Whereas a round arch of
a particular width can only be a certain height, a pointed arch can be readily
varied by changing the curve of the sides.
But the Gothic from being characterized merely by details,
style, far
is primarily a system of construction. Let us observe closely some of the
characteristics of arch construction as it reached a high point in Gothic

516 - Architecture
Rheims Cathedral (1211-1290) rep-
resents the full-flowering of the

French medieval period.
(A) Left. The facade, built during
the years 1212-1214, has a lacy,
fragile quality. The three doorways
reflect the three-aisled plan. The
large rose window over the main en-
trance is visible also in the interior

view. {Photograph by Giraudon)
(B) Belozu. In the lateral view, the
flying buttresses that support the
interior vaulting can be clearly seen.
{Photograph by Giraudon)
•If
tkl m-- "...^^ t'~:.

?
This interior view of Rlieims Cathedral, looking from the clioir toward tlie main door-
way, sliows the soaring and lofty nave. Here the vaulting reaches a height of 124 feet
above the floor. The rose window, filled with richly glowing stained glass, dominates
the nave. Note the continuity among the forms of the structural system. {Photograph by
Ciraudon)
518 - Architecture
Plan of Rheims Cathedral. The dotted lines denote the vaulting.
vaulting. in the picture of the interior that the nave, or central aisle,
Note
of the cathedral is defined by two corresponding series of piers which sup-
port the vaulting over the nave and the side aisles. By following two
of the
adjoining piers (the one with the pulpit on it and the one this side of it
are the clearest) up into the vaulting, it can be seen that these, with the
bay)
two corresponding ones across the nave, define a rectangular area (or
and that the outer edges of the bay in the vaulting are defined by pointed
arches which connect the piers. In addition, arches are sprung
across the
bay dividing it into four areas which are filled in with masonry. The groin
lines (which mark the intersection of the cross vaults) are

marked with pro-
in the
truding masonry called ribs. All of these features can also be observed
plan.
The on each corner of the bay bear the weight of the masonry
piers
exerts
above them. As we know from the earlier discussion, arched vaulting
would
an outward thrust which must be countered, otherwise the building
not stand. The pointed arch has less lateral thrust than the
round one but
it is still considerable. Italian builders often "tied" arches together with iron
rods to keep them from spreading. This solution was unacceptable to the
French builders who, instead, developed a more organic solution to this
dif-
ficult problem. Look at the plate of the lateral

view of the cathedral and
partial elevation
the diagrams showing sections through the structure and a
of the exterior (Fig. 519). We
can see how the thrusts from the vaulting
in the interior are the construction of arches outside the buildmg
met by
arches are
whose thrusts counterbalance those from within. These exterior
great soaring constructions that span the side aisles and
become in their
buttresses for
bases part of the outer wall of the cathedral. These are flyiyig
they do indeed flyover the building below in performing their structural
function. They give to the buildings on which they are used a feeling of
freedom and daring, and a sense of movement and tension as well.
Diagrams of various parts of Rheims Cathedral. Left. A longitudinal section of the

interior along the nave. Center. A The function of the
transverse section across the nave.
supporting the interior vaulting can be clearly seen. Right. Elevation
flying buttresses in
of a portion of the exterior along the nave.
Gothic buildings are not inert. Rather, they are structures in which
the forces and counter forces that reside within the structure are given
exciting and esthetic form. The thrust-counter-thrust that exists in nearly
every part of Gothic cathedrals means that they are in a delicate and amaz-
ingly complicated state of equilibrium. Theoretically, at least, the removal
of one of the arches would mean the collapse of the whole building, be-
cause every part depends on every other part for support. Thus, the term
organic is often used to describe the Gothic style.
We have looked at the manner in which Roman and Renaissance archi-

tects used the round arch and Gothic builders used the pointed arch in
stone buildings. Later we shall see how arch forms have also been developed
in concrete, wood, and steel. At this point an elementary principle of forces
should be stated: namely, that forces, like water, tend to flow more easily
around smooth bends than around sharp angles. Thus the arch, minimizing
the break between vertical and horizontal elements, represents a great
structural development. This principle is further developed in structural
skin construction.
520
Concrete has been in use for many centuries.

(A) Top. The Pantheon, built in Rome in the
years 120-124, has an impressive domed interior.
Large in scale and massive in effect, it relies
chiefly on bulk for its strength. (Alinari)
(B) Middle. The Madrid Hippodrome (1935)
utilizes reinforced concrete in the dramatic
cantilevers that extend 42 feet over the stands.
Carlos Arniches and Martin Dominguez were
the architects and Eduardo Torroja, the engi-
neer. (Courtesy of G. E. Kidder-Smith)
(C) Left. In this building for the Aluminum
Company of America, shown here under con-
struction, the skeleton is a steel and concrete
cage on which the surfacing panels are hung.
(Courtesy of the Aluminum Company of
America)
Building in Concrete - 521
BUILDING IN CONCRETE
Concrete, often regarded as a new material, was well used by the Romans
more than two thousand years ago for large, imposing buildings.
As ^vith the arch, the Romans ^vere the first to perfect the dome, and
in the Pantheon (Fig. 520A) they have left us one of the most remarkable
structures in the ^vorld. In form it is extremely simple, the interior being
almost exactly as high as it is wide (140 by 142 feet). The interior of the
^
^^
g^
P--—^
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.-,
— i
y
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lii
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ti ffi
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ffl
si
Plan of the Pantheon.
\;-J\ .
•<
'^:j-* SI l« («
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mm,m
dome is a perfect half-sphere which rests upon a circular wall. There is only
one entrance, and the remainder of the circular wall is enlivened and
adorned with seven large niches. The light comes from a single source, a
great "eye" or opening 40 feet across in the center of the dome. Built dur-
ing the years a.d. 120-124, it was originally constructed as a temple to all
the gods, but in 609 it was dedicated as a Christian church in memory of

all the martyrs. The altars as seen in the picture were put in during the
Renaissance.
The Pantheon is built of concrete and the walls at the base are 20 feet
thick. The exterior is sheathed in brick, the lower part of the interior in rich
stones. It is essentially a monolithic structure, although embedded in it are

arches to relieve and transmit the thrusts of the giant structure. The interior
of the dome is decorated with coffers.
Its basically simple forms are monumental. The geometric character of

the interior seems fundamental, the scale is impressive, the progression of
the coffers in the dome with their diminution in size as they extend up into
the dome gives the interior a sense of vitality. The thickness and height
of the supporting walls, however, almost conceal the dome on the exterior
where, quite unlike St. Peter's, it appears as a low saucerlike form.
The Nature of Concrete
Structures such as the Pantheon differ significantly from the stone build-
ings discussed in the previous section in that they are monolithic (the mate-
522 - Architecture
are
rial is homogeneous and continuous) whereas masonry constructions
in the finished struc-
built of relatively small pieces of stone which, even
up
concrete structures of the Romans
ture, retain separate identities. The
than on precise
depended for structural strength on bulk and mass rather
by uniting cement
knowledge of material. Concrete is a conglomerate made
the like. It withstands
and water with sand, broken stone, slag, cinders, and
great compression, very little tension, also, like stone, does not rot or cor-
fire-resistant. Starting its existence as a

liquid, concrete assumes
rode and is
of any "form" into which it is poured. It can be

the contours and textures
slender rectangularity of cage
given the massiveness of the Pantheon or the
construction, the continuous ribbons of our
highways and sidewalks, or the
small building blocks in common use. It has

been well named "the original
plastic."
Notre Dame du Haut at Ronchamp, France (Figs. 523A

The Chapel of
Corbusier, exploits both
and B), designed by the famous Swiss architect Le
the heavy and fluid nature of concrete.
The massive exterior wall is per-
forated with windows of varied sizes,
asymmetrically but precisely organ-
ized. Beside the entrance is a tall towerlike

form that houses a small chapel
roof form that swells
above the roof. The structure is covered with a great
the roof is built much
and lifts as it leaves the supporting wall. Actually
resembles. It has two thicknesses
like an airplane wing, which it strongly
struts. A uniformly
ofpoured concrete and the space between is braced with
spraying them with a coarse
rough surface has been given to all the walls by
window openings are broadly splayed, providing
stuc°co. In the interior the
varying views of the stained glass windows in the
deep geometric forms thus
been said that the Ronchamp Chapel is more a
piece of
created. It has
and disposition of the forms
sculpture than architecture. Clearly, the nature
spiritually moving.
produce a structure instinct with interest and
Ferro-concrete
Ferro-concrete (or reinforced concrete) has

metal reinforcing embedded
of metal is united with the com-
in the concrete so that the tensile strength
seen in buildings in which a
pressive strength of concrete. It is most often
steel skeleton frame is first erected and
then enclosed in concrete (Fig. 520C).
Later, the outside wall, or skin, is hung on the

frame. Steel encased m
more resistant to fire, for an exposed steel frame may
distort
concrete is also
rein-
The Hippodrome in Madrid (Fig. 520B) also makes use
of
or melt.
The steel provides the support
forced concrete, in the form of a cantilever.
the beams and forms the thin
for the projecting roof: the concrete encases
roof areas between.
Building in Concrete - 523
The Chapel of "Notre Dame

du Hauf (1955) at Ron-
champ, France, utilizes con-
crete in arresting forms.
(A) Above. The exterior
forms are simple and bold.
Especially dramatic are the
patterning of the fenestration
and the swelling roof that
looks both like an airplane
ivingand the prow of a ship.
{Photos^raph by Lucien Herve)
(B) Right. In the interior,
the window formsare magni-
fiedby being splayed through
the thick walls. Le Corbusier
was the architect. (French
Government Tourist Office)
Architecture
been a notable
As ferro-concrete technology has developed, there has
tendency toward increased lightness and flexibility.
Thus some bridges use
strong structural elements.
thin slabs of ferro-concrete shaped to become
for large unobstructed
Thin, curved shells have been found highly efficient
the pictures of the Trans World Airlines
Flight
open Look ahead at
spans.
Center (Figs. 538B through 540A and B)-certainly
one of the most exciting
Pantheon, it is chiefly of
and significant buildings of this century. Like the
lighter. Not only did architect
concrete: unlike it, however, it is much
about the
Saarinen and the engineers who worked with him know more
strength of concrete, but metal reinforcing rods are
embedded in it to pro-
vide additional strength.
Pre-stressed Concrete
recently developed pre-stressing of concrete

has greatly increased its
The
process includes building an appropriate form
and
usefulness. Basically, this
will bear
placing in it metal rods, cables, or wires so that the weight it
and forced predetermined directions.

to travel in
The
will be deflected
metal reinforcements are stretched under tension,
and the form is filled
is released and the

with concrete. After the concrete is hard, the tension
the concrete. It has
contraction of the metal compresses and strengthens
half generally is in com-
already been pointed out that in a beam the top
in tension. A mateiial, therefore, which
pression while the bottom half is
its effectiveness
is only in tension or in compression is limited in
efficient
in circumstances which demand both.

Concrete is weak in tension so its
concrete beam, the
use in beams has been limited. In a pre-stressed
in it counteract the forces of tension so that,
even though
cables embedded
thrust. The
weight applied from above, the cables provide an upward
is
its length to the end sup-

gravitational forces are, therefore, directed along
ports where they can be readily supported.
slabs, vaults, domes,
Pre-stressing can be applied to cantilevers, flooring
in fact, to almost all structural forms.

Because of pre-stressing, concrete
can be greatly
becomes a more eflîcient material and structural members
lightened. In particular, it makes possible beams of great length that are
bays
relatively light. An architecture will doubtless be developed with large
more as compared to the much smaller
ones usual in steel.
of sixty or feet
an unusual example of a material that was once

used,
Concrete, then, is
then forgotten, and is now revived. Like the

Romans, we are using it for
Building in Wood - 525
large-scale construction. Unlike them, we have precise information on its
structural capabilities and can, therefore, build with it very efficiently. We

also combine concrete with metal for greater strength. With forms in
archi-
tecture becoming freer, concrete gives promise of increasing in importance

as a building material.
BUILDING IN WOOD
The plentiful supply of wood in the United States has made it our most
common building material; from it we have made between 80 and 90 per-

house
cent of our structures. Most of us are familiar with the wood-frame
in Avhich a frame of studs and joists (a skeleton) is erected; the exterior
(the skin) of wood, brick, or plaster is added; and the interior wall finish is
a type of
applied. Called balloon jraming or light frame structure, this
is
Its mvention
skeleton frame construction developed in Chicago in the 1830's.
^vas an important factor in the rapid development of the land beyond the
Alleghenies, for it permitted much more rapid construction than did the
in ^vhich the
older heavy frame structure. In contrast to masonry structure
closely related
wall is both load-bearing and surfacing, balloon framing is
to steel construction in its separation of structure and surfacing. Wood is
also suited to cantilever construction, as in the eaves

projecting beyond the
walls of buildings; to trusses, as found in wooden barns and
contemporary
in the molded
structures; and to structural skin construction such as is found
plywood chairs by Eames shown in Fig. 183. One of wood's greatest
uses
in construction is as forms for the pouring of concrete.
Lamination of Wood
The wood, discussed in Chapter 6, reveal its potentiali-
characteristics of
ties and limitations as a building material.

Technological developments
have gieatly extended its uses. Increasingly laminated wood,

especially
and
plywood, is being used in construction, for it possesses remarkable
highly predictable strength. When bonded with synthetic resins
it is made
shaping,
weatherproof. In contrast to metals, which require high heat for
Fabrication
plywood may be shaped permanently at low temperatures.
is
stronger
thereby greatly simplified. In relation to its weight, it is probably
consider-
than any known material. It can be a moldable "skin" material
of
molded ply^vood has not as yet

able structural strength. Architecturally,
found wide application-but it is a promising lead for structural skin con-
struction in the future.
526 - Architecture
Plywood sheets are not the only new development in wood. Related to
these are larger laminated structural members in wood, such as beams and
trusses, of great size and strength. A beam, customarily, is a large single piece
of wood (or metal) much longer than it is ^vide or thick and used horizon-
tally to bridge the gap between upright supports; thus, it is the same as a
lintel. Beams of single pieces of wood are limited in length and known
strength, but lamination makes possible beams and other structural mem-
bers of increased size and efficiency. Like plywood, these structural members
become precise building materials.
A example of the use of laminated wood structural members
striking
occurs in St. Paul's Lutheran Church of Sarasota, Florida (Fig. 527A) by
the architect Victor Lundy. Most of the interior is of wood, a material of
warmth and rich surface. It is the form of the ceiling that gives this interior
its distinctiveness: the laminated beams suggest lower branches of great
trees that diminish in size as they ascend. The interior conveys the impres-
sion of buoyancy, and aspiration, which seems particularly

lightness,
appropriate for a church. Note that the supports meet at regular intervals
in the ceiling like groin lines in Gothic vaulting, except that here the
curve is reversed. Note in addition that as they approach the top of the
ceiling, and as the load they support becomes less, they become smaller.
Forms of this shape and lightness are possible in wood only through lamina-
tion.
The Truss in Wood

A truss, as defined earlier, is a rigid framework of beams, bars, rods,
and the like. It is in the form of a triangle, or a series of triangles, because

of all the geometric figures the triangle is the only one that cannot change
-i<KI>i>^
Diagrams of trusses. The triangle, the basic unit of all trusses, is strong and rigid. Left.
Howe truss. Right. Bowstring truss.
shape without altering the length of one or more of its sides. Originally
made of single pieces of timber (later of metal), trusses are now also made
of laminated wood. Although the principle of the truss is remarkably sim-
ple, it has only been developed precisely Avithin recent times.
The view of Taliesin West (Fig. 527B) is a striking example of wood
used to give a monumental effect. The forms at the left are the ends of large
Building in Wood - 527
Wood remains a handsome and versatile building material.

(A) Above. The ceiling supports in St. Pauls Lutheran Church (1959), Sarasota, Florida
strength. Victor A. Lundy, architect.
are laminated beams that here combine grace and
(Photograph by George Cserna)
trusses which extend over a
(B) Below The sturdy wood forms are the ends of large
Arizona. {Photograph
work room in Frank Lloyd Wright's Taliesin West (1938), Phoenix,
by © Ezra StoUer Associates)
Architecture
trusses which extend over a workroom. The organic texture of the wood is
in handsome contrast to the brightly colored stone in the base below and the
strong forms of both the wood and the masonry are suited admirably to the
landscape. Like all of the work of Frank Lloyd Wright, this building is char-
acterized by its adaptation to its site and by the vigor and ingenuity of the
forms.
The developments mentioned above only touch on the advances made
with wood as a building material: new possibilities have been discovered,
and previous limitations have been overcome. Science and art together are
transforming and revitalizing an age-old building material.
BUILDING WITH STEEL

Steel has made possible our present industrial age. From tiny precision in-
struments to hundred-story buildings and mile-long bridges, one sees the

extent to which it and other metals have entered into and affected our lives.
no accident that the steel industry is regarded as a barometer of Ameri-

It is
can business, which is largely dependent on it. The importance of steel

in present-day life is all the more remarkable when we realize that its manu-
facture began just a few years before our Civil War. In the first half of the
nineteenth century iron was used, but not widely, as a building material;
but steel— finer and denser in structure and stronger in compression and
tension than iron— was seized upon for widespread use as soon as it became
available. Since then, it has been under constant study and development.
The photograph at the head of this chapter illustrates some of the
wonder of steel. Here on a framework of open beams, made rigid with
truss forms, the man astride the construction seems almost to float. The
lightness of the material informs us at once of the strength of the material,
but the picture also conveys the use of steel in this century in supporting
a large segment of human activities.
Steel-Cage Construction
It is only logical that the use of steel was first channeled into steel-cage
construction (Fig. 520C), which is found in most tall buildings. Like balloon
framing, was also developed in Chicago— the first multistory steel frame
it
covered with a nonstructural skin was built there in 1883-approximately

half a century after balloon framing. At first called "Chicago construction,"
it received most of its early attention in that city. Not only were many
buildings constructed with steel frames, but it was there that Louis Sullivan
centered his early architectural activities.
Building with Steel -
529
(A) Diagram of steel-cage construc-

tion, which is a system based on a
series of vertical and horizontal
members not unlike post-and-lintel
construction.
Steel makes possible the skyscraper. When load-bearing walls of stone

are built, the base must increase in thickness as the wall increases in height.
Stone buildings only two or three stories in height have \valls several feet
thick at the base. One of the early Chicago skyscrapers, the sixteen-story
Monadnock Building, constructed in 1891, is of stone construction and the
ground-floor walls are six feet thick. If a stone structure thirty stories high
were to be built, most of the space on the ground and lower floors would
be taken up ^vith ^valIs and supports. With steel-cage construction, the sup-
ports take surprisingly little space, and steel buildings resist the forces of
u ind and earthquakes with a resilience that stone structures do not have.
Steel-cage construction, like the older post-and-lintel, leads to basically
rectangular architecture. Large contemporary structtires are usually assem-
bled from many prefabricated parts. The result is a repetitive grid of
identical upright and horizontal forms. To make this iniified, but essentially
monotonous, framework into a humanly satisfying work of art is a challenge
to architects. There are, however, other ways of using steel.
Cantilever Construction in Steel
Steel's tensile strength is exploited in cantilever construction. As can be

seen in the diagram, a cantilever requires that the material be subjected to
tension ^vithout breaking or distorting. The Hippodrome in Madrid (Fig.
520B) is a brilliant example of a cantilever structure of steel and concrete
in which great sheltering extensions project 42 feet from the supporting
(B) Diagram of cantilever construc-

tion. This structural form requires
material with tensile strength.
530 - Architecture
Because o£ its strength, steel is used in

many ways.
(A) Left. The supports of the ramp ap-
proach to the Lincohi Tunnel that con-
nects New York and New Jersey are
three-dimensional rigid frames put to-
gether with rivets. The tapering of the
piers refines the forms and gives the
effect of lightness. {Courtesy of R. A.
Wurgel)
(B) Middle. Hangar for passenger jet
airplanes, shown here under construction
at the San Francisco Airport in 1961.
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, architects.
(Photograph by Kurt Bank)
(C) Bottom. The dome-shaped Public
Auditorium in Pittsburgh (1961) has a
retractable stainless steel roof supported
by a gigantic cantilever space frame, vis-
ible on the right. & Ritchey,

Mitchell
architects. (Photograph by Harold Corsini)
Building with Steel - 531
piers. They seem literally to float over the seats they cover and give an effect
that is dramatic and daring.
The increasing size of aircraft, especially passenger jets, creates the prob-
lem of providing large shelters for maintenance. Figure 530B shows a United
Airlines hangar imder construction. It appears considerably different in its
completed state with the walls and doors obscuring the great free stretch
of the roof supports. This hangar is planned ^vith berths for four DC-8's.
In the center is a maintenance core supported by seven pairs of reinforced

concrete columns whose shape follows the theoretical curve of stresses. These
support the great cantilevered steel girders which are fourteen feet deep at
the piers and taper to five feet at the ends. They are cantilevered for a dis-
tance of 142 feet! This is construction of the sort possible only with steel.
The Public Auditorium in Pittsburgh (Fig. 530C) is one of the most

exciting of recent structures. With a seating capacity of over 13,000, it is
covered by a stainless steel dome over 400 feet in diameter and is thus one
of the largest clear-span roofs in the world. Even more remarkable is the
fact that the roof is retractable. It is divided radially into eight 45-de-
gree segments, six being moveable and two stationary. In opening the
roof, three moveable segments on each side move on a series of motorized
carriages imder the fixed sections. Only tAvo and one-half minutes are re-
quired to open or close the roof. The main support for the dome is pro-
vided by a cantilever space frame— a triangular truss visible on the right—
which projects 205 feet over the auditorium. This, too, is spectacular con-
structionand it is easy to grasp how unprecedented flexibility is provided
by such a structure for concerts under the stars on clear siniimer evenings
or hockey games on cold winter nights.
Suspension Construction in Steel
Even greater utilization of the tensile properties of steel is made in suspension

construction where all the material is in tension. This was demonstrated in
the Brooklyn Bridge designed by John Roebling and built during the years
1869 to 1883. Architects generally ignored this great achievement and almost
fifty years were allowed to elapse before tension construction was seriously
developed. There are now a nvmiber of magnificently exciting suspension
bridges throughout the country which have exploited this potentiality of
steel. The bridge over the Mackinac Straits (Fig. 532A) is one of the latest
of these and is characteristic of suspension bridges in the lightness of the

supporting cables. The great size of these bridges, set as they usually are
over stretches of water, is difficult to giasp. The diagram (Fig. 533) shows that
the span between the towers is 3800 feet— or over two-thirds of a mile.
532 - Architecture
Tension construction utilizes the

greatest strength of steel.
(A) Above. Over two-thirds of a
mile separates towers of the
the
Mackinac Bridge (1957) in Michi-
gan, yet the roadway is supported
by two small cables. David B. Stein-
man, engineer. (Courtesy of Macki-
nac Bridge Authority. Photograph
by H. D. Ellis)
(B) Below. Supported on steel
cables, the roof of the Livestock
Judging Pavilion (1953) at Raleigh,
North Carolina, provides an interior
of openness and fluid spaciousness.
William H. Dietrick, architect;
Matthew Nowicki, associate. {Photo-
graph byJ. W. Molitor)
Building with Steel - 533
Diagram of Mackinac Bridge. The over-all length of the bridge is slightly in excess of
one and one-half miles.
Between the abutments which anchor the cables the distance is 8344 feet-
over one and one-half miles— making it the longest over-all span in the
ivorld. \Vhen we realize that the road^vay of this tremendous structure
is supported by two relatively thin cables, we realize the audacity of con-
struction which is made possible by tension construction.
The dynamic state of tension of these bridges is illustrated by San Fran-
cisco's Golden Gate Bridge. With a central span of 4200 feet (400 feet longer
than the Mackinac Bridge, but the distance bet^veen the abutments is al-
most 2000 feet less), the distance of the road^vay at the center of the span
from the water below may fluctuate as much as ten feet under varying con-
ditions of weather and load.
The North Carolina Livestock Judging Pavilion at Raleigh (Fig. 532B)

completed in 1953 makes use of tension construction in another way. The
roof is supported on cables, creating an interior of uninterrupted space
composed of flowing undulating forms. The original sketches were done by
Matthew Nowicki and, after his death, the design was completed and exe-
cuted by William Deitrick. Basically, the building consists of two great
arches which lie athwart one another and interlock near the ends. The roof
is supported on cabl&s passed between the two arches. This pavilion is a
brilliant architectural conception, for it utilizes not only sound esthetic
principles but technical advances as well.
Arc Welding and Stressed Skin Construction
Another development which already has had a great effect on building

is electric arc welding, the results of ^vhich are illustrated in the interior of
the Lincoln Electric Company (Fig. 534A). By this process, two steel mem-
bers can be joined so that the joint is as strong as any portion of the mem-
bers themselves. It can be seen that this is superior to riveting, where, in a
sense, a joint is no stronger than the weakest rivet. Many of the recent
skyscrapers are arc-^velded structures, but the potentialities thus far have
been explored chiefly by the aeronaiuical engineer in airplane construc-
tion. Other common examples of welded structures of the "stressed skin"
534 - Architecture
(A) Above. In the Lincoln Electric Company in Cleveland, Ohio, "tree-form" welded
steelframes are used, giving a handsome continuity to the forms. (Amman and Whitney)
(B) Below. These stressed-skin, steel Hortonspheres in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, are
not only arresting in form but also extremely efficient in terms of use of materials and
the space enclosed. [Standard Oil Co. (N.J.), Photograph by Webb]
Environmental Control in Building - 535
type are the Hortenspheres seen around oil plants (Fig. 534B). The
geo-
metric simplicity of these structures is arresting: the stairways which ascend
them assume curves of great beauty; the scale of the welter of pipes in the
surrounding area invests them with a monumentality. The structural

strength of the Hortenspheres in relation to their materials makes
them
perhaps the most efficient constructions ever built.
For most of man's history stone has been the great architectural mate-
rial with which he has built. But the stone tradition
from which came so
laroê a part of our great structures has now been set aside;
steel is the build-
needs
ing material that provides the twentieth century with the structures
it
—that has indeed made possible much of what we do.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN MODERN BUILDING

Traditionally, the basic requirements of architecture are few: an effi-
good use of materials, and attractive appear-

cient plan, solid construction,
ance. But in almost any large structure built now, provision is made for
a variety of special activities and facilities scarcely hinted at in historic
\vork. Large buildings of today are used not by a few

persons but by many
needed;
thousands: elevators and escalators as well as halls and stairs are
air-conditioning and artificial illumination as well as windows are
necessi-
ties; precise information on construction materials

and processes are re-
Thus the expert knowledge of a host
quisite to safe, economical building.
of specialists needed in any extensive building enterprise. Each contributes
is
his share and each determines in his way the form of the
building.
One factor— precise environmental control-merits mention for it is the

key to most recent architectural developments. Through heating and
cooling
systems our tasks need not be subject to the seasons; through

artificial il-
well as by day. Tele-

lumination we can carry on our activities by night as
and scientific research, for example, all require

casting, radio broadcasting,
a hioh degree of environmental control. In fact, a large portion of the
Avorld's work of the twentieth century is possible only because we can regu-
late the temperature, humidity, light, and sound in

our surroundings.
Such environmental control demands two things: first, precise analysis
materials and proc-
of human needs; second, great mastery of architectural
esses. Increasingly, man is being studied by physiologists
and psychologists
to determine optimal conditions for his productivity
and welfare. And for
the first time in history, the major phases of construction
have become an
is now possible
exact science: mathematics has superseded observation. It
a given building will
to compute the kinds and amounts of loads to which
536 - Architecture
be subjected, and then to provide adequate structure. The precision of
measurement now and engineers has not only given

available to architects
them specific information on historic materials and structural systems but
has opened the door to an era of experimentation probably unequaled in
the world's history.
Precise control of interior environment does not necessarily make good
architecture. In fact, the multiplicity of specialists who must be involved
in planning a structure, each seeing to it that some factor such as heat,
light, sound control, and air conditioning is adequately provided for, vastly
complicates the architect's job. He must coordinate the requirements of

all the specialists without weakening his design. This is at best a difficult
matter.
Significant architecture, however, not only meets the physical needs of
its occupants, but expresses their social and political outlook, their spiritual
aspirations, their esthetic values. In Part I we analyzed human needs in
relation to domestic, communal, religious, industrial, and commercial archi-
tecture and saw how forms were developed to meet these needs. In Part III
examples of architecture were discussed from the point of view of design.

In this chapter we have noticed how the larger space-form relationships and
the materials are fundamental in giving each structure its distinctive esthetic
character. This is the basic factor, but, in nearly all, the forms have been
expressively refined beyond utilitarian necessity. Many of the buildings
also have sculpture, paintings, and ornament that arouse spiritual responses
in the persons who see them. This, too, is environmental control.
INTEGRATED LAND AND BUILDING PLANNING

As an example of integrated land and building planning, we will look at a
uniquely twentieth-century complex— a great modern airport. We live in
a space age, and the airplane typifies both our great technological achieve-
ments and our urge to explore further our world and our universe. Travel
by plane has bought its particular problems and unique solutions: air
terminals, hangars, control to^vers, runways are ne^v in both the functions
they serve and the forms they are given to serve these functions.
Idlewild International Airport of New York City is one of the largest
airfields in the world. It serves as the major gateway of that city for inter-
national travelers and for long-haul domestic flights. It also serves as a center
for much air freight. Although size and complexity are no criteria of ex-
cellence, they are often impressive. Idlewild is the product of the work
of hundreds of architects, planners, engineers, and airlines' owners and
Land and Building Planning - 537
The plan of Idlewild Airport in New York City shows the great scale and complexity
needed in a modern air-terminal complex. (Reprinted from Architectural Record, Sep-
tember 1961, ©
1961 by F. W. Dodge Corporation with all rights reserved)
management in working with a vast and constantly changing set of problems.

Construction on this enormous air terminal has extended over a period
of twenty years and although it has now taken definite shape, it is not fin-
ished. It will probably never be finished as long as the design of airplanes

continues to change.
The scale of Idlewild is impressive. It occupies (see plan) an area of
4900 acres and its longest dimension is over five miles. Almost 30,000 people
work there; in 1961 there were fifty-six buildings in existence or under con-
struction ranging all the way from a bank to an animal port. In 1962 over
10 million passengers passed through the airport along with a tremendous
amount of air cargo and air mail. The passenger area in the center of the
plan is 655 acres in extent, including 220 acres of landscaped parks and five
parking lots with a capacity for 6000 cars. It is called Terminal City.
The great runways needed for modern aircraft cut across the plan in
long straight lines. These, along with the service runways, practically en-
circle Terminal City. Although on one side the terminals have access to
the runways, on the other they are serviced by auto roads that bring and
538 - Architecture
(A) Above. The sweeping roof of the Pan American Terminal (1960) at New York City's
Idlewild Airport is hung from cables that radiate from the center. Tippetts, Abbett,
architects; Ives, Turano, and Gardner, assoc. architects. {Photograph
McCarthy, Stratton,
by Pan American)
(B) Beloiu. The exterior view of the TWA Flight Center (1962) at Idlewild Airport
shows the soaring forms of the vaults which roof it. Eero Saarinen was the architect.
(Photograph by ©
Ezra Stoller Associates)
take away the passengers. the north of the terminals and in the lower
To
left-hand part of the plan are the giant hangars and
maintenance buildings.
Between them is a group of buildings that includes a food production
center, animal facility, medical building, bus garage, and telephone build-
ing- . .
coordinate such a vast enterprise, a number of basic criteria

were
To
the terminal would
hammered out. It was decided what kinds of flights
handle (all foreign and some domestic) and how many (100 movements-
Land and Building Planning - 539
that is, take-offs or landings-an hour, or one on an average of every 36

seconds). The criteria included convenience for the passengers, efficiency for
the airlines, feasibility of the financial problems involved, and flexibility
in planning.
As Idlewild grew, various plans were developed. The one finally
adopted calls for a decentralized plan with some of the major airlines con-
structing terminals of their own, other smaller airlines joining together
in other terminals. The disposition of these, along with the vast
arrival
building, is in a generally oval form and alongside of them are the runways.
By decentralizing the plan, the passenger is enabled to check in at a point
near the aircraft he will take. Had a central terminal been constructed, the
distances from check-in points to planes would have become too great.
Some basic requirements for individual terminals were set, but other-
wise individual companies have been free to vary their buildings in design
and construction to solve the functional and esthetic problems of air travel
as they saw them. The result is buildings of considerable variety, but
they
appear to be coherent because of the directness of treatment of the human

and engineering problems. Let us look at two of the terminals.
The one for Pan American Airways (Fig. 538A) is atypical in that, in-
stead of having the usual long corridors extending from the main building
to the planes, the terminal in the vast sweep of its roof extends out to the
planes, or rather, makes possible bringing the planes up to the terminal
building itself. It is oval in shape and from the main area of the building,
a dramatic cable-hung, cantilevered roof of thirty-two steel girders radiates

from a hub. This provides protection for the passengers during boarding as
well as convenience and accessibility. The basically simple form and the
flare of the roof make this terminal both dramatic and pleasing.
Another unusual solution is used in the Trans World Airlines Flight

Center (Figs. 538B and 540A and B). Architect Saarinen stated that he
wanted to design a building "in which the architecture itself would express
the excitement of air travel. Concrete offered the greatest potentialities.
The initial fluid nature of concrete is apparent in this building; here
is a structure of shapes that flow. To secure them, however, it was necessary
to build forms for the entire building, both inside and out, into which the
concrete was poured. And since the building had to be monolithic, the pour-
ing of the concrete, once started, was not stopped until it was completed.
Then the concrete was allowed to dry and cure and the forms were removed.
There a similarity between the shell of concrete in a structure such
is
as the Flight Center and the shell of an egg. Both are

extremely strong for
540 - Architecture
Fluid forms characterize all the in-

terior space of the TWA Flight Cen-
ter.
(A) Above. This is a view looking

down on the entrance lobby. The
impression of dynamic movement
pervades all the forms. Light com-
ing from the top as well as the
sides gives an effect of buoyancy.
(TWA by Ezra Stoller Associates)
(B) The view toward the
Left.
runways is dramatized by the out-
ward thrust of the window and by
the sweeping arcs on various levels
that embrace it. Note the ceiling
window between the vaults. (Photo-
graph by George Cserna)
In Conclusion - 541
the amount and thickness of the material involved. But sheer size makes its
special demands. The Flight Center has a two-acre roof made of 6000 tons
of concrete and 700 tons of steel. In some places, where the roof had little
weight to carry, it is only seven inches thick: at the buttresses, where the
weight of the roof is transferred to the supporting piers, it is three feet
thick. By allowing the potentialities of the materials to suggest the form and
then refining that form creatively, Saarinen showed that today's architects
need not always follow "the cult of the cube" into a boxlike conformity.
Basically, the Center is composed of four concrete, intersecting shell
vaults that seem to float above the ground. The free, spreading forms are
reminiscent of birds and of airplanes. Not only the vaults but the Y-shaped
buttresses suggest flight. Light is another vital factor that gives the structure
buoyancy. In the interior, narrow bands of windows between the vaults

add natural illumination from above to that which floods in from the large
windows at the ends of the vaults. The values being predominantly light,
the gray and tan surfaces reflect the light coming from many directions.
The integration of exterior and interior, from the major forms to the small-
est details, creates a compelling unity. A strong sense of movement pervades
the entire development: inside or out, the curvilinear forms and space seem
in constant change as we move in or around them. Unlike most rectangular
structures,which often seem constant after we get to know them, Saarinen's
Flight Center discloses new and unexpected relationships. The building's
individuality and vitality make it a landmark in a great complex of land-and-
building planning.
IN CONCLUSION
The chapter concludes with a picture of one of Frank Lloyd Wright's
major works, the Kaufmann House at Bear Run, Pennsylvania (Fig. 542),
because it epitomizes so much and audacity of modern architec-

of the vigor
ture. The house is not new, having been built in 1937. Yet, it has an ageless
quality, for the forms are as vital as when they were first built.
The site for the house, wooded and rocky, includes a brook and a water-
fall. With his constant concern for relating architecture to its setting,
Wright planned the house with that in mind. The major mass of the
house is of stone, and it seems to grow directly from the rock ledges on
which it rests. From these rock walls spring two dramatic and breath-
taking terraces which, cantilevered from the house, project over the water-
fall.Wright has written that "the good building is one that makes the
landscape more beautiful than it was before." The rustic quality of the
setting is not diminished in its attractiveness. In fact, it is heightened by
542 - Architecture
The Edgar J.
Kaufmann House (1936) at Bear Run, Pennsylvania, designed by Frank
Lloyd Wright combines an organic relation to its site with the freedom and daring pos-
sible through modern technology. {Courtesy of the Museum of Modern Art, New York)
the contrast of the man-made forms that have been placed in it. As for
the house itself, we feel that man has come to terms with nature and is
drawing from it the beauty, strength, and serenity it can provide. Although
the forms in the house may seem new, the Kaufmann house is architecture
in the grand tradition— the meeting of human needs, the sensitive use of
materials, the incorporation in structure of technological advances. But

most important, it is a statement of ideas and values that men cherish.
The close relationship that should exist between the technology of a

period and vital architecture is both stated and implied in this chapter,
whether the discussion dealt with a Gothic cathedral or an American sky-

In Conclusion - 543
scraper. It only reasonable that, in our recent period of rapid technologi-

is
cal growth, architecture should have changed radically. In particular, the

increasing ability of the machine to produce forms that are large in size
and complex in composition has led to an architecture in which buildings
are, in effect, vast, precisioned, and machined structures such as
Lever
House and the Seagram Building. Our culture being what it is, the view
of architecture that these exemplify will be with us for as long as we can
foresee.
But same time, architecture of a quite different nature is also
at the
being built, as typified by the TWA

Flight Center. Although as a structure it,
too, makes use of twentieth-century technology, its forms are fluid

and
organic. This view of architecture, as well, gives promise of further and
extensive development. Thus we have two approaches that, in a sense,
supplement each other and provide a diversity that is a mark of vigor.
As this book began with a discussion of architecture, so does it end;
and in a sense, the presentation has run full circle. Each field of art has
its own significance, each its own expression. Each too, in its visible
aspects, speaks to us eloquently of the people who create, use, and enjoy it.
The is human experience, and its

basis of all art special function is to hu-
manize and give meaning to a culture. It is through the arts that we become
civilized, and all-the creators, the users, the appreciators-make their con-
tributions in the kind of art they create and support. All of us have a part
and a responsibility.
This chapter is only an introduction to the vast field of architecture,

and there is much to be learned from additional reading:
American Building-The Forces That Shape It: James Marston Fitch (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1948).
Mr. Fitch reviews and analyzes with great perception the development of
American architecture and establishes new technical standards for modern
building.
Architecture in America: Wayne Andrews (New York: Atheneum, 1960).

A book of handsome pictures covering American architecture from Colonial
times to the present.
The Architecture of America, a Social and Cutural History: John Burchard and
Albert Bush-Brown (Boston: Little, Brown, 1961).
Introduced by a chapter on the nature of architecture, this comprehensive
book discusses developments in this country from 1600 on, with major em-
phasis on recent periods.
544 - Architecture
Architecture and the Esthetics of Plenty: James Marston Fitch (New York: Co-
lumbia University Press, 1961).
An analysis of American architecture, its achievements, shortcomings, and
paradoxes.
Forms and Functions of Twentieth-CerTtiiry Architecture: Talbot Hamlin, ed., 4

(New York: Columbia University Press, 1952).
vols.
A comprehensive work on the elements and composition of architecture,
with extensive discussions of building types.
Frank Lloyd Wright: Vincent Scully, Jr. (New York: Braziller, 1960).
A monograph on the work of one of America's greatest architects.
Experiencing Architecture: Steen Eiler Rasmussen (New York: Wiley, 1959).
A simply written book that leads the reader to the delights of experiencing
architecture.
The Future of Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright (New York: Horizon, 1953).
A collection of lectures and essays by an architectural giant.
A History of Modern Architecture: Jurgen Joedicke (London: The Architectural

Press, 1959).
An informative and penetrating study by a German critic.
History of Architecture, on the Comparative Method: Banister Fletcher (New

York: Scribner, 1961).
A standard history of architecture, full of photographs, sketches, and facts.
Modern Architecture: Vincent Scully, Jr. (New York: Braziller, 1961).
A brief and well illustrated book on recent building.
The New Architecture of Europe: G. E. Kidder Smith (New York: World Pub-
lishing, 1961).
Recent outstanding buildings in Europe, intelligently discussed and per-
ceptively photographed.
Space, Time, and Architecture; The Grmuth of a New Tradition: Siegfried

Giedion (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard L'niversity Press, 1954).
One of the most important studies of architecture to appear in recent years.
Sticks and Stones: Lewis Mumford (New York: Dover, 1955).

A stimulating account of the development of architecture in America, with
emphasis on its human significance.
Survival Through Design: Richard Neutra (New York: Oxford, 1954).

One of America's most distinguished architects develops the thesis that, in
view of the enormous technological and social problems of our age, man
can survive only through planning and design.
Glossary
Abstract. Portraying essentials or fundamentals without imitating appearances.

An abstract painting of a tree depicts the fundamental forces and organiza-
tion in a tree but does not look like an actual tree. (See also Non-objective.)
Abstract Expressionism. trend in art that emphasizes the direct, often spon-
A
taneous expression of the artist's inner emotions and states of mind in non-
literal forms and colors.
Academic. Art based on a more or less completely worked-out theory and phi-
losophy and characterized by a crystallized approach; opposite of experi-
mental.
Action Painting. Related to Abstract Expressionism with immediacy, impulse,
chance, and lucky accidents taking precedence over premeditation and de-
liberate planning. An action painter regards his canvas as "an arena
in
which to act," and his painting is a visual record of on-the-spot creativity.

American Scene Painters. Those painters who are chiefly interested in recording
and documenting the ordinary life and activities of America. They may be
characterized as genre painters.
Analogous. Related, or similar, in some way. Usually refers to color schemes;
for example: yellow, yellow-green, and green are analogous colors because
all have yellow in common.
Apse. projecting part of a building, usually semi-circular or multi-angular in

A
plan, and usually at the rear of a church.
Aquatint. An intaglio graphic process in which printing plates are coated with
particles of resin and then etched. The prints have grainy areas, not unlike
water colors.
Arcade. A series of arches supported by columns or piers.
Arch. An arch in the strict sense is a construction (usually curved) built up

from wedge-shaped pieces of material with the joints between them all
converging to the center (or centers) of the arch, but any curved structure
is apt to be referred to as an arch even though not
constructed on the
true arch principle.
Archaic. Referring to objects belonging to an early, conventionalized style; more
advanced than primitive.
Architrave. The lowest major division of the classical entablature resting di-
rectly on the capitals of the columns.

545
546 - Glossary
Armature. Framework or skeleton used to support clay or wax in modeling;

usually made of wood or metal.
Art Nouveau. A popular during the 1890s and extending into the
style of art
20th century, characterized by flowing lines and free, loose ornament.
Assemblage. A work of art made up of one or several kinds of materials such

as photographs, pieces of paper, cloth, wood, glass, or metal and/or objects
such as knives, nails, shells, chairs, and tables. Assemblages may be two-
or three-dimensional. A collage is one kind of assemblage.
Asymmetric. A term for that type of balance in which one side is jiot the mirror
image of the other. Also referred to as active, informal, or occult.
Axis. An imaginary line passing through a design, building, etc., around which
different parts are disposed. In drawing or painting, an imaginary line
expressing the dominant direction of any object or arrangement of objects
in the composition.
Balloon Framing. A type of construction in which the wood frame of a struc-

ture (generally of 2 x 4's) is first erected. The exterior and interior cover-
ings and finishes, the roof, etc., are then added.
Baroque. A 17th-century art movement that was a reaction from the academic
classic tradition in the direction of gieater freedom. Baroque art is often
characterized by strong contrasts and elaborately twisted and curved forms.
Bauhaus. A school in Germany (1919-1933) for the integrated training of artists
in many fields.
Beam. Horizontal unit, usually weight-supporting, of a structural frame.

Beauty. Those qualities that give sensuous and spiritual pleasure and exaltation.
Ben-Day Process. A mechanical method of putting stippled, or mottled, areas
in photomechanically printed pictures. Often seen in colored comics.
Biomorphic. Forms related to living organisms.
Biscuit Firing. The first firing of clay objects which hardens them.
Brayer. Roller made of rubber or gelatin for rolling out and applying ink to
plates or blocks for printing.
Bronze. An alloy, usually of copper and tin, but other metals are sometimes
used instead of tin.
Burin. A pointed cutting tool of metal used by engravers.
Burr. The rough ridge of metal thrown up beside lines on a drypoint plate.
Buttress. A projection of masonry or wood to support or give stability to a
wall or structure.
Byzantine. The style of art and developed in the
established about a.d. 500
eastern division of the Roman
Empire. Byzantine architecture is distin-
guished by the use of the round arch, dome on pendentives, cruciform
plan, and rich mosaic ornamentation.
Calligraphic. Literally "handwriting," this term is applied to drawings and

paintings with free and sketchy linear forms.
Cantilever. A construction device in which a nonvertical projecting member
carries weight.
Capital. The uppermost or top member of a column, distinguished from the
Glossary - 547
shaft by some distinct architectural treatment. The orders of architecture

can be distinguished by the treatment of the capital.
Carport. Garage that is not completely enclosed.
Cartoon. An drawing or study drawn on stout paper at full size to serve
artist's
as a model or to be transferred and carried out in paint, tapestry, mosaic,

stained glass, etc. Also a comic or satirical drawing.
Casein. A vehicle for pigment made from milk. Casein tempera lends itself
to meticulous and detailed handling.
Cast Stone. Stone dust mixed with a binder to form a concrete-like material.
Cast stone is used in sculpture and architecture.
Center of Interest. The part of a work of art that has received special emphasis
and around which the rest of the work is organized.
Ceramics. Any objects made from clay products and fired at more or less high
temperatures.
Chiaroscuro. An Italian term meaning "clear-dark" used in reference to the
organization of lights and darks in drawings, paintings, and prints to sug-
gest form and space.
China. A term often applied to a ceramic ware about midway between stoneware
and porcelain.
Chromatic. Pertaining to color or colors.
City Planning. The organization of land and buildings for intensive use.
Classic. Belonging to the culture and art of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
Also refers to any system based on authoritative principles and methods
used according to a coherent plan.
Classic Revival (or Neoclassicism). An eclectic style, in favor from around 1785
to 1860, based on Roman and Greek models. Whereas the Renaissance was
markedly creative, the Classic Revival aimed for archaeological correctness.
Also used sometimes to refer to the widespread interest in classical forms

at the end 9th and beginning of the 20th centuries.
of the 1
Closed Plan. A building plan in which the rooms or areas are sharply separated
from one another, as differentiated from Open Plan.
Collage. A
composition in which such materials as paper and cloth are attached
to a flat surface, sometimes in combination with drawing or painting.
Collotype. An inexpensive yet highly satisfactory method of reproducing limited
quantities of paintings, drawings, etc., in black and white or color, by means
of gelatin plates.
Colonial. As used in this book, refers to the period in American history before
independence was established.
Colonnade. A series of columns placed at regular intervals and usually united
by other architectural members such as lintels or arches.
Column. A supporting member usually composed of a base, shaft, and capital.
Complementary. A color or form that completes or fills out another. Red and
green are complementary colors.
Composition. The relation of parts to one another and to the whole in a work
of art. Similar to Design and Organization.
Concourse. Alarge space for the gathering of crowds. Concourses are generally
open areas in parks or in such buildings as railway stations and air terminals.
Concrete. A synthetic stony material composed of broken stone, sand, etc., held
548 - Glossary
together by a binder such as cement. Reinforced concrete is strengthened

with metal.
Congruity. Harmony of the various parts or elements with the whole; also
agreement among the parts.
Constructivism. A 20th-century, non-objective art movement in painting and
sculpture which emphasizes geometric organization of form and space as
a hopeful acceptance of technology.
Content. The intellectual, emotional, and sensuous meaning of a work of art,
especially painting and sculpture, as distinguished from the subject matter.
Continuity. Rhythmic relation of the parts of a design to each other and to the
whole.
Conventional. A stylized treatment of natural objects; also, following widely
accepted rules or conventions.
Corinthian. The most richly ornamented of the three Greek "Orders of Archi-
tecture." The columns are slender and often fluted. The bell-shaped capitals
are embellished with acanthus leaves, volutes, and so on. (See also Doric and
Ionic.)
Cornice. The upper portion of a classical entablature, usually with one or more
projecting moldings. Also any projecting band at the top of a wall, often
acting as a transition from walls to ceilings or to roofs.
Cubism. A movement and sculpture) in which objects
in art (chiefly painting
are represented in basic geometric forms which are often made transparent
and intersecting. Cubism arose in France about 1907 in the work of Pablo
Picasso and Georges Braque and has had world-wide influence.
Cul-de-sac. A passage or street with only one outlet. Cul-de-sacs, or dead-end
streets, are used in many modern urban developments because they insure
relative privacy and greatly reduce traffic in front of buildings.
Decorative. Intended to decorate a surface and to please by a harmonious or-

ganization of the plastic elements, rather than represent actual objects or
express profound ideas.
Delineation. Representation of an object or design, generally by means of lines
rather than masses.
Design. The arrangement of interdependent parts to form a coordinated whole.
Dome. A type of roof developed as a form of arch construction, shaped generally
like half a sphere, although there are many variations, such as stilted, squat,
bulbous.
Dominance. Emphasis through position, size, character, etc.
Doric. An order of architecture developed by the Greeks and used by them in
the Parthenon and later adopted and altered by the Romans. The simple
capital is composed of a square block and a circular element which acts as
a transition to the shaft.
Dormer. A small gable that projects through a pitched roof and usually has
one or more windows.
Drypoint. A hand-print, intaglio process in which lines are scratched into the
surface of a metal plate with a needle. The depressions are filled with ink,
which is then transferred to paper in printing.
Glossary • 549
Dynamic. Giving an effect of movement, progression, energy.

Dynamic Symmetry. A theory of design which attempts to reduce a composition
to a mathematical basis.
Earthen%vare. Ceramic ware made from coarse clays that are fired at low tem-
peratures. It is comparatively soft and fragile.
Eaves. The lower part of a roof which projects beyond the exterior wall of a
building.
Eclectic. Selecting and combining from various doctrines, systems, or styles.
Colonial, French provincial, or Tudor houses built during the 20th century
are examples of eclecticism, as are "Gothic" skyscrapers. Often, elements

used in a design are derived from two or more styles.
Elevation. A drawing, showing no perspective, of the front, side, or rear of a
building.
Emphasis. Dominance, accent, or principality of any portion of a design. Em-
phasis implies both dominance and subordination.
Engaged Column. A column that projects in part from a wall. An engaged
column is round, whereas a pilaster is flat.
Engraving. This term has several meanings, but basically it refers to the incising
of letters, figures, or designs into wood, metal, or stone. In printing, it may
cover all processes except planographic and stencil; be limited to the
intaglio processes; or apply specifically to line engravings.
Entablature. In classical architecture that portion of the order which occurs
between the capital of the column and the pediment; composed vertically
of three major sections: architrave, frieze, and cornice.
Esthetics. Philosophy, theory, or science of beauty.

Etching. A hand-print, intaglio process in which the design is bitten (etched)
into a metal plate with acid. These bitten lines are then filled with ink
which is transferred to the paper in printing.
Expressionism. Art in which the emphasis is on inner emotions, sensations, or
ideas rather than on actual appearances or highly ordered compositions.
Fabric. Anything which is manufactured, but usually refers to cloth.

Facade. The front of a building.
Family Room. A room in houses planned for diversified activities. Also called
Activity, Combination, or Multipurpose.
Fenestration. The arrangement of windows in a building.
Ferro-concrete. Concrete reinforced with iron or steel. Commonly called Rein-
forced Concrete.
Filling. The transverse threads in a woven fabric; those put in by the shuttle.
Also called woof or weft.

Form. Refers to (1) the total organization of all of the parts, or (2) mass or shape.
Formal. Showing special attention to arrangement; also referring to work done
according to definite rules or showing pronounced symmetry.
Four-color Process. A mechanical process of color printing in which four plates,
similar to halftone plates, are used. The four-color process is used to repro-
duce, in color, paintings, drawings, and photographs with shaded areas.
550 - Glossary
Free Form. Shapes that do not follow any set of rules; usually biomorphic.
Fresco. Painting, executed with a medium on plaster,
similar to water color,
which is usually bonded masonry wall. True, or buono, fresco is done
to a
on fresh, wet plaster into which the pigment sinks. Fresco secco, done on
dry plaster, is much less permanent.
Frieze. The middle portion of the classical entablature; also a band or strip of
painted or sculptured decoration.
Function. Purpose; natural, appropriate, characteristic action.
Futurism. An art movement originating in Italy in the early 20th century that
aimed to portray the movement and change in objects rather than their
appearance at any specific time.
Gable. An end of a ridged roof, generally triangular in shape.

Gargoyle. A projecting stone spout, usually giotesquely carved, used on medieval
buildings to carry off rain water. Gargoyles are frequently carved with the
heads of fantastic animals.
Genre. A style, especially of painting, illustrative of the common life of a people.
Georgian. An architectural style developed in England and in America between
1700 and 1800 and named for the King Georges who were ruling at that
time.
Glaze. In ceramics, glaze is a glassy coating on fired clay objects to make them
waterproof and attractive. In oil painting, glazing is the application of a
thin, transparent wash of oil paint over more opaque colors to increase the
depth and luminosity of the painting.
Gothic. A style of art prevalent in Western Europe from the 13th through the
15th centuries. Gothic architecture has a highly dynamic system of construc-
tion developed from such elements as pointed arches, vaults, and buttresses.
Gothic Revival. A movement, beginning in the late 18th century and lasting
into the present century, in which the Gothic style was used as a model by
architects and designers.
Gouache. Opaque water color paints made by grinding opaque pigments in
water and adding such substances as gum arabic and honey to form a thick
paste. The effect is somewhere between transparent water color and oil
paint.
Graphic. Originally referring only to writing, the term graphic has been ex-
tended to drawing and, sometimes, to painting. It is also used specifically in
reference to hand and mechanical printing.
Greek Revival. A period in art, from about 1820 to 1860 in America, when the
Greek influence was predominant, chiefly in architecture. Characterized by
exterior Greek porticos and general severity and chastity of detail.
Gridiron. Rectangular network, as in city plans.
Grotesque. Specifically and correctly, a fanciful type of ornamentation that com-
bines geometric and natural forms based on ancient art found in grottoes.
Nowadays it also refers to that which is awkward or incongruous.
Ground. In painting, a usually white coating of prepared gypsum, chalk, or oil
pigment applied to the painting surface before the painting is begim. In
printing, a waxy coating applied to the printing plate to protect parts of it
from the action of the mordant (or acid).
Glossary - 551
Half-timber. A type of architectural construction in which the main supporting
members are wood timbers, and the spaces between are filled with masonry
and sometimes plastered. The structural timbers form a conspicuous design
on the exterior of the building.
Halftone. A
photoengraving process used for the reproduction of photographs,
drawings, and paintings in newspapers, magazines, and books in which
different values are printed as dots of varying sizes. All of the black-and-
white illustrations in this book that have more than one value are repro-
duced by halftone.
Harmony. Agreement among parts of a composition tending to produce unity.
High-light. A spot of bright light or high value on an object, usually produced
by a reflection of the source of light.
Hue. The name of a color; actually refers to its position in the spectrum.
Idealism. A philosophy that emphasizes ideas and de-emphasizes materials and

emotions. Typically in art this entails a search for the perfect form for each
intellectual concept.
Impressionism. A movement in art, particularly painting, in which one aim is
to record the effect (or impression) that one receives from the first impres-
sion of a scene. Impressionism is often associated with broken color, whereby
complex colors are rendered by juxtaposed strokes of their component colors
that blend in the eye of the observer.
Informal. Irregular; emphasis on naturalism rather than on strictly ordered
forms and compositions.
Intaglio Printing. Done from an engraved or incised surface; the opposite of
relief printing.
Integration. Tlie formation of a complete, unified whole.
Intensity (of Color). The degree of purity or saturation of a color.
International Style. Although there have been art trends in the past that were
sufficiently widespread to deserve being called international, this phrase
today usually refers to a style of architecture begun in the 1920s. Great
precision and regularity, geometric forms, smooth surfaces, and lack of
ornamentation are distinctive characteristics. Local materials and regional
forms play little if any part in the buildings.
Ionic. An order of architecture with columns more slender than the Doric and
capitals decorated with volutes. Developed by the Greeks and adapted and
altered by the Romans.
Keystone. The central stone of an arch, sometimes given a highly decorative

treatment.
Kiln. A furnace or oven for drying, baking, or firing various products. Ceramic
kihis are used in firing and glazing pottery.
Laminate. Layers of paper, wood, etc., bonded together, usually by heat and
pressure to make a tough, homologous material. Plywood is a laminated
product.
Layout. In printing and in commercial art, a term referring to the arrangement
of pictures and words on the page.
552 - Glossary
Line-cut. A type of photoengraving in which only one value is reproduced.

Black and white comic strips are usually line-cuts.
Line Engraving. A hand process of producing prints from a metal plate on which
the image has been incised by pushing a V-shaped graver into the metal.
Lintel. Horizontal architectural member of wood, stone, etc., to span openings,
supported at ends by piers or walls.
Lithography. Method of surface printing from a plate of stone or metal and
greasy ink.
Lost Wax Process. Method of casting in metal, objects made from clay or other
plastic materials.
Madonna. Italian word meaning "my lady," usually referring to the Virgin
Mary.
Magic Realism. A type of painting, the subject matter of which is objectively
portrayed, but which has strong nonrational overtones.
Majolica. A type of ceramic usually decorated with large bold floral patterns.
Most majolica comes from Italy but was introduced there from Spain by
way of Majorca— hence the name.
Masonry. Construction made from such materials as stone, brick, tile, and plaster.
Medieval. Referring to the Middle Ages, during which the Romanesque and
Gothic styles of architecture developed.
Medium. The material used produce an
art object. Also the liquid with which
to
pigments are mixed to make them suitable for painting.
Metope. Space between two Triglyphs in a Doric frieze; often enriched with
sculpture.
Mobile. A kind of sculpture, usually of metal, in which the parts move.
Modeling. The representation of solid forms in either sculpture or painting.
Modeling refers either to the actual shaping of clay or other materials in
sculpture, or the use of colors and values to represent forms in painting.
Module. Standard or unit of measurement.
Mold. A form from which something takes its shape. Much commercial pottery
is made in molds.
Moldings. Ornamental projecting strips with varied contours.

Monochromatic. Using only one hue. An example of a monochromatic color
scheme is one based on various tints and shades of green.
Monolithic. Literally means "one stone," but it is used to refer to structures of
homogeneous and continuous materials, such as concrete.
Monoprint. A type of surface printing in which a sketch is done on glass or
metal with oil paint or ink and then transferred by contact to paper. Only
one print can be made of each design. Also called monotype.
Mordant. In etching, any fluid, usually a strong acid, used to eat away the ex-
posed portions of the plate; in dyeing, a substance used to fix the color.
Mosaic. A type of inlaid design, composed of small pieces of stone or glass,
generally used for the decoration of walls and floors.
Motif. A distinctive principal idea or element of a work of art.
Mullion. A vertical bar of stone or wood dividing window lights or panels.
Mural. Literally meaning wall, this term is now
used for painting, sculpture,
mosaics, etc., that are definitely joined with a wall.
Glossary - 553
Nave. term applied either to the long portion of a church leading to the
A
from the side aisles.
choir, or to the central aisle as distinguished
Niche. A hollow recess in a wall, generally intended for a statue or ornament.
Non-objective. Referring to paintings or sculpture that show no resemblance
to natural objects as they are ordinarily perceived. (See also Abstract.)
Objective. Applied to paintings and sculptures in which the portrayal of subject

is mimetic.
Occult. (See Asymmetric.)
Oil Painting. A technique of painting with pigments ground in such oils as
linseed, poppy, or nut. The characteristic slowness of drying is often
hastened by adding turpentine or other dryers.
Open Plan. A building plan in which some rooms or areas are not sharply di-
vided from each other.
Order. A term used in connection with classical architecture to signify a type
of column with the entablature which it supports. The three Greek orders,
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, were taken over and altered by the Romans,
and two more, the Tuscan and Composite, were developed.
Organic. Having a complex structure of vitally interdependent units such as is
found in living organisms and the architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright.
Organization. The purposeful relation of parts to each other and to the whole.
Orientation. The location of a building in relation to the points of the compass;
means paying attention to wind and outlooks as well
usually as to the sun.
Ornament. Something that embellishes or enriches an object.
Palette. A flat thin piece of metal, wood, porcelain, or glass on which a painter
mixes colors; also, the assortment of colors used by a painter.
Palette Knife. A thin flexible knife used by painters for mixing oil colors or
applying them to a canvas.
Pastel. Crayons made of ground colors and a binder (usually gum arable). Pastel
is also used to describe colors that are light in value and somewhat neu-
tralized.
Patina. A
film or encrustation on the surface of copper or bronze produced
naturally by oxidation or by treatment with acids. Also includes any mellow-
ing of surfaces resulting from age and use.
Pediment. In classical architecture, the triangular area above the entablature,
forming the gable of a two-pitched roof; also, similar areas on doorways,
furniture, etc.
Perspective— Aerial. Representation of space by the weakening of hues and
value contrasts and the softening of edges of objects in proportion to their
distance from the observer. The apparent haziness of distant objects is an
example of aerial perspective.
Perspective— Bird's-eye. The representation of a building or some scene as it
would look viewed from the air.
if
Perspective— Linear. Representation of space and distance in drawing and paint-

ing through the convergence of parallel lines and the diminution of objects
in relation to their distance from the foreground. Developed during the
Renaissance, linear perspective quickly supplanted all other means of de-
554 - Glossary
pitting space in Western art until the experimental

work of the later 19th
and 20th centuries.
Photogram. A photograph made without a camera by placing objects on light-
sensitive paper and exposing it to light.
Photogravure. A method of printing pictures from intaglio plates made photo-
mechanically.
Photomechanical. Pertaining to a number of printing processes in which the
plate is photographically prepared and the copies printed on mechanical
presses.
Picturesque. Originally this term referred to a landscape that looked like a
painting. Now used chiefly to describe anything that is characterized by
informal irregularity and roughness.
Pier. A support of metal or masonry, or both, occurring between openings, as
supports for arches or lintels, at ends of bridges, as enlarged portions of a
wall, etc. A column is a specialized type of pier.

Pigment. Any coloring material that is mixed with a liquid to produce paints,
dyes, etc.
Pilaster. A building pier, rectangular in plan, that is a part of, but projects
mark points of special support
slightly from, the wall. Pilasters generally
in a wall and are treated as columns with base, shaft and capital.
Planographic (or Surface Printing). Printing done from a flat plate, the design
being neither raised nor lowered. Lithography is a type of surface printing.
Plaster of Paris. A
white powder (calcium sulfate) which when mixed with water
forms a quick-setting paste used for molds in casting dishes, sculpture, etc.
Plastic. Capable of being formed, molded, or modeled.
Plastic Elements. Line, form, space, color, and texture; the elements of which
all of the plasticand graphic arts are composed.
Plasticine. A modeling clay that has been mixed with oil so that it does not
harden.
Plastics. A term applied to those materials or products made from various
organic and inorganic substances which lend themselves to molding in
various forms. Bakelite, Formica, Celluloid, Pliofilm, and Lucite are trade
names of various plastics.
Plywood. An odd number of sheets of thin wood glued together with the grains
of adjacent sheets at right angles to each other.
Pointillism. A method of painting in which the paint is applied in dots or
"points" that are more or less the same size and shape in any one painting.
A somewhat formalized, systematic development of the broken- or divided-
color techniques of Impressionism.
Pointing. The mechanical measuring of an original piece of modeling or sculp-
ture in order to reproduce it in some other material. Stone cutters make
use of pointing to copy accurately the model supplied them by the sculptor.
Also, the filling and finishing with mortar of joints in masonry.
Porcelain. A ceramic product made from a fine, even-grained clay and fired
to a high temperature; a tough, beautiful ware that is translucent when thin.
Post and Lintel. A
system of architectural construction based on upright columns
or posts and horizontal beams or lintels.
Post-Impressionist. A general term used to describe the progressive jaainters in
Glossary - 555
the latter part of the 19th century who departed from the Impressionist
approach to find their own ways of seeing and painting what they saw
and felt.
Prefabricated. Generally used in architecture to describe those parts of a build-

ing that are manufactured before delivery to the building site where they
are incorporated in the building or assembled. Increasingly, entire houses
are being prefabricated.
Pre-stressed Concrete. Concrete in which cables, rods, wires, etc., are so em-
bedded that structural burdens are deflected and made to travel in pre-
determined directions. The reinforcement is held under tension until the

concrete is hard. When the tension is released, the metal contracts and com-
presses and strengthens the concrete.
Proportion. The relation among parts and of parts to the whole; ratio among
parts. Sometimes used specifically for shape relationships.
Realism. Applied chiefly to painting and sculpture that rather closely approxi-
mate the natural appearance of objects but emphasize the most distinctive
visual characteristics of forms, colors, textures, and space.
Regional Planning. An extension of city planning to include a considerable
area of land around cities. Sometimes entire counties, states, or geographic
regions are involved, as in the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Relief Printing. Printing done from a raised surface, in contrast to Intaglio
and Planographic Printing.
Relief Sculpture. Sculpture in which the forms project from a background to
which they are attached.
Renaissance. The great rebirth in art and learning that began in Italy in the
15th century and quickly spread to other European countries. Sometimes
called the Age was the period in which the achievements
of Discovery, it
of the Classical Age were and the dignity of individual

intensively studied
man was fres'hly appreciated. In art, it involved the rejection of the Gothic
style and the development of a new style based on Roman precedent.
Repetition. The use of the same element or motif more than once in one or
more directions.
Rhythm. Movement or continuity typically achieved by recurrence or sequential
change.
Rococo. An 18th-century art movement that was both a reaction to and an
outgrowth of the Baroque. Reaching its height in France, rococo art is
characterized by delicate, playful lightness. Rocks, shells, and fantastic
curves are favorite motifs.
Romanesque. A style of art that flourished from about 775 to 1200, the architec-
ture of which is characterized by round arches, heavy massive construction,
rich, concentrated, and free decoration, and the development of vaulting
that led into the Gothic style.
Romanesque Revival. An American style from about 1870 to 1900, begun by
H. H. Richardson. The buildings are generally of masonry, with richly
ornamented stonework and sturdy round arches.
Romantic. Emphasizing imagination, sentiment, and individual expression;
opposing the restricting formality of classical standards.
556 - Glossary
Rose Window. A circular window filled with a design that radiates from the
center. Rose windows are often found in Gothic cathedrals.
Scale. The size of the parts in relation to the whole object. Also, the size relation
of the representation of an object to the object
itself; for example, architects
draw plans in which the

one inch to four feet, eight feet, etc.
scale is
Section. The representation of the way anything would look if cut straight
through and one portion removed. A section of a building shows the in-
terior and its relation to the exterior along a given line.
Shape Engineering. See Structural Skin.
Significant Form. A phrase applied to works of art, especially paintings, whose
handling of form, space, color, and texture are markedly expressive, meaning-
ful, or vital. Cezanne's paintings are examples.
Silk-screen Printing. A type of printing in which a silk fabric is used as a stencil.
Used for printing fabrics and reproductions of paintings. Original prints

made by this method are called serigraphs.
Skeleton Construction. A system of building in which the weight is carried by
comparatively slender, widely spaced structural members of metal, rein-
forced concrete, or wood. Contrasts with masonry buildings in which solid
walls can-y the weight.
Slip. Clay and water mixed to a cream-like consistency; used in making cast
ceramics and for applied decoration.
Static. At rest or in complete equilibrium; suggesting no movement; opposite
of dynamic.
Steel Cage. Refers to the steel framework that serves as the basic structure in
most large buildings; a kind of skeleton construction.
Still Life. Varied objects, such as fruits, flowers, and vases, used as the subject
matter of a painting; also, a painting made of such objects.

Stoneware. Ceramics made from comparatively fine clays and fired at moderately
high temperatures. Stoneware is more refined than earthenware, but less
refined than porcelain.
Stressed Skin. See Structural Skin.
Structural. Of or pertaining to construction or structure as distinguished from
surfacing materials, decoration, and accessories.
Structural Skin. Sheet materials placed and held under stress to assume a struc-
tural form. The "skin" and "skeleton" of the building are one and the
same thing, as they are in such animals as crabs and lobsters.
Style. The manner or mode of execution or presentation in art as distinguished
from the content.
Stylobate. Base of a classical building.
Subjective. Applied chiefly to paintings and sculpture in which the expression
and usually the technique are highly personal.
Subject Matter. The objects represented in painting or sculpture, such as persons,
landscapes, or flowers. (See Content.)
Superblocks. A term used in city planning to designate blocks that are much
larger than those which ordinarily appear in communities.
Surrealism. A movement that developed after World War I in which artists
Glossary - 557
derived their inspiration from the subconscious. The results usually have
a dreamlike irrationality.
Symbolic. Representation by symbols rather than direct imitation.
Symmetry. A
balancing of parts in which those on one side of the center are
the exact reverse of those on the other. Symmetry is the most obvious form
of balance.
Tactile Values. An expression used to describe the quality of a work of art that
appeals to the sense of touch.
Tempera. A thin but opaque paint in which the pigment is carried in a milk-
like emulsion of oily and watery components. Egg, milk, glue, gum arable,
the juice of the fig tree, and dandelions are some of the materials used in
preparing the emulsion.
Tension. Stretching, straining, or pulling as opposed to compression. Tensions
in architecture are the actual straining forces in various members; tensions
in painting are the representations of the pulling forces between forms,
colors, etc.
Terra Cotta. A low-fire ceramic body used both for construction and decoration
in architecture, for sculpture, and for flower pots, planters, etc.
Textile. A woven fabric.
Three-color Process. A photoengraving process in which unshaded areas are
printed in colors.
Thrust. An outward force produced by an arch or vault. In Gothic architecture
the buttresses provide counter thrusts to the thrusts of the vaulting.
Tonality. The general quality of a painting produced by the color scheme.
Generally, tonality is developed from the predominance of one hue or from
closely related values.
Traditional. Anything handed down from earlier periods.
Transept. In churches with a cruciform plan, the portion of the building that
transverses the major dimension. Sometimes, as in most Gothic cathedrals,
the transepts project conspicuously beyond the nave.
Triad. A gioup of three. A triad color scheme has three colors, generally form-
ing an equilateral triangle on the color wheel, such as red, blue, and yellow.
Triglyph. Rectangular, projecting block which alternates with Metopes in the
frieze of the Doric order.
Truss. An form in which beams, bars, etc., are combined into a
architectural
rigid framework, the shape of which cannot be altered without deformation
of one or more of its members. Trusses are usually triangular or are made
up of triangular forms because the triangle is the only polygonal form
that cannot be altered without changing the length of one or more sides.
Type Face. The character, shape, or design of the type used in printing.
Unity. Oneness; singleness; all means or elements adapted to a single purpose

or end.
Value. The degree of lightness or darkness. Values range from white to black,
from light pink to dark maroon, etc.
558 - Glossary
Variety. Difference or variation.

Vault. An arched masonry covering over a building or room. Vaults are of many
kinds: barrel, groined, ribbed, etc.
Victorian Period. Takes its name from Queen Victoria of England who reigned
from 1837 to 1901. For the most part, designers of the era were inspired
by Gothic and baroque motifs but were inventive in developing new forms
and in a free use of vigorous if often crude detail.
Vitreous. A term applied to high-fire ceramics that are dense, glassy, and non-
porous, as opposed to earthenware which is granular and porous. Porcelain
is a vitreous ceramic.
Volute. The scroll or spiral of Ionic capitals.
Voussoir. Wedge-shaped piece of material used in an arch.
Warp. The lengthwise threads in a woven fabric. Warp threads are strung on
the loom before the weaving begins.
Water Color. A painting material made from pigments held together with a
water-soluble binder. Although usually thought of as being transparent, it
can also be translucent or densely opaque.

Weaving. The interlacing, usually at right angles, of flexible materials.
Weft. The woven fabric; also called filling or woof. Weft
crosswise threads in a
and warp threads are interlaced in weaving.
Window-walls. Wall-sized windows, or glass-filled walls.
Woodcut. A graphic print made from a block of wood cut to produce an illus-
tration or design in relief. Often referred to as wood block.
Wood Engraving. The process of engraving designs on the end grain of wood
for printing; also, a print made from this engraved surface. Wood engrav-
ings generally show finer detail than woodcuts.
Woof. See Weft.
Zoning. Restricting the uses of land areas in city or regional planning.

Index
(Italicized numbers refer to pages where illustrations will be found. The Glossary should be con-
sulted, because items there have not been indexed.)
Aalto, ."Mvar, church at Imatra, Finland, S7 SS , in, .502, 303, 323; industrial. 57. Ill, 134-139;
Abbott, Berenice, "Night View of New York integrated planning in, 506; religious, 85-
City," 282, 281 97, 506-510, 512-521, 526; space in, 332-333,
"Abruzzi." Cartier-Bresson, 2S3. 281. 284 331, 334; variety and unity in, 313, 312, 314;
abstract design, in commercial art, 142, 145, 149 see also construction
abstract painting, 3SS, 415, 416, 454 architrave, 506, 508
abstract sculpture, -132, 4S?, 484 Arden [Mary] house, Wilmcote, England, 33,
abstract-expressionist painting, 42}, 416 32,37
abstractions, "action, bondage, humor," }}0, 318 Arens, Egmont, 122
acrylic plastics, 169, 193, 195, 2-IS, 192 Arneson, Bob, 209
"Adam." Michelangelo. ^52, 433 Arniches. Carlos, 520
advertising and advertisements, 147-154; design Arp, Jean (Hans), "Automatic Drawing," 325,
principles in, 37S, 303, 384, 387, 392 334
aerial perspective, 446 "Artist's Studio, The," Daguerre, 276, 277
African altar head, Benin, Nigeria, 479
Arts and Crafts Revival, 130
African ancestor figure, 100, 99-102
assemblage, 436
"After the Hunt," Harnett, 43S, 437, 454
asymmetrical balance, 3S1, 384-385
aircraft construction, 493, 504, 533
Auditorium. United Nations Headquarters, 77
Albers, Josef, "Aquarium," 325, 334; "Sanctu-
auditoriums, 74-75, 77, 530
ary," 324, 323, 334, 476
"Aurora," Baizerman, 463, 459, 464
alternation, design principle, 387, 388-391
aluminum, 184; sculpture in, 169
"Automatic Drawing," Arp, 325, 324
Aluminum Company of America building, 320 automobiles, design of, 300, 301
"American Bison," Hardy, 347, 346. 349 Aztec goddess, statue of, 101, 102
"American Gothic." Wood, 413, 414, 416, 424,
445-446, 454 Baggs, Arthur, 203
Amino, Leo, "Creature of the Deep," .399, 483 Baizerman, Saul, "Aurora," 463, 459, 464
analogous color scheme, 364 balance, design principle, 381, 375, 379-385, 395
analogous hues, 353 balloon framing, 525
ancestor figure, Africa, 100, 99-102 Banksia senala, 337
apartment, 4-6, 7-9 "Barcelona," van der Rohe chair, 126, 124-125
"Aquarium," Albers, 325, 334 Baroque style harpsichord, 120, 119-121
aquatints, 255 barrel vault, 512
aqueduct, Roman, Segovia, Spain, 511, 510-512 Basilica of St. Peter, see St. Peter's Basilica
arc welding, in construction, 533 Bass, Saul, 144
arch, 510-519;pointed arch, 515, 514-519; Bauhaus, Dessau. Germany, 137, 29, 136
round arch, 510-511,512 Becker, Frederick, "Woman of the Quarry," 24S
Archipenko. .\lexander, "Walking." 460, 459, bedroom, in apartment, 6, 7; in contemporary
461,475-476 California house, 315, 314; in Techbuilt
architecture, 493-544; commercial, 155-167; house, 13, 16;Venetian rococo style, 315, 314
community, 19, 43-55, 72-78; domestic, 9-41; "Beginning of Miracles, The," Sister Mary
environmental control in, 535-536; form Corita, 258, 259
559
560 - Index
Bellows, George, "Dempsey and Firpo," ?W, centric city plans, 63, 63-66
381 ceramic sculpture, 202, 203
Bertoia, Harry, 73, 161 ceramics, 197-214; characteristics of, 197-198;
"Bewailing of Christ," Giotto, 106, 105 drying and fixing, 207; glazing, 207-210; ma-
biomorphic forms, }25, ?36, 326 terials, 200-201; ornamentation, 210-214;
birch wood, 179 shaping of, 201-207; see also bowls, vases
'Bird in Space," Brancusi, 482, 483-484 Cezanne, Paul, "Mont Sainte-Victoire," 429
block printing, 247-251; of textiles, 237. 238 (water color), 439 (oil), 430, 438-440
blown glass, 2JS, 222, 217 chair(s), contemporary, 181, 124-128; Eames,
blowpipe, 218, 214, 217 183; "Lily," 193; machine-produced, 115;
"Blue Vein," Casarella, 2i0, 249 materials for, 173-174; Shaker, 115
"Boardwalk," Perlmutter, 257 chambered nautilus, as design, 572, 385
boat propeller, 340 Champs filysês, Paris, 64, 65
books, printing of, 243-245 Chanel perfume advertisement, 150, 151
bottles, 131, 22-t Chang Lung Chang, "The Evening Tolling of
bowls, ceramic, 82, 199, 208; plastic, 193; wood, a Distant Temple Bell," 430, 446
82 Chartres (France) Cathedral, "Kings and
Brady, Matthew, "Ruins of Richmond, The," Queens," 103, 104-105
277, 278 Chicago Tribune Building, 498, 497, 499
Brancusi, Constantin, "Bird in Space," 482, china, 206, 201
483^84 Chinese bowl, 208, 207
Braque, Georges, "The Table," 447, 446, 454 Chinese bronze vessel, 190, 189
Breuer, Marcel, front.; quoted, 312 Chinese landscape, 430, 446
brick, as building material, 158, 162, 20, 157 Chinese painting, 298
bronze, 184; casting of, 478-480; pitcher of, Chinese porcelain plate, 211, 210
175, 190; sculpture in, 347, 438, 462, 463, Chinese prehistoric jar, 199
479-481, 346, 461, 478-480 Chinese tomb figure, 320, 321
Brooklyn (N.Y.) Courthouse, 313, 312, 314 Chinese vases, 197
brush-and-ink drawing, Rivera, 329, 334 "Christ, Head of," ^77, 470
Brush-Everard House, Williamsburg, Va.. 34, "Christ Healing the Sick," Rembrandt, 254, 255
32, 35, 163 "Christ Mocked by Soldiers," Rouault, 107, 108
Bruton Parish Church, Williamsburg, Va., 89, Christ, medallion of, 85
47, 88-90, 95, 323 Christina's World," Wyeth, 431, 445
Bryant Park, New York City, 70, 68, 69 Church, Thomas D., garden, 38, 39
building, see construction church architecture, see architecture, religious
built-up sculpture, 476-478 "Circles in Circle," Kandinsky, 310, 308
Bundshaft, Gordon, 501 circulation, in city planning, 61-62
Burri, Alberto, "Composition 8," 435, 436, 454 "City, The," Grippe, 474, 475-476
Burton, John, glass vases and bottles, 131 "City, The," Leger, 358, 349, 357, 360-361
Butler, Reg, "Girl," 462, 459, 461 city planning, 42, 58-71; in Greenbelt, Md.,
48-53; in Williamsburg, Va., 43-48
"MobUe,"
Calder, Alexander, 380, 381, 385, 478 city plans, 62-63, 67, 62-68
"Camargue X," Koenig, 458 clay, 200-201; in sculpture, 202, 294, 320, 460,
camel, Chinese figure of, 520, 321 474; shaping of, 202, 205, 201-207
Camera Shop, The, Berkeley, Calif., 156, 155- Cleveland Park Synagogue, Cleveland, Ohio,
157 93, 91-94. 95
cameras and equipment, 268-271, 272-276 "closed plan," in house design, 13
"Camp in Baker's Park," Jackson, 275, 271 "Cloud, The," de Creeft, 491, 490
cantilever construction, 529, 504, 522, 525, 529, "Coatlicue," 101, 102
531 coffee table, Noguchi, 336, 335
capital, 506, 508 Colescott, Warrington, "Mach 5," 297, 296
Capitol, Williamsburg, Va., 47 collage, /(?-/, /5 5, 436
"Caresse, La," Cassatt, 253 color, 353 (insert), 343, 350-366; effects of,
Carter, Harold, "Maria Lani," -//S 357-361; nature of, 351-357; use of, 7-8, 362-
Cartier-Bresson, Henri, "Abruzzi," 283, 281, 366
284; quoted, 284 color photography, 271-274
Casarella, Edmond, "Blue Vein," 250, 249 color schemes, 363-365
casein paints, 431 color separation (printing), 260, 262
Cassatt, Mary, "La Caresse," 25.? columns, 506, 508
cast iron, 190, 348, 189 commercial architecture, 155-167
cast metal sculpture, 479-481, 478, 483 commercial centers, 164, 166, 163-167
casting of metal, 188, 189 community architecture, 19, 43-55, 72-79
cave painting, Dordogne, France, 401 community painting, 79, 78-80
Central Park, New York City. 70, 68-69 community sculpture, 81-82, 80-83
Index - 561
complementary color schemes, 364 dining space, in apartment, 6, 7; in Techbuilt
complementary colors, 353 house, 13
"Composition," Miro, -/52, 411, 446, 450 display, see packaging and display
"Composition," Mondrian, 305 domes, 512-514
74, 75, 513, 72,
composition, see organization Domingucz. Martin, 520
"Composition 8," Burri. 7 5 5, 436, 454 "Door to the River," de Kooning, 423. 421, 424,
concrete, in building, 521-525 455
Congdon, ^Villiam, "Venice, Number 1," 42}, Doric Order, 506, 509
425, 428 double-complementary color-schemes, 364
construction, 503-535; in concrete, 521-525; drawings, 325, 328-329, 330-331
in steel, 522, 524, 528-533; in stone, 505-519; drypoint, 253, 252
types of, 503-505; in wood, 525-528 Dubuffet, Jean, "The Cow with the Subtile
Constructivism, 487 Nose," 449, 448
contemporary architecture, 493-503, 522-524 Duccio di Buoninsegna, "Maesta," 382, 378. 384
continuity, design principle, 375, 395 Duchamp, Marcel, "Nude Descending a Stair-
cornice, 506. 508 case," 38S, 381, 389, 393, 461
cotton fabrics, 113,237.2-10, 112-114
cotton fibers, 227 Eames, Charles, chairs, 183, 182, 335, 453
Courthouse, Brooklyn, N.Y., 313, 312 "Early Sunday Morning," Hopper, 406, 405,
"Cow with the Subtile Nose, The," Dubuffet, 410
f49, 448 earthenware, 211, 200
crackle glaze, 20S, 207 Edenfalk, Bengt, 224
crafts, see handcrafts Eg)'ptian glass, 215, 214
"Creature of the Deep," Amino, 399 electric iron, design of, 118, 117
"Crucifixion," Lebrun, 107, 108 elements, see plastic elements
"Crushed Rock," Kahn, 345, 344 Elffers, Dick, 152
crystal, 215, 216 emphasis, design principle, 377, 392-395
Crystal Palace, London, 136 "End of Day," Gwathway, 258
Cubist painting, 339, 446, 441 engraved glass. 218. 221, 223
Cubist sculpture, 4S5, 484 enrichment, see ornamentation
curvilinear forms, 325, 323, 326 entablature, 506, 508
cut glass, 221 environmental control in architecture, 535-536
Epstein, Jacob, "Social Consciousness," 480
Daguerre, Louis, "The Artist's Studio," 276, equilibrium, 379-385
277 Eskolin, Vuokko, 241
"Dark Shadows," Nevelson, 486, 436, 477, 484, etched glass, 223
487 etched plywood, 17S
Dartmouth College mural, 434 etchings, 252, 254, 297, 255
Daumier, Honore, "The Too-Hot Bath," 256, "Evening Tolling of a Distant Temple Bell,
257 The," Chang Lung Chang, 430, 446
"David," Michelangelo, 471 Ewing, Kermit, TVA mural, 79, 78, 305
Davis, Stuart, "Hot Still-Scape for Six Colors," expressionist painting, 454-455
5i7, 305, 310, 312
de Belgiojoso, Lodovico, 367 fabrics, 226-241; definition of, 230; design of,
decentralized city plans, 67, 66 235-241; see also textiles

de Creeft, Jose, "The Cloud," 491, 490 factories, design of, 137, 136
Degas, Edgar, "Frieze of Dancers," 399; "Grand family room, in Techbuilt house, 14-15, 23, 13,
Arabesque,"55?, 377, 381 22

de Hooch. Picter, "Scene in a Courtyard," 3 Far East chair, 127, 125, 128
Deitrick, William H., 532, 533 Farnese Palace, Rome, 313, 309, 312, 314, 384
de Kooning. AVillem, "Door to the River," 423, Fassbinder, John, ceramic vase, 131
421, 424, 455; "February 1957," 322, 318 "February 1957," de Kooning, 322, 318
della Robbia, Luca, "Prudence," 213 Feininger, Lyonel, "The Gate," 324, 334
—
"Dempsey and Firpo," Bellows, 383, 381 felting, 241, 233
de Rivera, Jose, steel sculpture, 140 ferro-concrete, 522, 524
"Descent from the Cross," Rubens, 370, 361, Fiberglas, 232, 229-230
369, 371 fibers, and design, 236; manufactured, 228-230;
Deshaies, Arthur, "The Insects Go Up," 248 natural, 227-228
design, 372-397; of fabrics, 235-241; in houses, filters for cameras, 273
373-377, see also architecture, domestic; im- Fine, Perle, "The Moment in and out of
portance of, 377-379; industrial, see indus- Time," 390, 389
trial design; as organization, 296; three prin- Finnish churches, 87, 85-88, 95
ciples of, 379-395 Finnish glass, 220
de Swart, Jan, 169, 195, 174 firelighter, cast-iron, 189
562 - Index
First Presbyterian Church, Stamford, Conn., Gordin, Sidney, "Rectangular, Number 5," 488,
97, 95, 96 All, 487
Fischer, Mildred, 229 Gothic architecture, 497, 514-519; concept of,
Flannagan, John, "Jonah and the Whale," 472, 302. 303
473 Gottlieb, Adolph, "Unstill Life, 3," 451, 450
flax, 226 gouache, 431
Fliickiger, Adolf, n2 Governor's Palace and Garden, Williamsburg,
flying buttress, 518 Va., 46, 37, 45-47, 69, 83, 381, 384
form, 319-328; in architecture, 323; and color, "Grand Arabesque," Degas, 383, 377, 381
357, 360-361; and ornamentation, 326-328; graphic processes, 246-262
in painttng, 410; in sculpture, 483-487 "Great Buddha, The," 382, 377, 384
form follows function, 300-306 Great Pyramid of Khutu, 100, 495, 56, 98, 318,
forms, families of, 323, 326 493
Fort Worth, Texas, commercial center, 166, "Great Wave of Kanazawa, The," Hokusai,
165 250, 251
Fortisan, 23S Greco, El (Domenico Teotocopulo), "St. Francis
"Fountain, The," Sargent, 386,. 387 in Ecstasy," 386, 381, 387, 389; "View of
four-color process, 260, 262 Toledo," #22, 421, 446
free-form, 325, 336, 326 Greek architecture, concept of, 302, 303; see
fresco painting, 432, 434, 433 also Parthenon
frieze, 506, 508 Greek sculpture, 103, 348, 460, 102-105, 346,
"Frieze of Dancers," Degas, 399 459, 461
function and form, 300-306 Green, Aaron, 40
function, and use of color, 362-363 Greenbelt, Md., 50, 48-53, 83
furniture, of apartment, 7-8; arrangement of, "Grenouill^re, La," Monet, 422, 421, 446
394, 395; of Brush-Everard House, 34, 35; Grippe, Peter, "The City," 474, Alb-Al^
contemporary, 336, see also chairs; modular, Gris, Juan, "Landscape at Ceret," 339, 340
125; selection of, 132; of Techbuilt house, Gromaire, Marcel, "Maria Lani," 419, 417
16-17,21-22 Gropius, Walter, Bauhaus, 137, 136
Grotell, Maija, 209
Gabo, Naum, "Linear Construction in Space, Gruen, Victor, 164, 166, 165
Number 4," 4S9, 477-478, 487 Guatemalan handcrafts, 113, 112-114
garden city, 51 "Guernica," Picasso, 442^43, 440-441, 444
gardens, of Governor's Palace, Williamsburg, Gutenberg. Johannes, 244
Va., 46, 37, 47; of Mary Arden house, 32, 37 Gwathmey, Robert, "End of Day," 258
"Gate, The," Feininger, 324, 334
General Motors Technical Center, water tower, halftones, 243
111 Hallman, Ted, 228
geography, and home design, 17 handcraft cultures, 112-114
George Washington Bridge, New York City, handcrafts, 111-114; amateur, 132; chairs, 115,
185, 184 127: contemporary, 131, 130-132; Guate-
Giotto, "Bewailing of Christ," 106, 105 malan, 775, 112-114
Girard, Alexander, 237 Hardy, Tom, "American Bison," 347, 346, 349
"Girl," Butler, 462, 459, 461 Harnett, William, "After the Hunt," 438, 437,
"Girl Before a Mirror," Picasso, 415, 414, 416, 454
445, 454 harpsichord, 120, 119-121
Giusti, George, 152 Harrison, Wallace K., First Presbyterian
glass,214-224, as building material, 22, 28, 40, Church, 97, 95; UN Headquarters Assembly
96-97, 137, 156, 159, 162, 27-29, 95, 136, 155, Building, 336
157; general properties of, 214-217; light pat-
Harwood, Stuart, "Winged Figure," 486, 473,
terns in, 220, 223, 217, 220; materials in, 226; 487
Hayter, Stanley W., "Unstable Woman," 252,
ornamentation of, 221-223; sculpture in, 223;
255
shaping of, 217-221
Hempel, William, 359
glass fiber, 232, 229-230
"Hera of Samos," 460, 459, 461
glassware, 275, 218-220
"Hermes with the Infant Dionysus," Praxiteles,
glazing of ceramics, 207-210
103, 102, 105, 461
"Gods of the Modern World," Orozco, 434, 433,
Hilberseimer, Ludwig, 67, 66
445
Hippodrome, Madrid, 520, 522, 529
Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, 533 Hjorth,27/
Golden Gateway Redevelopment, San Fran- Hokinson, Helen, cartoon, 392
cisco, 54, 55, 53-55, 68 Hokusai, Katsushika, "The Great Wave of
Gonzalez, Julio, "Woman Combing Her Hair," Kanazawa," 250, 251
462, 459, 464 home factory, 137, 134
Index - 563
home furnishing, principles of, 35-37; see also Kao K'o Rung, 29S
furnituie Katayama, Toshihiro, 146
home planning, principles of, 7, 12-24 Kauffcr, E. Mcknight, 14S. 147, 149
Hood, Raymond. Chicago Tribune Building, Kaufmann House, Bear Run, Pa., 542, 541
•/<«, 497, 499; New York Daily News Build- Keck, William and George Fred, 35S
ing. -/OP, 501 Kentucky Dam and Powerhouse, TVA, 57, 56
Hopper, Edward, "Early Sunday Morning," keystone, 510
/06. 405, 410 Khufu, Great Pyramid of, see Great Pyramid
Hortonspheres, Baton Rouge, La., 5J-/, 504, "Kings and Queens," Chartres Cathedral, 103,
533-535 104-105
"Hot Still-Scape for Six Colors," Davis, 311, Kisling, Moise,"Maria Lani," 419, 417
305,310.312 "Kiss,The," Munch, 247
houses, see architecture, domestic kitchen, in Highland Park, 111., house, 35S: in
Howard, Ebenezer, 51 Techbuilt house, 14, 13

Hubers. Dirk, 21} Klein, David, poster, US, 149
"Hudson River Landscape," Smith, 59/, 389 knitting, of fabrics, 233
hue(s). 552, 555 (insert), 55-/, 355 Koblick, Freda, 169, 174
Hui Ka Kwong, clay sculpture, 202, 203 Koch (Carl) and Associates, Techbuilt house,
9-24
Idlewild Airport, New York City, ;57-55<S, 541 Koenig, Fritz, "Camargue X," 458
Imatra, Finland, church in, S7-SS. 86, 95 Kohn, Misch, "Lion," 263
"Incantation," Sheeler, 135, 134 Kramstyck, Romain, "Maria Lani," 418
Indian pueblos. 52 Kwakiutl Indian potlatch bowl, S2, 83
industrial architecture, 57, 111, 137-13S, 134-
139, 533-534 lace-making, 234
industrial design, 115-130, 300-301; contempo- laminated wood, 183, 526, 182, 525
rary, 128-130; 117-119
problems of, land use, in city planning, 58-61; in Golden
Industrial Revolution, 114-115 Gateway Redevelopment, 59; in Idlewild Air-
"Insects Go Up, The," Deshaies, 2-IS port, 536-541
intaglio printing, 2-16, 252-254, 251-255 "Landscape at Ceret," Gris, 339, 340
"Integral," Noguchi, 4S5, 484 landscape planning, principles of, 38, 39, 37-41
intensity of color, 352, 356-367 landscapes, 298, 338-339, 359, 391, 408, 422-123,
"Interior at I'Etang-la-Ville, The," Vuillard, 429, 439
5-/S. 349 Lange, Dorothea, "Migrant Mother," 267, 266,
"Interior Castle, Number 1," Rosati, -177, 476 284
internal texture, 344 Lani, Maria, portraits of, 41S-419, 411, 416-420,
International Style of architecture, 24, 76, 136, 455
503 Lauritzen, Bruce, 285
iron, 188, see also cast iron, wrought iron Lebrun, Rico, "Crucifixion," 107, 108
"Iron Sculpture," Schmidt, 481, 476 Le Corbusicr (Charles Edouard Jeanneret),
Italian Renaissance grille, 191 Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut, 523, 522;
Italian silver reliquary, 171 Voisin scheme, 64, 65-66, 76
L^ger, Fernand, "The City," 358, 349, 357, 360-
"Jacket, The," Perlin, 452, 450 361; UN mural, 77
Jackson, William H., "Camp in Baker's Park," Lehrabruck, Wilhelm, "Standing Woman," 463,
275,271 459,461,464
Jacquard loom, 233 "less is more" philosophy, 30, 503
Japanese color prints, 250, 251 Leupin, Herbert, 57lV
Japanese house, 31, 13, 30 Lever House, New York City, 500, 501, 503
Japanese package design, 146, 147 Leversbach, Germany, chapel at, 92, 91, 95
jigger and joUey, 205, 204 Life, quotation from, 161, 163
Johnson, Philip, house at New Canaan, Conn., "Lily" chair, 193
2S-29, 13, 27-30, 121, 312, 503; Seagram Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio,
Building. 502,501,503 55^,533
Johnson, (S. C.) and Son, Inc., building, Racine, Lincoln Tunnel approach, 530, 529
Wis., 162, 161-163 line, 529, 550, 317-319, 331
Johnsonville Steam Plant, TVA, mural, 79, 78 line cuts, 261, 259-262
"Jonah and the Whale," Flannagan, 472, 473 line drawings, 328-329, 330-331
Juhl, Finn, chair, 727, 125 line engravings, 251-252
"Junction," Marca-Relli, 404, 411, 434, 436 "Linear Construction in Space, Number 4,"
Gabo, 489, 477-478, 487
Kahn, Matt, "Crushed Rock," 345, 344 linear perspective, 445
Kandinsky, Wassily, "Circles in Circle," 310, linen fibers and fabrics, 227
309; "White on Black," 397 linotype, 239
564 - Index
lintel, 508 Mir6, Joan, "Composition," 452, 411, 446, 450

Lipchitz, Jacques, "Man with a Guitar." 48?, Mission church, Ranchos de Taos, N. M., 89,
483 90
Lipton, Seymour, "Sanctuary," 477, 476 modern painting, diversity in. 448-456; styles
Liskova, Vera, glass frog, 22} of, 454-456; techniques of. 405-410, 412^20
lithographs, 256-257, 324, 255 modern sculpture, diversity in. 483-490
Livestock Judging Pavilion. Raleigh, N.C., 532, Moholy-Nagy. Laslo, "Space Modulator," 173,
505, 533 174
living room(s), 14, 26-29, 31, 33, 34, 13, 21, 35; molding, of clay, 204; of glass, 217; of metals,
in apartment, 5, 7; design in, 394, 395 188; of plastics, 193
Loewy, Raymond, ideas on industrial design, "Moment in and out of Time, The," Fine,
116-117 390, 389
loom, hand, 231 Monadnock Building, Chicago, 529
wax" process, 478
"lost Mondrian, Piet, "Composition," 305
"Lower Manhattan," Marin, 426, 425, 427 Monet, Claude, "La Grenouillfere," 422, 421,
Lubalin, Herb, 150 446
Lundy, Victor, 527, 526 monochromatic color schemes. 363
Lur(:at, Jean, "Maria Lani," 419, 417 monolithic construction. 504, 522
Luss, Gerald, 129 "Mont Sainte-Victoire," Cezanne, 429 (water
"Lyric Singer," Siegel, 288, 289 color), 439 (oil), 430, 438-440
Moore, Henry, quoted, 465; "Reclining Fig-
"Mach 5," Colescott, 297, 296 ures," 467. 466, 468
machine production, o£ chairs, 115; of fabrics, Morris, William, 130. 132
230, 233; and handcraft, 112; and industrial Morris (V. C.) Store, San Francisco, 158, 157-
design, 115 160
Mackinac Bridge, Mich., 532-533, 505, 531, 533 Mumford. Lewis, quoted. 161
"Madonna and Child," Verrocchio, 474, 475- Munch, Edward, "The Kiss." 247
476 mural paintings, 77, 79, 434, 442-443; see also
Madrid Hippodrome, 520, 522, 529 fresco painting
"Maesti," Duccio. 382, 378, 384 musical instruments, design of, 120, 119-121
magazine covers, 152, 151-153 "My Playmates," 307, 306, 308
magic realist, 455
mahogany, 179 Nadar, Paul, "Sarah Bernhardt," 266, 284
"Man with a Guitar," Lipchitz, 485, 483 Natzler, Gertrud and Otto, 343, 344
Manufacturers Trust Company, New York City, Nelson, George, firelighter, 190, 189; furniture,
159, 157, 160-161 176, 175
Marca-Relli, Conrad, "Junction," 404, 411, 434, Neutra. Richard, 315, 394
436 Nevelson, Louise, "Dark Shadows," 486, 436,
Marin, John, "Lower Manhattan," 426, 425, 477, 484, 487
427-429, 430; quoted, 427-428 New Bauhaus, see Bauhaus
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Audi- New Ireland wood carvings, 472, 473, 487
torium and Chapel, 74-75, 72-73 New York City, 43; parks and parkways, 70-71.
materials and processes, general problems, 171- 68-69
174 New York Daily News Building, 499, 501
Matisse, Henri, "Maria Lani," 418, 417 "Night View of New York City," Abbott, 282,
Matter, Herbert, 148, 149 281
Maydam, F., 222 Nivola, Constantino, 368
medallion of Christ, German enamel, 85 Noguchi, Isamu, coffee table, 336, 335; "In-
raelamines (plastics), 776, 192 tegral," 485, 484
metal(s), 184—191; in building, see construction; Noire, Gabriel, 95
casting of. 189; characteristics of. 184, 188; Nolde, Emile, "The Prophet," 243
kinds of, 184, 188; sculpture in, 85, 140, 169, non-objective painting, 454
348, 391, 463, 477, 488-489; see also bronze, North Carolina Livestock Judging Pavilion,.
iron, silver; shaping of, 188—189 Raleigh, N.C., 532, 533
Mexican handcrafts, 137, 134 Notre Dame du Haut, Chapel of, Ronchamp,
Mexican home factory, 137 France, 523, 522
Mexican terracotta sculpture. 294 Nowicki, Matthew, 532, 533
Michelangelo Buonarroti, "Adam," 432, 433; "Nude Descending a Staircase," Duchamp, 388,
"David" (head), 471, 470; St. Peter's dome, 381.389. 393.461
57 5,512-514 "Number 27." Pollock, 453, 425, 454-455
"Migrant Mother," Lange, 267, 266, 284 nylon, 194, 192
Milles, Carl, "Peace Memorial," 81, 80-83
Millinery Shop, Williamsburg, Va., 156, 155- oak, white, 179
157 objective painting, 454
Index - 565
offhand blowing of glass, 218, 217 plastic elements, 317-371
offset photolithography, 262 plastic(s),fabrics, 235: products of, 175-176,
O'Gorman, Juan, mural, University of Mexico, 192-195, 234; sculpture in, 169, 173, 195, 399
79, 78, 305 play sculpture, S2, 83
oil painting, 420—423; examples of, pasiim plywood, 178; as building material, 20, 525-
Olivetti showroom, 567. 366, 368-369 526; for chairs, 7 S 5, 182
Olmsted, Frederick L., 68 pointed arch, 515, 514-519
"open plan" in house design, 13 Pollock, Jackson, "Number 27," 453, 425, 454-
optical illusion, 31}t. 319; in Parthenon, 509 455
organic style (of architecture), 24, 27 porcelain, 201; plates of, 211, 206
organization in art, 292-316; aims of, 299-316; post-and-lintel construction, 508, 504, 507-510
problems of, 295-298 poster paints, 431
orientation, of house, JS posters, 14S, 378, 147-149
ornamentation, 326-328; of ceramics, 211, 2n, potlatch bowl of K%vakiutl Indians, 82, 83
321. 210-214, 326; of fabrics, 231-240, 236; potter's wheel, 137, 202. 201
factors in, 325-327; and form, 326-328; of pottery, 137, 134; see also ceramics
glass, 222, 224, 221-223 Praxiteles, "Hermes with the Infant Dionysus,"
Orozco. Jose Clemente, "Gods of the Modern 103. 102
World," 434, 78, 433, 445 prefabrication of houses, 10, 11, 9-12
Ostrower, Fagya, 240, 241 prehistoric pottery, 199, 198
pressed glass, 219, 217
package sealers, 122, 121-124 pre-stressed concrete, 524
packaging and display. 143-146, 141-147 primary hues, 353
painting, 401-457; and color, 357-361, 369- primitive sculpture, 100-101, 99, 102
371; expression in, 410, 412-420, 436-444; printing, 243-246; intaglio, 262; photomechan-
form in, 321-323; materials and processes of. ical process of, 259; planographic processes
420-436; organization in, 436-448; problems of, 255-257; of textiles, 237-240, 238-241;
of, 410-412; space organization in, 444-448; types in, 245
subject matter and content in, 412-420; tex- printing presses, 244
ture in, 349-350, 369-371, 448; see also mod- prints and print-making, 246-259; intaglio,
ern painting, oil painting, water-color paint- 251-255; planographic, 255-257; relief, 247-
ing 251
Pan American Terminal, Idlewild, 538, 539 progression, design principle, 387, 388-391
Pantheon, Rome, 520-521 "Prophet, The," Nolde, 243
paper relief, 250, 249 "Prudence," della Robbia, 213
Paris, France, 64, 65-66 Pyramid, see Great Pyramid of Khufu
parks and parkways, New York City, 70-71,
68-69 radial balance, 385
Parthenon, Athens, 506-507, 29, 373, 384, 507- "Rain," van Gogh, 359, 357, 360
510,512 Raphael Sanzio, "Sistine Madonna," 106, 105—
"Pastorale," Wells, 345, 344 108
pate de verre, 224 rayon, 232, 228
pediment, 506, 508 "Reclining Figures," Moore, 467, 466, 468
Peressutti, Enrico, 367 "Rectangular, Number 5," Gordin, 488, 477,
Perlin, Bernard, "The Jacket," 452, 450 487
Perlmutter, Jack, "Boardwalk," 257 redwood, 179
perspective. 445-446 relief printing, see prints, relief processes
photography and photographs, 265-290; evalua- relief sculpture, 458—159
tion of, 277-286; materials and processes, religious architecture, painting, see architec-
268-276; reproduction of, 259-262; special ture, religious, etc.
techniques of, 285-290 reliquary, silver, 171
photogravure, 262 Rembrandt van Rijn, "Christ Healing the
photolithography, 262 Sick," 254, 255
photomechanical reproduction processes, 259- repetition, design principle, 387-391
262 Revere, Paul, teapot, 113, 114
pianos, 120, 119-121 rhythmic patterns in art, 387, 389, 391
Picasso, Pablo, "Girl Before a Mirror," 415, Rivera, Diego, brush-and-ink drawing, 329,
414, 416, 454; "Guernica," 442-143, 440-441, 334; mural, 78
444; line drawing, 32S, 318, 329, 334 Rockefeller Center, New York City, 494, 493,
Pickwick Powerhouse, TVA, 138 495
pigments, 424 Rococo style, 315, 314
pine. Northern white, 179 Rogers, Ernesto, M., 367
pitcher, bronze, 175 Rohde, Johan, silver pitcher, 186
planographic printing, 256, 257, 246, 255 Roman aqueduct, Segovia, Spain, 511, 510-512
566 - Index
Rosati, James, "Interior Castle, Number 1," Sistine Chapel, The Vatican, Rome, ceiling
•/77, 476 of, 432, 433
Roszak, Theodore J., bell tower, MIT chapel, "Sistine Madonna," Raphael, 106, 105-108
73; "Spectre of Kitty Hawk," 489, 476. 487, skeleton frame construction, 504, 522, 525
490 Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill, Lever House,
rotogravure, 262 500, 501 : Manufacturers Trust Company, 159,
Rouault. Georges, "Christ Mocked by Soldiers," 157, 160-161; San Francisco Airport, 530, 531
107, 108; "Maria Latii," 418, 417, 455 "Skyscrapers," Stieglitz. 280, 271, 289
Rouen (France) Cathedral, 497 skyscrapers. 65, 398, 494, 497-498, 500, 502,
Rubens, Peter Paul, "Descent from the Cross," 496-503; construction of, 528-529; Paris, pro-
.?70, 361,369, 371 posed, 64, 65-66
Rudolph, Paul, 317 "Sleepers II, Tooker, 451, 450
"
"Ruins of Richmond, The," Brady, 277, 278 Smith, David, "Hudson River Landscape," 391,
rustic bench, 191 389
"Sob, The," Siqueiros, 307, 305
Saarinen, Eero, chair, 126, 125; Massachusetts "Social Consciousness," Epstein, 489
Institute of Technology Auditorium and Southdale Shopping Center, Minneapolis,
Chapel, 74, 7^, 72-73; TWA
Flight Center, Minn.. 164, 165
538, 540, 539, 541; water tower. 111 Soutine, Chaim, "Maria Lani," 419, 417, 455
"St. Francis in Ecstasy," El Greco, 386, 381, space, 331-341; in architecture, 495; and form,
387. 389 in sculpture, 483-487
St. Mark's Square, Venice, 293 "Space Modulator," Moholy-Nagy, 173, 174
St. Paul's Lutheran Church, Sarasota, Fla., 527, "Spectre of Kitty Hawk," Roszak, 480, 476,
526 487, 490
St. Peters Basilica, Rome, 513, 512-514 Sphinx, 100, 98-99
Samuerly, Felix, 95 split-complementary color schemes, 364
San Francisco Airport, 530, 531 spoons, manufacture of, 187 189 ,
"Sanctuary," Albers, 324, 334 "Standing Woman," Lehmbruck, 463, 459, 461,
"Sanctuary," Lipton, 477, 476 464
"Sarah Bernhardt," Nadar, 266, 284 "Starry Night," van Gogh, 408. 405, 407-410
Sargent, John Singer, "The Fountain," 386, 387 steel. 188; in construction, 20, 522, 524, 528-
Sarpeneva, Timo, 220 533; sculpture in, 140, 391, 488
"Scene in a Courtyard," de Hooch, 3 steel engravings, see line engravings
Schmidt, Julius, "Iron Sculpture," 481, 476 steel-cage construction, 529, 528
Schwarz, Rudolf, 92, 91 stencil printing, 258, 247, 257
Schweiker and Elting, Upton House, 333, 331, Stieglitz, Alfred, "The Terminal," 279, 284;
335 "Skyscrapers," 280, 271, 279
scidpture, 458-492; diversity of, 483: expressive stone, building in, 505-519; sculpture in, SO,
problems in, 459-468; materials of, see clay, 82, 101-103, 460, 471-472, 485, 490, 469-473
stone, etc.; processes in, 468-483; and tech- stoneu'are, 199, 203, 206, 213, 200-201
nology, 487^91; treatment of form and space Stradivarius, Antonius, 119
in, 321,483-487 street patterns, 61-62
Seagram Building, 502, 495, 501, 503 stressed-skin construction, 533-535
secondary hues, 353 structural skin construction, 504, 519, 525
serigraphs, see silk-screen prints stylobate, 506, 508
sgraffito bowl, 199, 213-214 Sullivan, Louis, 303-308, 496-497; quoted, 303-
shades of color, 355 304; Wainwright Building, 302, 497
column, 506, 508
shaft, of surrealist painting, 455
Shahn, Ben, "Wheat Field," 297, 296, 335, 339 suspension construction, 505, 531-533
Shaker handcrafted chair, 115 Sutton Scarsdale, Derbyshire, 172, 174
Sheeler, Charles, "Incantation," 135, 134
Swedenborg, Emanuel, 94
symmetrical balance, 381, 384
shopping centers, see commercial centers
synagogue, Cleveland Park, Ohio, 93, 91-94,
Siegel, Arthur, "Lyric Singer," 288, 289
95
silk, 227
silk-screen prints, 258, 297, 257-259
"Table, The," Braque, 447, 446. 454
silver, 184; pendant, 131; reliquary, 171; spoons,
Taj Mahal, Agra, India, 576, 377, 381, 391
187, 189; teapot, 113, 114; vessels, 186 Taliesin North, 26, 27, 13, 25-27
simultaneous contrast, 354 Taliesin West, 527, 526, 528
Sipoo, Finland, church in, 87, 8.5-86. 95 Taos, New Mexico, church, 89, 90
Siqueiros, David Alfaro, "The Sob," 307. 78, Tarascan (Mexican) sculpture, 294
305 Tawney, Lenore, 229
Sister Mary Corita, "The Beginning of Mir- Teague, Walter D., 120
acles," 258, 259 Techbuilt houses, 8-10, 14-15, 22-23, 9-24
Index - 567
television titles, 755 "View of Toledo," El Greco, 422, 421
tempera paint, 431; paintings in, 4}1, 451^52 \'inyl plastics, 194, 193
Tennessee Valley Authority, 43, 305; Johnson- "\'oisin" scheme. Le Corbusier. 64, 65-66
ville Steam Plant mural, 79, 78; Kentucky voussoirs, 510, 511
Dam and Powerhouse, 57, 56; Pickwick Pow- Vuillard. Edouard, "The Interior at I'Etang-la-
erhouse, 13S; Watts Bar Steam Plant, J55, Ville," 34S, 349
134
"Terminal, The," Stieglitz, 279, 284 Wainwright Building, St. Louis, Mo., 302, 497,
terra cotta, 294; sculpture in, 294, 320, 460, 303. 496
474 "Walking," Archipenko, 460, 459, 461, 475-476
tertiary hues, 353 walnut. 180
tetrad color schemes. 365 Warnecke, John Carl. 156
Guatemala, 11}, 112; handwoven, 7 5/,
textiles, Washington Moninnent. 323
22S-229, 232, 345; machine-woven, 232, 345; water-color painting, 425-432; works in, 426,
see alio fabrics 429.430
texture, 34 y, 317-319, 343-350; internal, 347, Watkins, Rosalind R., 131
344; use of, 7-8 Watts Bar Steam Plant, TVA, 135. 134
thrust, of arch, 510, 511 Wayfarer's Chapel, Palos Verdes, Calif., 96,
tints of color, 355 94-95, 384
"Too-Hot Bath, The," Daumier, 256, 257 weaves, types of, 231
Tooker, George, "Sleepers II," 451, 450 weaving, 113, 226, 22S, 231-233, 112-114, 230-
Torroja. Eduardo, 520 233
Trans World Airlines Flight Center, 53S, 540, Wegner, Hans. 181
495.514,539,541 Wells. George. "Pastorale," 345, 344
triad color schemes, 364 "Wheat Field," Shahn, 297, 296, 335, 339
triglyphs, 507-508 "Wheatfields," van Ruisdael, 33S. 334, 340
437
tioiiipe I'oeuil, 43S, Whistler, James McNeill, anecdote, 405
504
truss, 526, 527, "White on Black." Kandinsky, 397
Tugendhat house, Brno, Czechoslovakia, 332, Williamsburg, Va., Brush-Everard House, 34.
323. 325, 331 32, 35. 163; Bruton Parish Church, S9. 47,
two-story houses, design of, 9-11 88-90, 95, 323; Capitol, 47; city planning in,
Tynell, Paavo, 295 43-48; Governor's Palace, 46, 37, 45-47, 69,
type and type faces, 243-246 83. 381, 384; Millinery Shop, 156, 155-157
Windsor chair, ISl, 125
United Nations Headquarters, New York City, "Winged Figure," Harwood, 4S6, 473, 487
77, 43, 76, 83, 121, 503; Conference Building, Winston, Bob. silver pendant. 131
77, 76; General Assembly, 77, 76, 335; Secre- Winston. Robert, play sculpture, S2, 83
tariat, 77, 76 "Woman Combing Her Hair," Gonzalez, 462,
United States Embassy, London. 73 459, 464
unity, in art. 306-309, 391-395 "Woman of the Quarry, "
Becker. 2-IS
"Unstable Woman." Hayter, 252, 255 Wood, Beatrice, ceramics. 20S, 225
"Unstill Life, 3," Gottlieb, 451, 450 Wood, Grant, "American Gothic," 413, 414,
Upton House, Paradise Valley, Ariz., 333, 332, 416, 424, 445^46, 454
335 wood, in chair design. 125; characteristics and
kinds of, 177-183; in construction, 525-528;
values of colors. 352, 353 (insert). 355-356 products of, 120, 1S1-1S3, 121; sculpture in,
Van de Velde, Henry, quoted. 331 S2, 100, 169, 172, 467, 471-472, 4S6: surface
van der Rohe. Mies, chair, 126. 124, 125; Sea-
treatment of, 180
gram Building. '02. 501, 503; Tugendhat
wood grains, 176, 178, 121, 175, 177; in block
house, 332, 323, 331, 335
printing, 249
van Gogh. Vincent, "Rain," 359, 357, 360;
woodcuts, 243, 247, 248, 250, 324-325, 249-251
"Starry Night," 40S, 405, 407-410
wool and woolens, 228-229, 232, 227-228
van Ruisdael, Jacob, "Wheatfields," 338, 334,
Wright, Don, 238
340
448-456 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 373; Johnson and Son
variety, in art. 309-312.
variety in unity, 306-316
Co. buildings. 162, 161-163; Kaufmann
vases and jars,' ceramic, 131, 197, 199, 203, 209, House, 542, 541; Morris Store, 158, 157-160;
213, 327, 343: glass. 215, 220, 222 Taliesin North, 26-27, 13, 25-26; Taliesin
vaulting, 512-514; barrel, 512; Gothic, 514-519 West. 527, 526, 528
Vaux, Calvert, 68 Wright, Lloyd, Wayfarer's Chapel, 96, 94-95,
Venetian glass, 215, 222, 223-234 384
"Venice, Number 1," Congdon, 423, 425, 448 wrought iron, 189
Verrocchio, Andrea del, "Madonna and Child,"
474, 475^76 zinc etching, 259

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FAULKNER • ZIEGFELD • HILL

Marcel Breuer, architect. (Photograph by Lee Hartley)

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON

COPYRIGHT 1941, 1949, © 1956, 1963

by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 63-7502

decades have brought an astonishing increase of interest in the most diverse

sponsor. Many corporations have leading architects design their buildings

lections of paintings to enhance their offices, murals and sculpture in recep-

The number of individuals creatively engaged, from the amateur weaver to

This book, then, is an attempt to provide a basis for understanding and

Minnesota that explored ways of making various fields of human endeavor

Faulkner and Edwin Ziegfeld, and published by the University of Minnesota.

We are indebted to many more individuals and organizations for their

in New York City were especially helpful in providing illustrations

For the Reader xxi

Part I. THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN NEEDS

2. Art in the Community 42

4. Art in Industry 111

5. Art in Commerce 140

Part II. THE PROBLEM OF MATERIALS AND PROCESSES ,

6. Wood, Metal, and Plastics 175

7. Ceramics and Glass 197

9. Printing and the Graphic Processes 243

10. Photography 265

Part III. THE PROBLEM OF ORGANIZATION

11. Two Aims of Organization 299

12. The Plastic Elements: Form, Line, and Space 317

13. The Plastic Elements: Texture and Color 343

Part IV. PAINTING, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE

15. Painting 404

16. Sculpture 458

17. Architecture 493

Frontispiece. St. John's Abbey Church, Collegeville, Minnesota

Part I. THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN NEEDS

Chapter 1— Art in the Home

33B. Arden house interior

Chapter 2— Art in the Community

Chapter 3— Art in Religion

93. Model of Park Synagogue, Cleveland, Ohio

Chapter 4— Art in Industry

146A. Coordinated packages: paints

158B. V. C. Morris store interior

Wax Company, Racine, Wisconsin, exterior

Part II. THE PROBLEM OF MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

Chapter 6—Wood, Metal, and Plastics

175. Bronze pitcher

186B. Rohde: Sterling silver pitcher

Chapter 7— Ceramics and Glass

234A. "Bobbin Cloth"

Chapter 9— Printing and the Graphic Processes

Chapter 10— Photography

268. Similarities between human eyes and cameras

Part III. THE PROBLEM OF ORGANIZATION

Chapter 11— Two Aims of Organization

3 ISA.Courthouse, Brooklyn, New York

347A. Bronze horse

351. Prism and spectrum

364B. Complementarycolor scheme

Chapter 14-Principles of Design

Part IV. PAINTING, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE

Chapter 15— Painting