Journal of Cereal Science xxx (2014) 1e5

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Journal of Cereal Science

jo u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e ls e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / j c s

CO2-defatted oats: Solubility, emulsification and foaming properties

Ülgen I_lknur Konak a, Dilek Ercili-Cura b, Juhani Sibakov b, Tuula Sontag-Strohm c,
Muharrem Certel a, Jussi Loponen c,*,1
a Akdeniz University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, 07059, Antalya, Turkey
b VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
c University of Helsinki, Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, Helsinki, Finland

ART I CLE I NFO A B S T R A C T

Article history: Functional properties of conventional oat materials are relatively poor with respect to foam and emul-
Received 22 January 2013 sion formation and stabilization. This is largely due to the poor solubility of oat proteins and the presence
Received in revised form of lipids in aqueous extracts of oats. In the experimental part of this study, extracts were prepared from
1 November 2013 different type oat flours (oat endosperm flour, oat fine flour, CO2-defatted whole oat flour and CO2-
Accepted 17 January 2014
defatted oat flour) with a buffered aqueous extraction procedure at acidic (pH 4.5 and 6.5) and basic (pH
8.5 and 10.5) regions. The solubility of proteins was the highest at pH 10.5 and NaCl concentration of 2%.
Keywords: Among the extracts, CO2-oat flour showed improved foaming and emulsifying properties at basic pH
Oats
values. The presence of 0.1% NaCl resulted in the lowest foam volumes, but the emulsion activity and
Solubility
stability values being the highest. Sucrose addition resulted in increased foam and emulsion stability of
Foaming
Emulsification suspensions. Heat treatment at 80 ◦C impaired foam properties, whereas the stability of emulsions increased
with the increase in temperature from 20 ◦C to 80 ◦C. CO2-extracted oats can be useful raw
materials in beverages and other aqueous applications where protein functionality plays an important
role.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction plays a critical role in texture, color and sensory characteristics of

Whole grain oat contains valuable nutrients such as soluble
dietary fiber, proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, minerals,
and phytochemicals (Flander et al., 2007). Oats are also a source of
dietary protein as the protein content ranges between 15 and 20%
(Lapveteläinen and Aro, 1994). Moreover, oat protein has a better
nutritive quality compared to other commonly used cereal grains.
In addition to their role in nutrition, proteins play an important role
as a functional component in many food systems. Among the key
functionalities of proteins are solubility, gelling and surface stabi-
lization properties such as foaming and emulsification (Smith,
2003).
Solubility is often an essential feature for the feasibility of a
protein to be useful as a functional ingredient in foods. Good sol-
ubility properties allow the addition of proteins to beverages and
guarantee their uniform distribution in the liquid. Soluble protein
* Corresponding author. Fazer Group, POB 4, 00941 Helsinki, Finland. Tel.: þ358
40 732 9772.
E-mail address: jussi.loponen@fazer.com (J. Loponen).
1 Current address: Fazer Group, POB 4, 00941 Helsinki, Finland.
products (Meng and Ma, 2002). Protein solubility depends largely
on the physical and chemical nature of protein as well as on the
environmental conditions such as temperature, pH, ionic strength
and type of salt or buffer used (Smith, 2003; Naik and Bhagwat,
2005; Ruckenstein and Shulgin, 2006). In oats, globulins are the
major protein fraction and they comprise approximately 75% of the
total proteins in the groats (Colyer and Luthe, 1984). They are salt-
soluble proteins that tolerate high temperatures (Ma and
Harwalkar, 1987; Marcone et al., 1998). The globulins present in oat
materials are, however, insoluble in aqueous salt solutions be-
tween pH of 4e5 (Loponen et al., 2007) which limits the use of oats
in many products.
Stabilization of foams and emulsions by proteins is relevant in
many food applications. Surface active properties of proteins are
influenced by their structural characteristics, which are affected by
protein concentration and environmental conditions such as pH,
temperature and ionic strength. Proteins may show good foaming
and/or emulsifying properties if their structure is balanced with
hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, which at the interface align
towards the air/oil and water, respectively. Moreover, the protein
needs to rapidly get adsorbed at the interface and be flexible enough
to undergo conformational rearrangements

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2014.01.013
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Please cite this article in press as: Konak, Ü.I_., et al., CO2-defatted oats: Solubility, emulsification and foaming properties, Journal of Cereal
Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2014.01.013
2 Ü.I_ . Konak et al. / Journal of Cereal Science xxx (2014) 1e5
showed that oat protein concentrates and isolates had good
emulsifying and fat binding properties. Moreover, oat albu- mins
were shown to possess the best foaming ability among other oat
storage proteins .
Oat protein concentrates and isolates contain lipids, mainly non-
polar lipids, as oat grain contains high amounts of lipids of which
80% is soluble in non-polar solvents and thus co-extracted with
proteins. Often interaction of proteins with polar lipids enhances
the foaming attributes, whereas non-polar lipids are often
detrimental to foam structures (Dubreil et al., 1997; Sroan and
MacRitchie, 2009). Lipid content of oat protein concentrates was
shown to decrease their foaming properties (Ma, 1983). The
removal of non-polar lipids by supercritical carbondioxide (SC-CO2)
extraction improved the foam formation of aqueous oat extracts,
which was linked to the presence of tryp- tophanin proteins in oat
foams and further demonstrated to affect the performance in model
baking (Kaukonen et al., 2011). No previous studies, however, exist
on the solubility and emulsifica- tion properties of SC-CO2 treated
oats. The objective of this study was to investigate the solubility,
foaming and emulsificationproperties of differently prepared oat
flours and the effect of pH, salt, sugar and temperature on the
functional properties. The emphasis was to characterize these
functionalities for non-polar lipid-free oat material.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Material
Oat endosperm flour was commercial organic oat flour from
Helsingin Mylly Oy (Järvenpää, Finland). The oat fine flour was
commercial oat flour from Swedish Oat Fiber Ab (Bua, Sweden).
CO2-whole oat flour and CO2-oat flour obtained from dehulled oats
were supplied by VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland (Espoo,
Finland), and their manufacture process is previously described by
Sibakov et al. (2011). In addition, the lipid profiles of various oat raw
materials were previously investigated as well as the lipids
removed during the SC-CO2 extraction (see Kaukonen et al., 2011).
Salt (NaCl) and sugar (saccharose) were purchased from Merck
(Darmstadt, Germany) and SigmaeAldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA),
respectively.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Preparation of oat protein solution
Extracts were prepared by mixing each flour with sodium
phosphate buffer (50 mM) at pH 4.5, 6.5 and 8.5 and sodium borate
buffer (50 mM) at pH 10.5 at a flour: solvent ratio of 1:10. The
extraction was performed at room temperature (RT) for 90 min and
the suspension was centrifuged at 16000×g for 10 min. The su-
pernatant was collected for further analyses and was referred to as
an extract.
2.2.2. Protein solubility and protein content
Effects of pH (4.5, 6.5, 8.5 and 10.5) and NaCl concentration (0%,
0.1%, 0.5%, 1% and 2%) on protein solubility of oat flours were
determined by measuring the total soluble protein in the buffer
extracts from each oat flour according to the Biorad DC protein
assay instruction manual. Protein content of the extracts was
determined by the Dumas combustion method. An aliquot of each
extract (2 g) was weighed into tubes and oven-dried at 60 ◦C
overnight and analyzed with Vario Max CN analyser (GmbH, Hanau,
Germany).
Please cite this article in press as: Konak, Ü.I_., et al., CO2-defatted oats: Solubility, emulsification and foaming properties, Journal of Cereal
Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2014.01.013
2.2.3. Foaming properties
Foaming of 10 mL aliquots of different flour derived extracts
were done using a household milk foamer (OBH Nordica6856)
modified with electric plug and whipping for 2 min. Further foaming
tests with CO2-oat flour derived extracts were prepared bywhipping
75 mL of the extract for 2 min with a household mixer (Philips
Cucina HR1560, The Netherlands) at highest speed in a 500 mL
measuring cylinder. Foam volume was recorded immedi- ately after
whipping and after 5, 10 and 30 min standing.
2.2.4. Emulsification properties
The extracts were analyzed by the turbidimetric technique for
emulsion activity index (EAI) and emulsion stability index (ESI) as
previously described (Pearce and Kinsella, 1978). The extract (30
mL) and vegetable oil (10 mL) were mixed in an Erlenmeyer flask.
The mixture was homogenized using an Ultra-Turrax model T25
homogenizer with S25N-25F dispersing element (IKA, Werke
GmbH & Co. KG, Germany) at a speed of 19,000 rpm for 1 min. An
aliquot of the emulsion (50 mL) was taken from the bottom of the
flask at 0 and 10 min after homogenization. The aliquot was diluted
in 5 mL 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution. The absorbance of
the diluted solution was measured at 500 nm. The EAI (m 2/g) and ESI
(min) were calculated as follow:
2 × 2:303 × A0
EAI
¼
0:25 × proteinðgÞ
Dt
ESI ¼ A0 ×
DA
where A0 was the absorbance read at 0 min, Dt was 10 min and DA
was the difference in absorbance value read at 0 and 10 min.
2.2.5. Salt/sugar addition and thermal treatment
Effects of salt and sugar addition and heat treatment on foaming
and emulsifying properties of extracts prepared at pH 10.5 were
evaluated. Salt concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, 1 and 2% and sugar con-
centrations of 1, 5, 10 and 25% were investigated. Besides at room
temperature, the foaming and emulsification procedure were per-
formed at 50 ◦C and 80 ◦C.
2.3. Statistical analysis
Duplicate samples were used in each experiment and the ex-
periments were replicated twice. For the results, mean value and
standard deviation were calculated. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was used to determine significant differences between the treat-
ments by using SAS System Software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC,
USA). If a significant difference was observed in mean values, the
treatments were compared by Duncan’s Multiple Range test
(p < 0.05).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Protein solubility of different oat flours
Partially defatted oat flour, which was prepared from SC-CO2-
extracted oat grits, had increased soluble protein content compared
to oat flours prepared by other processing methods (Fig. 1). In
general, SC-CO2 extraction removes non-polar lipids and, thus,
approximately 75% of oat total lipids, which means that the fat
content decreases from a level of 6% to a level of 1.5%. The absence
of heat treatment and the removal of non-polar lipids probably
played major roles in the improved protein solubility. Moreover, it
was previously shown that SC-CO2-extraction before the air
 Ü.I_. Konak et al. / Journal of Cereal Science xxx (2014) 1e5 3

220 220 220 220

200 CO2-whole oat flour 200 200 200

180 CO2-oat flour 180 180 180

Soluble protein (mg/g)

160 Oat fine flour 160 160 160

140 Oat endosperm flour 140 140 140

120 120 120 120

100 100 100 100

80 80 80 80

60 60 60 60
40 40 40 40
20 20 20 20
0 0 0 0
0% 0.5% 1% 2% 0% 0.5% 1% 2% 0% 0.5% 1% 2% 0% 0.1% 0.5% 1% 2%
pH 4.5 pH 6.5 pH 8.5 pH 10.5

Fig. 1. Amount of soluble protein (mg/g) in oat flour derived extracts. The solubility was determined at different NaCl-concentrations (%-value) under different pH-conditions.

classification fractionation method made it possible to prepare a
protein-rich oat flour fraction (Sibakov et al., 2011).
Effects of pH and NaCl concentration on protein solubility are
also shown in Fig. 1. Results revealed that solubility was pH-
dependent and was also significantly (p < 0.05) affected by NaCl
addition. For all samples, the solubility was the lowest at pH
4.5 and increased with increasing pH, and reached the highestvalue
at pH 10.5. It was observed that the solubility of CO2-oat proteins
was remarkably higher at the alkaline pH than the acidic pH. This
could be because of the increased net protein charge asa result of
elevating the pH (above the isoelectric point). This is similar to the
reported solubility obtained by Ma and Harwalkar (1984); Wang et
al. (1999); Khalid et al. (2003) and Ogunwoluet al. (2009) for oat,
rice bran, sesame seed and cashew nut proteins, respectively.
3.2. Foaming of different oat flours
The foaming ability of extracts produced from different flours
was determined at different pH values. Foaming experiments were
performed with 10 mL aliquots of extracts. The foam volume of
extracts produced from oat endosperm flour, oat fine flour, CO2-
whole oat flour and CO2-oat flour are shown in Fig. 2. The extracts
from oat endosperm flour and oat fine flour showed poorer foam-
ing capacity compared to the extracts from both CO2-whole oat flour
and CO2-oat flour. Oat endosperm flour did not produce any
measurable foam. The lower foaming capacity of the non-CO2-
treated samples was likely due to the presence of non-polar lipids
in the water extracts as reported previously (Kaukonen et al., 2011).
Based on the foaming results, CO2-oat flour was selected for further
analyses.
3.3. Foaming of CO2-oat extracts
Protein contents of the CO2-oat extracts at different pH-levels
and foam volume produced from CO2-oat flour derived extracts are
presented in Table 1. The solubility of proteins increased with
increase in pH and the protein content reached the highest value in
the extract produced at pH 10.5. Foamability of the CO2-oat flour
derived extracts (100 mL) produced at different pH values was also
improved with extraction pH. The 0 min foam volumes increased
from 240 mL (pH 4.5) to 323 mL (pH 10.5) (Table 1). Moreover, the
relative stability of foams (volume at 30 min/volume at
0 min × 100) increased as well from 69 to 80% when the pH was
increased from 4.5 to 10.5, respectively (data not shown). This in-
crease in foam stability might be attributed to the improved solu-
bility of proteins at higher pH as the correlation between the
protein content of the extracts and volume of foam produced during
2 min whipping was strong (R2 0.96). Moreover,
¼ solely theabsence
of non-polar lipids can increase the affinity of surface active
proteins at the airewater interface resulting in improved foaming
(Paternotte et al., 1993). The results on the effect of pH on the
solubility of proteins reflect their behavior in foaming (Figs. 1 and
2). The improved foamability in the alkaline pH region couldbe
explained by the higher solubility of the proteins in this region. The
results closely agree with those observed for pigeon pea (Akintayo
et al., 1999), for instance.
The effects of NaCl, sucrose concentrations and foaming tem-
perature on foam volumes of CO2-oat flour derived extracts pro-
duced at pH 10.5 were determined (Fig. 3). The results showed that
the foamability was similar in all NaCl concentrations with the
exception of 0.1% which resulted in the lowest foam volumes (Fig.
3A). Thus, increasing NaCl concentration did not systemati- cally
affect the foaming ability as it reached the lowest values at 0.1%
NaCl.

Table 1
Protein content of extracts prepared from CO 2-oats and volume of foam produced from
the extracts. Results are presented as the mean standard deviation. Protein content is
expressed on a dry weight basis.

pH Protein Foam volume (ml)

content (%)
0 min 5 min 10 min 30 min

4.5 23.5 1.8 240 0 180 0 173 4 165 0

Fig. 2. Foam volumes of oat extracts (10 mL) immediately after 2 min whipping. Oat 6.5 29.4 0.5 245 7 188 4 180 0 175 0
endosperm flour produced no foam (no bars visible). 8.5 38.8 0.4 275 0 223 4 215 0 208 4
10.5 81 0.9 323 4 273 4 263 4 258 4

Please cite this article in press as: Konak, Ü.I_., et al., CO2-defatted oats: Solubility, emulsification and foaming properties, Journal of Cereal
Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2014.01.013
4 Ü.I_ . Konak et al. / Journal of Cereal Science xxx (2014) 1e5
Fig. 3. Foam volumes of CO2-oat extracts (at pH 10.5) with different concentration of NaCl (A), sucrose (B) and at different temperatures (C).
Similarly to salt concentrations, varying sucrose levels from 0%
to 25% (w/v) had practically no influence on foamability of CO2-oat
flour derived extracts (Fig. 3B). However, the presence of sucrose
delayed the drainage from foam (data not shown). Lau and
Dickinson (2005) stated that the addition of sugar results in
increased viscosity of the continuous phase, which in turn was
disadvantageous for the air incorporation and the rapid diffusion of
the protein to the interface. Sugars can contribute, thus, to foam
stability by increasing the viscosity of the liquid phase in the lamella
and thereby retarding drainage (Walstra, 2002).
The foam volumes of CO2-oats derived extracts (pH 10.5) were
also determined after foams were prepared at different tem-
peratures (Fig. 3C). Increasing temperature from 20 ◦C to 50 ◦C
and further to 80 ◦C systematically decreased the foam volumes.
The foam was stable at 50 ◦C as 71% of the original foam volume
was retained after 30 min. Instead, at 80 ◦C, the relative foam
volume was only 9% at 30 min, which means that the foam had
collapsed.
3.4. Emulsifying properties of CO2-oat extracts
Both EAI and ESI of the emulsions prepared from CO2-oat ex-
tracts at different pH values are shown in Fig. 4. The lowest EAI (1.7
m2/g) and ESI (21.1 min) values were found at pH 4.5, whereas,the
highest values, 15.4 m2/g and 411.3 min, were observed at pH
10.5. While emulsion activity was enhanced gradually with
increasing pH, the emulsion stability was similar between pH 4.5
and 8.5. However, a significant (p < 0.05) increase in ESI was
observed at pH 10.5. Proteins tend to aggregate at pH values close to
their pI which may result in poor emulsifying properties (Scopes,
1994). Emulsifying activity and emulsion stability were lower at
acidic and neutral pH conditions, which are closer to the isoelectric
range of oat proteins. The isoelectric ranges of the acidic and basic
Fig. 4. EAI (m2/g) and ESI (min) values of CO2-oat extracts produced at different pH-
conditions.
Please cite this article in press as: Konak, Ü.I_., et al., CO2-defatted oats: Solubility, emulsification and foaming properties, Journal of Cereal
Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2014.01.013
oat globulin polypeptides are between pH 4e5 and pH 7e8,
respectively (Walburg and Larkins, 1983) Oat globulins (dimeric
form of acidic and basic polypeptide) were the major proteins in
water extracts used for emulsion preparations (data not shown).
The effects of NaCl, sucrose and emulsification temperature on
EAI and ESI of CO2-oat extracts produced at pH 10.5 are shown in
Fig. 5. EAI and ESI values were clearly optimal at 0.1% NaCl con-
centration as the values were lower in the absence of NaCl and
decreased with higher NaCl concentrations (Fig. 5A). According to
Kim et al. (2002), protein unfolding occurred at the droplet inter-
face in the presence of 0.1e0.9%, salt which enhanced the hydro-
phobic attraction and disulfide bond formation between the
droplets.
In the present study, EAI was not influenced by sugar addition.
No significant difference among the sucrose concentrations of 1e
10% was observed in ESI values either. However, a significant (p
< 0.05) increase in ESI at the highest sucrose concentration of 25%
compared to 0% was observed (Fig. 5B). An increase in the
emulsification temperature caused a slight decrease in the emul-
sion activity (EAI) whereas emulsion stability (ESI) increased with
increasing temperature from 20 to 80 ◦C (Fig. 5C). The effect of heat
treatment on the rheological properties of emulsions prepared with
soybean protein dispersions of different concentrations were
studied by Puppo et al. (2003) who showed that heating high
protein concentration emulsions formed a viscoelastic network that
stabilized the emulsion potentially due to crosslinking of proteins
at higher temperature.
Largely due to the higher protein content, the extracts prepared
from CO2-oats showed good foaming and emulsification properties
compared to other oat materials. Moreover, the previously
demonstrated absence of nonpolar lipids and the presence of
tryptophanin proteins in the water extracts of CO2-oats (Kaukonen
et al., 2011) likely played roles in the interfacial behavior of oat
proteins.
4. Conclusion
The present study showed that partially defatted oat flour pre-
pared with SC-CO2 extraction, had good functional properties
compared to the conventional oat flours. This can be linked to the
amount of soluble protein, but also to the known presence of
tryptophanin proteins and the absence of nonpolar lipids in
aqueous extracts prepared from CO2-oats. It was also demonstrated
that the functional properties of CO2-oats are to some extent
dependent on and, thereby, can be adjusted by chemical conditions
as the effects of NaCl, sucrose and pH as well as heating influenced
foam and emulsion properties. On the other hand some of the
functionalities tolerated the conditions relatively well, which can
 Ü.I_. Konak et al. / Journal of Cereal Science xxx (2014) 1e5
Fig. 5. EAI (m2/g, black bar) and ESI (min, gray bar) values of CO2-oat extracts produced at different NaCl (A) and sucrose concentrations (B), and at different temperatures (C).
also be considered as a positive feature. The CO2-extracted oatflours
might serve as a promising cereal raw material in beverages and
other aqueous food applications utilizing oats.
Acknowledgments
JL and TSS acknowledge University of Helsinki Funds, and DEC
acknowledges the funding from the Academy of Finland.
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