DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
COMMON COURSE BRAINSTORMING QUESTION
MODULE

Prepared by: 1. Alemie Assefa (Msc)

2. Yeshiwas Fetene(Msc)
3. Addisalem Hailegnaw(Msc)
4. Dita Tilahun(Msc)
5. Selam Abebe(Msc)
6. Amanuel Tesfaye(Msc)

February 12, 2022

Debre Berhan,Ethiopia
Table of Contents Page
Fundamental of Electric Circuit ............................................................................................. 2

Applied Electronics-I ............................................................................................................. 17

Network Analysis and Synthesis ........................................................................................... 39

Digital Logic Design ............................................................................................................... 57

Introduction to Computing ................................................................................................... 74

Signal and System Analysis ................................................................................................... 87

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 Fundamental of Electric Circuit
1) What are the Basic Electrical Engineering Parameters?
There are three primary electrical parameters:
 The volt
 The ampere
 The ohm
The volt: The pressure that is put on free electrons that causes them to flow is known as
electromotive force (EMF). The volt is the unit of pressure, i.e., the volt is the amount of
electromotive force required to push a current of one ampere through a conductor with a
resistance of one ohm.
The ampere: defines the flow rate of electric current. For instance, when one coulomb (or 6
x 1018 electrons) flows past a given point on a conductor in one second, it is defined as a
current of one ampere.
The ohm: is the unit of resistance in a conductor. Three things determine the amount of
resistance in a conductor: its size, its material, e.g., copper or aluminum, and its temperature.
A conductor’s resistance increases as its length increases or diameter decreases. The more
conductive the materials used, the lower the conductor resistance becomes. Conversely, a rise
in temperature will generally increase resistance in a conductor.
2) Types of Electric sources: are ideal/real and independent/dependent, explain each.
3) How do you simplify series and parallel circuit’s connections of R, L, C and sources?
(Star (Y) - delta (Δ) transformation if complex)
4) What are polyphase systems? Polyphase system is one having many phases or voltages,
each being phase displaced from the next.
5) What are balanced and unbalanced systems?
 The balance system is one in which the load are equally distributed in all
the three phases of the system. The magnitude of voltage remains same in
all the three phases and it is separated by an angle of 120º.
 In the unbalance system the magnitude of voltage in all the three phases
becomes different.
6) Which, among the following is the right expression for converting from delta to star?
a) R1=Ra*Rb*Rc/(Ra+Rb+Rc), R2=Ra*Rb*Rc/(Ra+Rb+Rc),
R3=Ra*Rb*Rc/(Ra+Rb+Rc)
b) R1=Ra*Rb*Rc/(Ra+Rb+Rc), R2=Ra*Rb/(Ra+Rb+Rc), R3=Ra/(Ra+Rb+Rc)

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 c) R1=Ra*Rb/(Ra+Rb+Rc), R2=Rb*Rc/(Ra+Rb+Rc), R3=Rc*Ra/(Ra+Rb+Rc)
d) R1=Ra/(Ra+Rb+Rc), R2=Rb/(Ra+Rb+Rc), Rc=/(Ra+Rb+Rc)
7) State Ohm’s law.
 Ohm’s law states that the voltage (v) across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current (i) flowing through the resistor, at constant temperature.
8) State Kirchoff’s Current law.
 KCL (Kirchoff’s Current Law) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering
a node (or a closed boundary) is zero. (or)The sum of the currents entering a
node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.
9) State Kirchoff’s Voltage law.
 KVL (Kirchoff’s Voltage Law) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around
a closed path (or loop) is zero. (or) Sum of voltage drop = Sum of voltage rise.
10) An Electric iron is rated 1000W, 240V. Find the current drawn & resistance of the heating
element. ( P=V2/R)
11) Define
 Charge
 Electric current
 Power
 Network
 Circuit.
 Charge: Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which
matter consists, measured in coulombs(C).
 Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes
(A). i = dq/dt A direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with
time. An alternating current (AC) is a current that varies sinusoidally with
time.
 Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in
watts(w). p = dw/dt p- Power in watts(w); w- energy in joules (J); t - time
in seconds (S); (or) p = v i , v - Voltage in volts(V); i - current in
amperes(A).
 Network: The inter connection of two or more simple circuit elements
forms an electrical network.
 Circuit : If the network contains at least one closed path, it is an electric
circuit.

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12) Define:
 Node (OR) Junction
 Tree
 Branch
 A Node is a point in the network where two or more circuit elements are
connected.
 A Tree is a complete path including all the nodes.
 A branch is a part of the circuit which lies between two junction points.
13) Write down the expression of equivalent resistance for ‘n’ – number of resistors in series
connection.
14) Write down the expression of equivalent resistance for ‘n’- number of resistors in parallel
connection.
15) Write the Algorithm for Nodal Analysis.
 Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages V1,V2,…Vn-1 to the remaining
n-1 nodes. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 nodes. Solve the resulting simultaneous
equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
16) Write the Algorithm for Mesh Analysis.
 Assign mesh currents i1,i2,….in to the n meshes. Apply KVL to each of the n
meshes. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
17) Distinguish between a Loop & Mesh of a circuit.
 The closed path of a network is called a Loop. An elementary form of a loop which
cannot be further divided is called a mesh. In other words Mesh is closed path does
not contain in other loop within it.
18) State Thevenins theorem.
 It states that any linear bilateral network can be replaced by a single current source
VTH, in series with single impedance Zth.
19) State Norton’s theorem.
 It states that any linear bilateral network can be replaced by a single current source,
in parallel with single impedance Zth.
20) State maximum power transfer theorem.
 Max power is transferred to load impedance if the load impedance is the complex
conjugate of the source impedance.

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21) Sate superposition theorem.
 It states that the response of a linear circuit with multiple sources is given by
algebraic sum of response due to individual sources acting alone.
22) State the steps to solve the super position theorem.
 Take only one independent voltage or current source.
 Obtain the branch currents.
 Repeat the above for other sources.
 To determine the net branch current just add the current obtained above.
23) State the steps to solve the Thevenin’s Theorem.
 Remove the load resistance and find the open circuit voltage Voc
 Deactivate the constant sources (for voltage source remove it by internal
resistance & for current source delete the source by OC) and find the
internal resistance (RTH) of the source side looking through the open
circuited load terminals
 Obtain the thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting VOC in series with
RTh.
 Reconnect the load resistance across the load terminals.
24) State the steps to solve the Norton’s theorem.
 Remove the load resistor and find the internal resistance of the source N/W
by deactivating the constant source.
 Short the load terminals and find the short circuit current
 Norton’s equivalent circuit is drawn by keeping RTH in parallel with ISC
IL= (Isc.Rth) / (Rth+RL)
25) Write some applications of maximum power
transfer theorem.
 Power amplifiers
 Communication system
 Microwave transmission
26) Determine current in 5ohm resistor by Mesh analysis method.

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Solution.
Matrix-method for Mesh analysis can be used. Mark three loops as shown, in Fig.
Resistance-matrix should be evaluated for current in 5-ohm resistor. Only, i3 is to be
found. (i3=3.633A)
27) Determine the voltages 1 and 2 of the network in Fig. by nodal analysis.

Answer (V1=V2=2V)
28) For the circuit shown in Fig, find VCE and VAG Answer (VCE= -5V, VAG =30V)

29) State Thevenin’s theorem and give a proof. Apply this theorem to calculate the current
through the 4ohm(Ω)resistor of the circuit of Fig.

Solution.
As shown in Fig. 2.130 (b), 4 ohm resistance has been removed thereby open-circuiting the
terminals A and B. We will now find VAB and RAB which will give us Vth and Respectively.

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The potential drop across 5 ohm (Ω) resistor can be found with the help of voltage-divider
rule. Its value is = 15 *5/(5 + 10) = 5 Vth

Fig. 2.130
For finding VAB, we will go from point B to point A in the clockwise direction and find the
algebraic sum of the voltages met on the way.
VAB = -1V and RAB =10/3ohm.

30) For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.135 (a), calculate the current in the 10 ohm resistance.
Use Thevenin’s theorem only.

Solution. When the 10ohm (Ω) resistance is removed, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig.
2.135 (b).

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VAB = -6.29V
RAB = 9.43ohm
I = 0.32A

31) State Norton’s theorem and find current using Norton’s theorem through a load of 8ohm
in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.191(a)

Solution.
In Fig. 2.191 (b), load impedance has replaced by a short-circuit. ISC = IN = 200/2 = 100 A

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32) In the network shown in Fig. 2.231 (a), find the value of R such that maximum possible
power will be transferred to RL. Find also the value of the maximum power and the power
supplied by source under these conditions

Maximum power drown by RL=(Vth2/4)*RL = 3.125W

Since same power is developed in RTH, power supplied by the source = 2*3.125W=6.25W
33) Define Impedance.
 Impedance is defined as the opposition of circuit to flow of alternating current. It is
denoted by Z and its unit is ohms.
34) Define Resonance.
 Resonance is defined as a phenomenon in which applied voltage and resulting
current are in-phase. In other words, an AC circuit is said to be in resonance if it
exhibits unity power factor condition, that means applied voltage and resulting
current are in phase.
35) What is a resonant frequency?
 The frequency at which resonance occurs is called
resonant frequency. i.e. X L=XC.
36) What is the series resonance?
 The inductive reactance increases as the frequency increases (XL=ωl) but the
capacitive reactances decreases with frequency(XC=1/ωc). Thus inductive and
capacitive reactances have opposite properties. So, for any LC combination there
must be one frequency at which Xl=Xc. This case of equal and opposite reactance is
called series resonance.
37) What is a parallel resonance?
 The parallel circuit is said to be in resonance, when the power factor is unity. This
is true when the imaginary part of the total admittance is zero.
38) Determine the power factor of a RLC series circuit with R=5ohm, XL=8ohm and
XC=12ohm.

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39) What are the three types of power used in AC circuits?
 Real or Active or True power P=EI cosθ
 Reactive power Q=EI sinθ
 Apparent power S=EI
40) Define Real power.
 The actual power consumed in an AC circuits is called real power. And P=EI cosθ
41) Define Reactive power.
 The power consumed by the pure reactance (Xl or Xc) in an AC circuit is called
reactive power. The unit is VAR. and Q=EI sinθ
42) Define apparent power and Power factor.
 The Apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of voltage
and current. S = Vrms Irms
 The Power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current.
It is also the cosine of the load impedance. And Power factor = cos φ
 The pf is lagging if the current lags voltage (inductive load) and is leading when the
current leads voltage (capacitive load).
43) What is meant by Complex power?
 Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor and the complex
conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a complex quantity, its real part is real
power, P and its imaginary part is reactive power, Q. and S = P + jQ
44) What are the advantages of 3 phase circuits over single phase circuits?
 Generation, transmission and distribution of 3 phase power is cheaper
 More efficient
 Uniform torque production occurs
45) State the relationship between line voltage & phase voltage and line current & phase
current of a 3 phase delta connected system.
Vph = VL ; Iph = IL / √3
46) State the relationship between line voltage & phase voltage and line current & phase
current of a 3 phase star connected system.
Vph = VL /√3; Iph = IL
47) Write the expression for the instantaneous values of emfs in a 3 phase circuit.
VR = Vm sin wt; VY = Vm sin (wt-1200); VB = Vm sin (wt-2400)

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48) A star connected load has 6+j8 ohm impedance per phase. Determine the line current if it
is connected to 400V, three phase, and 50Hz supply. Ans: Zph=10Ω/ph, Iph=
23.094A=IL.
49) Define power actor.
Power factor is defined as the cosine of angle between voltage and current. If φ is the angle
between voltage and current then cos φ is called as the power factor.

50) Explain the concept of balanced load.

 The load is said to be balanced when magnitudes of all impedances Zph1, Zph2 and
Zph3 are equal and the phase angles of all of them are equal and of same nature
either all inductive or all capacitive or all resistive.
51) What is phase sequence?
 The order in which the voltage in the three phases reach their maximum positive
values is called the phase sequence.
52) Define Phasor and Phase angle.
 A sinusoidal wave form can be represented or in terms of a Phasor. A Phasor is a
vector with definite magnitude and direction. From the Phasor the sinusoidal wave
form can be reconstructed.
 Phase angle is the angular measurement that specifies the position of the
alternating quantity relative to a reference.
53) What are the advantages of 3Φ system?
 Constant power
 Higher rating
 Power transmission economics
54) Explain about Star and Delta connected three phase balanced circuits.
55) Write short notes on RMS Value of AC waveforms.
 The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.) current which
when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the
same time.
 It is also known as the effective or virtual value of the alternating current,
the former term being used more extensively. For computing the r.m.s.

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 value of symmetrical sinusoidal alternating currents, either mid-ordinate
method or analytical method may be used, although for symmetrical but
non sinusoidal waves, the mid-ordinate method would be found more
convenient.
56) What is super node?
 A super node is formed by enclosing a (dependent/independent) voltage source
connected between two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel
with it.
57) Find the node voltages V1 and V2

V1 = -7.333V and V2 = -5.333V

58) What is super mesh?
 A super mesh results when two meshes have a (dependent/independent) current
source in common.
59) Use mesh analysis to determine i1,i2 and i3 in Fig.

Answer: i1=5 3.474 A, i2 =5 0.4737 A, i3 =5 1.1052 A

60) What are first order circuits?
 First order circuits are circuits that contain only one energy storage element
(capacitor or inductor), and that can, therefore, be described using only a first
order differential equation. The two possible types of first-order circuits are: RC
(resistor and capacitor) RL (resistor and inductor).

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61) Explain the source-free RC Circuit.
 A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected. The
energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.
62) Explain natural response of circuit.
 The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and
currents) of the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.
63) What is time constant?
 The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay to a
factor of 1ye or 36.8 percent of its initial value.
64) Refer to the circuit in Fig. Let Vo = 45V, Determine Vc, Vx
and io for 𝑡 ≥ 0.

Answer: 45e-20.25t V, 15e-20.25t V, -3.75e-20.25t A.

65) If the switch in Fig. below opens at t=0, find v(t) for 𝑡 ≥ 0 and initial energy stored in
the capacitor Wc(0).

Answer: 8e-2t V, 5.33 J.

66) Assuming that i(0) = 10A. Calculate i(t) and ix in the circuit of Fig.

i(t) = i(0)e-(2/3)t = 10 e-(2/3)t A, 𝑡 > 0

ix(t) = -1.6667 e-(2/3)t A, 𝑡 > 0

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67) What is step response of a circuit?
 The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the step
function, which may be a voltage or a current source.
68) What is transient response of a circuit?
 The transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that will die out with
time.
69) What is steady state response of a circuit?
 The steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long time after an
external excitation is applied
70) Find v(t) for 𝑡 > 0 in the circuit of Fig. below. Assume the switch has been open
for a long time and is closed at 𝑡 = 0. Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.

Answer: (6.25 + 3.75e-2t) V for all 𝑡 ≥0 , 7.63 V.

71) The switch in Fig. below has been closed for a long time. It opens at t=0, Find i(t)
for 𝑡 > 0.

Answer: (6 + 3e-10t) A for all 𝑡 > 0.

72) Explain second order circuits.
 A second-order circuit is characterized by a second-order differential equation. It
consists of resistors and the equivalent of two energy storage elements.
73) The switch in Fig. below has been closed for a long time. It is open at t=0.
di(0+ ) dV(0+ )
. Find: (a) i(0+), V(0+) (b) , (c) i(∞), v(∞).
dt dt

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 di(0+ ) dV(0+ )
Answer: i(0+) = 2A, V(0+) = 0V (b) = 0 A/s, = 20V/s (c) i(∞) = 0A, v(∞) =
dt dt

12V)
74) The circuit in Fig. below has reached steady state at t=0-. If the make before-break
switch moves to position b at t = 0, calculate i(t) for t > 0.

Answer: e-2.5t (5 cos 1.6583t - 7.5378 sin 1.6583t) A.

75) Explain Overdamped, Critically Damped, and Underdamped.
 The circuit is said to be overdamped because two superimposed exponentials
are both driving the current to zero. A circuit will be overdamped if the
resistance is high relative to the resonant frequency.
 A highly damped circuit will fail to resonate at all, when not driven. A circuit
with a value of resistor that causes it to be just on the edge of ringing is called
critically damped. Either side of critically damped are described as underdamped
(ringing happens) and overdamped (ringing is suppressed).
 Damping. Damping is caused by the resistance in the circuit. It determines
whether or not the circuit will resonate naturally (that is, without a driving
source). Circuits that will resonate in this way are described as underdamped
and those that will not are overdamped.
76) Having been in position a for a long time, the switch in Fig. below is moved to position b at
t=0. Find v(t) and vR(t) for t >0.

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 Answer: 10 - (1.1547 sin 3.464t + 2 cos 3.464t)e-2t V, 2.31e-2t sin 3.464t V.
77) Find i(t ) and v(t) for in the circuit of Fig. below.

Answer: 12(1 - 2 cos t) A, 60 sin t V.

78) Determine v and i for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig. below

Answer: 12(1 – e-5t) V, 3(1 – e-5t) A.

79) Explain transfer function of a system.
 The transfer function H(ω) of a circuit is the frequency-dependent ratio of a
phasor output Y( ω) (an element voltage or current) to a phasor input X(ω )
(source voltage or current)
80) Explain voltage gain, current gain, Transfer Impedance and Transfer Admittance.
81) Explain resonant frequency, quality factor, bandwidth, and half power frequency.

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 Applied Electronics-I
1. What is the one important difference between the characteristics of a simple switch
and those of an ideal diode?
Answer: The most important difference between the characteristics of a diode and a simple
switch is that the switch, being mechanical, is capable of conducting current in either direction
while the diode only allows charge to flow through the element in one direction (specifically
the direction defined by the arrow of the symbol using conventional current flow).
2. Describe the difference between donor and acceptor impurities?
Answer: A donor atom has five electron in its outermost valance shell while an acceptor
atom has only 3 valance electrons in the valance shell.
3. Describe the difference between n-type and p-type semiconductor materials?
Answer: An n-type semiconductor material has an excess of electrons for conduction
established by doping an intrinsic material with donor atoms having more valence electrons
than needed to establish the covalent bonding. The majority carrier is the electron while the
minority carrier is the hole.
A p-type semiconductor material is formed by doping an intrinsic material with acceptor
atoms having an insufficient number of electrons in the valence shell to complete the covalent
bonding thereby creating a hole in the covalent structure. The majority carrier is the hole
while the minority carrier is the electron.
4. Describe the difference between majority and minority carriers?
Answer: Majority carriers are those carriers of a material that far exceed the number of any
other carriers in the material.
Minority carriers are those carriers of a material that are less in number than any other carrier
of the material.
5. What is the major difference between a bipolar and a unipolar device?
Answer: A bipolar transistor utilizes both holes and electrons in the injection or charge flow
process, while unipolar devices utilize either electrons or holes, but not both, in the charge flow
process.

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6. Why silicon and germanium are selected for semiconductor devices?
Answer: The main important considerations are:
 They can be manufactured to a very high purity level. In fact, recent advances have
reduced impurity levels in the pure material to 1 part in 10 billion (1:10,000,000,000).
 The ability to change the characteristics of the material significantly through doping
process.
 Their characteristics can be altered significantly through the application of heat or light
(an important consideration in the development of heat- and light-sensitive devices).
7. Explain the Zener phenomenon. How does it differ from Avalanche breakdown?
Answer: Under a very high-reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential
barrier increases leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The electric-field will
break some of the covalent-bonds of the semiconductor atoms leading to a large number of free
minority carriers, which suddenly increase the reverse current. This is also called the
Zener-Effect.
Zener-breakdown or Avalanche breakdown may occur independently or both of these may
occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that breakdown below 5v are caused by Zener Effect.
Junctions that experience breakdown above 5v are caused by avalanche-effect.
The Zener-breakdown occurs in heavily doped junctions which produce narrow depletion
layers. The avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions, which produce wide
depletion layers.
8. Why do we require Voltage Regulators? Clearly explain the functions of current
limiter and error amplifier of such a Voltage Regulator.
Answer: The primary function of a voltage-regulator is to maintain a constant dc-output
voltage. However, it also rejects ac-ripple voltage that is not removed by the filter. The
regulator may also include protective functions such as short-circuit protection, current
limiting, and thermal shut down, or over-voltage protection.
Current limiter: If the load resistance RL is reduced or load-terminals are shorted
accidentally, a very large load current will flow in the circuit. It may destroy the pass transistor
Q1, diode or possibly some other component. To avoid this situation, a current limiting circuit
is added to a series regulator.
Error Amplifier: The error amplifier is used to maintain a constant-voltage through a negative
feedback. The internal voltage reference is tightly controlled during the fabrication of IC.

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9. With the help of neat diagram explain the working of a Voltage Doubler?
Answer: Voltage-multiplier is a modified-capacitor filter circuit that delivers a dc-voltage
twice or more times of the peak value (Amplitude) of the input ac-voltage. Such power supplies
are used for high-voltage and low-current devices such as cathode-ray-tubes.

Figure1: Half wave voltage doubler

During the positive half-cycle of the ac-input voltage, diode D1 being forward biased conducts
and charges C1 up to peak value of secondary voltage 𝑉𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage diode D2 gets forward-biased and conducts
charging capacitor C2.
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Applying Kirchhoff’s- voltage law to the outer loop we have

10. Explain the functioning of a bipolar junction transistor. What is the

a. Relation between α and β
b. Effect of variation of V on the collector current CC
c. Method of biasing the BJT
d. Selection of proper Q-point for linear operation of a BJT amplifier.
Answer: Operation of transistor: For normal operation the emitter-base junction is always
forward biased while the collector-base junction is always reverse-biased.
The forward bias at the emitter-base junction reduces the barrier potential and narrows the
depletion region. However, the relatively light doped base and collector-regions produce a wide
depletion region under the reverse-bias. Thus the effective base width Wb between the two
depletion regions is very narrow.
Electrons are injected into the emitter region by the emitter bias supply VEB.
These conduction band electrons have enough energy to overcome the emitter-base barrier
potential. The injected electrons enter the very thin, lightly doped base region.
Because the base is very lightly doped relative to the emitter region, only a few of the electron
recombine with the holes doped into the base.
Injected electrons diffuse into collector region due to extremely small thickness of base
which is much less than the diffusion length. Most of the electrons cross into the collector
region. Collector is reverse-biased and creates a strong electro-static field between base and
collector. The field immediately collects the diffused-electrons which enter the collector
junction.
a. The relation between α and β

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b. Effect of variation of VCC on the collector current
 The collector current IC varies with VCB or VCC only for very low-voltage but transistor
is never operated in this region.
 In active-region collector current IC is almost equal to IE and appear to remain constant
when VCB is increased.
 The increase in VCB, it conducts better, although the effect is not very significant. This
is because large reverse-bias voltages causes the depletion layer at the collector-base
junction to penetrate deeper into the base of the transistor, thus reducing the distance and
the resistance between the emitter-base and collector-base regions.
c. Method of biasing the BJT
There is a large number of circuits for biasing of a transistor. These circuits differ so as to
their ability to keep the quiescent point fixed in spite of variations in transistor
characteristics and also effects of temperature variations and ageing.
A Biasing network associated with a transistor should fulfil the following requirements:
 Establish the operating point in the middle of the active region of the characteristics,
so that on applying the input-signal the instantaneous operating does not move either
to the saturation region, even at the extreme values of the input signal.
 Stabilize the collector-current IC against temperature variations.
 Make the operating point independent of transistor parameters so that replacement of
transistor by another of the same type in the circuit does not shift the operating point.
d. Different biasing technique to selection proper Q-point (operating point) are:
 Simplest Biasing Circuit,
 Fixed bias circuit
 Self-bias or Emitter Bias
 Potential-divider bias.
 Collector-to-base bias.
11. Explain the principle of operation of Field Effect Transistors (FET). How does a JFET
and a MOSFET differ in operation?
Answer: Let us consider an N-channel JFET for discussing its operation
When neither any bias is applied to the gate nor any voltage to the drain w.r.t source (i.e. when
VDS = 0), the depletion regions around the P-N junctions are of equal thickness and
symmetrical.

21
When positive voltage is applied to the drain terminal D w.r.t source terminal S without
connecting gate-terminal G to supply, the electrons flow from terminal S to terminal D whereas
conventional drain-current ID flows through the channel from D to S.

Figure 2: FET Operational diagram

Comparison of JFET’s and MOSFET’s
 JFET’s can only be operated in the depletion mode whereas MOSFET’s can be operated
in either depletion or in enhancement mode. In a JFET, if the gate is forward-biased,
excess-carrier injunction occurs and the gate-current is substantial.
 MOSFET’s have input impedance much higher than that of JFET’s. Thus is due to
negligible small leakage current.
 JFET’s have characteristic curves more flatter than those of MOSFET’s indicating a
higher drain resistance.
 When JFET is operated with a reverse-bias on the junction, the gate-current IG is larger
than it would be in a comparable MOSFET.
12. How can we use FET as an Amplifier and as a Switch?
Answer: FET as Amplifier:
The circuit consists of a three independent signal sources (i.e.Vin, Va,VS ). For a common-
source amplifier Va =VS =0, and the output VOUT1 is taken at the drain terminal D.
For common-gate circuit Vin =Va =0 , the input signal voltage is VS with source resistance
RS, and the output VOUT1 is again taken at drain terminal D.
For common-drain (or source follower) RD = 0, VS = Va =0, the input-signal voltage is Vin
and the output VOUT2 is taken at the-source terminal.

22
 Figure 3: FET as Amplifier
FET as a Switch:
When no gate-voltage is applied to the FET i.e. VGS = 0, FET – becomes saturated and it
behaves like a small-resistance usually of the value less than 100Ω and, therefore, output-
voltage becomes equal to

Since RDS is very large in comparison to RDS (ON), so Vout can be taken equal to zero.
When a negative-voltage equal to VGS (OFF) is applied to gate, the FET operates in the cutoff
region and it acts like a very high resistance usually of some mega-ohm. Hence output
voltage becomes nearly equal to input-voltage.

Figure 4: FET as Switch

23
13. What is an N-type semiconductor? Write its energy band diagram?
Answer: When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth
or Phosphorous is added to pure semi-conductor crystals during the crystal growth, the
resulting crystal is called N-type extrinsic semi-conductor.

Figure 4: Energy band diagram for N-Type semiconductor

14. What is a PN junction? Draw its circuit symbol. What is the convention followed in
writing its symbol? Illustrate its characteristic and make it self-explanatory?
Answer: The PN junction is produced by placing a layer of P type semiconductor next to the
layer of N type semiconductor. The contact surface is called PN junction.

The graph plotted between potential difference across the PN junction and the circuit current
is known as volt–ampere characteristics.
Forward Characteristics: When the external voltage is zero, i.e., when the circuit is open, the
potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current and, therefore, the circuit
current is zero.
With forward bias to PN junction, very little current, called the forward current flows until
the forward voltage exceeds the junction barrier potential. As the forward voltage increased
to the knee of characteristics, the potential barrier is completely eliminated, forward current
increases linearly with the increase in forward voltage.
Reverse characteristics: When the reverse bias is applied, the potential barriers at junction
is increased. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and there is no possibility

24
of a majority carriers flowing across a reverse-biased junction. But still minority carriers
generated on each side can cross the junction. This results in a very small current which is
known as reverse current.
15. Establish the theory of a Zener diode shunt regulator.
Answer: The zener diode circuit

Above circuit diagram shows Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a
constant voltage from a source whose voltage may vary appreciably. A resistor RS is
necessary to limit the reverse current through the diode to safer value.
As long as voltage across the load resistor RL is less than the break-down voltage VZ, the
Zener diode does not conduct, the resistors RS and RL constitute a potential divider across
VS. At an increased supply voltage VS, the voltage drop across load resistor becomes
greater than the Zener breakdown voltage. It then operates in its break down region. The
series resistor RS limits the Zener current IZ from exceeding its rated IZmax because Zener
𝑉𝑆 −𝑉𝑍
current is given as 𝐼𝑍 = ,So 𝐼𝑆 =𝐼𝑍 +𝐼𝐿
𝑅𝑆

16. Draw the circuits of an NPN and a PNP transistor in CE configuration. Define the
following:
a. CE dc current gain.
b. CE ac current gain
Answer: The circuit of NPN and a PNP transistor in CE configuration as shown below.

Figure 5a: CE-N-P-N-Transistor Figure 5b: CE-P-N-P-Transistor

25
The output characteristics used to determine the dc- current gain 𝛽 and ac current gain 𝛽0 is
as follows.
𝐼 ∆𝐼
DC current gain 𝛽 = 𝐼 𝐶 and AC current gain, 𝛽0 = ∆𝐼 𝐶 , 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝐵 𝐵

17. What is a field effect transistor (FET)? Which are the different types of FET’s
available?
Answer: The device is called the FET because the drain current is controlled by the effect of
the extension of the field associated with the depletion region developed by the reverse –bias
at the gate.
There are two major categories of FET namely
 Junction field effect transistor
 The Insulated –gate field effect transistor (MOSFET or MOST’s)
18. The current gain α of an n-p-n transistor is 0.98. It is connected in the CB mode and
gives a reverse saturation current 𝑰𝑪𝑶 = 𝟏𝟐𝝁𝑨. Find the Base and the collector
currents for an Emitter current of 2mA.
Answer:

19. Why is a FET known as a unipolar device? How do you compare this device with
BJT?
Answer: In field effect transistors current conduction is only by one type of majority carriers
(either by electrons or holes) and therefore, these are called unipolar transistor.
 Its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It is, therefore, a unipolar
device. In BJT both majority and minority carriers take part in conduction and therefore BJT
is sometimes called the bipolar transistor.
 It has high input impedance (≅100MΩ) because its input circuit is reverse biased, and so
permits high degree of isolation between the input and output circuits. However, the input
circuit of an ordinary BJT transistor is forward biased and, therefore, ordinary transistor has
low input impedance.
 JFET carries very small current because of reverse biased gate and, therefore, it operates
just like a vacuum tube where control grid carries extremely small current and input voltage

26
 controls the output current. This is the reason that JFET is essentially a voltage driven
device. BJT is a current operated device since input current controls the output current.
20. What is a semiconductor? Give its important properties. Briefly explain the energy
band diagram for a semiconductor?
Answer: The group of materials which are neither good conductors nor good insulators are
called semiconductors. At room temperature such materials have conductivities considerably
lower than those of conductors and much higher than those of insulators such materials are
called semiconductors. The resistivity of various semiconductor materials lies in a very wide
range from 10-4 to about 0.5 Ωm.
Properties
 Their resistance depends largely on various factors and therefore, it can be controlled.
 The resistance of semiconductors decreases with the increase in temperature i.e.
temperature coefficient of semiconductors is negative.
 Semiconductors are non-linear resistor.
 The resistivity of semiconductors changes considerably when even minute amounts of
certain other substances called the impurities are added to them.
Energy Bands
Within any given material there are two distinct energy bands in which electrons may exist.
These two energy bands are valence band and conduction band and are separated by an energy
gap in which no electron can normally exist.
The energy band of interest is the highest band or valence band. If a sufficient amount of energy
is given to an electron in the valence band, the electron is free of the atomic structure. Such an
electron is said to possess enough energy to be in the conduction band where it can take part in
electric current flow. Free electrons (electrons in conduction band) can move readily under the
influence of an external field.
21. How are BJTs classified? Draw the circuit symbol for each type. What are the
advantages of transistors over electron tubes?
Answer: Transistors are of two types. P-N-P and N-P-N, behave exactly in the same way
except change in biasing and majority carrier. In P-N-P transistors the conduction is by holes
whereas in N-P-N transistors the conduction is by electrons.

27
 Figure 6: Types of Bipolar junction Transistor

Advantages over vacuum tubes

Compact size, light weight, rugged construction, more resistive to shocks and vibrations,
instantaneous operation, low operating voltage, high operating efficiency and long life with
essentially no ageing effect if operated with in permissible limits of temperature and frequency.
22. How does an FET differ from the conventional junction transistor? In the structure
of an N-channel JFET, why the N-type bar is called a channel? Give the structure of
a P-channel JFET. What is the difference between a JFET and a MOSFET?
Answer: JFET’s operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It is therefore a
unipolar device. On the other hand BJT is sometimes called the bipolar transistor.
JFET has high input impedance, because its input current is reversed biased. However the input
current of a BJT is forward biased and therefore ordinary transistor has low input impedance.
JFET is essentially a voltage driven device. BJT is a current operated device since input current
controls the output current.
Channel:-The region between the source and drain sandwiched between the two gates is called
the channel and the majority carriers move from source to drain through this channel.

28
 Figure 7: P-Channel JFET
Difference between a JFET and a MOSFET:-
 JFET’s can only be operated in the depletion mode whereas MOSFET’s can be operated
in either depletion or enhancement mode.
 MOSFET’s have input impedance much higher than that of JFET’s. This is due to
negligibly small leakage current.
 JFET’s have characteristic curves more flatter than those of MOSFET’s indicating a
higher drain resistance.
 When JFET is operated with a reverse bias on the junction, the gate current IG is larger
than it would be in a comparable MOSFET.
23. Explain what is intrinsic, P-type and N-type semiconductors? Discuss the position of
Fermi Level in each case with the help of Energy Band Diagram.
Answer: An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its
extremely pure form.
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as arsenic, antimony or phosphorous is
added to a pure semiconductor crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called
the N-type extrinsic semiconductor.
When a small amount of trivalent impurity, such as baron, gallium, indium or aluminium is
added to a pure semiconductor crystal during the growth the resulting crystal is called the P-
type extrinsic semiconductor.
The Fermi level is simply a reference energy level. It is the energy level at which the probability
of finding electron n energy units above it in the conduction band is equal to the probability of
finding hole n energy units below it in the valence band.

29
 Figure 8: Average energy level of Energy band diagram
In intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi level lies midway between the conduction and valence
bands.
24. What is breakdown diode? What is its use? Describe physically how two mechanisms
of breakdown occur in a p-n junction diode.
Answer: Zener diode also sometimes called the breakdown diode is a PN junction diode
specially designed for operation in the breakdown region in reverse bias condition.
The diode may use either Zener breakdown mechanism or avalanche breakdown mechanism.
When the reverse bias on a crystal diode is gradually increased a point is reached when the
junction breakdown and a reverse current increases abruptly, the breakdown region is the knee
of the reverse characteristic.

Figure 9: Reverse characteristics curve of diode

The minority carriers under reverse biased conditions flowing through the junction acquire a
kinetic energy which increases in reverse voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse voltage the
kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes so large that they knock out electrons from the
covalent bonds of semiconductor material. As a result of collision, the liberated electrons in
turn liberate more electrons and the current becomes very large leading to the breakdown of
the crystal structure itself. This phenomenon is called the “Avalanche Breakdown”.

30
25. Draw the circuit diagram of Full-wave Bridge Rectifier and explain its operation?
What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer:

Figure 10: Full wave bridge rectifier circuit

When the upper end of the transformer secondary winding is positive, diodes D1 and D3 are
forward biased and current flows through arm AB, enters the load at positive terminal, leaves
the load at negative terminal and returns back flowing through arm DC. During this half of
each input cycle, the diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased, and so the current is not allowed to
flow in arms AD and BC. The flow of current is indicated by solid arrows in the figure.
In the second half of the input cycle the lower end of ac supply becomes positive diodes D2
and D4 become forward biased and current flows through arm CB, enters the load at the
positive terminal, leaves the load at the negative terminal and returns back flowing through arm
DA. Flow of current has been shown by dotted arrows in the figure. Thus the direction of flow
of current through the load resistance RL remains the same during both half cycles of the input
supply voltage.
Advantages of full wave bridge rectifier
 Low cost, highly reliable and small sized silicon diodes.
 No centre tap is required in the transformer secondary so in case of a bridge rectifier the
transformer required is simpler.

31
 The PIV is one half that of centre-tap rectifier. Hence bridge rectifier is highly suited for
high voltage applications.
 Transformer utilization factor, in case of a bridge rectifier is higher than that of a centre
tap transformer.
Disadvantages of full wave bridge rectifier
 It needs four diodes, two of which conduct in alternate half cycles. Because of this the
total voltage drop in diodes becomes double of that in case of centre tap rectifier.
26. Define Transistor characteristics? Sketch the output characteristics of a transistor in
its CB mode. Explain the Active, cut-off and saturation Regions?
Answer: The performance of transistors when connected in a circuit may be determined from
their characteristic curves that relate different dc currents and voltage of a transistor. Such
curves are known as static characteristic curves.
There are two important characteristics of transistor
 Input characteristics
 Output characteristics

Figure 11: Output characteristics for Common Base NPN transistor

The curve drawn between collector current IC and collector base voltage VCB for a given value
of emitter current IE is known as output characteristics.
In an active region (emitter is forward biased and collector reverse biased) collector current
IC is almost equal to IE and appears to remain constant when VCB is increased. In fact, there is
very small increase in IC with increase in VCB. This is because the increase in VCB expands the
collector base depletion region and thus shortens the distance between the two depletion
regions.

32
In cut-off region (emitter and collector junctions both are reverse biased) small collector current
IC flows even when emitter current IE =0. This is the collector leakage current ICBO or ICO.
In saturation region (both emitter and collector junctions are forward biased) collector current
IC flows even when VCB ≈ 0.
Input or EB Output or CB Operation Region Device Function
Junction Junction
S/No (The Transistor acts as)
1 Forward Forward Saturation Fully ON switch
2 Forward Reverse Active Amplifier, Oscillator
3 Reverse Reverse Cut - off Fully OFF switch
4 Reverse Forward Inverse Active Inverter

27. What is MOSFET? Why MOSFETs are more widely used than the JFETs?
Answer: MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect transistor) is an important
semiconductor device and is widely used in many circuit applications. MOSFET is a three
terminal device (Source, Gate and Drain) and drain current in it is controlled by gate bias.
These devices are more useful in electro meter applications than the JFETs. For the above
reasons, and also because MOSFETs are easier to manufacture, they are widely used than
JFETs.
28. What type of material can conduct electricity in it? Write the energy band diagrams
for metals and insulators and briefly explain?
Answer: Conducting materials (such as silver, copper, aluminium etc.) are good conductors of
electricity and are characterised by a large electrical conductivity and small electrical
resistivity.
Within any given material there are two distinct energy bands in which electrons may exist.
These two energy bands are valence band and conduction band and are separated by an energy
gap in which no electrons normally exist. This energy gap is termed the Forbidden gap EG.

33
The energy band of interest is the highest energy band or valence band. If a sufficient amount
of energy is given to an electron in the valence band the electrons is freed of the atomic
structure, such an electron is said to possess enough energy to be in conduction band , where it
can take part in electric current flow. Free electrons can move readily under the influence of an
external field.
29. For a Zener shunt regulator, if VZ = 10V, RS = 1KΩ, R L = 2KΩ and the input voltage
varies from 22 V to 40 V, find the minimum and maximum values of Zener current.
Answer: Input voltage
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑍 = 10𝑉
𝑅𝑆 = 1𝐾Ω , 𝑅𝐿 = 2𝐾Ω
𝑉𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 40𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 22𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 10𝑉
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼𝐿 = = = 5𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿 2𝐾
𝑉𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (40 − 10)𝑉
𝐼𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 30𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑠 1𝐾
𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝐿 = 30𝑚𝐴 − 5𝑚𝐴 = 25𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (22 − 10)𝑉
𝐼𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 12𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑠 1𝐾
𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝐼𝐿 = 12𝑚𝐴 − 5𝑚𝐴 = 7𝑚𝐴
30. A half-wave rectifier having a diode of resistance 1,000 Ω and a load of 1,000Ω rectifies
an ac voltage of 310 V peak value. Calculate
a. Peak, average and rms values of current.
b. DC power output.
c. AC power input.
d. Efficiency.

34
Answer:

31. A half-wave rectifier has a peak output voltage of 12.2V at 50 hertz and feeds a
resistive load of 100 ohms. Determine the value of the shunt capacitor to give 1 %
ripple factor and the dc voltage output.
Answer: Capacitor design and load calculation

35
32. What is the difference between zener diode and conventional diode?
Answer: A zener diode is a type of diode that permits current to flow in the forward direction
like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the rated
breakdown voltage or "Zener voltage"
But conventional diode that permits current to flow in the forward direction only when the
supply voltage greater than barrier potential.
33. What are the application area of diodes?
Answer: Semiconductor diodes find many applications in electronics circuit designing
 They used as a rectifier in power supplies, to convert ac to dc, in radio frequency receivers
in some instrumentation systems they are used in a similar manner to recover (detect)
amplitude modulation super imposed upon a carrier signal.
 They used for wave shaping circuits(In clipping, limiting and clamping circuits)
 They used as voltage regulator (zener diode).
 They used for voltage multipliers circuits.
 They used as indicator lights (LED) and in displays, while light sensitive photodiodes are
used as optical detectors.
 They used as polarity sensitive dc conductive devices (often called steering diodes) as such
they pass dc of one polarity while blocking dc of the opposite polarity.
 They used in radio frequency design (voltage tuned capacitors example varactor diodes).
34. Assume a 5th year students wants to buy different diodes for some application that is
to do BSC project so how he/she test a good diode with a digital voltmeter(DMM)?
Answer: A digital multi-meter can be used as a fast and simple way to check a diode out of
the circuit. A good diode will show an extremely high resistance (ideally an open) with reverse
bias and a very low resistance with forward bias. A defective open diode will show an
extremely high resistance (or open) for both forward and reverse bias. A defective shorted or

36
resistive diode will show zero or a low resistance for both forward and reverse bias. An open
diode is the most common type of failure.
When the diode is working in figure 12a below, the red (positive) lead of the meter is connected
to the anode and the black (negative) lead is connected to the cathode to forward bias the diode.
If the diode is good, you will get a reading of between approximately 0.5 V and 0.9 V, with
0.7 V being typical for forward bias.
In figure12b the diode is turned around for reverse bias as shown. If the diode is working
properly, you will typically get a reading of “OL”. Some DMMs (Digital multi-meter) may
display the internal voltage for a reverse-bias condition.

Figure 12a:Forward biased test Figure 12b: Forward biased test

35. Gain of an amplifier usually expressed in dB because ______________

a) It is a small unit
b) Calculations become easy
c) Human ear response is logarithmic
d) Gain is reduced
Answer c: The human hearing scale is logarithmic in nature. For doubling perceived intensity
of sound, the sound power must be increased by 10 times. That means the gain of amplifier
which controls sound intensity must have gain of 10 for doubling perceived intensity of sound
which is in a bell and in 10 decibel scale.

37
36. The total gain of a multistage amplifier is less than the product of the gains of
individual stages due to ___________
a) Power loss in the coupling device
b) Loading effect of the next stage
c) The use of many transistors
d) The use of many capacitors
Answer b: The output of first amplifier stage is the input to next stage. In this way overall
voltage gain can be increased, when number of amplifier stage is used in succession, it is called
a multistage amplifier. The load of first amplifier is the input resistance of the second amplifier.
Thus overall gain is reduced.
37. What is the coupling schemes used in multistage amplifiers?
Answer: In multistage amplifier, the output signal of preceding stage is to be coupled to the
input circuit of succeeding stage. The different types of coupling elements can be employed.
These are:
 RC coupling
 Transformer coupling
 Direct coupling
38. What is the difference between single stage and multistage amplifiers? Why do you
cascade the amplifiers?
Answer: When only one transistor with associated circuit is used for increasing the strength of
a weak signal, the circuit is known as single stage amplifier while a transistor circuit containing
two or more stages of amplification is known as a multistage amplifier. A practical amplifier
is always a multistage amplifier.
The reason why we need cascade amplifier is that the voltage/power gain or frequency response
obtainable from a single stage amplifier is usually not sufficient to meet the needs of either a
composite electronic circuit or load device, so cascading of amplifiers is required to provide
greater voltage or current amplification or both.
39. What does it meant by clipper and clamper circuit?
Answer: The electronic circuits which are used to clip off the unwanted portion of the
waveform, without distorting the remaining part of the waveform are called clipper circuits.
The electronic circuits which are used to add a dc level as per the requirement to the ac output
signal are called clamper circuits.

38
 Network Analysis and Synthesis
1. What are the different types of network?
Answer: Electrical networks are types of systems and can be classified from different
points of view as given below.
 Continuous and discrete-time systems
 Time-invariant and time-varying systems
 Linear and non-linear systems
 Lumped and distributed systems
 Instantaneous and dynamic systems
 Active and passive systems
 Causal and non-causal systems
 Stable and unstable systems
 Invertible and non-invertible systems
2. What are the conditions for a network to be a linear network?
Answer: A network is said to be linear if it obeys the properties of superposition,
i.e. Additivity and homogeneity (or scaling); while a system is non-linear that does not
obey at least any one of these properties. The superposition principle says that the
output to a linear combination of input signals is the same linear combination of the
corresponding output signals. Mathematically, the linearity condition is based on two
properties:
I. Additivity If the input signals x1(t ) and x2 (t ) correspond to the output signals

y1 (t ) and y2 (t ) , respectively then the input signal {x1(t ) x2(t )} should

correspond to the output signal {y1(t ) y2(t )} .

II. Homogeneity If the input signal x1(t ) corresponds to the output signal y1 (t )

then the input signal a1x1(t ) should correspond to the output signal a1y1(t ) for

any constants a 1 Combining these two properties, the condition for a linear

network can be written as if the input signals x1(t ) and x2 (t ) correspond to

the output signals y1 (t ) and y2 (t ) , respectively then the input signal

{a1x1(t ) a2x 2 (t )} should correspond to the output signal {a1y1(t ) a2y2 (t )}

for any constants a 1 and a 2 .

39
 3. Mention some examples where the reciprocity theorem is not applicable.
Answer:
I. This theorem is inapplicable to unilateral networks, such as networks
comprising of electron tubes or other control devices.
II. This theorem is inapplicable to circuits with time varying elements.
III. This theorem is inapplicable to circuits with dependent sources.
To apply this theorem, we have to consider only the zero-state response by taking all
the initial conditions to be zero.
4. The linear network as shown below has only resistors. If I 1 8 A and I 2 12 A ; V

is found to be 80V . V 0V When I 1 8 A and I 2 4 A . Then the value of V

when I1 I2 10 A is:

I1 Network I2

Answer: This network can obeys superposition theorem ad from the given
information
V I
V I 1, I 2
V I1 I2

From the given information:

I1 I2 5
10
Case 1 8A 12A 80V
Case 2 8A 4A 0V
Case 3 10A 10A x
Let’s now find x
From cases 1 and 2:
80 8 12
0 8 4

40
Solving the above system of equations for and
5
10
x I1 I2
x 5 * 10 10 * 10
x 50V
5. Derive and draw the transformed network representation of the three basic network
elements (Resistor, Capacitor ad Inductor)
Answer:
I. Resistor:
v(t ) Ri(t )
V (s ) RI (s )
Time Domain Transformed 1

II. Capacitor:
dv(t )
i(t ) C
dt
t
1
v(t ) i( )d v(0 )
C 0

Laplace transforming the above equation and performing some rearrangement

we can get the following:

1 v(0 )
V (s ) I (s )
sC s
I (s ) sCV (s ) Cv(0 )
The above two Laplace domain equations can then be drawn inn circuit form as follows:

41
Time Domain Transformed 1 Transformed 2

III. Inductor:
di(t )
v(t ) L
dt
t
1
v(t ) v( )d i(0 )
L 0

Laplace transforming the above equation and performing some rearrangement

we can get the following:
V (s ) sCI (s ) Ci(0 )
1 i(0 )
I (s ) V (s )
sL s
Time Domain Transformed 1 Transformed 2

42
 6. In the circuit of figure below, the switch is closed at t = 0. At t = 0+ the current through
C is

Answer: 4 A
Because: The capacitor was not connected to any source before. When the switch is
then closed, capacitor acts as short wire and the 3 ohm resistor will be parallel to short
which will be short again. Hence the resistance of 5 should be considered.
7. The network of Figure below was initially in the =steady state with the switch in the
position a. At t 0 , the switch is altered from a to b. Find the Laplace transform
expression for voltage v(t ) for t 0 and find the steady state value of v(t ) .

Answer:
At t 0 , the network has attained steady-state condition. Hence, the Inductor of 2H acts as a
short circuit. The network can then be reduced to the circuit below.

2
i(0 ) 1A
2

43
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
i(0 ) 1A
For t 0 , the transformed network is shown in Figure below.

Applying KCL at the node for t 0,

V (s ) 2 V (s) V (s)
0
2s 1 s

3 1
V (s ) 1
2s s

2 1
V (s )
2s 3 s 1.5
The Final value of v(t ) can be determined from the Laplace transform V (s) using final value
theorem:
s
v( ) lim sV (s ) lim 0
s 0 s 0 s 1.5
8. List the properties of Hurwitz polynomials
Answer:
I. All the coefficients of the polynomial must be positive.
II. All the terms starting from highest power of s to the lowest powers of s must
be present. No powers of s between should be missing in between.
III. If the polynomial even or odd then all its roots must lie on the imaginary axis.
IV. All the quotients are positive in the continued fraction expansion of the ratio
of odd to even parts or even to odd parts of the polynomial P(s).
V. If the polynomial P(s) is expressed as W(s) P1(s), then P(s) is Hurwitz if W(s)
and P1(s) are Hurwitz.
VI. If the ratio of the polynomial P(s) and its derivative P’(s) gives a continued
fraction expansion with all positive coefficients then the polynomial P(s) is
Hurwitz.

44
9. Which of the following can be Hurwitz polynomial.

a. s 4 4s 3 3s 2

b. s 6 5s 5 4s 4 3s 3 2s 2 s 3
c. s 100
d. (s 1)(s 2)(s 3)(s 4)
Answer:
Polynomial Answer Reason
a s4 4s 3 3s 2 Not Hurwitz s 2 missed
b s6 5s 5 4s 4 3s 3 2s 2 s 3 Not Hurwitz Negative coefficient

c s 100 Hurwitz All satisfied

d (s 1)(s 2)(s 3)(s 4) Hurwitz All satisfied

10. List the properties of positive real function

P (s )
Answer: For F (s ) ,
Q(s )
I. All the coefficients of P(s) and Q(s) are real and positive.
II. The degrees of numerator and denominator polynomials differ at most by 1.
III. Lowest degrees in numerator and denominator polynomials differ at most by1.
IV. Imaginary axis poles and zeros must be simple
V. There should no missing terms in both numerator and denominator
polynomials unless all even or odd terms are missed.
VI. The poles and zeros must be located in the left half of the s-plane
VII. Poles on the imaginary axis should have real and positive residue.
11. If F1(s ) and F2 (s ) are positive real, then which of the following are positive real?
A. 1 1 B. F1(s) F2 (s)
and
F1 (s ) F2 (s )

C. F1(s )F2 (s ) D. All of the

F1(s ) F2 (s ) above

Answer: D

45
12. List the necessary and sufficient condition for a driving point function to be positive
real function.
Answer:
I. If F(s) has poles on the imaginary axis, the residues corresponding to
these poles must e positive and real.
II. Both numerator and denominator polynomials must be Hurwitz

III. Re F (s ) 0 for all

13. Which of the following can be positive real function.

a. F(a) 2s
b. s 0
s3 5s
c. F (s ) 4 2
s 2s 1
2
2s 2s 1
d. F (s )
s3 2s 2 s 2
Answer:
Function Answer Reason
a F(a) 2s P.R.F Inductor or Capacitor

b 1 P.R.F Inductor or Capacitor

F (s )
2s
c s3 5s Not P.R.F Multiple poles on jw
F (s )
s4 2s 2 1 axis
d 2s 2 2s 1 P.R.F All cond. satisfied
F (s )
s3 2s 2 s 2

14. What do you understand by driving point impedance of a two-port network?

Enumerate important properties of driving point impedance functions of a two-port
passive network.
Answer:
I. For a two-port network in zero state with no internal energy sources, the
driving point impedance is the ratio of transform voltage at any port to the
transform current at the same port.

46
 V1(s )
Z 11(s )
I 1(s )
i.e
V2 (s )
Z 22 (s )
I 2 (s )

N (s )
II. Properties of driving point impedance Z (s )
D(s )
a) The coefficients in the polynomials N(s) and D(s) are real and positive.
b) Complex and imaginary poles are conjugate.
c) The real part of all poles and zeros is either negative or zero. Thus, all poles
and zeros lie on the left half of the s-plane or on the imaginary axis.
d) If the real part of any pole or zero is zero then that pole or zero is simple, not
repeated. This includes the origin.
e) Polynomials N(s) and D(s) do not have missing terms between those of
highest and lowest degree unless all even terms or all odd terms are missing.
f) The degree of N(s) and D(s) differs by zero or one only.
g) The lowest degree of N(s) and D(s) may differ by one at most
15. What do you understand by the transfer function of a system? State its properties.
Answer: Transfer functions of a two port network are the ratios of voltage and
currents in one port to voltage and currents in another port. The following are for
example transfer functions of a two port network

47
 N (s )
Properties of Transfer functions of T (s )
D(s )
I. The coefficients in the polynomials N(s) and D(s) are real and positive
II. Complex and imaginary poles are conjugate.
III. The real part of all poles and zeros is either negative or zero. Thus, all
poles and zeros lie on the left half of the s-plane or on the imaginary axis.
IV. If the real part of any pole or zero is zero then that pole or zero is simple,
not repeated. This includes the origin.
V. The polynomial D(s) may not have any missing terms between those of
highest and lowest degree unless all even terms or all odd terms are
missing.
VI. The polynomial N(s) may have missing terms between those of highest
and lowest degree; some coefficients of N(s) may be negative, too.
VII. The degree of N(s) may be as small as zero, independent of the degree of
D(s).
VIII. A. For the voltage ratio transfer functions, G, and current ratio transfer
functions G, the maximum degree of N(s) is the degree of D(s).
B. For transfer impedance Z and transfer admittance Y, the maximum
degree of N(s) is the degree of D(s) plus one.

48
16. The pole–zero diagram of the driving point impedance function of the network of
Figure (a) below is shown in Figure (b). At dc the input impedance is resistive and
equals to 2 . Determine the values of R, L and C.

Answer: from the given network the driving point impedance is given as:
1 R
(R sL) s
Z (s ) CS L
1 R 1
R sL Cs 2 s
CS L L
Now, the driving-point impedance function is written as from the pole zero plot:
(s 2) s 2
Z (s ) k k 2
(s 1 j 4)(s 1 j 4) s 2s 17
Since the dc input impedance is 2 , ie. Z(0) 2

2
Z (0) 2 k 2 k 17
17
s 2 s 2 s 2
Now, k 2
17 2
s 2s 17 s 2s 17 1 2 2
s s 1
17 17
Comparing the coefficients of numerator and denominator,
1
L 1H , R 2 ,L 1H , C F
17

49
17. The driving-point impedance Z(s) of a network has a pole-zero locations as shown in
the figure. If Z(0) = 3, then Z (s) is

Answer: From figure, the impedance function

3k
and Z (0) while in question Z(0) = 3
2

=3 k = 2.
18. Point out the difference in the philosophy between Foster and Cauer form of synthesis
of a given driving point impedance.
Answer:
I. Foster forms: The networks synthesized by partial fraction expansion
methods are called Foster type of networks.
Foster form I provides series impedance network realization, Z(s) and Foster
form II provides parallel admittance network realization, Y(s).
II. Cauer forms: The networks synthesized by continued fraction expansion
methods are called Cauer type of networks. By this technique, the synthesized
network is of Ladder type. Cauer forms are of two types.
Cauer I form The first Cauer form of a network realization is obtained by
repeated removal of poles at infinity (s ), which corresponds to arrange the

50
 numerator and denominator of the network function in descending powers of
‘s’ and then to find the continued fraction expansion.
Cauer II form The second Cauer form of network realization is obtained by
repeated removal of poles at origin (s 0), which corresponds to arrange the
numerator and denominator of the network function in ascending powers of ‘s’
and then to find the continued fraction expansion.
19. List properties and Synthesis of LC Driving Point Functions
m1(s ) n1(s )
Answer: For a driving point function F (s ) m , n are even and
m2 (s ) n2 (s )

odd parts respectively.

I. Driving-point immittance function Z LC (s ) or mi (s ) is the ratio of even to odd

or odd to even polynomials.

II. Since both mi (s ) and ni (s) are Hurwitz, they have only imaginary roots.

Thus, the poles and zeros of the immittance function are on the imaginary ( jw
) axis.
III. The poles and zeros of the immittance function interlace on the j -axis, i.e., the
poles and zeros alternate on the imaginary axis.
IV. The highest as well as the lowest powers of the numerator and denominator
polynomials must differ by unity.
V. There must be either a zero or pole at origin s 0 and infinity s .
20. Test whether the following functions can LC immittance functions:
ks(s 2 4)
a. F (s )
(s 2 1)(s 2 3)
s4 4s 3 5s
b. F (s ) 4 2
3s 6s
2
k (s 1)(s 2 9)
c. F (s )
(s 2 2)(s 2 10)
2(s 2 1)(s 2 9)
d. F (s )
s(s 2 4)

51
 Answer:
Function Answer Reason
a ks(s 2 4) Not LC Poles and zeros do not
F (s )
(s 2 1)(s 2 3) alternate

b s4 4s 3 5s Not LC Poles and zeros not on

F (s )
3s 4 6s 2 the jw axis
c k (s 2 1)(s 2 9) Not LC Numerator and
F (s )
(s 2 2)(s 2 10) denominator have equal
degree.
d 2(s 2 1)(s 2 9) Yes it is LC All cond. satisfied
F (s )
s(s 2 4)

21. What are the open-circuit impedance parameters (z-parameters) of a two-port

network? Why are they so called?
Answer:
 The open-circuit impedance parameters represent the relation between the
voltages and the currents in the two-port network.
 The impedance parameter equations may be written as

In this matrix equation, it is easily seen without even expanding the individual
equations, that

V1
Z 11 Driving point impedance at Port 1
I1 I2 0

V1
Z 12 Transfer impedance
I2 I1 0

V2
Z 21 Transfer impedance
I1 I2 0

V2
Z 22 Driving point impedance at Port 21
I2 I1 0

52
  It can be seen that the dimensions of all the parameters are impedance. All the
impedances correspond to the driving point and transfer impedances at each
port with the other port having zero current (i.e., open circuit). For this reason,
these parameters are referred as the open-circuit impedance parameters.
22. How will you find the -equivalent of a given network when its y-parameters are
known? The configuration of a typical -network is shown in Figure below.

By KCL equations at the two nodes, we get:

Thus, the y-parameters are:

Rearranging,

From these equations of the admittances, we can find out the -equivalent of a given
network when its y-parameters are known.
Use the following data to answer questions 22 and 23:
A two-port network shown below is excited by external DC source. The voltage and the
current are measured with voltmeters, and ammeters, (all assumed to be ideal), as indicated

A1 A2
1 2
V1 V2 1.5V
6V
1' 2'

53
 (1) S1 Open S 2 Closed : A1 0 A , V1 4.5V , V2 1.5V , A2 1A

(2) S1 Closed S 2 Open : A1 4 A , V1 6V , V2 6V , A2 0A

23.The Z - parameter matrix for this network is

1.5 1.5 1.5 4.5
A. B.
4.5 1.5 1.5 4.5

1.5 4.5 4.5 1.5

C. D.
1.5 1.5 1.5 4.5
Answer: C (revise Z - parameters)
24. The h - parameter matrix for this network is

3 3 3 1
A. B.
1 0.67 3 0.67

3 3 3 1
C. D.
1 0.67 3 0.67
Answer: A (revise h- parameters)
25. Which one of the following is correct about series connection of two-port network?
A. All individual z-parameters of overall connections are the sum of
individual respective z-parameters
B. All individual y-parameters of overall connections are the sum of
individual respective y-parameters
C. All individual h-parameters of overall connections are the sum of
individual respective h-parameters
D. All individual ABCD-parameters of overall connections are the
sum of individual respective ABCD-parameters
Answer: A
26. Determine the zeros of transmission for the following two port network.

54
 Answer: The zeros of transmission of a ladder occurs at the poles of a series branch
impedances or at the zeros of shunt branch impedances. Therefore,
Series branch impedances
Impedances 1 1 L1s
s
C 1s C4
1
s2
L2C 4
poles s 0 1 s
s j
L2C 4

Shunt impedances

Impedances R1 1 1 R3
s
R2C 2 C 3s
1
s
R2
Zeros Nan 1 s Nan
s
R2C 2

1 1
Zeros of Transmission are: s 0, s j ,s (2), s
L2C 4 R2C 2
27. Classify passive filters on the basis of functions they perform and give brief
explanation of their function for each of them.
Answer:
On the basis of functions they perform, passive filters are classified as follows:
I. Low-Pass Filters (LPF)
Function: Pass all the frequencies lower than the selected cut-off
frequency fc and attenuate/stop/suppress the signals whose frequency is

greater than fc .

II. High-Pass Filters (HPF)

Function: Passes all the signals whose frequency is higher than the cut-off
frequency and stops the signals whose frequency is less than fc .

III. Band-Pass Filters (BPF)

Function: It is a filter that passes a particular band of frequencies and
stops all other frequencies.

55
 IV. Band-Stop Filters (BSF)
Function: It is a filter that stops particular band of frequencies and passes
all other frequencies. It is just opposite to that of a band-pass filter (BPF).
28. Find the nominal impedance, cut-off frequency and pass band for the network shown
below.

Answer: The network is a low-pass filter.

L
25 mH ,C 0.2 F
2
L 50 mH
I. Nominal Impedance
L 50 * 10 3
k 500
C 0.2 * 10 6
II. Cut-off frequency
1 1
fc 3.18 kHz
3 6
LC 50 * 10 * 0.2 * 10
III. Pass band
The pass band is from zero to 3.18 kHz.

56
 Digital Logic Design
1. Convert decimal number 4.47 into equivalent binary number up-to 3 precision after
decimal point.
Step 1: Conversion of 4 to binary
1. 4/2: Remainder = 0: Quotient = 2
2. 2/2: Remainder = 0: Quotient = 1
3. 1/2: Remainder = 1: Quotient = 0
So equivalent binary of integral part of decimal is 100.
Step 2: Conversion of .47 to binary
1. 0.47 * 2 = 0.94, Integral part: 0
2. 0.94 * 2 = 1.88, Integral part: 1
3. 0.88 * 2 = 1.76, Integral part: 1
So equivalent binary of fractional part of decimal is .011
Step 3: Combined the result of step 1 and 2.
Final answer can be written as:
100.011 = 100.011
2. Evaluate 10010112 ÷ 112 using the long-division method.
Here, Dividend = 10010112, Divisor = 112

Step 1: First compare the divisor 112 with the first digit in the dividend 10010112. Since
the divisor is larger, place 0 as the quotient, then bring the second bit of the dividend
down. Repeat the process until the dividend is bigger than the divisor. Now, at the third
step, when the divisor (112) is smaller than the new dividend (1002), multiply it with 1,

57
 write the product as the subtrahend and subtract the subtrahend from the minuend to
get the remainder.
Step 2: Then bring down the next number bit from the dividend portion and perform
step 1 again.
Step 3: Repeat the same process until the whole dividend is divided.
Step 4: We get the result as: Quotient = 11002, Remainder = 1
Answer: Quotient = 11002, Remainder = 1
3. Convert decimal number 98 into octal number.
First convert it into binary or hexadecimal number,
= (98)10
= (1x26+1x25+0x24+0x23+0x22+1x21+0x20)10
Because base of binary is 2
= (1100010)2
Then convert each group of 3 bits from least significant in binary number.
= (001 100 010)2
= (001 100 010)2
= (142)8
4. Convert decimal number 210 into octal number.
Since given number is decimal integer number, so by performing short division by 8
with remainder.
Division Remainder (R)
210 / 8 = 26 2
26 / 8 = 3 2
3/8=0 3
Now, write remainder from bottom to up (in reverse order), this will be 322 which is
equivalent octal number of decimal integer 210.
But this method cannot convert fraction part of a mixed (a number with integer and
fraction part) octal number. For decimal fractional part, the method is explained as
following below.
5. Convert decimal fractional number 0.140869140625 into octal number.
Since given number is decimal fractional number, so by performing short
multiplication by 8 with integer part.
Multiplication Resultant integer part
0.140869140625 x 8=0.12695313 1

58
 0.12695313 x 8=0.01562504 1
0.01562504 x 8=0.12500032 0
0.12500032 x 8=0.00000256 1
0.00000256 x 8=0.000020544 0
and so on ....
Now, write these resultant integer part, this will be approximate 0.11010 which is
equivalent octal fractional number of decimal fractional 0.140869140625.
6. Fractional Division - divide 10.11b by .010b.
+-------
.010 | 10.11
Like decimal division, we must remove the radix point from the divisor. The number of
fractional places in the divisor tells us how many places to move the radix point (Include
the trailing zeros in the fractional divisor when counting places). So, we move the radix
point three places to the right since the divisor has three fractional places.
+-------
010 | 10.11
When we do this, we must also move the radix point the same number of places to the
right in the dividend (three places). Append 0 bits as needed to fill the new places.
+-------
010 | 10110. <-- radix point is now here
We can discard leading zeros from the divisor, so the result looks like this,
+-------
10 | 10110
Now, we are ready to divide. Division is the same as before. Take it two bits at a time
since the divisor is two bits in length.
1011
+-------
10 | 10110
- 10
---------
011
- 10
------
010

59
7. Divide 11000000b by 100b. Convert to and divide in decimal first, and then perform the
division in binary. Check the binary quotient with the decimal quotient to verify the
correct answer.
11000000b = 192d
100b = 4d
Decimal:
192 / 4 = 48d
Binary:
110000
+-----------
100 | 11000000
Convert and check: Does 110000b = 48d?
110000b = 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 48d
8. Find 2’s complement of binary number 10101110.
To get 2's complement of binary number is 1's complement of given number plus 1 to the
least significant bit (LSB)
Simply invert each bit of given binary number, which will be 01010001. Then add 1 to the
LSB of this result, i.e., 01010001+1=01010010 which is answer.
9. Can you explain what a digital circuit is in the context of digital logic design?
A digital circuit is a circuit that uses digital signals, which are signals that can only have
two values (usually represented as 0 and 1). These circuits are used to process digital
data, which is data that can be represented as a series of 0s and 1s.
10. Can you explain how Boolean algebra works in the context of digital logic design?
Boolean algebra is the mathematics of logic, which is the basis for digital logic design.
In Boolean algebra, there are three basic operations: AND, OR, and NOT. These
operations can be performed on binary values, which are either 1 or 0. The AND
operation will return a 1 only if both of the input values are 1. The OR operation will
return a 1 if either of the input values is 1. The NOT operation will return the opposite
of the input value. For example, if the input is 1, the output will be 0.
11. What are the two different ways of representing a logic expression?
The two different ways of representing a logic expression are using Boolean algebra or
using a truth table. Boolean algebra is a mathematical way of representing logic
expressions using symbols, while a truth table lists all of the possible combinations of
input values and the corresponding output values.

60
12. What are multiplexers, decoders and encoders?
Multiplexers are digital circuits that can select one of several input signals and route it
to a single output. Decoders are digital circuits that can convert a digital code into a set
of signals. Encoders are digital circuits that can convert a set of signals into a digital
code.
13. Is it possible to implement NAND or NOR gate using only AND or OR gates respectively?
If yes, then how?
Yes, it is possible to implement NAND and NOR gates using only AND and OR gates,
respectively. This can be done by using a combination of inverters (NOT gates) and
AND or OR gates to create the desired logic gate.
14. Can you explain what sequential circuits are? Give some examples too.
Sequential circuits are digital logic circuits that have an output that depends on the
current input as well as the past inputs. A simple example of this would be a flip-flop,
which has two inputs (set and reset) and an output (Q) that is set to either 1 or 0
depending on the inputs. Another example would be a shift register, which takes in a
serial input and outputs it in parallel.
15. Digital logic design uses Boolean algebra to create circuits that perform specific tasks. For
example, a AND gate will have two inputs and one output. The output will be 1 only if both
of the inputs are 1. If either of the inputs is 0, the output will be 0.
16. Complement of the expression A’B + CD’ is _________
a) (A’ + B)(C’ + D)
b) (A + B’)(C’ + D)
c) (A’ + B)(C’ + D)
d) (A + B’)(C + D’)
Answer: b
(A’B + CD’)’ = (A’B)'(CD’)’ (By DeMorgan’s Theorem) = (A” + B’)(C’ + D”) (By
DeMorgan’s Theorem) = (A + B’)(C’ + D).
17. The boolean function A + BC is a reduced form of ____________
a) AB + BC
b) (A + B)(A + C)
c) A’B + AB’C
d) (A + C)B
Answer: b

61
 (A + B)(A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC = A + AC + AB + BC (By Commutative
Property) = A(1 + C + B) + BC = A + BC (1 + B + C =1 By 1’s Property).
18. In DOWN-counter, each flip-flop is triggered by ___________
In DOWN-counter, each flip-flop is triggered by the inverted output of the preceding flip-
flop. DOWN-counter counts from a maximum value to 0.
19. A digital system consists of two types of circuits and these are combinational and sequential
logic circuit. What is the difference between them?
Combinational circuits are the ones which do not depend on previous inputs while
Sequential circuits depend on past inputs.
20. Derive the Boolean expression for the logic circuit shown below:

The logic circuit just consists of simple AND, OR and NOT gates connected together. We
can simplify the circuit by writing down the Boolean notation for each logic gate function
in turn in order to give us a final expression for the output at Q.

The output from the 3-input AND gate is only at logic “1” when ALL the gates inputs are
HIGH at logic level “1” (A.B.C). The output from the lower OR gate is only a “1” when
one or both inputs B or C are at logic level “0”. The output from the 2-input AND gate is
a “1” when input A is a “1” and inputs B or C are at “0”. Then the output at Q is only a “1”
when inputs A.B.C equal “1” or A is equal to “1” and both inputs B or C equal “0”,
A.(B+C).

62
 By using “de Morgan’s theorem” inputs B and input C cancel out as to produce an output
at Q they can be either at logic “1” or at logic “0”. Then this just leaves input A as the only
input needed to give an output at Q as shown in the table below.

Then we can see that the entire logic circuit above can be replaced by just one single input
labelled “A” thereby reducing a circuit of six individual logic gates to just one single piece
of wire, (or Buffer). This type of circuit analysis using Boolean Algebra can be very
powerful and quickly identify any unnecessary logic gates within a digital logic design
thereby reducing the number of gates required, the power consumption of the circuit and
of course the cost.
21. Simplify the following circuit?

63
 Our first step in simplification must be to write a Boolean expression for this circuit. This
task is easily performed step by step if we start by writing sub-expressions at the output of
each gate, corresponding to the respective input signals for each gate.

Now that we have a Boolean expression to work with, we need to apply the rules of
Boolean algebra to reduce the expression to its simplest form (simplest defined as requiring
the fewest gates to implement):

The final expression, B(A + C), is much simpler than the original, yet performs the same
function.
If you would like to verify this, you may generate a truth table for both expressions and
determine Q’s status (the circuits’ output) for all eight logic-state combinations of A, B,
and C, for both circuits. The two truth tables should be identical.
22. What is the minimum number of two-input NAND gates used to perform the function of
two input OR gate?
Y=A+B. This is the equation of OR gate. We require 3 NAND gates to create OR
gate. We can also write
After 1st NAND operation
Y = (A AND B)'
Y= A' + B' (Demorgan's Law)

64
 After 2nd NAND operation
Y= ( A' + B')'
Y= A . B (Demorgan's Law)
After 3rd NAND operation
Y= ( A . B )'
Y= A' + B ' (Demorgan's Law)
So we need 3 NAND gates.
23. The number of full and half-adders required to add 16-bit numbers is
The one half-adder can add the least significant bit of the two numbers. Full adders are
required to add the remaining 15 bits as they all involve adding carries.
24. How to build an XOR gate using NAND gates?
We can build a 2-input XOR gate using only 3 NAND gates.
As we know, the logical equation of a 2-input XOR gate is given as below:
Y = A (xor) B = (A' B + A B')
Let us take an approach where we consider A and A' as different variables for now
(optimizations related to this, if any, will consider later). Thus, the logic equation, now,
becomes:
Y = (CB + A D) ----- (i)
Where,
C = A' and D = B'
De-Morgan's law states that
m + n = (m'n')'
Taking this into account,
Y = ((CB)'(AD)')' = ((A' B)' (A B')')'
Thus, Y is equal to ((A' nand B) nand (A nand B')). No further optimizations to the
logic seem possible to this logic.
25. What are the differences between a flip-flop and a latch?
Flip-flop is a modified version of latch. To determine the changes in states, an
additional control input is provided to the latch. Latches are faster than flip-flops.
26. How many full adders are required to construct an m-bit parallel adder ?
Answer: m-1
We need an adder for every bit. So we should need m full adders. A full adder adds a
carry bit to two inputs and produces an output and a carry. But the most significant

65
 bits can use a half adder, which differs from the full adder as in that it has no carry
input, so we need m-1 full adders in m bit parallel adder.
27. To make the following circuit a tautology? marked box should be

Answer: NAND gate

The output f = (x+x')+(y+y').
Starting derivation using 'f'.
-->(x+x')+(y+y')
-->(x+y)+(x'+y')
-->(Already a known Input)+(x'+y')
So, the unknown input is (x'+y'). This can be made by :-
x and y fed into a NOT gate and then AND gate to become (x'+y').
So the answer is NAND gate.
28. The combinational circuit given below is implemented with two NAND gates. To which
of the following individual gates is its equivalent?

a. NOT
b. OR
c. AND
d. XOR
Answer: c
[ (a.b) '. (a.b) ' ] '= ((a.b)')' + ((a.b)')'
= ( a.b)+ (a.b)
=(a.b)

66
29. Reduce A'B'C' + A'BC' + A'BC
A'B'C' + A'BC' + A'BC = A'C'(B' + B) + A'B'C
= A'C' + A'BC [A + A' = 1]
= A'(C' + BC)
= A'(C' + B) [A + A'B = A + B]
30. Reduce AB + (AC)' + AB’C (AB + C)
AB + (AC)' + AB’C (AB + C) = AB + (AC)' + AAB'BC + AB'CC
= AB + (AC)' + AB'CC [A.A' = 0]
= AB + (AC)' + AB'C [A.A = 1]
= AB + A' + C' =AB'C [(AB)' = A' + B']
= A' + B + C' + AB'C [A + AB' = A + B]
= A' + B'C + B + C' [A + A'B = A + B]
= A' + B + C' + B'C
=A' + B + C' + B'
=A' + C' + 1
= 1 [A + 1 =1]
31. Simplify the following expression Y = (A + B) (A + C’) (B' + C’)
Y = (A + B) (A + C’) (B' + C’)
= (AA' + AC +A'B +BC) (B' + C') [A.A' = 0]
= (AC + A'B + BC) (B' + C’)
= AB'C + ACC' + A'BB' + A'BC' + BB'C + BCC'
= AB'C + A'BC'
32. Show that (X + Y' + XY) (X + Y') (X'Y) = 0
(X + Y' + XY)(X + Y')(X'Y) = (X + Y' + X) (X + Y’) (X' + Y) [A + A'B = A + B]
= (X + Y’) (X + Y’) (X'Y) [A + A = 1]
= (X + Y’) (X'Y) [A.A = 1]
= X.X' + Y'.X'.Y
= 0 [A.A' = 0]
33. Prove that ABC + ABC' + AB'C + A'BC = AB + AC + BC
ABC + ABC' + AB'C + A'BC=AB(C + C') + AB'C + A'BC
=AB + AB'C + A'BC
=A(B + B'C) + A'BC
=A(B + C) + A'BC
=AB + AC + A'BC

67
 =B(A + C) + AC
=AB + BC + AC
=AB + AC +BC ...Proved
34. Which logic gate is equivalent to these combinations of logic gates

Truth table of the circuit will be

This means the output will be always 1 when both inputs are 1, just like AND gate.

Y = (A’+B’)’ =((AB)’)’ = AB
35. Minimize the boolean expression using k-map
Y = AB’C + A’B’C + A’BC + AB’C’ + A’B’C’
Step 1: The given function has three variables and hence 23 = 8 cells K-map is
necessary to minimize the expression.
Step 2: Plotting of k-map.

68
 Step 3: No isolated 1s are there in the K-map
Step 4: Group the pair of 1s in the K-map.

Step 5: Group the Quad of 1s in the K-map

Step 6: There is no octet group.

Hence, from the K-map, the simplified output expression is Y = A’C + B’
36. Minimize the boolean expression using k-map
Y = ABC’D + ABC’D’ + ABCD + A’BCD + ABCD’ + A’BCD’
Step 1: The given function has four variables and hence 24 = 16 cells K-map is
necessary to minimize the expression.
Step 2: Plotting of k-map.

Step 3: No isolated 1s are there in the K-map.

Step 4: Group the pair of 1s in the K-map. But here, two quad groups can be formed.
[Thus the number of groups are minimized by grouping the quad cells instead of
pairing two cells].

69
 Step 5: There is no octet group.
Hence, from the K-map, the simplified output expression is
Y = AB + BC.
37. The gates required to build a half adder are?
The gates required to build a half adder are EX-OR gate and AND

38. The device which changes from serial data to parallel data is?
The device which changes from serial data to parallel data is de-multiplexer.
A de-multiplexer takes in data from one line and directs it to any of its N outputs
depending on the status of the select inputs.
39. A device which converts BCD to Seven Segment is?
A device which converts BCD to Seven Segment is called DECODER.
A decoder coverts binary words into alphanumeric characters.
40. Find the Boolean expression for logic circuit shown in the figure below and reduce it
using Boolean algebra?

70
 Y = (AB)’ + (A’ + B)’
=A’ + B’ + AB’ Using Demorgan’s Theorem.
=A’ + B’(1+A)
=A’ + B’ Since 1+A=1
41. Distinguish between ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM?
ROM: Read Only Memory is a Permanent Memory. In Permanent ROM, the data is
permanently stored and cannot be changed. It can only be read from the memory.
There cannot be a write operation because the specified data is programmed into the
device by the manufacturer or the user. ROM is a Non-volatile memory. Some
examples of ROM are conversion tables, pre-programmed instructions etc.
PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory allows user to store the data. An
instrument PROM programmer is used to store the required data. The process used is
opening the links at bit locations using high current (this process is called burning in).
Once this process has been done, the data is permanently stored and no change is
possible.
EPROM: EPROM means Erasable PROM. It can be reprogrammed by first erasing
the existing program. EPROM uses N-MOSFET array with isolated gate structure.
The isolated transistor gate has no electrical connection and can store an electrical
charge in definitely. The data bits in this memory array are represented by presence
or absence of charge. Erasure is achieved by removing the gate charge. EPROM can
be UV EPROM or EEPROM.
UV EPROM: means Ultra Violet Erasable PROM. Erasure is achieved by using
ultraviolet light. The light passes through a window in the IC package to the chip
where there are stored charges. Thus the stored contents are erased.
EEPROM: EEPROM means Electrically Erasable PROM. In this memory device, the
erasure and programming is done by electrical pulses.
42. With the help of a truth table explain the working of a half subtractor. Draw the logic
diagram using gates?
Half Subtractor: A logic circuit for the subtraction of B (subtrahend) from A
(minuend) where A and B are 1-bit numbers is referred to as a Half-Subtractor.
The truth table for half subtractor is given. Here A and B are the two inputs and Di
(difference) and Bo (borrow) are the two outputs. If B is larger than A (e.g., A=0 and
B=1), a borrow is necessary,

71
 From the Truth Table, the logical expressions for Di and Bo are obtained as
Di= A’ B+ A B’
BO = A’ B

Di= A⊕ B --------- (1)

BO = A’ B ----------- (2)
By combining Boolean Expressions (1) & (2), we get the logic circuit
for Half Subtractor.
43. What type of register would have a complete binary number shifted in one bit at a time and
have all the stored bits shifted out one at a time?
Serial-in Serial-out register would have a complete binary number shifted in one bit at a
time and have all the stored bits shifted out one at a time. Since in serial transmission, bits
are transmitted or received one at a time and not simultaneously.
44. A counter circuit is usually constructed of?
A counter circuit is usually constructed of a number of flip-flops connected in cascade.
Preferably, JK Flip-flops are used to construct counters and registers.
45. Counter circuits built by cascading the output of one flip-flop to the clock input of the next
flip-flop are generally referred to as ripple counters. Explain why this is so. What happens
in such a circuit that earns it the label of “ripple”? Is this effect potentially troublesome in
circuit operation, or is it something of little or no consequence?
When these counters increment or decrement, they do so in such a way that the respective
output bits change state in rapid sequence (“rippling”) rather than all at the same time. This
creates false count outputs for very brief moments of time.

72
 Whether or not this constitutes a problem in a digital circuit depends on the circuit’s
tolerance of false counts. In many circuits, there are ways to avoid this problem without
resorting to a re-design of the counter.
46. A style of counter circuit that completely circumvents the “ripple” effect is called the
synchronous counter:

Complete a timing diagram for this circuit, and explain why this design of counter does
not exhibit “ripple” on its output lines:

The timing diagram shown here is ideal, with no propagation delays shown:

However, even with propagation delays included (equal delays for each flip-flop), you
should find there is still no “ripple” effect in the output count.

73
 Introduction to Computing
Fundamentals of Computer
Computers have become one of the most essential parts of human life. At present, computers
can be easily seen in almost every sector or field even where it is most unexpected. There can
be several different reasons why computers are actually required. We can summarize the
reasons for the requirement of computers in three words:

 Efficiency
 Accuracy
 Reliability
What is Computer?
A computer is a programmable electronic machine designed to take input, perform prescribed
arithmetic and logical operations at fast speeds, and provide the output of these operations.
The first mechanical computer was designed in 1837 by Charles Babbage. It was called
’Analytical Engine’’. It was the first general-purpose computer. Charles Babbage is known
as the father of the computer.
Basic Functions of Computer
There are four basic functions of the computer:
 Input: convert the data in the binary form so that the computer can read the data.
 Processing: is the internal process where the data is processed according to the
instructions given to the computer.
 Output: retrieve the processed data from the computer and convert the data into a
human-readable form
 Storage: is used to store data or instructions before and after processing.
Generally, storage is divided into the following types:
 Primary Storage (RAM)
 Secondary Storage (Hard Disk Drive)
Generations of Computer
First Generation (1946 - 1959)
Based on - Electronic Valves (Vacuum Tubes)
Example - ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, etc.
Second Generation (1959 – 1965)
Based on - - Transistors
Example - - IBM 1620, IBM 1400 and 7000 series, CDC 3600, etc.

74
Third Generation (1965 – 1971)
Based on - Integrated Circuits (ICs)
Example - IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP, etc.
Fourth Generation (1971 – 1980)
Based on - Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) Circuits
Example - DEC 10, STAR 1000, CRAY-1 and CRAY-X-MP, etc.
Fifth Generation (1980 – Present)
Based on - Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI), Artificial Intelligence (AI) and
Parallel Processing Hardware
Example - Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Chromebook, and Ultrabook, etc.
Computer Software
Computer software is a group of programming instructions designed to instruct the computer
to perform specific tasks. Typically, a computer system is useless without software.
There are two types of computer software, as mentioned below:
1. System Software
System software connect the user and the hardware of the computer to interact with each
other. System software provide the basic functionalities required to operate the computer
system. These type of software provide an environment or platform for the other software to
work on. System software run in the background.
Example: Operating systems (e.g., Windows, Linux, Android, etc.), Device Drivers,
Firmware, and Utility software.
2. Application Software
Application software are customized software designed for personal use. These type of
software help users for performing basic tasks such as online research, setting an alarm,
designing, or even playing games. The application software runs in the frontend and mostly
used by the end-users.
Example: Word Processors, Multimedia Software, Web Browsers, Graphics Software,
Photoshop Software, etc.
Computer Representation of Numbers and Computer Arithmetic
All computers today use the binary system. This has obvious hardware advantages, since the
only digits in this system are 0 and 1. In the binary system the number is represented as the
sum of terms of the form a digit times a different power of 2.
For example, Arithmetic operations in the binary system are performed similarly as in the
decimal system; since there are only 2 digits, 1+1=10.

75
Decimal to binary conversion: For the integer part, we divide by 2 repeatedly (using integer
division); the remainders are the successive digits of the number in base 2, from least to most
significant.
Octal representation: A binary number can be easily represented in base 8. Partition the
number into groups of 3 binary digits (23 = 8), from decimal point to the right and to the left
(add zeros if needed). Then, replace each group by its octal equivalent.
Hexadecimal representation: To represent a binary number in base 16 proceed as above,
but now partition the number into groups of 4 binary digits (24= 16). The base 16 digits are
0... 9, A=10... F=15.
Fundamentals of C++ Programming
Structure of C++ Program
A C++ program has the following structure Comments

 Pre-processor directives
 Global variable declarations
 Prototypes of functions
 Definitions of functions
C++ IDE
The complete development cycle in C++ is: Write the program, compile the source code, link
the program, and run it these are the steps to create an executable file are
 Create a source code file, with a .CPP extension
 Compile the source code into a file with the .OBJ extension
 Link your OBJ file with any needed libraries to produce an executable program
Showing Sample program
# include <iostream .h>
int main ()
{
cout << " Hello World !\n";
return 0;
}

76
Basic Elements
 Keywords (reserved words): have a unique meaning within a C++ program must not be
used for any other purposes
 Identifiers: is name associated with a function or data object and used to refer to that
function or data object. An identifier must:
 Start with a letter or underscore
 Consist only of letters, the digits 0-9, or the underscore symbol
 Not be a reserved word
 Literals: are constant values which can be a number, a character of a string
 Comments: is a piece of descriptive text which explains some aspect of a program and
totally ignored by the compiler and are only intended for human readers
 Single line comment //
 Multi-line comment /**/
Data Types and Variables
What is variable?
A variable is a symbolic name for a memory location in which data can be stored and
subsequently recalled. All variables have two important attributes:
A type, which is, established when the variable is defined (e.g., integer, float, character).
Once defined, the type of a C++ variable cannot be changed.
A value, which can be changed by assigning a new value to the variable.
For example, an integer variable can only take integer values (e.g., 2, 100,-12) not real
numbers like 0.123.
Variable Declaration
Declaring a variable means defining (creating) a variable. You create or define a variable by
stating its type, followed by one or more spaces, followed by the variable name and a
semicolon.
int myAge ;

Creating more than one variable at a time

int myAge , myWeight ; // two int variables
long area, width , length ; // three longs

77
Assigning Values to Your Variables
You assign a value to a variable by using the assignment operator (=). Thus, you would
assign 5 to Width by writing
int Width;
Width = 5;
Operators
 Assignment
 Arithmetic
 Relational
 Logical
 Bitwise
 Increment/decrement
Statements represent the lowest-level building blocks of a program. Roughly speaking, each
statement represents a computational step which has a certain side-effect. (A side-effect can
be thought of as a change in the program state, such as the value of a variable changing
because of an assignment).
Input/output Statements
# include <iostream >
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
int workDays = 5;
float workHours = 7.5;
float payRate , weeklyPay ;
cout << " What is the hourly pay rate ? ";
cin >> payRate ;
weeklyPay = workDays * workHours * payRate ;
cout << " Weekly Pay = ";
cout << weeklyPay ;
cout << ’\n ’;
}

78
Functions
A function is a block of code that performs some operation or is a logically grouped set of
statements that perform a specific task.

Advantages of function

 Avoid repetition of codes

 Increase program readability
 Divide a complex problem into many simpler problems.
 Reduce chances of error
 Makes modifying a program becomes easier
 Makes unit testing possible.
Components of Function
A function usually has three components. They are:

1. Function prototype/declaration
2. Function definition
3. Function call
Function prototype/declaration
Function declaration informs the compiler about the function’s name, type and number of
argument it receives and type of value it returns.
Syntax for function declaration
returntype function_name (arguments type);
For example,
void display (char); /* function name = display, receives a character as argument and
returns nothing */
int sum (int, int); /* function name = sum, receives two integers as argument and returns an
integer */
Function definition
It is the most important part of function which that consists of body of function. It consists of
block of statements that specifies what task is to be performed. When a function is called, the
control is transferred to the function definition.

79
 Syntax for function definition
returntype function_name ([arguments ])
{
Statement (s);
... ... ...
}
Return Statement Function can return values. A return statement is used to return values to
the invoking function. The type of value a function can return is specified in the function
prototype. A function which has void as return type don’t return any value. Beside basic data
type, it can return object and pointers too. A return statement is usually place at the end of
function definition or inside a branching statement.
For example
int sum (int x, int y)
{
int s = x+y;
return s;
}
In this function, the return type of sum () is int. So it returns an integer values to the invoking
function.
Function call
Function call statement calls the function by matching its name and arguments. A function
call can be made by using function name and providing the required parameters.
Syntax for function call
function_name ([actual arguments]);
For example,
display (a);
s = sum (x, y);
A function can be called by two ways. They are:
 Call by value
 Call by reference
Call by value: when a function is called, the called function creates a copy of all the arguments
present in the calling statement. These new copies occupy separate memory location and the
function works on these copies only. This method of calling a function is called call by value.
In this method, only the value of argument is passed. So, if any changes done to those values

80
inside the function is only visible inside the function. Their values remain unchanged outside
it.
# include <iostream >
# include <conio .h>
using namespace std;
int iseven ( int ); // function prototype
int main ()
{
int n;
cout <<" Enter a number : ";
cin >>n;
if ( iseven (n)) // function call by value
cout <<n <<" is even ";
else
cout <<n <<" is odd ";
getch ();
return 0;
}
int iseven ( int x) // function definition
{
int r;
if (x%2 == 0)
r =1;
else
r =0;
return r;
}
Call by reference: in this method of calling a function, the reference of argument is passed
rather than its value. The argument received by the function and the actual argument occupy
same memory addresses. So, if any changes done to those values inside the function is also
visible both inside and outside the function.
# include <iostream >
# include <conio .h>
using namespace std;

81
void swap ( int &, int &); // function prototype
int main ()
{
int a,b;
cout <<" Enter two numbers : ";
cin >>a>>b;
cout <<" Before swapping "<< endl ;
cout <<"a = "<<a<< endl ;
cout <<"b = "<<b<< endl ;
swap (a,b); // function call by reference
cout <<" After swapping "<< endl ;
cout <<"a = "<<a<< endl ;
cout <<"b = "<<b<< endl ;
getch ();
return 0;
}
void swap ( int &x, int &y) // function definition
{
x=x+y;
y=x-y;
x=x-y;
}
What is an array?
An array is a data structure which allows a collective name to be given to a group of elements
which all have the same type. An individual element of an array is identified by its own unique
index (or subscript).
The index must be an integer and indicates the position of the element in the array. Thus the
elements of an array are ordered by the index.
One Dimensional Array
Declaration of Array
For example data on the average temperature over the year in Ethiopia for each of the last 100
years could be stored in an array declared as follows:
float annual_temp [100];

82
The number of elements in an array must be fixed at compile time. It is best to make the array
size a constant and then, if required, the program can be changed to handle a different size of
array by changing the value of the constant,
const int NE = 100;
float annual_temp [NE ];
Accessing Array Element
The first element in an array in C++ always has the index 0, and if the array has
n elements the last element will have the index n-1.An array element is accessed
by writing the identifier of the array followed by the subscript in square brackets.
Here are some examples assuming the following declarations:
const int NE = 100 ,
N = 50;
int i, j, count [N];
float annual_temp [NE ];
A value can be read into an array element directly, using cin
cin >> count [i];
Initialization of arrays
int primes [] = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13};
// or
int primes [10] = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7};
Multidimensional arrays
A multi-dimensional array can be termed as an array of arrays that stores homogeneous data in
tabular form. Data in multidimensional arrays are stored in row-major order.
The general form of declaring N-dimensional arrays is:
data_type array_name [size1] [size2].... [sizeN];
 Data type: Type of data to be stored in the array.
 Array name: Name of the array
 size1, size2,. . . ,sizeN: Sizes of the dimension
Examples:
Two dimensional array: int two_d [10][20];
Three dimensional array: int three_d [10][20][30];
Structures
Structure is a collection of variables of different data types under a single name.
It is similar to a class in that, both holds a collection of data of different data types.

83
How to declare a structure?
The struct keyword defines a structure type followed by an identifier (name of the structure).
Then inside the curly braces, you can declare one or more members (declare variables inside
curly braces) of that structure.
For example:
struct Person
{
char name [50];
int age ;
float salary;
};
When a structure is created, no memory is allocated. The structure definition is only the
blueprint for the creating of variables. You can imagine it as a datatype.
How to define a structure variable?
Once you declare a structure person as above. You can define a structure variable as:
Person bill;
How to access members of a structure?
The members of structure variable is accessed using a dot (.) operator.
Suppose, you want to access age of structure variable bill and assign it 50 to it.
You can perform this task by using following code below:
bill . age = 50;
Example
# include <iostream >
using namespace std;
struct Person
{
char name [50];
int age ;
float salary ;
};
int main ()
{
Person p1;
cout << " Enter Full name : ";

84
cin . get (p1.name , 50) ;
cout << " Enter age : ";
cin >> p1. age ;
cout << " Enter salary : ";
cin >> p1. salary ;
cout << "\ nDisplaying Information ." << endl ;
cout << " Name : " << p1. name << endl ;
cout <<" Age : " << p1.age << endl ;
cout << " Salary : " << p1. salary ;
return 0;
}
What are Pointers?
A pointer refers to a variable that holds the address of another variable.
The declaration of C++ takes the following syntax:
datatype * variable_name ;
Example:
int *x; // a pointer to integer
double *x; // a pointer to double
float *x; // a pointer to float
char *ch // a pointer to a character
 Reference operator (&) returns the variable’s address.
 Deference operator (*) helps us get the value that has been stored in a memory address.
Pointers and Arrays
Arrays and pointers work based on a related concept. There are different things to note when
working with arrays having pointers. The array name itself denotes the base address of the
array. This means that to assign the address of an array to a pointer, you should not use an
ampersand ().
We can implicitly convert an array into a pointer.
For example:
# include <iostream >
using namespace std;
int main () {
int *ip;
int arr [] = { 10, 34, 13, 76, 5, 46 };

85
ip = arr ;
for (int x = 0; x < 6; x ++) {
cout << *ip << endl ;
ip ++;
}
return 0;
}
Advantages of using Pointers
 A pointer refers to a variable holding address of another variable.
 Each pointer has a valid data type.
 A pointer is a symbolic representation of a memory address.
 Pointers allow programs to simulate call-by-reference and create and manipulate
dynamic data structures.
 Arrays and pointers use a related concept.
 The array name denotes the array’s base.
 If you want to assign the address of an array to a pointer, don’t use an ampersand ().
 If there is no specific address to assign a pointer variable, assign it a NULL.

86
 Signal and System Analysis
1. What are signals? explain with examples.
Signals are representations of real-world data, such as sound, images, and
text, that convey information. They are functions of one or more independent
variables (such as time or space), contain information about the bahaviour or
nature of some phanomenon.
Examples of signals include:

ˆ Voltage and current as a function of time in electrical circuit.

ˆ Audio signals, such as speech or music, can be captured using a micro-
phone and stored as a digital signal.
ˆ Image signals, such as photographs, can be captured using a camera and
stored as a digital signal.
ˆ Stock market signals, such as stock prices, can be used to make predic-
tions about future market trends.

In each of these examples, the signal has been transformed from a real-world
data source into a form that can be analyzed and processed by a computer or
other device.

2. What are systems? explain with examples.

In general, a system is an abstraction of anything that takes an input signal,
operates on it, and produces an output signal. In other words, a systems
establishes a relationship between its input and output. Systems respond to
particular signals by producing other signals or some desired behaviour.
Examples of systems include:

ˆ Mechanical Systems: A simple pendulum is a mechanical system that

consists of a mass attached to a pivot by a string. The motion of the
pendulum can be modeled as a system with the input being the initial
displacement and velocity, and the output being the position and velocity
of the pendulum as a function of time.
ˆ Electrical Systems: An amplifier is an electrical system that takes an
input signal and produces an output signal with a larger amplitude. The
input to the amplifier is a voltage signal, and the output is a voltage
signal with a larger magnitude.
ˆ Computer Systems: A computer system is a collection of hardware and
software components that work together to perform various tasks. The
input to the computer system can be data entered by a user, and the
output can be information displayed on a screen or stored in a file.

87
 ˆ Biological Systems: The human body is a complex biological system, with
input in the form of food and other stimuli, and output in the form of
movement, sensation, and other physical responses.
ˆ Mathematical Systems: A linear differential equation is a mathematical
system that relates the input, a function of time, to the output, another
function of time. The input and output can be modeled as signals, and
the differential equation can be thought of as a system that maps input
signals to output signals.

In each of these examples, the system takes an input and produces an output,
and the behavior of the system can be modeled and analyzed to understand
its properties and behavior. This makes systems an important area of study
in a variety of fields, including engineering, physics, computer science, and
mathematics.

3. Discuss classifications of signals.

ˆ Continous time and Discrete time signals: A signal that is specified for a
continuum value of time 𝑡 is a continous time signal. They are typically
modeled as functions of time, such as sinusoidal signals, exponential sig-
nals, and polynomial signals.
Example: A sine wave signal, 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴 * 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡), is a continuous-time
signal where t represents time, A represents amplitude, and 𝑓 represents
frequency.
A signal that is specified only at discrete value of time is a discrete time
signal. They are typically modeled as sequences, such as sequences of
numbers, and are used to represent signals that have been sampled or
quantized.
Example: A sequence of numbers, 𝑥[𝑛], representing a sampled signal, is
a discrete-time signal where 𝑛 represents the time index.
ˆ Analog and Digital signals: A signal which amplitude can take on any
value in a continous range is an analog signal. A digital signal is one
whose amplitude can take on only a finite number of values.
ˆ Periodic signals: Periodic signals repeat after a fixed interval of time.
Examples include sine waves, square waves, and triangle waves. Aperiodic
signals do not repeat after a fixed interval of time. Examples include noise
signals and impulse signals.
A signal 𝑥(𝑡) is said to be periodic if for some positive constant 𝑇 , 𝑥(𝑡) =
𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑡 ) for all 𝑡.
The smallest value of 𝑇 that satisfies the periodicity condition is the
fundamental period of 𝑥(𝑡).

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 Periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡) remains unchanged when time shifted by one period.
Periodic signal must start start at 𝑡 = −∞ and continue forever.
ˆ Energy signals and Power signals: Energy signals have a finite total en-
ergy over an infinite interval of time. Examples include sine waves and
exponential signals. Energy of a given signal 𝑥(𝑡) is
∫︁ ∞
𝐸𝑥 = |𝑥(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Power signals have a finite average power over a finite interval of time.
Examples include square waves and rectangular pulses. Power of a given
signal 𝑥(𝑡) is
∫︁ 𝑇
1
𝑃𝑥 = lim |𝑥(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡
𝑡→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇

ˆ Even signals and Odd signals: Even signals are symmetrical about the
y-axis. A signal 𝑥(𝑡) or 𝑥[𝑛] is referred to as even signal if it is identical
to its time-reversed counter part, i.e., with its reflection about the origin.
𝑥(−𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) for CT and 𝑥[−𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] for DT.
Odd signals are anti-symmetrical about the y-axis. 𝑥(−𝑡) = −𝑥(𝑡) for
CT and 𝑥[−𝑛] = −𝑥[𝑛] for DT. An odd signal must necessarily be 0 at
𝑡 = 0 or 𝑛 = 0.
ˆ Deterministic and Random signals: A signal whose physical description
is known completely, in either a mathematical form or a graphical form,
is a deterministic signal.
A signal whose values cannot be predicted precisely but are know only
interms of probabilistic description is a random signal.

4. Discuss classifications of systems.

ˆ Continuous Time and Discrete Time systems: A CT system is a system

in which CT input signals are applied and result in CT output signals.
A DT system is a system in which DT input signals are applied and result
in DT output signals.
ˆ Analog and Digital systems: An analog system is a system in which
analog input signals are applied and result in analog output signals.
A digital system is a system in which digital input signals are applied
and result in digital output signals.
ˆ Linear and non-linear systems: Linear systems are systems that exhibit
superposition and homogeneity. That is, the output of a linear system to
a linear combination of inputs is equal to the linear combination of the
outputs to each individual input.
A system is linear if

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 The response to 𝑥 (𝑡) + 𝑥 (𝑡) is 𝑦 (𝑡) + 𝑦 (𝑡). (Additivity (superpo-
sition) property).
The response to 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡) is 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡), where a is any complex constant.
(Homogeneity property)
CT: 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥 (𝑡) → 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦 (𝑡)
DT: 𝑎𝑥 [𝑛] + 𝑏𝑥 [𝑛] → 𝑎𝑦 [𝑛] + 𝑏𝑦 [𝑛]
Example: A simple electric circuit with resistors, capacitors, and induc-
tors can be modeled as a linear system, where the response to an input
signal is proportional to the input signal.
Nonlinear systems: Nonlinear systems are systems that do not exhibit
superposition and homogeneity. The output of a nonlinear system to a
linear combination of inputs is not equal to the linear combination of the
outputs to each individual input.
Example: A diode circuit, where the current-voltage relationship is not
linear, can be modeled as a nonlinear system.
ˆ Time-invariant and Time-varying systems: Time-invariant systems are
systems where the input-output relationship is unchanged over time. A
system is time invariant if a time shift in the input signal results in an
identical time shift in the output signal.

𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑦(𝑡)

𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡 ) → 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡 )

Example: A simple electric circuit with resistors and capacitors can be

modeled as a time-invariant system, as the response to an input signal is
independent of the time at which the input signal is applied.
Time-varying systems are systems where the input-output relationship
changes over time.
Example: A system with a time-varying gain can be modeled as a time-
varying system, as the response to an input signal depends on the time
at which the input signal is applied.
ˆ Causal and Non-causal systems: Causal systems are systems where the
output depends only on past and present inputs and not on future inputs.
Example: An LTI (Linear Time-Invariant) system with a finite impulse
response can be modeled as a causal system, as the response to an input
signal depends only on past and present inputs.
Non-causal systems: Non-causal systems are systems where the output
depends on future inputs as well as past and present inputs.
Example: An LTI (Linear Time-Invariant) system with an infinite im-
pulse response can be modeled as a non-causal system, as the response

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 to an input signal depends on future inputs.
ˆ Systems with and without memory (Instantaneous and Dynamic Sys-
tems): A system is said to be memoryless (instantaneous) if its output
for each value of the independent variable at a given time is dependent
only on the input at the same time. Otherwise the system is said to be
dynamic (a system with memory).
ˆ Inverible and Non-invertible systems: A system is said to be invertible if
distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs.
For an invertible system it is essential that every input have a unique
output.
ˆ Stable and Unstable systems: If every bounded input applied at the
input terminal results in a bounded output, the system is said to be
BIBO(Bounded Input Bounded Output) stable.
These classifications are important for understanding and analyzing the
behavior of systems and for choosing appropriate mathematical models
and processing techniques for various applications.

5. How do signals interact with systems?

Signals interact with systems by being transformed, modified, or processed in
some way by the system. The interaction between signals and systems can be
modeled mathematically and described in terms of input-output relationships.
The input to a system is the signal that the system processes, and the output
of the system is the transformed or modified signal. The input-output rela-
tionship of a system can be represented mathematically by a transfer function,
impulse response, or state-space representation.
The interaction between signals and systems depends on the properties of the
system and the characteristics of the input signal. For example, linear time-
invariant (LTI) systems exhibit superposition and homogeneity, meaning that
the output of an LTI system to a linear combination of inputs is equal to
the linear combination of the outputs to each individual input. This property
makes it possible to analyze the behavior of LTI systems in the frequency do-
main using tools such as the Fourier transform and the Laplace transform.
In contrast, nonlinear systems do not exhibit superposition and homogeneity,
meaning that the output of a nonlinear system to a linear combination of in-
puts is not equal to the linear combination of the outputs to each individual
input. Nonlinear systems are more difficult to analyze and model than linear
systems, and often require numerical methods or simulations for analysis.
Regardless of the type of system, the input-output relationship of a system can
be described by a mathematical model that can be used to predict the behavior
of the system in response to various input signals. Understanding how signals

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 interact with systems is important for a wide range of applications, including
communication systems, control systems, and signal processing systems.

6. Discuss operations of signals on dependent and independent variable.

Signals can undergo various operations or transformations as they interact
with systems. Some common operations on signals include:

ˆ Time Shifting: Time shifting involves adding or subtracting a constant

value to the signal.
For a given signal 𝑥(𝑡):
Replace 𝑡 by 𝑡 − 𝑡
If 𝑡 is pisitive, the time shift results in a delay of the signal by 𝑡
units.
If 𝑡 is negative, the time shift results in an advance of the signal by
𝑡 units.
ˆ Time Scaling: The compression or expansion of a signal is known as time
scaling.
For a given signal 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡):
If 𝑎 > 0, the signal 𝑦(𝑡) is compressed version of 𝑥(𝑡) by a factor 𝑎 .
If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, the signal 𝑦(𝑡) is expanded (stretched) version of 𝑥(𝑡)
by a factor 𝑎.
ˆ Time Reversal:
For a given signal 𝑥(𝑡):
Replace 𝑡 by −𝑡
The result of this operation is a folding or reflection of 𝑥(𝑡) about
𝑡 = 0.
ˆ Combined Operations:
Consider a signal 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏)
Time shift 𝑥(𝑡) by 𝑏 to obtain 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑏), then time scale the shifted
signal 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑏) by 𝑎 (i.e., replace 𝑡 with 𝑎𝑡 to obtain 𝑥(𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏)).
𝑏
Time scale 𝑥(𝑡) by 𝑎 to obtain 𝑥(𝑎𝑡). Now time shift 𝑥(𝑎𝑡) by 𝑎
(i.e.,
replace 𝑡 with 𝑡 − ( 𝑎𝑏 )) to obtain 𝑥[𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑎𝑏 )] = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏). In either
case, if 𝑎 is nagative, times scaling involves time reversal.
ˆ Amplitude Scaling: Amplitude scaling involves multiplying the amplitude
of the signal by a constant factor, effectively changing the magnitude of
the signal.

These operations can be performed on signals in the time domain or in the

frequency domain, depending on the requirements of the application and the

92
 desired processing outcome. In many cases, it may be necessary to perform
multiple operations on a signal in order to achieve the desired result. Under-
standing the various operations on signals is important for signal processing,
communication systems, and control systems, among other applications.

7. Discuss basic signals.

There are several basic signals that are commonly used in signal processing
and communication systems. Some of the most common basic signals include:

ˆ Impulse Function: The impulse function is a discrete-time signal that has

a single non-zero value at a specific sample time and zero values elsewhere.
It is used as a basis function in the analysis of discrete-time signals.
⎧
⎨0, 𝑛 ̸= 0
𝛿[𝑛] =
⎩1, 𝑛 = 0

ˆ Step Function: The step function is a continuous-time or discrete-time

signal that has a constant value for all times greater than or equal to zero
and zero values for all times less than zero. It is used to model transitions
or changes in signals. ⎧
⎨0, 𝑡 < 0
𝑢[𝑡] =
⎩1, 𝑡 ≥ 0

ˆ Ramp Function: The ramp function is a continuous-time or discrete-time

signal that has a linear increase in magnitude from zero to a maximum
value. It is used to model linear changes or trends in signals.
⎧
⎨𝑡, 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑢𝑟 [𝑡] =
⎩1, 0 < 0

ˆ Sinusoidal Function: The sinusoidal function is a continuous-time or

discrete-time signal that has a sinusoidal waveform with a constant am-
plitude, frequency, and phase. It is used to model periodic signals or
signals with a repeating pattern.
ˆ Exponential Function: The exponential function is a continuous-time or
discrete-time signal that has an exponential decay or growth in magni-
tude. It is used to model signals that have an exponential behavior or
signals with a decaying or growing trend.

These basic signals can be combined, transformed, or manipulated in various

ways to model more complex signals. Understanding the properties and be-
havior of these basic signals is important for signal processing, communication
systems, and control systems, among other applications.

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8. Many physical processes can be modelled as LTI systems. Why?
Many physical processes can be modeled as Linear Time Invariant (LTI) sys-
tems because they exhibit a linear relationship between the input and output
signals and they do not change with time.
A linear system is one where the output is proportional to the input, and the
proportionality factor is constant. In other words, a linear system behaves in
the same way for any input signal, and the input-output relationship is de-
scribed by a linear equation. This property is important because it allows us
to use simple mathematical tools and techniques to analyze and design LTI
systems.
A time-invariant system is one where the system response does not change
with time, regardless of the input signal. In other words, the system char-
acteristics, such as the transfer function, remain constant over time. This
property is important because it allows us to use the same mathematical tools
and techniques to analyze and design LTI systems regardless of the input sig-
nal or the time instant.
Many physical processes, such as electrical circuits, mechanical systems, fluid
systems, and thermal systems, can be modeled as LTI systems because they
have a linear input-output relationship and they do not change with time. For
example, the electrical resistance of a resistor does not change with time, and
the resistance-current relationship is described by Ohm’s law, which is a linear
equation. Similarly, the mechanical compliance of a spring does not change
with time, and the force-displacement relationship is described by Hooke’s law,
which is a linear equation.
By modeling physical processes as LTI systems, we can use mathematical tools
and techniques to analyze and design systems for various applications, such as
control systems, communication systems, and signal processing, among others.

9. Why do we need to represent the input signals to an LTI system in terms of

a linear combination of delayed impulses?
Representing input signals to an LTI system in terms of a linear combination
of delayed impulses is important because it allows us to analyze and design
LTI systems using the impulse response of the system.
If we can represent the input to an LTI system in terms of a linear combination
of delayed impulses, we can use superposition to compute the output of the
system in terms of its resposes to these basic signals.
The impulse response of an LTI system is a function that describes the re-
sponse of the system to a single impulse input. The impulse response contains
all the information about the system’s behavior, including its response to any
input signal.

94
 By representing the input signals to an LTI system in terms of a linear com-
bination of delayed impulses, we can use the principle of linearity to find the
response of the system to any input signal. The response to an input signal is
obtained by convolving the impulse response of the system with the impulse
representation of the input signal.
This approach is particularly useful in signal processing, control systems, and
communication systems, where the input signals can be complex and difficult
to analyze directly. By representing the input signals in terms of a linear
combination of delayed impulses, we can use simple mathematical tools and
techniques to analyze and design LTI systems.
In addition, by using the impulse response representation, we can simplify the
analysis and design of LTI systems by breaking down complex signals into sim-
pler components that can be analyzed and manipulated individually. This can
be particularly useful in systems that require real-time processing of signals,
where the use of convolution can lead to significant computational savings.

10. What is the impulse response of a system and how is it used to characterize a
system?
The impulse response of a system is a function that describes the response
of the system to a single impulse input. It is used to characterize a system
because it contains all the information about the system’s behavior, including
its response to any input signal.
The impulse response is defined as the output of an LTI (Linear Time Invari-
ant) system when the input is a unit impulse signal, which is a signal with an
infinite amplitude at time t=0 and zero amplitude elsewhere. By using the
principle of linearity, the response of an LTI system to any input signal can be
found by convolving the impulse response of the system with the input signal.

ˆ ℎ(𝑡) → output of a CT LTI system when the input is a unit impulse.

ˆ ℎ[𝑛] → output of a DT LTI system when the input is a unit impulse.

Since the system is LTI, the response to any size impulse located anywhere
in time is obtained by merely scaling and shifting ℎ(𝑡) or ℎ[𝑛]. The impulse
response is used to describe the behavior of a system in various applications,
including signal processing, control systems, and communication systems. It
provides information about the system’s transfer function, which is the ratio
of the Laplace transforms of the output and input signals.
In signal processing, the impulse response is used to design filters, equaliz-
ers, and other signal processing algorithms. In control systems, the impulse
response is used to design controllers, such as feedback controllers and feed-
forward controllers. In communication systems, the impulse response is used

95
 to design communication channels, such as wired and wireless channels, and
to analyze the effects of channel impairments, such as noise and distortion.

11. What is the concept of convolution and how is it applied in signals and sys-
tems?
Convolution is a mathematical operation that represents the response of a sys-
tem to an input signal in terms of the impulse response of the system. It is
a fundamental concept in signals and systems and is widely used in various
applications, including signal processing, control systems, and communication
systems.
The convolution of two signals 𝑥 (𝑡) and 𝑥 (𝑡) is defined as the integral of
the product of one function and the other function, delayed by a variable 𝑡.
Mathematically, it is represented as:
∫︁ ∞
ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡) * 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝜏 )𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝜏 )𝑑𝜏
−∞

In signals and systems, convolution is used to find the response of a system

to a given input signal. Given the impulse response ℎ(𝑡) of a system and the
input signal 𝑥(𝑡), the response 𝑦(𝑡) of the system can be found by convolving
the impulse response with the input signal:

∫︁ ∞
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) * ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝜏 )ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏 )𝑑𝜏
−∞

This approach is useful in situations where the input signal is complex and
difficult to analyze directly, and it provides a simple and efficient way to find
the response of a system.
In addition, convolution is used to model the behavior of LTI (Linear Time In-
variant) systems, which are systems that have a linear relationship between the
input and output signals and do not change with time. The impulse response
of an LTI system provides all the information about the system’s behavior,
and the response of the system to any input signal can be found by convolving
the impulse response with the input signal.
Convolution is also used in various applications, including filtering and smooth-
ing of signals, equalization of communication channels, and control of dynamic
systems, among others. In these applications, convolution provides a simple
and effective way to model and analyze complex signals and systems.

12. Discuss convolution integral and sum with its properties.

Convolution is a mathematical operation that takes two signals as input and
produces a third signal as output. The convolution of two signals can be
represented as either a convolution integral or a convolution sum, depending
on whether the signals are continuous-time or discrete-time signals.

96
 ˆ Convolution Integral: The convolution integral is a mathematical rep-
resentation of the continuous-time convolution operation. It is defined
as:
∫︁ ∞
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) * ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝜏 )ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏 )𝑑𝜏
−∞

where 𝑥(𝑡) is the input signal, ℎ(𝑡) is the impulse response and 𝑦(𝑡) is the
output signal. The convolution integral represents the amount of overlap
between the two signals as a function of time.
ˆ Convolution Sum: The convolution sum is a mathematical representation
of the discrete-time convolution operation. It is defined as:
∞
∑︁
𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] * ℎ[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑘]ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑘 −∞

where 𝑥[𝑛] is the input signal, ℎ[𝑛] is the impulse response and 𝑦[𝑛] is
the output signal. The convolution sum represents the amount of overlap
between the two signals as a function of the discrete time index.

           

    

When the signals that are being convolved are described by simple closed form
mathematical expressions, the convolution is most easily performed by directly
evaluating the convolution integral or convlution sum.

         

Steps:

1. Choose one signal to be 𝑥(𝑡), the other is then ℎ(𝑡); draw them both on
the 𝜏 axis
2. Flip ℎ(𝜏 ) about 𝜏 = 0 and shift signal to the right by 𝑡.
3. Identify the different regions of integration (look for break-points in the
signals).
4. Multiply 𝑥(𝑡) by flipped/shifted version of ℎ(𝑡) and integrate using correct
limits on integral.
5. Step 4 produces the equation of 𝑦(𝑡) over the specified region.
6. Repeat step 4 for all possible regions of interest

Useful Checks

97
 ˆ The result of convolving CT signal 𝑥(𝑡) with ℎ(𝑡) generally produces a
signal 𝑦(𝑡) that is the length of 𝑥(𝑡) plus the length of ℎ(𝑡).
ˆ Signal 𝑦(𝑡) will start at start(𝑥(𝑡)) + start(ℎ(𝑡)) and end at end(𝑥(𝑡)) +
end(ℎ(𝑡)).

         

Steps:

1. Plot the sequences 𝑥[𝑘] and ℎ[𝑘] as a function of 𝑘.

2. Choose one of the sequence, say ℎ[𝑘], and time reverse it to form the
sequence ℎ[−𝑘].
3. Shift the time reversed sequence by 𝑛 to obtain ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑘].
4. Multiply the two sequences 𝑥[𝑘] and ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑘] and sum the product for all
values of 𝑘. This process is repeated for all possible shifts, 𝑛.

Useful Checks

ˆ For 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] * ℎ[𝑛], the length of the output signal 𝑦[𝑛] is generally
equal to length(𝑥[𝑛]) + length(ℎ[𝑛])-1.
ˆ The output signal will begin at start(𝑥[𝑛]) + start(ℎ[𝑛]) and finish at
end(𝑥[𝑛]) + end(ℎ[𝑛]).

     

ˆ Linearity: Convolution is a linear operator. Any linear operation on

either 𝑥(𝑡) or ℎ(𝑡) will produce the same linear operation on the output.
In other words, doubling the input will double the output; taking the
derivative of ℎ(𝑡) will produce the derivative of the output, etc.
ˆ Time Invariance: Any shift in time of either 𝑥(𝑡) or ℎ(𝑡) will produce the
corresponding shift in the output. In other words, delaying the input will
delay the output the same amount.
ˆ Commutativity: The order in which convlution is performed doesn’t mat-
ter. That is, 𝑥(𝑡) * ℎ(𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡) * 𝑥(𝑡).
ˆ Associativity: The manner in which convolution operations are grouped
doesn’t matter. That is, 𝑥(𝑡) * [ℎ (𝑡) * ℎ (𝑡)] = [𝑥(𝑡) * ℎ (𝑡)] * ℎ (𝑡).
ˆ Distributivity: Convolution is distributive over addition. That is, 𝑥(𝑡) *
[ℎ (𝑡) + ℎ (𝑡)] = [𝑥(𝑡) * ℎ (𝑡)] + [𝑥(𝑡) * ℎ (𝑡)].

98
 These properties of convolution make it a useful tool in the analysis and design
of signals and systems, as it provides a way to describe the relationship between
input and output signals in a system.

13. What is the use of decomposing general signals interms of eigen functions?
Decomposing a general signal into a sum of eigenfunctions is a technique used
in signal processing and system theory to analyze and represent signals in a
way that highlights their underlying structure and simplifies their analysis.
Eigenfunctions, also known as orthogonal functions or basis functions, are
functions that, when multiplied by a scalar, preserve their shape. They form
a complete and orthogonal set of functions, which means that any signal can
be represented as a linear combination of these functions.
In signal processing, eigenfunctions are used to represent signals in terms of
their underlying spectral content. For example, a signal can be decomposed
into its spectral components, such as its sinusoidal or exponential components,
by representing it as a sum of eigenfunctions. This representation can be used
to analyze the frequency content of the signal, to design filters and equalizers,
and to perform other signal processing tasks.
In system theory, eigenfunctions are used to represent the response of a system
to a set of inputs. The eigenfunctions of a system are the functions that the
system behaves like when excited by the inputs. By representing the response
of a system in terms of its eigenfunctions, it is possible to simplify the anal-
ysis of the system and to understand its behavior in terms of its underlying
structure.
The response of LTI system to a complex exponential input is the same com-
plex exponential with only a change in amplitude; that is
CT: 𝑒𝑠𝑡 → 𝐻(𝑠)𝑒𝑠𝑡
DT: 𝑧 𝑛 → 𝐻(𝑧)𝑧 𝑛
Where 𝑠 and 𝑧 are complex numbers; 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 and 𝑧 = 𝑒𝜎𝑗𝜔

14. Discuss different forms of Fourier series representation of continous time peri-
odic signals.
The Fourier series is a powerful tool for representing and analyzing continuous-
time periodic signals. It provides a way to decompose a periodic signal into
a sum of sinusoidal signals with different frequencies and amplitudes. There
are several forms of Fourier series representation that can be used to represent
periodic signals, including the following:

(a) Trigonometric Fourier Series: This is the most common form of Fourier
series representation and is used to represent periodic signals in terms of
sine and cosine functions. The periodic signal is represented as a sum
of sinusoidal signals with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

99
 The coefficients of the sinusoidal signals are obtained by integrating the
product of the signal and the corresponding sinusoidal function over one
period.
Any periodic function 𝑥(𝑡) can be written as the sum of harmonically
related sinusoids in the following manner.
∞ ∞
∑︁ 2𝜋𝑛𝑡 ∑︁ 2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛
𝑇 𝑛
𝑇

(b) Magnitude phase form:

𝐶𝑛
∑︁ 2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠( + 𝜃𝑛 )
𝑛
𝑇

(c) Complex Exponential form: The synthesis equation is

∞
∑︁
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥[𝑛]𝑒𝑗𝑘 𝜋𝑓 𝑡

𝑛 −∞

The analysis equation is

∫︁
1
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑗𝑘 𝜋𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝑥[𝑛] is complex number

Relation among forms of Fourier series
- 𝑥[𝑛] is complex number
- 𝑥[𝑛] = (𝑎𝑛 − 𝑗𝑏𝑛 )
- 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝐶𝑛 𝑒𝑗𝜃𝑛
√︀
- 𝑎 = 𝑥[0], 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑅𝑒{𝑥[𝑛]}, 𝑏𝑛 = −2𝐼𝑚{𝑥[𝑛]}, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ,
𝜃𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛− ( 𝑎𝑏𝑛𝑛 )
Coefficients of a Fourier series
∫︀
- 𝑎 = 𝑇 𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
- 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑛𝑡
∫︀
𝑇
𝑑𝑡
- 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑇
𝑑𝑡
- 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑇 𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑗𝑘
∫︀ 𝜋𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
∞ ∞
𝜋
∑︁ ∑︁
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑘 𝑒𝑗𝑘𝜔 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑒𝑗𝑘 𝑇

𝑡

𝑘 −∞ 𝑘 −∞
∫︁ ∫︁
1 −𝑗𝑘𝜔 𝑡𝑑𝑡 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑘 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒𝑗𝑘 𝑇

𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
∫︁
1
𝑎 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇

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15. Discuss properties of continous time Fourier series.
The Fourier series has several important properties that make it a useful tool
for analyzing and representing periodic signals. Some of the most important
properties of the Fourier series include:

(a) Linearity: Let 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) are periodic signals with period 𝑇 and
𝑥(𝑡) ←→ 𝑎𝑘 , 𝑦(𝑡) ←→ 𝑏𝑘
Any linear combination of the two signals will be periodic with period 𝑇

𝑧(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑦(𝑡) ←→ 𝐶𝑘 = 𝐴𝑎𝑘 + 𝐵𝑏𝑘

(b) Time Shifting:

𝜋
If 𝑥(𝑡) ←→ 𝑎𝑘 then 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡 ) ←→ 𝑒−𝑗𝑘𝜔 𝑡 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒−𝑗𝑘 𝑇


𝑎𝑘
(c) Time Reversal:
If 𝑥(𝑡) ←→ 𝑎𝑘 then 𝑥(−𝑡) ←→ 𝑎−𝑘
(d) Time Scaling:
If 𝑥(𝑡) = ∞ 𝑗𝑘𝜔 𝑡
then 𝑥(𝛼𝑡) = ∞ 𝑗𝑘 𝜔
𝑡
∑︀ ∑︀
𝑘 −∞ 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑘 −∞ 𝑎𝑘 𝑒

(e) Multipication:
𝑥(𝑡) ←→ 𝑎𝑘
𝑦(𝑡) ←→ 𝑏𝑘
∑︀∞
Then 𝑥(𝑡)𝑦(𝑡) ←→ ℎ𝑘 = 𝑙 −∞ 𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑘−𝑙
(f) Conjugation and Conjugate symmetry:
If 𝑥(𝑡) ←→ 𝑎𝑘
𝑥* (𝑡) ←→ 𝑎*−𝑘
(g) Parseval’s Relation:
∫︁ ∞
1 ∑︁
|𝑥(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡 = |𝑎𝑘 |
𝑇 𝑇 𝑘 −∞
∫︁ ∫︁
1 𝑗𝑘𝜔 𝑡 1
|𝑎𝑘 𝑒 | 𝑑𝑡 = |𝑎𝑘 | 𝑑𝑡 = |𝑎𝑘 |
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

16. What is continous time Fourier transform?

The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (CTFT) is a mathematical tool used
to represent and analyze continuous-time signals. It is used to transform a
continuous-time signal from the time domain to the frequency domain, where
it can be analyzed and manipulated in a more convenient and intuitive manner.
The CTFT of a continuous-time signal x(t) is given by:

∫︁ ∞
𝑋(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

where 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) is the CTFT of 𝑥(𝑡), 𝜔 is the angular frequency, and 𝑗 is the
imaginary unit.

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 The CTFT provides a way to decompose a continuous-time signal into a set
of sinusoidal signals with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. The
frequency domain representation of the signal provides information about the
frequency content of the signal and the relative strength of each frequency
component. This information can be used to analyze the behavior of the
signal and to manipulate it for various applications.
∫︁ ∞
1
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑗𝜔)𝑒𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −∞

17. Discuss Properties of continous time Fourier Transform.

The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (CTFT) has several important prop-
erties that make it a useful tool for analyzing and representing continuous-time
signals. Some of the most important properties of the CTFT include:

ˆ Linearity: The CTFT is a linear representation, meaning that the trans-

form of a sum of signals is equal to the sum of the transforms of the
individual signals. This property makes it easy to analyze the behavior
of a system that consists of multiple signals.
𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑥(𝑗𝜔) and 𝑦(𝑡) → 𝑦(𝑗𝜔)
Then,𝑎𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦(𝑡) ←→ 𝑎𝑥𝑗𝜔 + 𝑏𝑦(𝑗𝜔)
ˆ Time shifting:
𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑥(𝑗𝜔) then 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡 ) ←→ 𝑒−𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑥(𝑗𝜔)
ˆ Conjugation and Conjugate Symmetry:
𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑥(𝑗𝜔) then 𝑥* (𝑡) ←→ 𝑥* (−𝑗𝜔)
ˆ Differentiation: The CTFT provides a convenient representation for dif-
ferentiation in the frequency domain. This property makes it possible
to analyze the behavior of a system that involves differentiation, such as
control systems and mechanical systems.
𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
←→ 𝑗𝜔𝑥(𝑗𝜔)
𝑑𝑡
ˆ Time and Frequency Scaling:
𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑥(𝑗𝜔) then (︂ )︂
1 𝑗𝜔
𝑥(𝑎𝑡) ←→ 𝑥
|𝑎| 𝑎
Where a is non-zero real number
ˆ Duality: The CTFT provides a dual representation of a signal in both the
time and frequency domains. This property makes it possible to analyze
the behavior of a signal in both domains and to switch between them as
needed.
𝑑𝑥(𝑗𝜔)
−𝑗𝑡𝑥(𝑡) ←→
𝑑𝜔
𝑗𝜔 𝑡
𝑒 𝑥(𝑡) ←→ 𝑥(𝑗(𝜔 − 𝜔 ))

102
 ˆ Parseval’s Relation: Parseval’s Theorem states that the energy of a signal
is equal to the energy of its CTFT. This property provides a way to
quantify the energy of a signal and is useful in applications such as signal
processing and communication.
∫︁ ∞ ∫︁ ∞
1
|𝑥(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡 = |𝑥(𝑗𝜔)| 𝑑𝜔
−∞ 2𝜋 −∞

ˆ Convolution: The CTFT provides a convenient representation for con-

volution in the frequency domain. This property makes it possible to
analyze the behavior of a system that involves convolution, such as fil-
tering and signal transmission.

𝑦(𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡) * 𝑥(𝑡) ←→ 𝑦(𝑗𝜔) = 𝐻(𝑗𝜔)𝑋(𝑗𝜔)

ˆ Multiplication:
𝑥 (𝑡)𝑥 (𝑡) ←→ 𝑥 (𝑗𝜔) * 𝑥 (𝑗𝜔)

18. What is Laplace transform and region of convergence associated with it?
The Laplace Transform is a mathematical tool used to represent and analyze
continuous-time signals and systems. It is a complex-valued function that
maps a continuous-time signal from the time domain to the complex frequency
domain.
The Laplace Transform of a continuous-time signal 𝑥(𝑡) is given by:

∫︁ ∞
𝑋(𝑠) = ℒ{𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

where 𝑋(𝑠) is the Laplace Transform of 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 is the complex fre-

quency variable, and 𝑡 is the time variable.
The region of convergence (ROC) of a Laplace Transform is the set of complex
numbers 𝑠 for which the integral defining the Laplace Transform converges.
The ROC is important because it determines the validity of the Laplace Trans-
form as a representation of the signal. In general, the ROC of a Laplace Trans-
form is determined by the behavior of the signal as 𝑡 approaches infinity.

19. Discuss the rules for the ROC of Laplace transform.

The following rules are used to determine the ROC of a Laplace Transform:

ˆ The ROC is always a region of the s-plane to the left or right of a vertical
line, or a strip between two vertical lines.
ˆ The ROC never contains any poles.
ˆ If 𝑥(𝑡) is right sided, then the ROC is right sided, i.e., 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} > 𝑎, where
𝑎 is the 𝑅𝑒rightmost pole.

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 ˆ If 𝑥(𝑡) is left sided, then the ROC is left sided, i.e., 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < 𝑎, where 𝑎
is the 𝑅𝑒leftmost pole.
ˆ If 𝑥(𝑡) is two sided or the sum of a left and right sided signal, the ROC
is either a strip (𝑎 < 𝑅𝑒{𝑠} < 𝑏), or else the individual ROCs will not
overlap, producing a null set.
ˆ If 𝑥(𝑡) is of finite duration, then the ROC is the entire 𝑠-plane.

20. Discuss the inverse Laplace transform.

The inverse Laplace Transform is a mathematical operation that maps a
Laplace Transform representation of a signal from the complex frequency do-
main back to the time domain. It is used to obtain the time domain represen-
tation of a continuous-time signal from its Laplace Transform representation.
The inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑋(𝑠) is given by:
∫︁ 𝜎𝑗𝜔
1
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋(𝑠)𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗 𝜎−𝑗𝜔

where 𝑋(𝑠) is the Laplace Transform of 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑠 is the complex frequency vari-
able, 𝑡 is the time variable and 𝑗 is the imaginary unit.
Using the above formula to find the inverse Laplace transform is not good.
Instead, manipulate the given expression until you see patterns you recognize
from Laplace transform pairs.

21. Discuss properties of Laplace Transform.

ˆ Linearity: 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥 (𝑡) ←→ 𝑎𝑋 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝑋 (𝑠)

ˆ Time Shift: 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡 ) ←→ 𝑒−𝑠𝑡 𝑋 𝑠

ˆ Exponential Multiply: 𝑒−𝛼𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) ←→ 𝑋(𝑠 + 𝛼)

ˆ Times t: 𝑡𝑥(𝑡) ←→ − 𝑑𝑋𝑑𝑠𝑠

ˆ Time Scaling: 𝑥(𝑎𝑡) ←→
(︀ 𝑠 )︀
|𝑎|
𝑋 𝑎

ˆ Integration: ∫︁ 𝑡
1
𝑥(𝜏 )𝑑𝜏 ←→ 𝑋(𝑠)
−∞ 𝑠
𝑑𝑥 𝑡

ˆ Differentiation: 𝑑𝑡
←→ 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)

22. Discuss characterization of LTI systems using the Laplace transform.

Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) systems can be characterized using the Laplace
Transform. In this method, the Laplace Transform of the input signal and the
output signal are related through the transfer function of the system.
The transfer function of an LTI system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
Transform of the output signal to the Laplace Transform of the input signal.
The transfer function can be used to determine the response of the system to

104
 a particular input signal.
For an LTI system, the transfer function is a constant for all inputs, which
means that the response of the system to a particular input signal is propor-
tional to the input signal. The transfer function can be used to determine the
frequency response of the system, which describes how the system responds to
different frequencies of an input signal.

𝑌 (𝑠) = 𝐻(𝑠)𝑋(𝑠)

Where 𝑋(𝑠) is the input, 𝑌 (𝑠) is the output and 𝐻(𝑠) is impulse response
(Transfer function).

23. Discuss how differential equations can be solved using Laplace transform.

24. Discuss partial fraction expansion for CT-signals and systems.

25. What is the Z-transform and the ROC associated with it?
The Z-Transform is a mathematical operation used to represent discrete-time
signals in the complex frequency domain. The Z-Transform of a discrete-time
signal 𝑥[𝑛] is given by:
∞
∑︁
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛 −∞

where 𝑋(𝑧) is the Z-Transform of 𝑥[𝑛], 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝜔 is a complex frequency variable,

𝑥[𝑛] is the discrete-time signal, and 𝑛 is the time index.
The Region of Convergence (ROC) of the Z-Transform is the set of all complex
values of 𝑧 for which the Z-Transform 𝑋(𝑧) converges. The ROC is important
because it determines the region of stability of the discrete-time system rep-
resented by 𝑋(𝑧).

26. Discuss the rules for the ROC of Z-transform.

The Region of Convergence (ROC) of the Z-Transform can be determined
using the following rules:

ˆ The ROC never contains any poles (the value of 𝑧 that make 𝑋(𝑧) = ∞).
ˆ If 𝑥[𝑛] is right-sided, the ROC is the area outside a cirlcle, i.e., |𝑧|> 𝑎,
where 𝑎 is the —outermost— pole.
ˆ If 𝑥[𝑛] is left-sided, the ROC is the area inside of a cirlcle, i.e., |𝑧|< 𝑎,
where 𝑎 is the —innermost— pole.
ˆ If 𝑥[𝑛] is two sided or the sum of a left and right sided signal, the ROC is
either a donut (𝑎 < |𝑧|< 𝑏), or else the individual ROCs will not overlap,
producing null set.

105
 ˆ If 𝑥[𝑛] is of finite duration, then the ROC is the entire z-plane except
possibly 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = ∞.

27. Discuss properties of Z-transform.

ˆ Linearity: 𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑏𝑦[𝑛] ←→ 𝑎𝑋(𝑧) + 𝑏𝑌 (𝑧)

ˆ Time shift: 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘] ←→ 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑋(𝑧)
ˆ Exponential Scaling: 𝑎𝑛 𝑥[𝑛] ←→ 𝑋( 𝑎𝑧 )
ˆ Linear Scaling: 𝑛𝑥[𝑛] ←→ −𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑑
𝑋(𝑧)
ˆ Time Reversal: 𝑥[−𝑛]𝑋(𝑧 − )
ˆ Convolution: 𝑥[𝑛] * 𝑦[𝑛] ←→ 𝑋(𝑧)𝑌 (𝑧)
ˆ Conjugation: 𝑥* [𝑛] ←→ 𝑥* (𝑧 * )

28. What is the inverse Z-transform?

The inverse Z-transform is a mathematical operation that transforms a Z-
transform, 𝑋(𝑧), back into its corresponding discrete-time signal 𝑥[𝑛]. The
inverse Z-transform is given by:
∮︁
1
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑋(𝑧)𝑧 𝑛− 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑗

where 𝑥[𝑛] is the discrete-time signal, 𝑋(𝑧) is the Z-transform, 𝑧 is a complex

frequency variable, and 𝑛 is the time index.
Using the above formula to find the inverse Z-transform is not good. Rather,
manipulate the given expression until you see patterns you recognize from Z-
transform pairs.
The inverse Z-transform can be computed using several numerical techniques,
including partial fraction expansion, residue theory, and power series expan-
sion. The inverse Z-transform is important in the analysis and design of
discrete-time systems, as it allows us to determine the response of a system to
a specific input signal.

106