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A review on biomolecular immobilization

of polymeric textile biocomposites,
bionanocomposites, and nano-biocomposites

Christopher Igwe Idumah, Anthony Chidi Ezika & Uzoma Ebenezer Enwerem

To cite this article: Christopher Igwe Idumah, Anthony Chidi Ezika & Uzoma Ebenezer
Enwerem (2021): A review on biomolecular immobilization of polymeric textile biocomposites,
bionanocomposites, and nano-biocomposites, The Journal of The Textile Institute, DOI:
10.1080/00405000.2021.1957277

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00405000.2021.1957277

Published online: 29 Jul 2021.

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THE JOURNAL OF THE TEXTILE INSTITUTE
https://doi.org/10.1080/00405000.2021.1957277

REVIEW

A review on biomolecular immobilization of polymeric textile biocomposites,

bionanocomposites, and nano-biocomposites
Christopher Igwe Idumaha , Anthony Chidi Ezikab,c and Uzoma Ebenezer Enwerema
a
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Polymer and Textile Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria; bEnhanced Polymer
Research Group, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Pretoria, South Africa; cTshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Recently, comingling of natural fibers (NFs) derived from renewable resources, and nanoparticles with Received 30 January 2021
synthetic and biopolymeric matrices has resulted in fabrication of NF biocomposites, nanobiocompo- Accepted 15 July 2021
sites, and bionanocomposites (NFB). The quests to inculcate biomedical behavior to these materials
KEYWORDS
have resulted in immobilization of biomolecules such as bioactive peptides, plant extracts/essential
Polymeric textiles
oils, ligands, enzymes, and so on, via varying techniques, within these materials, to attain antibacterial, bionanocomposites;
anticancerous, antispasmotic, antidiabetic, anticough, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiar- biocomposites; nanobio-
thritic, analgesic, antibiotic, antiatherogenic, antiulcer, antipyretic, immunomodulatory, as well as, composites; natural fibers;
chemo-preventive behaviors suitable for drug delivery and biomedicals. Therefore, this article presents nanoparticles; bioactive
a general overview of novel trends in fabricating NFB for biomedical applications with emphasis on molecules; immobilization
varying approaches of immobilizing bioactive molecules, as well as chemically and physically affiliated techniques
modification techniques enhancing the fabrication of polymeric textiles biocomposites, nanobiocom-
posites, and bionanocomposites.

1. Introduction Biocomposites are materials composed of at least a naturally

As a result of increasing global ecobenign awareness, use
of environmentally compliant materials has witnessed an
upward surge. The fabrication of ecosustainable and recyc-
lable materials has generated great interests in cutting-edge
researches and blue-chip industries. The inclusion of bio-
logical entities upon filamentous surfaces, via immobiliza-
tion of bioactive peptides, nanoparticles (NPs), plant
extracts/essential oils (EOs), ligands, enzymes, and so on,
have been utilized in deriving efficient and unique biological
functions of the materials (Girijappa et al., 2019; Palo et al.,
2019; Souli
e et al., 2019). Here, varying bioactive molecules
such as, amoxicillin, tigecycline, laccase, arginyl-glycyl-
aspartic acid (RGD)-peptides, plant-extracts, antimicrobial
peptides, and so on, were immobilized within natural fiber
polymeric biocomposites for varying biomedical applica-
tions, such as tissue engineering, wound healing, therapeu-
tics, diagnostics, and so on, as elucidated in Figure 1
(Cassan et al., 2019; Palo et al., 2019; Souli
e et al., 2019;
Yusof et al., 2019).
NFs are amongst materials strongly positing as alternative
replacements for synthetic fibers (SFs) derived from petrol-
eum non-renewable resources (Chan et al., 2019). Polymer
composites are fabricated from high load-bearing fillers
incorporated within polymeric matrices (PMs) (Cavanaugh
et al., 2019). As a result of highly beneficial characteristics,
ease of availability, as well as inexpensiveness of NFs, these
materials have been utilized as reinforcing fillers for PMs.
occurring resource in its composition, while bionanocompo-
sites, as well as nano-biocomposites have nanoparticulates
(NPs) of sizes below 100 nm additionally embedded within
the composition. Incorporation of NFs within polymeric
biocomposites inculcates a broad range of properties such as
mechanical, physical, and biological properties (Bhattarai et
al., 2018). Biocomposites manufacturing are achieved via
numerous processing approaches, such as hand lay-up,
injection, extrusion/pultrusion, filament winding, compres-
sion, resin transfer, as well as sheet molding techniques. To
achieve critical mechanical behavior in the end product,
these procedures facilitate NFs, which are available as loose
fibrous substrates, nonwovens, or woven fabrics, to attain
alignment in a specified direction (Niiyama et al., 2018).
However, to be compliant for biomedicinal applications,
certain essential parameters must be satisfied prior to usage.
Susceptibility to being accommodated by the human system
devoid of adverse consequences such as, allergies, inflamma-
tion, or rejection because of high toxicity is very critical
parameters. Hence, biocompatibility factor is very para-
mount for successful fabrication of biomedical devices
(Bhattarai et al., 2018; Niiyama et al., 2018). Despite the use
of these materials in medical textiles, inclusion of function-
alized bioactive molecular entities with specific attributes,
such as UV-protection, antimicrobial behavior, chemical sta-
bility, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-oxidative, and seda-
tive attributes, and so on, into biocomposites, have shown

CONTACT Christopher Igwe Idumah idugoldengate@yahoo.com Faculty of Engineering, Department of Polymer and Textile Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe
University, Awka, Nigeria.
ß 2021 The Textile Institute
2 C. I. IDUMAH ET AL.
Figure 1. Applications of bioactive molecules NFs biocomposites, nanobiocom-
posites, and bionanocomposites.
enhanced performance for specific biomedically affiliated
applications (Ishikawa et al., 2018). Hence, the embedding
of these bioactive molecules such as antibiotics, plant
extracts, peptides, NPs, and so on, within biocomposites
functionalizes these materials; thereby significantly contribu-
ting to their biocompatibility with hosting cells, whilst sim-
ultaneously enhancing inherent material behaviors as
elucidated in Figure 2 (Jatoi et al., 2019).
These functionalized biocomposites have also demon-
strated great potentials for use in vascular engineering,
suturing, cell culturing, coatings, drug conveying, as well as
three dimensional scaffolding materials for skin, bone, liga-
ments, and cartilage (Wang et al., 2019). However, elaborate
researches are essential for further comprehension of the
synthesis, preparation, characterization, and properties of
these biomedically affiliated NFBCs. Therefore, as a vital
addition to this scope, this article presents emerging
advancements in the field of bioactive molecules reinforced
natural fiber polymer biocomposite, nano-biocomposites,
and bionanocomposites for biomedical application in tissue
engineering, vascular engineering, cartilage engineering, cell
culturation, sutures, wound dressing, skin, bone, ligaments,
and so on, as well as in pharmaceuticals for drug conveying.
Elaborate elucidation of inherent biomolecular attributes
and emerging approaches utilized for immobilizing these
bioactive molecules on NFs, fabrics, as well as polymeric
biocomposites are also presented.
2. Insight into bioactive biomolecules
2.1. Antibiotics in biomaterials preparation
The era of antibiotics originated after streptomycin and
penicillin discovery in previous decades (Davies, 2006).
Antibiotics are chemical entities that have high antibiotic
potency (Sengupta et al., 2013). Presently, prevailing antibi-
otics are prepared in a synthetic mode from the backbone
architecture of available antibiotics, or via fermentation of
Figure 2. Functions of bioactive molecules used in NBC fabrication.
microbes. These antibiotics focus on the microbial biochem-
istry as well as the physiology, through manipulation of the
membranous architecture, biosynthesis of the cellular walls,
peptidoglycans or through protein synthesis interference by
interacting with ribosomal sub-entities; by manipulating the
metabolism as well as the nucleic acid synthesis replication
and transcription by the RNA and DNA; and also through
manipulation of the metabolic routes thereby resisting the
synthesis of DNA (Sengupta et al., 2013). Finally, effective
activities are taken towards hindering the growth of the bac-
teria thereby compromising the cell status and, ultimately
resulting in cell elimination (Kapoor et al., 2017).
Antibiotics are basic approach for the treatment of infec-
tions as well as chronic diseases (Pezzi et al., 2019).
Numerous efforts have been conducted towards designing
novel drugs, and nanoarchitectural development for specific
transport of antibiotics. A prevailing approach of attaining
this is via antibiotics immobilization at inorganic NPs sur-
face or through encapsulation within NP shells (Oliveira et
al., 2017). A major strategy used in biomedicine involves
modification or functionalization of polymeric composites
(Sa
ude & Franco, 2016). Versatile opportunities abound as
result of the capability of utilizing naturally sourced materi-
als for medical applications especially with escalating inter-
est in usage of sustainable, renewable and naturally sourced
feed-stocks such as cellulose. In a formulation, antibiotics
based on triclosan and butylparaben were embedded within
cationic affiliated cyclodextrin complex cellulose pores to
enhance solubility of the antibiotics while results revealed
that the antibiotic-embedded complex restrained bacteria
activities by inhibiting bacteria metabolism in place of cell
membrane destruction (Qian et al., 2009). In another similar
modification, antibiotic ciprofloxacin hydrochloride was
embedded in fibrous cellulose architecture with covalent
bonding of cyclodextrin to the cellulose using citric acid,
which controlled emission of the antibiotic while enhancing
the antibacterial function, especially against Escherichia coli
bacteria (Dong et al., 2014).
Use of biocomposites as spectrum for conveying antibiot-
ics is an emerging area. Biocomposites have been prepared
by comingling keratin/PVA/dialdehyde starch to attain
enhanced compatibility, while dialdehyde starch was
included with the aim of reducing crystallinity, improving the
water stability as well as the material enthalpy (Dou et al.,
2015). Polylactic acid/Woven cotton/Amoxicillin composite

systems have been prepared (Macha et al., 2018). Tigecycline-
based bionanocomposites have been fabricated for biomedical
applications (Swainson et al., 2019). Moreso, Diclofenac/
Hydrotalcite NPs/Keratin composites have been prepared for
effective biomedical usage (Posati et al., 2018). Results dem-
onstrated potentials of these novel formulations and their
inherent capacity of improving the use of antibiotics and
inherently great potentials in the field of biomedicals.
2.2. NPs in biomaterials preparation
NPs undergo engineering to dendrimers, nanocapsules,
micelles, liposomes, nanospheres, and are also derived from
wide varieties of materials, obtained from inorganic as well
as organic sources (Khan et al., 2018; Mart
ınez et al., 2020).
Fundamentally, NPs are referred as solidified colloidal par-
ticulates within size range of 1 to 100 nm and have under-
gone versatile use in biomedicals for designing and
conveying drugs, therapeutics, as well as diagnostic features.
Effective interactions of nanomaterials with molecular enti-
ties, animals, as well as living cells are determined by factors
including colloidal stability, NP geometry, stiffness, config-
uration, dimension, charge, corrosion, and so on (Khan et
al., 2018; Mart
ınez et al., 2020; White et al., 2019). Moreso,
embedment of inorganic NPs with biologically affiliated
forms have resulted in fabrication of highly efficient and
exceptional materials for biomedical applications (Aur
ıa-
Soro et al., 2019; White et al., 2019).
Inorganic NPs are categorized into metallic, metallic
oxide, magnetic, and bimetallic particulates characterized by
high surfacial area-to-volume ratio (McNamara & Tofail,
2017). Iron oxide NPs has garnered great attention as a
result of inherently superior chemically, biologically as well
as magnetically inclined attributes, such as high saturated
magnetic behavior, chemical stabilization, nil-toxicity, bio-
compatibility, and high magnetic affinity. The highest bio-
compatible oxidation phases of iron are magnetite (Fe3O4)
and maghemite (Fe2O3). Nevertheless, these NPs undergo
oxidization requiring added coating composed of other bio-
compatible materials (Sheikh & Bramhecha, 2019).
Widely used metallic NPs in biomedicine include gold,
and silver as well as their respective derivatives. The peculiar
optical as well as electronic properties of gold have induced
its usage in vital biosensoral and bioimagery applications.
Moreso, its ease of functionalization using organic molecular
entities facilitates its application for actively as well as pas-
sively drug conveying systems (Xu et al., 2019). Conversely,
silver NPs are composed of peculiar physicochemical behav-
iors including catalytic affinity, elevated thermally and elec-
trically affiliated conductivity, chemical stability, high optical
attributes, and excellent antibacterial performance against a
wide range of microorganisms, such as fungi, as well as
Gram-positive and-negative bacteria (Yang et al., 2020). As
a result of inherently high surfacial area and minimized
dimensions, NPs are able to distort cellular wall, while prop-
agating membranous deterioration, at the same time pene-
trating intracellular membranes thereby hindering the
denaturation of proteins, enzymatic stagnation, DNA
THE JOURNAL OF THE TEXTILE INSTITUTE 3
poring, or dismantling of ribosome; as well as inducement
of oxidative stress (Xu et al., 2019). NPs of silver have sig-
nificantly added to medical textiles advancement especially
in the area of wound dressings as well as protective coatings
for medical devices (Yang et al., 2020).
The comingling of these NPs with biocomposites has
undergone high exploration, in addition to excellent bacteri-
cidal behavior notable in natural fibers such as jute, sugar-
cane bagasse, cotton, linen, and silk filled biocomposites
(Paszkiewicz et al., 2016, 2016). The bimetallic NPs comingle
with varying metals and fabricated from metal alloys. Cu, as
well as Ag NPs are common metallic substrates in this cat-
egory. These NPs have undergone utilization in fabrication of
cotton/polyester composites at varying compositional inclu-
sion and oxidation phases with high antimicrobial behaviors
against fungi as well as bacteria (Aruna et al., 2016). Metallic
oxide NPs are notable as a result of inherent high density
and exceptionally high chemical as well as physical attributes.
Dimensional misrepresentations as feedback to escalating
number of surfacial and interfacial atoms have undergone
observation in NPs constituted of TiO2, Al2O3, SnO2, ZrO2,
CeO2, CuO, ZnO, MgO, AgO, and so on (Xia et al., 2016).
Comingling with biomaterial entities has demonstrated very
efficiency in these NPs stabilization, as well as enhanced per-
formance. Emerging researches have demonstrated that com-
ingling with biocomposites are not harmful on human
cellular membranes as well as enhanced antimicrobial activ-
ities and UV-protection (Rastgoo et al., 2016; Stan et al.,
2019; Tripathi et al., 2019).
Organically inclined NPs are garnered from plant as well
as animal origins, with high biocompatibility, nil toxicity at
various levels of inclusion and low cost. Majority of organic-
ally based NPs are fabricated from naturally occurring poly-
meric materials, like proteins such as elastin, albumin,
collagen as well as silk, polysaccharides such as cellulose,
chitosan, and hyaluronic acid. Conversely, organic NPs
exhibit notable batch-wise variability, along with a number
of physically and chemically affiliated attributes emanating
from inferior control of synthesis as well as production,
unlike inorganic NPs having repetition that is maintained
with production. Hence, minimal information is available
on comingling of these NPs with biocomposites (Jarai et al.,
2020; Rosamah et al., 2018; Wi
nska et al., 2019).
3. Approaches of immobilizing biomolecules on NFs
Three main routes exist for immobilization of biomolecules
on NFs vis-a-viz: covalent adherence, physical embedment,
as well as physically induced adsorption. Here, all
approaches display self-arrangement where concerned
molecular entities, as well as ions, undergo control of their
inherent positions in attainment of thermodynamic equilib-
rium (Stringaro et al., 2018). Physically induced adsorption
involves van der Waals interactions, electrostatically affili-
ated interactions, hydrophobically induced effects as well as
affinity recognition (Hoffman et al., 2013). Nevertheless, on
adsorption of molecular entities, further cross-linkage may
occur to each other. van der Waals forces such as hydrogen
4 C. I. IDUMAH ET AL.
bonding are commonly known interaction occurring
between two substrates, as a result of electromagnetic
instability emanating from continual mobility of positive as
well as negative charges occurring within varying forms of
atoms, molecular entities, as well as bulk substrates. Here,
substrates are garnered together via stabilizing ligands as
well as suitable solvents. Moreso availing interactions are
controllable and provide veritable tools guiding self-arrange-
ment (Antunes et al., 2019).
Moreover, physically encapsulating mechanisms align
with encapsulation of bioactive entities within microcapsu-
lates, hydrogels, as well as physical combinations, like
matrix drug conveying systems. Critical benefits include
simplicity, capability of utilizing similar entities for varying
biomolecular entities and autonomous immobilization, sta-
bilization as well as protection of bioactive entities against
deterioration. The shortcomings include diffusional limita-
tion especially with broad molecular entities, as well as the
feasibility of biomolecular elimination especially when
encapsulated molecular entity is dimensionally minimal
(Hoffman et al., 2013).
3.1. Emerging advancements in approaches of
immobilizing biomolecules on natural fibers
Despite the approach utilized, same biomolecular entity may
undergo immobilization using varying techniques, in add-
ition to more than a single biomolecule been immobilized
in same support. Main immobilization approaches are com-
prised of exhaustion technique, dip–pad–dry–curing
approach, covalent chemistry as well as in situ inorganic
nanoparticle (NP) synthesis via a hydrothermal sol-gel tech-
nique (Xu et al., 2019).
Varying approaches have been used for biomolecular
immobilization on cotton fibers. These methods include: In
situ synthesis of NPs via sol-gel procedure through immer-
sion in AgNO3 for 10 min, and drying at 100
C for 1 h.
Further immersing cotton within NaBH4 10 min, DW, dry-
ing for 100
C for 1 h. The functional entity used is –SH,
while the biomolecule is silver NPs (inorganic NPs) which
is the main metallic ligand binding with Agþ ions (Shen et
al., 2019)
Another technique of biomolecule immobilization on cot-
ton fiber include immersion within silver NP dispersion for
10 min with –OH functional entity, with silver NPs as inor-
ganic NPs and biomolecule, and metal–ligand binding with
Agþ ions as main chemical reactions (Khadeja et al., 2020).
Another route is via ultrasound treatment involving
immersion within a hot distribution of loaded FF peptide
nanotubes within an ice bath, DW, freeze-drying, with
Curcumin (plant extract) as biomolecule. Here, the main
chemical reactions entail physical adsorption post sonication
procedure based on melting point of the substrate as well as
carbonization of fibers at their junction of meeting with sil-
ver nuclei due to high rate along with temperature of the
nanotubes thrown to the surface of the solid using sono-
chemical-microjets (Rosamah et al., 2018).
For flax fiber especially linen, a Dip–pad–dry approach is
utilized in depositing PEGylated silver NPs, with drying at
100
C for 20 min, with water, and further drying at 100
C
for 6 min. In situ NP synthesis by sol-gel method: immer-
sion in Zn (CH3COO)2. 2H2O5OC 1 h stirring, NaOH, dry-
ing 100
C 6 h. So many other techniques are applied in
immobilizing varying fibers. For kenaf fibers, immobiliza-
tion is via casting of a resin mixture which could be a poly-
ester resin with NP filler inclusion and MEKP as catalyst on
fibers via hand layup procedure, with curing cold press at
24 h, and polymerization at 105
C. Herein, the functional
entity is –OH, while the biomolecule immobilized is
Bamboo organic NPs. Also, the main reaction in this
approach entail hydrogen bonding between NPs, fiber and
matrix (Wang et al., 2016).
For kapok fiber, in situ synthesis of NP through sol-gel
technique is applied via: immersion in AgNO3 and UV irradi-
ation under stirring for 30 min, DW, and drying vacuum.
Here, catechol is the prevailing functional entity while silver
NPs (inorganic NPs) and Metal–ligand binding with Agþ ions
is the main mode of interaction (Guignard et al., 2015).
For bamboo fiber, immobilization occurs through
exhaustion bath with inclusion of microcapsules, Mikracat B
cross-linking agent and Sapamine softener 1 h pH 7, pad-
ding, cross-linking 1 h 130
C, along with drying. The pre-
vailing covalent bonding occurs between the loaded
microcapsules and fabric (Tang et al., 2015). Another route
is via in situ NP synthesis using sol-gel technique [211],
which has also been used for silk immobilization (Macha et
al., 2018).
3.2. Progress in fabrication of biomolecules NFs
polymeric biocomposites and nanobiocomposites
3.2.1. NPs/enzymes/proteins, essential oils, plant extracts
polymeric biomolecular biocomposites, and hybrid
nanobiocomposites
Biomolecular applications in fabrication of NF biocompo-
sites and bionanocomposites for biomedical applications
with enhanced properties are an emerging essential research
area. Majority of these materials are already established for
biomedical application. Amoxicillin is a type of penicillin,
an antibiotic which hinder the growth of bacteria and uti-
lized in the treatment of varying bacterial afflictions such as
strep-throat, pneumonia, middle-ear infection, as well as
urinary and skin infections (Anuar et al., 2017). Hence, in a
study amoxicillin/woven-cotton fabric/polylactic acid (PLA)
bionanocomposites were fabricated. Results revealed that the
drug-loading ability escalated with reducing fabric porosity.
The materials mechanical behavior was found to align with
the components density and weight. The degree of deterior-
ation of the fabric composites were found to be influenced
by the rate of drug release. Also, rate of water absorption
minimized with escalating concentration of PLA (Chao et
al., 2018).
Glycylcycline is an FDA approved antibiotic utilized in
treating skin tissue afflictions. Hence, in a study, sericin/
PVA biocomposite was fabricated. The composites

Figure 3. SEM images of fracture surfaces at various magnification: (a1–a3) neat MC membrane; (b1–b3) MC/PLA (99:1) membrane; (c1–c3) MC/PLA (97:3) mem-
brane; (d1–d3) MC/PLA (95:5) membrane; (e1–e3) MC/PLA (9:1) membrane; (f1–f3) MC/PLA (7:3) membrane; (g1–g3) MC/PLA (1:1) membrane; (h1–h3) MC/PLA
(3:7) membrane; and (i1–i3) MC/PLA (1:9) membrane (Siadat & Mokhtari, 2016).
demonstrated even and smooth architecture with appropri-
ate porosity, mechanical stability as well as good water
vapor transmission. They also exhibited antibacterial behav-
ior against Escherichia coli as well as Bacillus subtilis. In
vivo testing demonstrated that this composite accelerated
the degree of wound mending (Ghalei et al., 2018).
Diclofenac is a nil-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug uti-
lized in treatment of pain and arthritis inflammation. Thus,
in a study, keratin/hydrotalcite bionanocomposites were fab-
ricated, and results revealed the bionanocomposites demon-
strated minor swelling, degradation, and porosity as well as
elevated thermal stability, in comparison with pristine kera-
tin membranes. The releasing antecedent of diclofenac
exhibited higher stability on the modified composites, with
the ability of supporting fibroblast-affiliated cells bonding
(Jiang et al., 2020).
Ecobenign and biodegradable composite membranes con-
taining varying methylcellulose/polylactic acid (MC/PLA)
mass ratios were prepared for potential biomedical applica-
tion. SEM images of fracture surfaces are displayed in
Figure 3(A,B). From Figure 3, the architectures are highly
influenced by MC/PLA mass ratio. Pristine MC exhibited
conglomeration into a homogeneous and compact mem-
brane, while the rest displayed uniform dispersion facilitat-
ing enhanced mechanical properties suitable for tissue
engineering (Siadat & Mokhtari, 2016).
In another investigation, Ag/Silk fibers/polyhexamethy-
lene biguanide (PHMB) fabric was fabricated for antibacter-
ial effect (Abdelwahab & Shukry, 2015). Here, regenerated
silk fibers were prepared via dry–wet spinning master batch
or dipping modified procedure using varying PHMB and
AgNPs concentrations. Results revealed that anti-bacterial
efficiency of the master batch modified fabrics was function
THE JOURNAL OF THE TEXTILE INSTITUTE 5
of the antibacterial agent concentration, in addition to the
particulate size (Sheikh & Bramhecha, 2019).
In another study, Ag/sugarcane bagasse/acrylamide/gly-
cidyl methacrylate biocomposites has been fabricated (Babu
et al., 2012). Here, sugarcane bagasse underwent successful
grafting with acrylamide and glycidyl methacrylate, with fur-
ther modification in a colloidal suspension of AgNPs. Results
revealed effective antimicrobial activity against Escherichia
coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus flavus, and Candida
albicans (Cao et al., 2013). In a similar study, linen fabrics
with chitosan coating underwent modification with AgNPs
via in situ synthesis with tamarind seed coat extract. Results
revealed efficient multifunctional attributes, with bacterial
minimization of 100%, UPF rating of 50þ, and antioxidancy
of 97%. Aside flame retardant behavior; all properties were
retained to a satisfactory level even after 50 washing cycles
(Jinga et al., 2020). Cotton fabric underwent grafting to car-
boxymethyl chitosan with immobilization by AgNPs, via ami-
dation reaction while L-cysteine entities present at the fabric
surface, exhibited improved antibacterial activities, maintained
even post 180 cycles of washing. Cytotoxicity assays revealed
nil effect on human immortalized keratinocyte cells, exposing
the material safety for human skin contact (Pereira dos
Santos et al., 2019). Polymer–AgNPs nanocomposites have
undergone modification with cotton fabrics prepared via in
situ chemical oxidative polymerization, with displaying of
incremental conductivity. Moreso AgNPs exhibited responsi-
bility for incremental antibacterial behavior of the composite
towards Staphylococcus aureus as well as Escherichia coli (Sun
et al., 2010).
Composite scaffolds have undergone fabrication via suc-
cessful comingling of sol-gel approach for the synthesis of
inorganic powders with the electrospinning method for
6 C. I. IDUMAH ET AL.
generating the fibrous substrate. Two forms of oxide pow-
ders were utilized, one composed of magnesium, while the
other contained strontium (Huang & Fu, 2010).
Polycaprolactone (PCL) was used as a bioresorbable matrix,
where powders were incorporated in 1% or 5% concentra-
tions. The morphological behaviors of the loaded scaffolds
changed as a function of the powder constitution and
amount, while also modifying the geometry, size, and
fibrous inter-connectivity.
3.3. Biopolymeric nanofabrics for wound dressing
applications
As a result of biopolymeric biocompatibility and environ-
mental friendliness, varying biopolymeric nanofibrous mate-
rials have undergone investigation for use in constructing
effective wound dressing substrates. As ecobenign, and
renewable materials, biopolymeric materials have displayed
susceptibility for regenerative medical applications. The
enabling ease of accessibility is due to their affinity for bio-
activity and biodegradability as well as similarity to ECM
relative to architecture and surface topography (Mogo &
Grumezescu, 2014). In the field of biopolymeric materials
utilized for wound treatment, polysaccharides carbohydrate
polymeric materials are mainly used and include alginates,
cellulose, chitin, hyaluronic acid, and chitosan. These biopo-
lymeric materials also includes elastin, silk fibroin, collagen,
and dextran, and utilized as biocompatible wound dressing
substrates (Czaja et al., 2006; Zhou et al., 2016).
Cellulose is a polysaccharide material composed of glucose
and has garnered great attention in wound reparability
because as a wound dressing material for critical wounds, it
releases pain and escalates the mending process while add-
itionally facilitating tissue regeneration. For instance, a wood
oriented nano-fibrillar cellulose wound dressing material has
been fabricated for the treatment of burn patients and exhibit
rapid epithelialization in comparison with its commercial
counterpart (Paskiabi et al., 2017). Asides cellulose garnered
from plants, there abides cellulose synthesized by bacteria
(Acetobacter xylinum (Acetobacteraceae)), referred to as bac-
terial cellulose (BC). This nanoarchitectured cellulose exhibit
potential physicochemical and mechanical behavior, along
with biocompatibility and biodegradability, in addition to
notable prospects for hydration and bactericidal activities
(Reshmi et al., 2021).
To enable mimickability of ECM architecture, BC is ver-
satily utilized for tissue engineering in addition to recon-
structing disoriented tissues, for wound mending, in addition
to blood vessel regeneration (Alavarse et al., 2017). Moreover,
cellulose dressings can undergo upgrading via blending with
other biopolymeric materials or inclusion of a versatile range
of active entities such as antimicrobial drugs, antioxidants,
enzymes, vitamins, and hormones (Wutticharoenmongkol et
al., 2019). For example, gallic acid has been utilized along
with polyphenol (a compound abiding in fruits, tea leaves,
and vegetables, nuts, exhibiting anti-inflammatory, antibacter-
ial, antioxidant along with high prospects for wound dressing
applications (Ma et al., 2015).
Moxifloxacin hydrochloride (MFH), is a quinolone anti-
biotic utilized in mending respiratory afflictions, pneumonia,
skin as well as soft tissues issues. Hence in a study, MFH
was embedded within blended nanofibers of sodium algin-
ate/PVA to hinder bacterial affliction in wounds (Fu et al.,
2016). Through release of about 80% MFH post 10 h incu-
bation at 37
C, the nanofibrous wound dressing facilitated
the elimination of f P. aeruginosa as well as S. aureus.
Moreover, alginate fibrous materials have been utilized as
conveyor for sulfanilamide (Chouhan et al., 2017), a com-
pound perceived as less expensive antibacterial and anti-
inflammatory entity, hindering enzymatic reactions oriented
on para-amino benzoic acid.
In an investigation, a wound dressing material comprising
of non-mulberry SF nanofibrous material was functionalized
with EGF and ciprofloxacin HCl (CIP), and displayed
enhanced attributes such as biocompatibility, significant water
uptake capacity of 440%, maximal water vapor permeability
(2330 g m2 day1), high mechanical behavior (E ¼ 2.5 MPa)
as well as bactericidal effect (Deldar et al., 2018).
Chrysin (5,7-dihydroxyflavone) (Chr) is a naturally
occurring flavonoid deposited within numerous plant
extracts exhibiting versatile biological attributes including
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer behaviors.
Thus, in a study, the effect of cytotoxicity, anti-inflammation,
antioxidant, and release rate of Chr (5% and 15%) incorpo-
rated PCL/PEG nanofibrous mats was investigated for wound
mending usages (Chan et al., 2017). Results revealed that
PCL/PEG composed of 5% w/w Chr exhibited escalated rate
of release (25 g) in comparison with PCL/PEG composed of
15% w/w Chr (43 g), post three days. Moreover, the fibers
demonstrated 80% viability and cyto-protective impact
towards human HFF-1 fibroblast cells, antioxidant, and anti-
inflammatory attributes, thereby displaying potential as
wound dressing material (Savliwala et al., 2020).
In an investigation, electrospun nanofibrous material
emanating from naturally occuring silk fibroin protein
(SFP), in combination with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and
in blendeing with baicalein (BAI), (a flavone extricated from
the roots of Scutellaria baicalensis and Scutellaria lateriflora)
demonstrated in vitro anti-inflammatory and antibacterial
effect against S. aureus and further results displayed notable
enhancement in wound mending procedure using SFP/PVP/
BAI fibrous mat substrates (Motealleh et al., 2014).
In vitro as well as in vivo investigation have been con-
ducted for analyzing the antimicrobial, antifungal as well as
drug releasing behavior of electrospun PCL/polystyrene (PS)
nanofibrous specimen with inclusion of chamomile.
Moreover, in vivo investigation revealed that samples with
inclusion of 15% chamomile extract exhibited effective in
wound mending after two weeks post-treatment periods, dem-
onstrating the creation of epithelial tissue (Li et al., 2021).
4. Halloysite nanotubes polymer nanocomposites
and drug delivery
Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) are naturally occurring clay
nanotubes exhibiting exceptional application prospects in

Figure 4. Elucidation of HNTs/chlorhexidine gluconate (CG) nanocomposites fabrication, drug releasing mode from HNTs lumen, and its application within cotton
fabric (Gao et al., 2017).
varying fields. Moreso HNTs exhibit a broad surface area of
184.9 m2/g with a wide pore volume of 0.353 cm3/g and ease
of carriage as well as drugs delivery (Wu et al., 2015, 2017).
HNTs are ecobenign, inexpensive, highly porous, manipulat-
able surface chemistry architecture, biocompatibility, and
elaborate surface area. Thus, HNTs have garnered great
attention in biological science, biological medicine, as well
as technology. For instance, a schematic elucidation of
HNTs loading with antibacterial drugs is displayed in
Figure 4.
To achieve a sustainable rate of release as well as prolong
shelf-life of breviscapine (BVE) in vivo, BVE-loaded HNT
architecture has been prepared by encapsulating within
HNTs via vacuum procedure. Results revealed that BVE
underwent successfully loading within the HNTs
(Kurczewska et al., 2017). Moreso, results emanating from
in vitro drug releasing extent of BVE from BVE -loaded
HNTs architecture demonstrated that this architecture is
capable of sustaining the releasing effect (Kurczewska et al.,
2017). Figure 5(A) depicts the chemical constitution of BVE,
while Figure B present SEM images of (A) virgin HNTs, (B)
BVE-loaded HNTs architecture, and (C) TEM images, while
(D) captures the cumulative BVE release from (a) physical
comingling of HNTs and BVE, (b) BVE-loaded HNTs archi-
tecture at 37
C.
The effect of an inorganic facilitator – HNTs – on rate of
release rate as well as biological activity of an antibiotic
embedded within alginate-oriented dressing has been con-
ducted (Degrazia et al., 2018). HNTs underwent loading
with about 10 wt. % antibiotics with subsequent encapsula-
tion within Alginate and Gelatin/Alginate gels. Results
revealed that the material functionalized with aliphatic
amine notably elongated vancomycin release from alginate-
THE JOURNAL OF THE TEXTILE INSTITUTE 7
oriented gels in comparison with that attained when silica
was utilized. Vancomycin exhibited six pKa values, two
basic as well as four acidic (Figure 6(A)), while Figure 7
presents the drug loading cycle (Degrazia et al., 2018).
Triclosan (TCN) is an established antibacterial entity
widely used in varying products including mouthwashes and
toothpastes. Numerous researches have shown effectiveness
of these therapeutic entities against gram-positive microor-
ganisms, such as Actinomyces spp., Streptococcus mutans,
Lactobacillus spp., and Staphylococcus aureus (Bugatti et al.,
2018; Cunha et al., 2018; Rathke et al., 2010). In a study, the
in vitro effects of TCN-embedded HNTs (HNT/TCN) on
the physicochemical as well as microbiological attributes of
an experimental micro-hybrid resin dental composite was
studied, and results demonstrated efficiency of the compos-
ite at drug delivery (Ghosal et al., 2021). Figure 8(A) depicts
TEM images of TCN loaded HNT (Ghosal et al., 2021).
Hybrid nanocomposite films were derived from mixture of
Polyamide 11 (PA11)/HNT/lysozyme 50 wt. % as naturally
occurring antimicrobial molecule. The membranes under-
went antimicrobial padding for chicken part preservation,
while the membrane reinforced with 5.0 wt. % of
HNTs–lysozyme proved efficient against Pseudomonas
development for about 13 days in comparison with unre-
inforced PA11. Decreased bacterial growth was observed for
membrane reinforced with the antimicrobial entity (Ghosal
et al., 2021).
5. Functionalization of biomaterial
nanoarchitectures for drug delivery
Nanofibrous biomaterials exhibit huge prospects for drug
delivery, as a result of inherently structural behavior and
8 C. I. IDUMAH ET AL.

Figure 5. (A) chemical constitution of BVE; (B) BVE-loaded HNTs architecture, and (C) TEM images of BVE-loaded HNTs architecture; (D) Cumulative BVE release
from (a) physical comingling of HNTs and BVE, (b) BVE-loaded HNTs architecture at 37
C (Kurczewska et al., 2017).

Figure 6. (A) Vanocomycin architecture; arrows depict functional entities causing the six pKa values. (B) Elucidation of mechanism proposed for Vancomycin release
from HNTs_APTS embedded within alginate matrix. (C) Presentation of inhibition regions within Vancomycin immobilized at HNTs_APTS (left side – 0.25 g; right
side – 0.50 g) in Alginate for bacteria: (a) S. pneumoniae; (b) S. pyogenes; (c) E. faecalis. (D) Cumulative release (Degrazia et al., 2018).
 THE JOURNAL OF THE TEXTILE INSTITUTE 9

Figure 7. (A) Elucidation of drug loading at HNTs_APTS, where A is APTS, B Vancomycin, 1 – HNTs_HCl, 2 – HNTs_APTS, 3 – Vancomycin immobilization at
HNTs_APTS; (B) TEM images (200 nm) of virgin HNTs (a) and treated HNTs_APTS (b); (C) Vancomycin release profiles from HNTs_APTS within Alginate or Gelatin/
Alginate matrix; (D) HNTs and HNTs_APTS TGA curves (Degrazia et al., 2018).

Figure 8. (A) TEM images depicting TCN nanoparticulates possessing diameter of 5–10 nm. (B) TEM image of HNT having the interior-surface of 40–50 nm diameter
range and exterior-surface of 90 nm diameter (Sun et al., 2010); (C) SEM images for specimens (a) PA11, (b) PA11/1.0 wt. % HNTs–lysozyme, (c) PA11/2.5 wt. %
HNTs–lysozyme, (d) PA11/5.0 wt. % HNTs–lysozyme (Ghosal et al., 2021).
10 C. I. IDUMAH ET AL.

Figure 9. (A) Elucidation of multiaxial electrospinning gadget for the formation of varying entities for multiple drugs encapsulation; (a) coaxial electrospinning, (b)
triaxial electrospinning, (c) islands-within-sea electrospinning; (B) Conventional chemical adsorption of drug molecular entities upon nanofibrous surfaces; (C) Three
varying physical adsorptions of drugs within nanofibrous entities; (D) Varying drug releasing profiles. Red: tri-phasical releasing having short phase II; yellow: burst;
yellow: burst releasing and a rapid phase II; blue: a zero-order releasing; orange: burst releasing having a zero-order release; green: a classical tri-phasical releasing;
black: a classical bi-phasic, similar to a tri-phase devoid of burst releasing (Wang et al., 2020).

functionalities which are similar to their conventional extra-
cellular matrix (ECM). Varying naturally occurring and poly-
meric entities can undergo utilization for production of
nanofibrous biomaterials for conveying drugs (Rasouli et al.,
2019). Polymer biomaterials (POB) are tentatively classified
into naturally occurring and synthetic POB. Naturally occur-
ring POB include lignin, collagen, proteins, chitosan, chitin,
cellulose, gelatin, pectin, and gelatin (Figueiredo et al., 2017).
These naturally occurring polymeric entities exhibit biocom-
patibility and also utilized in mimicking ECM (Barnes et al.,
2007). Nevertheless, it is not easy to fabricate them into fila-
mentous nanofibers (Chen et al., 2018). Hence, synthetic
POB possessing biodegradability have undergone mixing with
naturally occurring POB, as a result of inherently molecular
weights as they are slenderical to formation into continuous
nanofibrous entities after elongation.
POB include polycaprolactone (PCL), Poly (N-vinylpyrro-
lidone) (PVP), polyethylene oxide (PEO), as well as poly (lac-
tic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) with susceptibility to forming
biocomposites with naturally occurring polymeric matrices
for nanofibrous fabrication and for sustainability and speci-
fied drug release (Pant et al., 2019). As a result of superior
nanofibrous attributes, varying nanofibrous manufacturing
approaches have been evaluated and used by varying investi-
gations, including centrifugal spinning, self-assembly, electro-
spinning, solution blowing, as well as phase separation.
Moreso nanofiber biomaterials greatly affect functioning and
efficiency of drug delivery (Li et al., 2019). Varying modes of
drug loading can undergo categorization into chemical and
physical adsorptions. Nanofibrous degree of releasing drugs is
function of varying parameters, such as drug diffusion, fiber
eroding as well as biodegradability (Wang et al., 2020).
Figure 9 depict different forms of fabricating filamentous
POB, mode of chemically absorbing drugs within nanofibrous
entities, and varying drug releasing modes.
The architecture entails fibrous diameter, cross-sectional
geometry, directionality, and porosity and scaffold dimen-
sionality. The drug loading routes and drug releasing rate
notably affect drug delivery (Li et al., 2020).
6. Metallic NPs encapsulation on NFPCs for
antibacterial applications
As a result of the high prospects of nanotechnology, varying
forms of NMs such as antibacterials having high antibacter-
ial activities have been versatily utilized in varying applica-
tions to hinder or control microbial hazards. Metal and
metallic oxide NPs exhibiting antibacterial behaviors include
zinc oxide (ZnO-NPs), Copper oxide (CuO-NPs), and Ag-
NPs (Chambre et al., 2020). Herein, Ag-NPs have under-
gone wide usage in varying applications because of their
unique attributes including wide level of antibacterial behav-
ior, strong and safe antibacterial NPs, as well as effectual
NP distribution (Ahmed et al., 2017). Moreso Ag-NPs por-
tray special electronic, structural, catalytic, chemical, as well
 THE JOURNAL OF THE TEXTILE INSTITUTE 11

Figure 10. (A) Elucidation of in-situ bio-fabrication of Ag-NPs using E. spiralis extract in C. pentandra fiber; (B) UV–vis spectra of unmodified C. pentandra fiber,
modified C. pentandra fiber and C. pentandra/Ag-NPs; (C) XRD trends of (a) treated C. pentandra fiber and (b) Ag-NPs in C. pentandra fiber; (D) (a) Field emission
transmission electron microscope (FETEM) image, (b) particle size distribution histogram, (c) SAED pattern, and (d) lattice d-spacing parameter of C. pentandra/
AgNO3 (Khalir et al., 2020). Figure 12 presents varying biopolymeric materials used in producing nanofibers for varying biomedical applications.

as optical behaviors in contrasts with bulk entities ascribed
to elevated surface to volume ratio (Ahmad et al., 2017).
These behaviors of Ag-NPs facilitate their versatile usage in
medical applications, pharmaceuticals, textiles, catalysis,
photography, optoelectronics, biological labeling, and also
photocatalytic applications (Chouhan et al., 2017; Fiore et
al., 2016; Khalir et al., 2018; Ramesh et al., 2017;
Sivaranjana et al., 2017; Varadavenkatesan et al., 2016).
Presently, inclusion of metallic NPs on substrates such as
natural fiber (flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, and sisal) has facili-
tated desirable attributes at both nanoscale materials as well
as metal NPs (Hussain et al., 2018; Rehan et al., 2017).
Natural fiber loaded with Ag-NPs can enhance their proper-
ties including mechanical, biocompatible, magnetic, optical,
and electronic attributes (Zhang et al., 2017). Nevertheless,
susceptibility of natural fiber to absorbing high level of
moisture subscribes it more to microbial encapsulation
under certain humidity and temperature conditions (Khalir
et al., 2020). Hence, NF embedded antimicrobial entities
offers a panacea to this challenge. Thus, C. pentandra NF
has been used as facilitating material for Ag-NPs loading. In
comparison with other facilitating materials, C. pentandra
offer benefits including high cellulose composition, bio-
degradability, zero-toxicity, abundance, inexpensiveness, and
inhibition to microbial attack as a result of fiber hydropho-
bic behaviors (Khalir et al., 2020). Results displayed
importance of E. spiralis extract as minimizing and stabiliz-
ing entities included for Ag-NPs loading on C. pentandra
fiber surface. The fabricated C. pentandra/Ag-NPs exhibited
good antibacterial behavior towards both Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria S. aureus, E. faecalis, E. coli, and P.
vulgaris, with catalytic behavior towards Rhodamine B and
methylene blue dyes. C. pentandra/Ag-NPs exhibit prospects
as NMs for biomedical usage including wound healing and
biomaterials coating, wastewater modification, food packag-
ing as well as textiles against a broad scope of microbes
(Khalir et al., 2020). Figure 10 presents elucidation of the
scheme of fabrication of this material, whereas Figure 11
shows SEM, EDX, and FTIR of the material (Khalir et
al., 2020).
7. Conclusions and future perspectives
Biocomposite, bionanocomposites, and hybrid nanobiocom-
posites exhibit essential properties suitable for biomedical
applications. Moreso natural fiber reinforced polymer nano-
composites have been elucidated for multifunctional applica-
tions (Idumah, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c,
2021d, 2021e, 2021f, in press; Idumah, Ezeani, et al., 2021;
Idumah, Hassan, Ihuoma, 2019; Idumah, Hassan, et al.,
2019, 2020; Idumah, Nwuzor, et al., 2020; Idumah, Obele, et
al., 2020; Idumah, Ogbu, et al., 2019; Idumah, Zurina, et al.,
12 C. I. IDUMAH ET AL.

Figure 11. (A) (a) SEM image and (b) EDX spectra of C. pentandra/Ag-NPs. (B) FTIR spectra of (a) untreated C. pentandra fiber, (b) treated C. pentandra fiber, and (c)
C. pentandra/Ag-NPs. (C) The images of inhibition zones growth against (a) E. coli, (b) P. vulgaris, (c) E. faecalis, and (d) S. aureus around the different mass of C. pen-
tandra incorporated with Ag-NPs at 1 (1 mg), 2 (2 mg), and 3 (4 mg). (D) UV–Vis spectra of reduction of RhB dye by (a) NaBH 4 alone, (b) in the presence of C. pen-
tandra/Ag-NPs at 20 mg/L RhB, and (c) the proposed mechanism of C. pentandra/Ag-NPs as nanocatalyst for the reduction of RhB dye; (E) UV–vis spectra of
reduction of MB dye by (a) NaBH 4 alone, (b) in the presence of C. pentandra/Ag-NPs, and (c) the proposed mechanism of C. pentandra/Ag-NPs as nanocatalyst for
the reduction of MB dye (Khalir et al., 2020).

Odera, 2020). Herein, emerging trends have been elucidated,

Figure 12. Biomedical applications of biopolymeric nanofibers.
2019; Idumah et al., 2017, 2018, 2021; Idumah & Hassan,
2015a, 2015b, 2016a, 2016b, 2016c, 2016d, 2016e, 2017;
Idumah & Iheoma, 2019; Idumah & Obele, 2021; Idumah &
and enhancements attained via inclusion of biomolecules as
well as immobilization procedures and selectivity of peculiar
fibers, as well as critical surface modifications has been
expounded. Thus, successful usage of these biomaterials has
been elucidated as function of how compatible the compo-
nents are essential as well as degree of interactions attained.
Biomolecular immobilization on these biocomposites enhan-
ces their usage in particular biomedical applications. The
embedment of plant extracts, drugs, NPs, peptides, and so
on, have demonstrated propensity of enhancing the anti-
microbial as well as the biocompatibility attributes of these
materials which are essential for critical implantation proce-
dures. Nevertheless, critical challenges requiring panacea in
future researches still persist. Underlying challenges are
related to discernment of inherent behaviors of individual
components of the material as well as appropriate selection
of the processing parameters. It is established that the man-
ufacturing procedure, as well as prevailing production
stages, exhibit critical effects on the end product. As a result
of inherent biologically affiliated inclination, NFs extraction,
as well as their consequent attributes is very complex to
comprehend. Thus, differentials between varying portions
abide, thereby elucidating the factor limiting the scope of

success of laboratory fabricated biocomposites during clin-
ical trials. Hence, it remains imperative to attain customiza-
tion, as well as optimization of components in biocomposite
fabrication to meet required local as well as global needs of
fillers to facilitate fabrication of implantable materials exhib-
iting structural compatibility with the hosting tissues.
Therefore, harnessing the benefits of enhanced textile ori-
ented biocomposites for potential implant application
should be intensified. Biomolecular modification of these
materials is critically essential especially for medical textiles
propounding for external usage. However, it is imperative to
enhance the shelf life as well as reliability of these biomate-
rials to enable effective use as biomedical materials.
Acknowledgements
The Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Department of
Textile Engineering, The Manchester University, Greater Manchester,
England, United Kingdom, and Enhanced Polymer Research Group
(EnPro), Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and
Nuclear Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia are acknowledged
for inculcating academic legacies.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
No funding is reported.
ORCID
Christopher Igwe Idumah http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1014-6751
Anthony Chidi Ezika http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9426-678X
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