Design of Machine Elements

UNIT- 3
1.Bearings
1.1.Bearings -Introduction
Bearing is a rotating machine element
used to support another moving element
and to guide or confine its motion, while
preventing motion in the direction of
applied force.

1.2.Classification of Bearings
Bearings can be broadly classified as

1.2.1. Depending upon the direction of load to be supported

a) Radial bearings: The main load act perpendicular to the axis of rotation of shaft.
b) Thrust bearings: The main load act along or parallel to the axis of rotation of shaft.
Eg: Foot step bearing, collar bearing
c) Slipper or guide bearing: It guides the translatory motion of the machine without considering the
direction of load.

1.2.2. Depending upon the nature of contact between the working surfaces

a) Sliding contact bearings: The relative motion between the bearing surfaces aresliding.
Lubricating oil is added in between fixed and moving elements.
b) Rolling contact bearings: The relative motion between the bearing surfaces are rolling.
The rolling action is
obtained by interposing
steel balls or rollers in
between the fixed and
moving elements.
Depending on the shape of
rolling element it is again
classified as ball bearing,
roller bearing and needle
bearing
 1.2.3. Depending upon the type of loading
a) Bearing with a steady load
b) Bearing with a fluctuating load

1.3.1 Advantages of sliding contact bearings

1. Sliding contact bearings can carry heavy load at high rotational speeds
2. It can absorb shock and vibrations due to excellent damping capacity.
3. In running condition there is no metal to metal contact since the contacting surfaces are
separated by a thin film of lubricating oil.
4. It can also be designed as split structure which facilitates the easy assembly of the bearing.
Example: big end bearing of connecting rod in IC engines.
5. The service life of sliding contact bearings are very long.

1.3.2. Dis-advantages of sliding contact bearings

1. There is metal to metal contact at the time of starting which results in high starting torque.
2. Lubrication of sliding contact bearings are costly since it requires additional accessories like pump,
sump, filter and pipe lines.
3. The alignment of centre of bearing and axis of rotation of shaft cannot be maintained accurately
and hence it results in eccentricity.
4. Maintenance cost of sliding contact bearings are high since the frequent replacement of lubricating
oil is costly.
5. Replacement of bearings are costly since there is no standardization of sliding contact bearings.

1.3.3. Advantages of rolling contact bearings

1. It has low starting torque
2. It can also take combined radial and axial loads.
3. It requires less axial space
4. Accurate alignment parts can be maintained and hence no eccentricity
5. Lubrication is simple requires little or no attention.
6. Replacement is easy due to standardization.
7. Rolling contact bearings are reliable in service.

1.3.4. Dis-Advantages of rolling contact bearings

2. Rolling contact bearings are noisy due to metal to metal contact and its poor damping capacity.
3. It requires more radial space which increases the diameter of housing.
4. Rolling contact bearings are more sensitive to dirt, dust and foreign particles and hence requires a
clean environment.
5. Rolling contact bearings are more expensive.

1.3.5. Bearing materials

 Brass, bronze, aluminium alloys, cast iron, plastics, rubber etc are widely used as bearing
materials
1.3.6. Desirable properties of bearing materials

1. Good compressive and fatigue strength

2. It should have good score resistance so that it does not damage shaft
3. Good deformability, conformability
4. High corrosion resistance
5. High thermal conductivity
6. Low coefficient of friction

1.3.7. Classification of Journal bearings

It is a radial sliding contact bearing. The bearing pressure is normal to the axis of rotation of shaft
and relative movement of shaft and bearing surface is sliding. Classification of journal bearings are
1. Solid journal bearing
2. Bushed journal bearing
3. Full journal bearing: If angle of contact is 360o
4. Partial journal bearing: If angle of contact is less than 180o
5. Clearance journal bearing: If the diameter of shaft is less than the bearing
6. Fitted journal bearing: If the radius of both shaft and bearing are same.
7. Pedestal bearing or plummer block.
1.3.8. Classification of thrust bearings

2.1. Cam& Follower

A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating motion to another
element known as follower.

The cams are widely used for operating the inlet and exhaust valves of internal combustion
engines, automatic attachment of machineries, paper cutting machines, spinning and weaving
textile machineries, feed mechanism of automatic lathes etc.

2.2. Classification of followers

The followers are classified as given below
1. According to the surface in contact
2. According to the motion of the follower
3. According to the line of movement of the follower
4. According to the path of motion of the follower

2.2.1 According to the surface in contact

a. Knife edge follower: When the contacting end of the follower has a sharp knife edge, it is
called a knife edge follower. The sliding motion takes place between the contacting knife edge
surface and the cam surface. It is rarely used in practice because the small area of contacting
surface results in excessive wear. In knife edge followers, a considerable side thrust exists between
the follower and the guide.

b. Roller follower :When the contacting end of the follower is a roller, it is called a roller
follower. Since the rolling motion takes place between the contacting roller surfaces and the cam
surfaces , the rate of wear is reduced. The roller followers are extensively used in stationary gas
and oil engines and aircraft engines.

c. Flat faced or mushroom follower : When the contacting end of the follower is a perfectly
flat face, it is called a flat-faced follower. When the flat faced follower is circular, it is then called a
mushroom follower. The relative motion between the contacting surfaces is largely of sliding
nature but wear may be reduced by off-setting the axis of the follower to the axis of rotation the
cam. The flat faced followers are generally used where space is limited such as in cams which
operate the valves of automobile engines.

D. Spherical faced follower : When the contacting end of the follower is of spherical shape, it is
called a spherical faced follower. It may be noted that when a flat-faced follower is used in
automobile engines, high surface stresses are produced. In order to minimize these stresses, the flat
end of the follower is machinedto a spherical shape.

2.2.2. According to the motion of the follower

a. Reciprocatingor translating follower : When the follower reciprocates in guides as the cam
rotates uniformly, it is known as reciprocating or translating follower.
b. Oscillating or rotating follower : When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is converted
into predetermined oscillatory motion of the follower, it is called oscillating or rotating
follower.
2.2.3. According to the line of movement of the follower
a. Radial follower : When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing through the centre of
the cam, it is known as radial follower.

b. Off-set follower : When the motion of the follower is along an axis away from the axis of the
cam center, it is called off-set follower.

2.2.4. According to the path of motion of the follower

a. Radial or disc cam: In radial cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction
perpendicular to the cam axis.

b. Cylindrical cam : In cylindrical cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction

parallel to the cam axis. The follower rides in a groove at its cylindrical surface.
2.3. Terms used in Radial cams
Base circle: It is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile.

Trace point: It is a reference point on the follower and is used to generate the pitch curve. In
case of knife edge follower, the knife edge represents the trace point and the
pitch curve corresponds to the cam profile. In a roller follower, the centre of the
roller represents the trace point.

Pitch curve: It is the curve generated by the trace point as the follower moves relative to the
cam. For a knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam profile are same
whereas for a roller follower, they are separated by the radius of the roller.

Pressure angle: It is the angle between the direction of the follower motion and a normal to the
pitch curve. This angle is very important in designing a cam profile. If the
pressure angle is too large, a reciprocating follower will jam in its bearings.

Pitch point: It is a point on the pitch curve having the maximum pressureangle.

Pitch circle: It is a circle drawn from the centre of the cam through the pitchpoints.

Prime circle: It is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the centre of the cam and
tangent to the pitch curve. For a knife edge and a flat face follower, the prime
circle and the base circle are identical. For a roller follower, the prime circle is
larger than the base circle by the radius of the roller.

Lift or stroke: It is the maximum travel of the follower from its lowest position to the topmost
position.
2.4. Displacement Diagram
The cam is usually assumed to rotate with uniform speed and the motion of the follower during a
complete revolution of the cam is described by a diagram known as displacement diagram.

stroke or lift: The maximum follower displacement from its lowest position to the topmost position
is known as the stroke or lift of the follower.

When the follower is moving away from the cam shaft axis during the rotation of cam is said to be an
outstroke, and when moving in the reverse direction it is said to be in stroke or return stroke.

The angle through which the cam turns during the time of out stroke is known as angle of ascent.

In outstroke the follower rises away from the cam shaft axis and the movement of follower marked on
the displacement diagram is known as the rise part of the displacement diagram.

The angle through which the cam turns during the time of return stroke is known as angle of descent.

In the return stroke the follower returns to the initial position and the movement of the follower marked
on displacement diagram is known as the return part or fall part of the displacement diagram.

The period when the follower is at rest is known as dwell period

The angle through which the cam turns while it is at rest is known as angle of dwell or simply dwell.
This part on the displacement diagram is marked as dwell.

2.5. following motions

The follower, during its travel, may have one of the following motions.

1. Uniform velocity
2. Simple harmonic motion
3. Uniform acceleration and retardation
4. Cycloidal motion
2.5.1. Displacement Diagram - Follower Moves with Uniform Velocity
Since the follower moves with uniform velocity during its rise and return stroke, the slope of the
displacement curves must be constant. The curves AB1 and C1D must be straight lines.

2.5.2. Displacement Diagram - Follower Moves with Simple Harmonic Motion

The displacement diagram is drawn as follows:

1. Draw a semi-circle on the follower stroke as diameter.

2. Divide the semi-circle into any number of even equal parts (say eight).
3. Divide the angular displacements of the cam during out stroke and return stroke into the same
number of equal parts.
4. The displacement diagram is obtained by projecting the points as shown in followingfigure.
2.5.3. Displacement Diagram –Follower Moves Uniform Acceleration
andRetardation
Displacement diagram consists of a parabolic curve and is drawn as given below :

1. Divide the angular displacement of the cam during outstroke ( θO ) into any even number of
equal parts (say eight) and draw vertical lines through these points as shown in following
figure.
2. Divide the stroke of the follower (S) into the same number of equal even parts.
3. Join Aa to intersect the vertical line through point 1 at B. Similarly, obtain the other points C,
D etc. as shown in figure. Now join these points to obtain the parabolic curve for the out
stroke of the follower.
4. In the similar way as discussed above, the displacement diagram for the follower during
return stroke may b drawn.

5. In order to draw the cam profile for a radial cam, first of all the displacement diagram for the
given motion of the follower is drawn.
6. Then by constructing the follower in its proper position at each angular position, the profile of
the working surface of the cam is drawn.
7. In constructing the cam profile, the principle of kinematic inversion is used, i.e. the cam is
imagined to be stationary and the follower is allowed to rotate in the opposite direction to the
cam rotation.

Q1. A cam is to give the following motion to a knife-edged follower:

Outstroke during 60° of cam rotation.

Dwell for the next 30° of cam rotation.
Return stroke during next 60° of cam rotation.
Dwell for the remaining 210° of cam rotation.
 The stroke of the follower is 40 mm and the minimum radius of the cam is 50 mm. The follower
moves with uniform velocity during both the outstroke and return strokes.Draw the profile of the
cam when the axis of the follower passes through the axis of the cam shaft.

First the displacement diagram is created.

1. Draw a horizontal line AX = 360° to some suitable scale. On this line, mark AS = 60° to
represent outstroke of the follower, ST = 30° to represent dwell, TP = 60° to represent return
stroke and PX = 210° to represent dwell.
2. Draw vertical line AY equal to the stroke of the follower (40 mm) and complete the rectangle.
3. Divide the angular displacement during outstroke and return stroke into any equal number of
even parts and draw vertical lines through each point.
4. Since the follower moves with uniform velocity during outstroke and return stroke, the
displacement diagram consists of straight lines.

5. Draw a base circle with radius equal to the minimum radius of the cam (50 mm) with O as
centre.
6. Since the axis of the follower passes through the axis of the cam shaft, mark trace point A.
7. From OA, mark angle AOS = 60° to represent outstroke, angle SOT = 30° to represent dwell
and angle TOP = 60° to represent return stroke.
8. Divide the angular displacements during outstroke and return stroke (angle AOS and angle
TOP) into the same number of equal even parts as in displacement diagram.
9. Join the points 1, 2, 3 ...etc. and 0′ ,1′ , 2′ , 3′ , ... etc. with centre O and produce beyond the
base circle .
10. Now set off 1B, 2C, 3D ... etc. and 0′ H,1′ J ... etc. from the displacement diagram.
11. Join the points A, B, C,... M, N, P with a smooth curve. The curve AGHPA is the complete profile
of the cam.
Q2.A cam is to give the following motion to a knife-edged follower:

Outstroke during 60° of cam rotation.

Dwell for the next 30° of cam rotation.
Return stroke during next 60° of cam rotation.
Dwell for the remaining 210° of cam rotation.
The stroke of the follower is 40 mm and the minimum radius of the cam is 50 mm. The follower
moves with uniform velocity during both the outstroke and return strokes.Draw the profile of the
cam when the axis of the follower is offset by 20 mm from the axis of the cam shaft.

Construction of Cam Profile for a Radial Cam – Displacement Diagram

First the displacement diagram is created.

1. Draw a base circle with radius equal to the minimum radius of the cam ( 50 mm) with O as
centre.
2. Draw the axis of the follower at a distance of 20 mm from the axis of the cam, which
intersects the base circle at A.
3. Join AO and draw an offset circle of radius 20 mm with centre O.
4. From OA, mark angle AOS = 60° to represent outstroke, angle SOT = 30° to represent dwell
and angle TOP = 60° to represent return stroke.
5. Divide the angular displacement during outstroke and return stroke (angle AOS and angle
TOP) into the same number of equal even parts as in displacement diagram.
6. Now from the points 1, 2, 3 ... etc. and 0′,1′, 2′,3′ ... etc. on the base circle, draw tangents to
the offset circle and produce these tangents beyond the base circle.
7. Now set off 1B, 2C, 3D ... etc. and 0′ H,1′ J ... etc. from the displacement diagram.
8. Join the points A, B, C ...M, N, P with a smooth curve. The curve AGHPA is the complete
profile of the cam.
Q3.
Q4.
3.3. GOVERNORS
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine, when there are variations
in the load.When the load on an engine increase, its speed decreases, therefore it
becomesnecessary to increase the supply of working fluid.When the load on the engine
decreases, its speed increases and thus less working fluid is required.

The governor automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying
load conditions and keeps the mean speed within certain limits.

3.3.1.TYPES OF GOVERNORS

The governors are classified as

1. Centrifugal governors2. Inertia governors

The centrifugal governors are further classified as follows

4.1. Watt governor

The simplest form of a centrifugal governor is a Watt governor. It is basically a conical pendulum
with links attached to a sleeve of negligible mass.The function of a governor is to regulate the
mean speed of an engine, when thereare variations in the load.
It consists of two balls of equal mass, which are attached to the arms as shown in Fig. The balls
revolve with a spindle. The upper ends of the arms are pivoted to the spindle, so that the balls may
rise up or fall down as they revolve about the vertical axis. The arms are connected by the links to a
sleeve, which is keyed to the spindle. This sleeve revolves with the spindle, but can slide up and
down. The balls and the sleeve rise when the spindle speed increases, and falls when the speed
decreases.

The sleeve is connected by a bell crank lever to a throttle valve. The supply of the working fluid
decreases when the sleeve rises and increases when it falls. When the load on the engine increases,
the engine and the governor speed decreases. This results in the decrease of centrifugal force on the
balls. Hence the balls move inwards and the sleeve moves downwards. The downward movement
of the sleeve operates a throttle valve at the other end of the bell crank lever to increase the supply
of working fluid and thus the engine speed is increased and extra power output is increased.

When the load on the engine decreases, the engine and the governor speed increases, which results
in the increase of centrifugal force on the balls. Thus the balls move outwards and the sleeve rises
upwards. This upward movement of the sleeve reduces the supply of the working fluid and hence
the speed is decreased and the power output is reduced.

The arms of the governor may be connected to the spindle in the following three ways,

The pivot P, may be on the spindle axis as shown in Fig. (a).

The pivot P, may be offset from the spindle axis and the arms when produced

intersect at O, as shown in Fig. (b).

The pivot P, may be offset, but the arms cross the axis at O, as shown in Fig. (c).
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine, when there are variations in
the load.

Simple watt governor is unsuitable for high speeds and this drawback has beenovercome by
loading the governor with a dead weight.

4.2.Porter governor
The Porter governoris a modification of a Watt’s governor, with central load attached to the
sleeve as shown in Fig.
 Porter governor is a dead weight type of centrifugal governor. It consists of two masses called
the governor balls attached to the spindle with the help of four links or arms. The lower arms are
attached to the sleeve which acts as a central weight. Governor balls are rotate at different
speeds depends upon the load on the engine about the axis of the governor shaft which is driven
through suitable gearing from the engine crankshaft.

The speed of the rotation of balls increases as the load on the engine decreases. Due to the
increase of speed the governor balls fly outwards and the sleeve moves upwards thus closing the
working fluid passage till the engine speed comes back to its designed speed.

On the other hand the speed of rotation of balls decreases as the load on the engine increases
and the governor balls move near to the governor axis due to reduction in the centrifugal force on
the fly balls. At that time the sleeve moves downwards thus opening the working fluid passage
more till the engine speed comes back to its designed speed .

4.3.Terms used with Governors

Height of a governor: It is the vertical distance from the centre of the ball to a point where
the arms (or axes of the arms) intersect on the spindle axis. It is usually
denoted by h.

Sleeve lift: It is the vertical distance which the sleeve travels due to change in
equilibrium speed.

Equilibrium speed: It is the speed at which the governor balls, arms etc., are incomplete
equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to move upwards or
downwards.

Mean equilibrium speed: It is the speed at the mean position of the balls or thesleeve.

Maximum equilibrium speed: The speed at the maximum radius of rotation of the balls,
without tending to move either way are known as maximum
equilibrium speed.

Minimum equilibrium speed: The speed at the minimum radius of rotation of the balls,
without tending to move either way are known as minimum
equilibrium speed.

Sensitiveness : For a given governor, greater the lift of the sleeve

corresponding to a given fractional change in speed, the greater

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 is the sensitiveness of the governor. Consider two governors A
and B running at the same speed. When the speed increases or
decreases by a certain amount, the lift of the sleeve of governor
A is greater than the lift of the sleeve of governor B. It is then
said that the governor A is more sensitive than the governor B.

The sensitiveness is defined as the ratio of the difference between the

maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds to the mean equilibrium
speed.

Stability: A governor is said to be stable when for every speed within the working range there is
only one radius of rotation of the governor balls at which the governor is in equilibrium. For a
stable governor, if the equilibrium speed increases, the radius of governor balls must also
increase.

Hunting:A governor is said to be hunt if the speed of the engine fluctuates continuously above
and below the mean speed. This is caused by a too sensitive governor which changes the fuel
supply by a large amount when a small change in the speed of rotation takes place. For example,
when the load on the engine increases, the engine speed decreases and, if the governor is very
sensitive, the governor sleeve immediately falls to its lowest position. This will result in the
opening of the control valve wide which will supply the fuel to the engine in excess of its
requirement so that the engine speed rapidly increases again and the governor sleeve rises to its
highest position. Due to this movement of the sleeve, the control valve will cut off the fuel supply
to the engine and thus the engine speed begins to fall once again. This cycle is repeated
indefinitely.

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 5.1.FLYWHEEL
A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir, which stores energy during the period when
the supply of energy is more than the requirement, and releases it during the period when the
requirement of energy is more than the supply.

When the flywheel absorbs energy, its speed increases and when it releases energy,the speed
decreases.

A flywheel does not maintain a constant speed, it simply reduces the fluctuation of speed. In
other words, a flywheel controls the speed variations caused by the fluctuation of the engine
turning moment during each cycle of operation.

5.2. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FLYWHEEL & GOVERNOR

5.2. TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM

The turning moment diagram is the graphical representation of the turning moment or crank-
effort for various positions of the crank.The turning moment diagram is also known as crank
effort diagram.

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 It is plotted on cartesian co-ordinates,
ordinates, in which the turning moment is taken as the ordinate and
crank angle as abscissa.The area of the turning moment diagram represents the work done per
revolution.

A turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine is shown in Fig.The
vertical ordinate represents the turning moment and the horizontal ordinate represents the crank
angle.In a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine, th
there is one working stroke afterthe
crank has turned through two revolutions, i.e. 720° (or 4 π radians).

The engine is assumed to work against the mean resisting torque.It is assumed that the work
done by the turning moment per revolution is equal to the work done against the mean resisting
torque, therefore the area under the mean resistance line is proportional to the work done
against the mean resisting torque.

Since the pressure inside the engine cylinder is less than the atmospheric press
pressure during the
suction stroke, therefore a negative loop is formed as shown in Fig.

During the compression stroke, the work is done on the gases, therefore a highernegative loop is
obtained.

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 During the expansion or working stroke, the fuel burns and the ga gases expand, therefore a large
positive loop is obtained. In this stroke, the work is done by the gases.

During exhaust stroke, the work is done on the gases, therefore a negative loop is formed.

The variations of energy above and below the mean resisting ttorque line are called fluctuations
of energy.

The difference between the maximum and the minimum energies is known as maximum
fluctuation of energy.

Coefficient of fluctuation of energyis defined as the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of

energy to the work done per cycle.

Work done per cycle = Tmean × θ where

Tmean = Mean torque

θ = Angle turned (in radians), in one revolution.

= 2π, in case of steam engine and two stroke internal
combustion engines
= 4π, in case of four stroke internal combustion
engines.

The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is called the
maximum fluctuation of speed.

The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is called the coefficient of
fluctuation of speed.

Let N1 and N2 = Maximum

aximum and minimum speeds in r.p.m. during the cycle

Coefficient of fluctuation of speed,

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 The reciprocal of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is known as coefficient of steadiness.

6.1.Couplings
Coupling is a machine element used to connect the driver shaft with the driven shaft in order to
transmit power.

6.2.Functions of Couplings

To transmit power from driving shaft to driven shaft.

To connect or couple 2 components which are
manufactured separately. Eg: Engine and generator.
To introduce extra flexibility while transmitting power
in case of space restrictions.
To introduce protection against overloads.
To reduce the transmission of shock and vibration from
one shaft to another.

6.3.Classification of Couplings

Couplings are broadly classified into two

1. Rigid couplings
2. Flexible coupling

a. Rigid couplings
Rigid couplings are simple and inexpensive.
It is used between accurately aligned shafts
It cannot tolerate any misalignment
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 Commonly used rigid couplings are
1. Sleeve or muff coupling
2. Flange coupling
3. Clamp or compression coupling

b. Flexible coupling

Flexible couplings are costlier than rigid

coupling
It can tolerate mis-alignment between
axes of shafts
It is used for providing small amount of
angular or lateral misalignment
Commonly used flexible couplings are

1. Oldham flexible coupling

2. Universal flexible coupling
3. Bushed pin type flexible coupling

6.4.muff coupling

It is the simplest form of rigid coupling used for connecting smaller sized shafts. It consists of a hollow
sleeve called muff whose inner diameter is the same as that of shaft diameter.The empirical relations of
muff coupling are
Diameter of shaft = d
Outside diameter, D = 2d+13
Length of muff, L = 3.5 d

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6.5.Flange coupling

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