SPRINGS

Usually made of metal, but can be made of composite material. A spring is

designed to perform in an elastic fashion, i.e. to deform under a load or force
and return to its original size after the removal of the load or force.
In general if a force is applied to a spring it will deform and if the force is
double the deformation is doubled.

Hooks Law
Up to the elastic limit the strain (change in length) of an elastic body is
proportional to the applied stress (force).

Springs are designed to:-

* Absorb energy - to convert say kinetic energy to strain energy as in some
shock absorbers.
* Apply a definite force - e.g. a valve spring to close a valve.
* Provide a comparitor - the spring on a spring balance.
* Provide an elastic pivot or guide.

Terms Used
Free Length - This is the length of the spring without any load applied. When
checking this length it should be within the limits as laid down in the
appropriate maintenance manual.
Pitch - This is the distance between the centre of one coil of the spring and its
adjacent coil - without any load applied.
Coil Distance - This is the distance between two adjacent coils - without any
load applied.
Wire Diameter - The diameter of the wire from which the coils are made.
Outside Coil Diameter - The outside diameter of the unloaded spring (OCD).
Inside Coil Diameter - The inside diameter of the unloaded spring (ICD).
Mean Coil Diameter - The average between the OCD and the ICD.
Tip Thickness - The thickness of the ground section of the end of the spring.
Compression Springs
These are coil springs and may be right hand or left hand wound. The coil
section may be of round or square cross section and the coil diameter is
usually large compared to its free length. Usually has ground ends.

Tension Springs
Again these are coil springs and may be left hand or right hand wound. The
coil diameter is usually smaller compared to its free length and the coils are
usually of round cross section.
The end of the spring are finished in such a way as to provide for end
attachment. The spring may be finished with a single hooked end or the coil
diameter may be reduced locally to accept a ball ended hook.

Flexural Springs
Designed to provide springiness in any direction.

Torsion Springs
Similar in construction to a compression spring but designed to rotate about
its own longitudinal axis to provide for torsional movement.
Springs may be designed in several different forms:

* Helical - very common.

* Beam spring - Absorbs a great amount of energy but has limited
movement.
* Leaf spring - Similar in principle to a beam spring except that it is thinner
and is usually built up of several leaves.
* Special - e.g. special cupped spring washers - one placed on top of another
over a central guide pin - to make up a stack of any length.

Materials
The materials that springs are made of must exhibit the property of elasticity.
In general materials can include :-
* Carbon steel - hardened and tempered.
* Alloy steels.
* Nimonic alloys.
* Titanium alloys.
* Composites - rare.

Maintenance

In most cases springs are checked for serviceability and any unserviceability is
usually rectified by replacement. Checks include:-
(a) An inspection for corrosion, damage, wear, broken coils and distortion.
(b) Checking for correct free length of coil springs. Compression springs
can be checked using a vernier calliper and tension springs are normally
in their fully closed state unloaded.
(c) Check for "springiness". This may require a special process using
masses and checking the extension/change in length with each added
mass. A graph is plotted of mass against change in length from which
the elasticity of the spring is ascertained. The spring should return to
its free length condition when unloaded.
 BEARINGS

Bearings are designed to reduce the friction between moving parts - usually
rotational movement of a shaft within a housing. They may be classified as:

* Air Bearings. The rotating parts are kept apart by a thin film of
air pumped under pressure between the journal and the rotating
shaft. In some systems the air pressure is applied before the
shaft starts to rotate and friction (and hence wear) rates can be
very low.

* Journal Bearings. Sometimes called High Friction bearings. The

shaft rotates within a bush usually supplied with oil under
pressure.

* Roller/Ball Bearings. Sometimes called Low Friction bearings.

Use is made of balls or rollers running between inner and outer
races. Lubricated with oil or grease. Most are radial bearings.

Ball bearings employ balls, sometimes caged, which rotate in grooved tracks.
Roller bearings use cylindrical, tapered or spherical rollers running in
suitably shaped tracks. Both types run continuously.

Inner and outer races, and balls and rollers are made from high-grade carbon
chromium steels, which is resistant to wear (the most important factor) and
allow rotary motion while absorbing axial and thrust loads. The metal is also
corrosion resistant.
Selection of Bearing Type

In the selection of the correct type of bearing for any particular part of a
transmission system the following factors must be taken into consideration:

1. Magnitude of the load to be carried.

2. Direction of the load or loads.
3. Available space.
4. Rotational speed.
5. Precision accuracy.
6. Alignment requirements.
7. Axial displacement requirements.
8. Noise requirements (silent running?).
9. Rigidity.
10. Bearing life.

Taking each point in turn:

LOAD MAGNITUDE is usually the most important factor in determining the

size and type of bearing. Ball bearings are usually used for light to medium
loads, whilst roller bearings are better able to cope with heavier loads.

LOAD DIRECTION is important as cylindrical roller bearings having only one

race without flanges and needle roller bearings can carry only radial loads.
A combined load comprises both radial and axial forces acting
simultaneously. The most important factor affecting the ability of a bearing
to carry an axial load is its angle of contact (A).
The greater the angle (A) the more suitable is the bearing for axial loading.
Single and double row angular ball bearings and taper roller bearings are
mainly used for combined loads. Deep groove and spherical roller may also
be used.

Single row angular ball and taper bearings carry axial loads in a single
direction only. Where the direction of axial loads vary, two back-to-back (or
face-to-face) bearings can be arranged. In the case of high axial loads,
separate thrust bearings (eg deep groove ball) and support bearings (roller)
are used.

Thrust ball bearings are suitable for moderate axial loads, and are designed
to be either single or double acting.

Spherical roller thrust bearings can carry heavy axial loads but smaller radial
forces.

Spherical bearings are not revolving bearings and are used where movement
in more than one direction is required. They are used on flying control rod
systems for example. They may be used as rod end bearings often located in
threaded fixtures to enable control rigging to be carried out. Spherical
bearings also allow for misalignment of control rods and components during
normal operation.
AVAILABLE SPACE is determined by the machine design. Deep groove balls
are normally used on small diameter shafts while cylindrical or spherical
rollers can be considered on larger shafts. Needle bearings can be used when
radial space is limited whereas single row cylindrical or deep groove ball
thrust bearings are used in areas of limited axial space.
SPEED LIMITATIONS are determined by the permissible operating
temperature of the bearing, and the type of lubrication and cooling available.
Low friction bearings (ball or roller) which generate low internal heat are ideal
for high rotation speeds.

PRECISION bearings are used on shafts where stringent demands are made
on accuracy ie high-speed shafts; these include double row angular ball
thrust bearings.

ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT can, for example, be caused by a shaft deflecting

under heavy loads or fuselage flexing in flight for a long shaft. Bearings
capable of accommodating such movement are self-aligning ball bearings,
and spherical roller bearings.

AXIAL DISPLACEMENT of a shaft by a force (for torque measurement) or

expansion or contraction (due to temperature change) is permitted by the use
of a 'non-locating' bearing of the single flangeless race roller or needle type.
Note that normal bearing configuration consists of a locating (fixed) bearing
and a non-locating (free) bearing.
SILENT RUNNING is sometimes an important factor in bearing selection
(bearings in the vicinity of the flight deck or near passenger compartments)
and deep groove ball bearings are normally chosen for this type of
application.

RIGIDITY of a. bearing under load can sometimes be important. Although the

elastic deformation of a loaded rolling bearing is very small, roller type
bearings deflect less than ball bearings due to the greater contact area
between the rolling elements and the raceways.

BEARING LIFE is defined as the number of revolutions (or operating hours at

a given constant speed) which the unit is capable of enduring before flaking
or breakdown occurs on the races or rolling elements. As no two bearings of
the same type have identical lives the 'basic life rating' is based on the life
achieved by 90% of a test population of identical bearings in laboratory test
conditions.

BEARING ELEMENTS

a) Bearing Rings (Races) and Rolling Elements (Rollers and Balls) are
made from high-grade carbon chromium steels, allow rotary
motion while absorbing axial and thrust loads. The metal is
hard, resistant to wear and has good anti-corrosion properties.
b) Cages. Primary function is to keep the rolling elements apart
and in separate bearings retain the rolling elements. Made from
pressed brass, steel or phenolic materials.

BEARINGS . ' " '"...I

Radial Bearings

Used in all forms of transmission, eg shafts, gears, control rods, pulleys, etc.
Manufactured with the balls in single or double rows, normally they are rigid
but may be self aligning when accurate alignment may not be maintained
during operation. May be sealed to prevent debris from entering the bearing
and to retain the lubricant. Balls are normally retained in a cage, but in
some cases there is a filling slot which enables more balls to be used giving a
greater load capacity.

Angular Bearings

Suitable for radial and axial loads in one direction. The outer race is recessed
on one side to allow assembly/dismantling. Where axial loads in both
directions occur two bearings are used back-to-back. The load capacity
depends on the contact area.
Thrust Bearings

Designed for axial loads only, so are used with either a roller or ball radial
bearing. Balls are usually retained in a cage between two grooved races. Most
suitable for heavy axial loads at low speeds.

Instrument Precision Bearings

Manufactured to close tolerances and used in instruments and

communication equipment.

ROLLER BEARINGS

Cylindrical Rollers

Capable of carrying greater radial loads than ball bearings because of the
greater contact area. Bearings with ribs on both races will also be capable of
carrying light intermittent axial loads. Most common are rollers where the
length is equal to the diameter. Needle roller bearings have lengths several
times greater than the diameter.

Taper Rollers

Designed so that the axes of the rollers form an angle with the shaft axis.
Capable of accepting radial and axial forces simultaneously. May be installed
back-to-back. The axial loads cause rubbing on the cone lip or flange so
adequate lubrication is necessary. Used in helicopter rotor heads, gear boxes
etc.

Spherical Rollers

May have one or two rows of rollers running in a common spherical track in
the outer race - this gives good self-aligning properties. Can withstand high
radial and axial loads.
INTERNAL CLEARANCE

Standard ball and roller bearings are manufactured in four classes of

diametrical clearance and are marked to indicate the class of fit. It is
important that any bearings replaced are of the same part number and
nomenclature (check JAA form 1 and IPC/AMM) and have the same
classification of fit. The marking is generally a series of dots or circles.

One Dot Bearing - Group 2

This group has the minimum amount of clearance. Used where minimum
axial and radial movement is required - usually precision work. Must not be
used where heat is likely to be transmitted to the bearing and are not
suitable for thrust bearings or for high speed.

Two Dot Bearing - Normal Group

Intermediate range and used for most general applications. Used where only
one race is an interference fit within its housing (requires force to be
fitted/removed) and there is little transfer of heat to the bearing.

Three Dot Bearing - Group 3

This group has a larger clearance range and is used where both inner and
outer races are interference fits in their housings. Heat transfer is moderate
and the bearing is suitable for high speed operation.

Four Dot Bearing - Group 4

These have the greatest clearances. Both races are interference fits and heat
transfer is considerable.
LUBRICATION

Provided to reduce friction, dissipate heat and prevent corrosion. For low
speeds the bearing is usually packed with grease - which might be anti-freeze
grease. For high speeds the bearing may be lubricated by an oil spray from a
metered supply - as in some jet engines.

It is important that only oils and greases as specified in the AMM are used
and lubrication frequencies as stated in the maintenance schedule are
adhered to.

SEALING AND PROTECTION

Bearings must be protected against the entry of moisture and dirt, and to
prevent the loss of lubricant. Considerations affecting the type of seal would
be (a) type of lubricant, (b) space available, (c) misalignment of shaft and (d)
seal friction.

There are two basic forms of seal:

a) Non rubbing seals.

b) Rubbing seals.

Non Rubbing Seals rely on narrow gaps or radial labyrinths to form the seal.
This type has negligible friction and wear and is particularly suited for high
speeds and temperatures. Straight or spiral grooved labyrinth seals used in
areas of extreme temperature (in conjunction with sealing air pressure) are
used on jet engines.

Rubbing Seals rely on the elasticity of the sealing material and maintaining a
minimum pressure at the sealing surface. Can be a simple felt or
rubber/polymer washer for grease or grit seals. V seals comprise of a
rubber ring with a 'hinged' rubber lip that is pressed radially against the
sealing rotating surface. Used on wheel bearings.

V seals are used externally with grease lubrication and internally with oil.
Carbon rubbing seals are sometimes used with high-speed shafts.

Shielding and sealed bearings are pre-packed with the correct lubricant and
do not normally require lubrication in service eg deep groove or self-aligning
ball bearings.

jj?»»??jj?»j
 GEARS

A gear is a machine element used to transmit motion between rotating

shafts/wheels when the centre distance between the shafts is not too large.
They provide a positive drive, maintaining exact velocity ratios between
driving and driven shafts.

Power transmission gears are usually made from chromium molybdenum

steel (eg E4130) which provides good toughness and resistance to wear.
Some (low power) gears are made from sintered metal (powered metal). Non-
power gears can be made of almost any material including composites for
quieter running non lubricated arrangements.

Most gears are run lubricated either by regular maintenance lubrication or

by being run semi submersed in oil.

There are two basic gear tooth profile forms the origins from which all gear
types are derived. They are the involute gear, by far the most common in
general use, and the conformal gear, but because of problems that were
largely insurmountable until now, has not been used much in the past.
Modern manufacturing techniques have brought about -its resurrection and
at least one helicopter (the Lynx) now utilises conformal gearing.

An involute tooth is laid out along a curved line which is generated by taut
wire as it is unwound from a cylinder. The generating circle is called the
base circle of the involute. The involute curve establishes the tooth profile
outward from the base circle. From the base circle inward, the tooth flank
simply follows a radial line and is faired into the bottom land with a small
fillet.

If you are going to be involved at any time with the inspection of gears, then
it is essential that you should be aware of at least some of the terms used:

Addendum - The radial distance between the Pitch Circle

of a gear wheel and the top of a tooth.
Addendum Circle - In designing wheel teeth, the circle that
passes through the tips of the teeth.

Circular Pitch - Length of the arc of the Pitch Circle between

the centres of other corresponding points of
adjacent teeth. Generally referred to simply
as the 'pitch'.

Clearance - The difference between the Addendum and

the Dedendum.

Dedendum - The radial distance between the Pitch Circle

and the root circle (depth of wheel tooth below
pitch circle).

Dedendum or - The circle that contains the roots of the teeth.

Root Circle

Face - That surface of the tooth which is between the

pitch circle and the top of the tooth parallel to
the axis of the gear.

Flank - That surface which is between the Pitch Circle

and the bottom land parallel to the axis of the
gear (the flank also includes the fillet).

Interference - If contact does not occur on the line of action

then interference may occur. This is often the -
case when a pinion with a small number of
teeth is in mesh with a gearwheel with a large
number of teeth - the faces of the wheel teeth
binding with the flanks of the pinion teeth. If
this happens the pinion teeth will be
undercut at the roots. This will cause debris
causing further wear and weakening of the
teeth with eventual failure.

Line of Action - Contact between the teeth of meshing gears

takes place along a line tangential to the two
base circles. This line passes through the
Pitch Point and is called the Line of Action.

Pinion - The term applied to the smaller of two mating

gears.
Pitch - Gear teeth pitch may be measured as follows:

Daimetral Pitch is the number of teeth per

inch of Pitch Circle Diameter. It is a ratio.

Circular Pitch is the distance between two

corresponding points on two adjacent teeth
around the Pitch Circle.

Pitch Circle - A circle, the radius of which is equal to the

distance from the gear axis to the Pitch Point.

Pitch Circle Diameter - The diameter of the Pitch Circle.

Pitch Point - The point at which two pitch t±rcles meet -

the point of contact which transmits the
motion tooth to tooth.
Pressure Angle - The angle between the line of action and the
common tangent to the Pitch Circles at the
Pitch Point.

Top Land - Is the top surface of a tooth at the tip or crest.

The Bottom Land is the surface between the
fillets of each adjacent tooth at the root.

Root Fillet - That bottom portion of the tooth profile where

it joins the bottom land. It is usually
concave.

Toe - That part of a bevel gear that is the shortest

part of the tapered tooth. It subscribes the
smallest diameter. The heel is the other end of
the tooth that subscribes the largest
diameter.

Tooth Space - Distance between two adjacent teeth

measured along the pitch circle.

Tooth Thickness - The thickness of a tooth measured along the

pitch circle.
Working Depth - Is the maximum depth that the tooth extends
into the tooth space of the mating gear.

Whole Depth - Is the sum of the Addendum and Dedendum.

Types of Gears

Various types of gears transmit power through gearboxes. The type selected
for use in a specific application will depend on various factors:

* How much power to be transmitted?

* Is a change of rpm required?
* Is a change of torque required?
* Is a change of angle or direction of drive required?
* Is the gear system to be free from feedback (non-reversible)?

Using a smaller driver gear than the driven the speed is reduced of the driven
but its torque is increased. If a larger driver than driven is used the reverse is
true.

A gear system is made up of gears that are:

* Driver - a gear wheel that drives another gear wheel.

* Driven - the other gear wheel that is driven.

* Idler - this is a driven and a driver wheel as it is a wheel between

two others. Often used to change the direction of rotation or
change the speed.

Figure 23 shows an internal and external Spur Gear where either the larger
or the smaller gear could be the driver so loads in the system would be Ted-
back' from the driven to the driver.
Figure 24 shows a Worm Gear where the worm is the driver but the driven
gear (Pinion Gear) could not be the driver as any movement of it would not
turn the worm (non reversible, no feedback).

Gears are named according to the angle of intersection of the axis and the
shape of their teeth:

* Spur
* Helical
* Worm
* Hypoid
* Bevel etc

GEAR TYPES

Spur

These are classified as external (the most common), internal, and Rack and
Pinion. External spur gears have teeth, which point outwardJrom the centre
of the gear. Internal or annular gears have teeth pointing inward towards the
gear axis. A rack (a gear with teeth spaced along a straight line), together
with a pinion gear, convert straight-line motion into rotary motion and vice
versa.
Normally straight toothed (but can be spiral cut - helical gear). Used on
shafts that run parallel to one another but not on the same axis. Can be
noisy due to impact of engaging teeth.

Helical Gears

These are a development of Spur Gears. Instead of the teeth being parallel to
the axis of the gear they lie at an angle (a helix angle in fact).

The main advantage of helical gears over straight cut gears is that more teeth
area are in contact at any one time. Meshing takes place along a diagonal
line across the faces and flanks of the teeth. Thus one pair of meshing teeth
remain in contact until the following pair engage so the load on the teeth is
distributed over a larger area. This provides a smoother and quieter drive as
well as enabling more power to be transmitted.
The disadvantage of helical gears is that they give a heavy axial load to the
shaft. This axial load can be eliminated by the use of double helical gearing
but can also be absorbed by thrust bearings that support the gear shaft.

A double helical gear has two sets of teeth, one with a right hand helix and
the other with a left hand helix.

In some drive systems from engines to propellers and rotor heads, the axial
thrust load on a shaft fitted with helical spur gears is utilised for torque
measurement. The shaft is allowed to float and, as torque is applied, the
shaft moves axially. This axial movement is felt as pressure oil in a piston
cylinder arrangement. The oil pressure is transduced into an electrical signal
for flight deck indicators reading torque in Nm.
Spur gears are found in gearboxes; in epicyclic reduction gear trains;
accessory drive trains, and in gear-type oil pumps - for engine oil systems
and some older hydraulic systems (give low pressure high flow rates).

For internal spur gears, the positions of the addendum and dedendum are
reversed from those of the external gear but are still related to the root and
tip. This results in a different tooth action and less slippage than with an
equivalent external spur.

The internal gear makes it suited to closer centre distances than could be
used with an external gear of the same size. When it is necessary to
maintain the same sense of rotation for two parallel shafts, the internal gear
is especially desirable because it eliminates the need for an idler gear. These
conditions make the internal gear highly adaptable to epicyclic and planetary
gear trains.

As mentioned above, helical gears are essentially spur gears. They run on
parallel axes with teeth oblique to the tooth surface, starting at one edge
proceeding across the face of the tooth. This action results in reduced
impact stress and quieter operation, particularly at high speed.

Herringbone gears are equivalent to two helical gears of opposite hand placed
side by side. They are suited to high-speed operation and eliminate the axial
thrust produced by single helical gears. Helical gears are referred to as right
or left hand in the same manner as screw threads. A right hand gear being
one on which the teeth twist clockwise as they recede from an observer
looking along the axis.

Bevel Gears \

Used to connect shafts in the same plane where the centre lines intersect and
a change of direction is required. The teeth can be either straight cut or
spiral cut and its basic form is that of a cone. They are commonly found on
intermediate and tail rotor gearboxes on helicopters where a change in the
direction of drive is required. They are also used in many gearbox accessory
drives at the input stage of the turbine shaft and the accessory drive. Used to
change the shaft axis direction and/or change the speed.

The angle between the shafts is usually a right angle but it may have any
angle up to 180°. The velocity ratio is the inverse ratio of the diameters of
their bases or teeth ratios.

Two bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and running together with their
shaft axes intersecting at 90° are called Mitre gears. Several forms of bevel
gears are in use, including straight-tooth, spiral and skewed gears.

External bevel gears have pitch angles less than 90°. Internal bevel gears
have pitch angles greater than 90°.
A crown gear is one having a pitch angle of 90°. In a crown gear therefore, its
pitch surface is a plane and the crown gear corresponds in this respect to a
rack and spur gearing.

The simplest form of bevel gear has straight teeth. The diametrical pitch of a
bevel gear is constant across the full width of the teeth.

Because each point on a straight tooth bevel gear remains a. fixed distance
from the pitch cone apex, there is no sliding along as the tooth engages.

Spiral bevel gears provide a gradual engagement compared to the full line
engagement of straight bevel gears. Their teeth are curved and oblique. They
have greater load carrying ability than with straight gear of the same size.
Bevel Gear Terms

If the curved surface of the back cone is viewed normally the teeth have the
same profile as the teeth on a spur gear. The addendum and dedendum have
the same proportions as spur gear teeth but are measured above and below
the pitch circle parallel to the back cone driver.

Pressure angles for bevel gears are usually 14V^° or 20° as for spur gears.

Additional to those terms used for spur gears the following are used:

Pitch Cone Angle - The angle between the axis of the gear and the
pitch cone teeth centre. When the pitch cone
angle is 45° the gear is a mitre gear.

Face Angle - Angle between the line at right angles to the

axis and the top surfaces of the teeth.

Edge Angle - The angle between a line at right angles to the

axis and the top end of the teeth.

Addendum Angle - Angle between the gear wheel and the top
surfaces of the teeth.

Dedendum Angle - Angle between the gear wheel and the bottom
surfaces of the teeth.

On some gear boxes, to establish correct wear patterns, one of the bevel
gears may be adjusted forwards or backwards along its axis (by a few
fractions of a mm). This may be carried out as per the manual using shims.
Hypoid Gears

These are used where the centre lines of the two shafts neither intersect or
run parallel to each other.

They are similar to bevel gears in application and form but the basic surfaces
on which they are cut are hyperboloids instead of cones. The teeth are helical
and the axes of the shafts do not intersect.

:
Worm Gear

Used where a high reduction in speed and an increase in torque is required.

Provides a 'no back-feed' provision. Used on lifting equipment.

These connect shafts at right angles which lie on different planes. The worm
is essentially a screw which may have a single, double or triple start thread.
These engage with teeth on the pinion gear. Older teeth on pinions were
straight but now are usually wasted to give a greater contact area with the
worm. Worms may be know as Encircling or Hindley Worms. With parallel
worms the teeth are straight sided on a section through the axis, and have
the same proportions as standard involute track teeth.

The worm is the driver and the pinion is the driven. Movement cannot be
transmitted the other way.
Gear Trains

A principle function of gears is to change the speed of rotation and/or their

direction. Besides changing speeds the torque can be reduced or increased.

The change in speed of two gears in mesh is calculated as the Velocity Ratio.
Velocity Ratio (VR) is the number of revolutions N 1 of the driving gear divided
by the number of revolutions N2 of the driven gear in the same time interval.

For gears with teeth T1 and T2, respectively, VR is expressed as the following
equation:

VR = Ni = Ti
N2 T2

Example 1. If a 20 tooth pinion (the smaller of a pair of gears) drives a 40

tooth gear, the pinion must rotate twice for one revolution of the gear.

VR = Ni = Ti
N2 T2

J20 Vs or 0.5 (half as fast)

40

Example 2. Driver spur 200 teeth @ 400rpm. What is the speed of the driven
gear with 30 teeth?

VR = Ni = Ti .
N2 T2

200 = 6.66 (6.66 times faster)

30

400rpm x 6.66 = 2666rpm approx.

Stepping up or stepping down the speed of the driven gear will also affect its
torque. Stepping up the speed reduces the torque by the same ratio and
stepping down the speed increases the torque by the same ratio.

If the final, or driven gear, in a two gear gear-train is to rotate in the same
direction as the driver then an Idler gear is required between the two. If the
distance between the driver gear the final gear is large then several idler
gears may be required. The idler gear does not affect the speed ratio.

The most important distinction on classifying gear trains is that between

ordinary and epicyclic gear trains. In ordinary trains, all axes remain
stationary relative to the frame but in epicyclic trains, at least one axis moves
relative to the frame.
The reduction in the speed of the final drive may be achieved in several
stages as in some helicopter main rotor drives. The first stage is normally
comprised of an input gear driving an input driven gear, which has a larger
number of teeth than the driver. The reduction achieved across this type of
gearing is expressed as a ratio, where the number of teeth on the driven are
compared with the number of teeth on the driver. Thus a gear train
consisting of a driver with 30 teeth and driven with 90 teeth would have a
reduction ratio of 90 : 30 or 3 : 1.

The second reduction stage is usually in the form of a spur epicyclic

reduction gear. This consists of a central, or Sun gear, which revolves inside
a stationary Ring gear (the ring gear - fixed annulus - normally forms part of
the gearbox outer casing and is internally toothed). Interposed between the
sun gear and the ring gear, and meshing with both, are sets of Planetary
Pinions, varying in number from three to eight (figure 3 shows 3). The
planetary pinions are housed in a carrier to which is secured the output
shaft.

As the sun gear rotates, the planetary pinions are made to rotate about their
axis, and, because they are in mesh with the ring gear, which is stationary,
they "walk" round the gear, taking with them the planetary pinion carrier.
This transmits a drive to the output shaft, which rotates in the same
direction as the sun gear, but at a reduced speed.

The reduction achieved in an epicyclic gear assembly is also expressed as a

ratio, but the numbers of teeth of the sun gear and the ring gear only are
considered. The actual reduction can be found using the following formula:

Thus an assembly consisting of a sun with 40 teeth and a ring with 120 teeth
would have the following reduction:
 This can be expressed as a ratio of 4 : 1

From the above it can be seen that the planetary pinions are, in fact, idler
gears and their number of teeth is of no consequence to the actual reduction
ratio. They are, of course, an essential part of the assembly, providing the
means of transmitting the output drive power.

In some assemblies, the epicyclic gearing is in two stages, with the lower
stage output shaft driving the upper stage sun gear. In a single-stage
assembly the planetary pinion carrier transmits the drive directly to the main
rotor drive shaft.

Bevel Epicyclic Gear

This gear train consists of two opposed bevel gears of different diameters.

The large gear in figure 34 is the driving gear and the smaller gear is a fixed
stationary gear. Three planet gears or pinions, free to rotate, are mounted on
equally spaced arms which are part of the output shaft (eg a propeller shaft).

They are situated between, and are in engagement with, both the driving and
fixed bevel gears. Rotation of the driving gear causes the planet gears to
rotate which drives their respective mounting arms and the shaft. The
assembly allows for high torque transmission and acts as a reduction gear.

Figure 28 shows a two stage speed reduction gear box for a helicopter. Stage
one is a spur gear and stage two is a helical gear. This gear also acts as a
torque transducer utilising the fact that when power is transmitted through
the gear the helical teeth produce an axial movement of the shaft.

Pressure is created in an oil filled cylinder which is converted to an electrical

signal for transmission to cockpit instruments.
 CONTROL CHAINS

These comply with the requirements of British Standards 228 or ISO606.

Chains and sprockets provide a strong flexible positive connection in control

systems and are generally used where it is necessary to change direction or to
connect to a push/pull rod system. Used where high loads are encountered, eg
engine controls, flying controls etc.

The chain consists of:

* Two inner and two outer plates.

* Rollers.
* Bearing pins and bushes.

The chain has three principal dimensions:

* Pitch. The distance between the centre of two rollers.

* Roller diameter.
* The width between the inner plates.

These dimensions are important for the serviceability of the chain and for its
correct fitment around sprocket wheels, pulleys etc.

Chain assemblies are supplied from the manufacturer (approved supplier) as

complete proof load tested units and no attempt should be made to dismantle
riveted links or attachments. Only the bolted or screwed attachments can be
disconnected.
Any peened nuts and bolts and split pins must be used once only

The chain is supplied boxed, lightly oiled and coiled in oil-paper. It is identified by
part number and name and should be accompanied by the appropriate stores
release documentation.

When fittings are connected to the end of the chain they must be fitted in a
positive way using locked pins, locked nut and bolt assemblies etc. The SBAC
standard for locking a nut a bolt assembly is to peen the bolt end for chains of
8mm pitch or under and use a split pinned lock nut for larger chains (the outer
plate of the chain is normally tapped).
The use of cranked links for the attachment of end fittings to chains is not
permitted. Nor is it permitted to use spring clips for the attachment of links to join
the ends of a looped chain. Positive methods must be used such as bolted joints.

Change of direction is achieved by the use of sprocket wheels. And the axis of the
chain may be changed by 90° by the use of a b-planer block.

To prevent the chain from being fitted the wrong way round Non-reversible chains
are used.

Non-Reversible Chains

These are the same as the standard chain except that they have extension pieces
every other link and they are fitted to sprocket wheels where there is a guard close
to the wheel. When fitted to the sprocket wheel the extension pieces pass around
the wheel either side of the wheel. If the chain is tried to be fitted to the wheel the
wrong way round the extension pieces will be on the outside circumference of the
wheel and will not pass under the guard.
Chains may have handed or non-interchangeable end fittings, this means that,
together with the chain extension pieces and guard it is impossible to fit the chain
incorrectly into the system.

Maintenance

Cleaned using paraffin - but dried thoroughly afterwards to prevent corrosion -

and lightly oiled.

A control chain is checked for stiffness by running the (cleaned) chain over the
finger so that each link rotates through 90° as passes over the finger. The chain is
then rotated along its length through 180° and the process is repeated to rotate
each link the other way when the chain is pulled over the finger. In this way each
chain link is rotated through 180°. If there is a stiff link it will be immediately felt
on the finger.

To check for link wear in a control chain (ie it will increase its overall length).
Accurately measure the length of one link (pin centre to pin centre) using a
vernier calliper (not easy) and multiply the number of links by this length to give
the length of the chain when new. Place the chain on a flat surface and apply a
moderate spring force to put the chain in tension (typically 121b for an 8mm chain
and up to 281b for a 13mm chain). Ensure all links articulate freely. Measure the
complete length of the chain to give the "old length". Compare the "new length"
with the "old length".

This should not exceed that stated in the overhaul manual. Typically 2%
maximum elongation is specified. If this figure is reached or exceeded the whole
chain should be changed.
A control chain is checked for twist by letting it hang, ensuring it is clean, and.
each link articulates freely and sighting (looking) down the chain.
 DRIVE BELTS AND PULLEYS

These are used to drive comparatively lightly loaded components such as

generators - on some piston engine aircraft, and timing mechanisms. Correctly
installed and tensioned they provide an inexpensive lightweight drive system
which is easy to maintain. The fabric reinforced rubber belt forms a continuous
loop around two (or more) pulleys. Note: Pulleys are called sheaves in some
publications.

On some systems the belt may go around more than one pulley with one being the
driver and the others being driven. To maintain tension a sprung loaded or
adjustable idler pulley may be fitted (normally in the longest run) between the
driver and driven pulleys.

This chapter deals with the different types of belts and pulleys that may be found
in service. For the actual design and maintenance practices of a particular belt
drive system you should refer to the belt drive manufacturer's manual and/or the
AMM.

Most belt drives are of the "V" type, though there are examples of flat belt drives in
use and synchronous belts for applications where it is important that components
operate synchronously - cam belts on piston engines for example.

Flat Belts
5-

These are used with flat pulleys with flanges and/or with guides. The flanges or
guides are to ensure the belt does not come off the pulley. The flat belt system is
cheaper than other belt systems and used where very little load transmission is
required. They are of thinner cross section and the specification dimensions as for
V belts are less important.

V Drive Belts

These are divided into 2 groups - heavy duty and light duty. The V design ensures
it sits within the V shaped pulley with no tendency to come off and increases its
grip as more tension (power) is applied. The belts are made of rubber or synthetic
materials and are strengthened by fabric material, this provides strength in
tension and reduces the belts ability to stretch. The rubber provides grip and a
wearing surface. It also protects the fabric from moisture and contamination.

The classical cross section is shown in figure 40. It is sometimes called Banded
Construction. The main tension fabric yarns run longitudinally and the complete
belt is enclosed by a fabric covering.
Its loading is higher than the flat belt but the radius of the pulleys must not be
too small. For smaller pulleys where a reasonably load is required a notched belt
should be used.

The Molded Notched V belt is shown in figure 41 with the tension fabric plies in
the outer section - where the tension loads are highest. The belt is designed to
take similar loads to the Banded V Belt but will accommodate pulleys of smaller
radii. Notched V belts are usually designated with an 'X', so a 3V notched belt, for
example, would be designated a 3VX.

Size
There are three measurements that are used to designate the size of a V belt: its
Outside Circumference (OC); its Effective Length (EL) and its Pitch Length (PL).
Outside Circumference (OC)

This is measured using a tape measure wrapped around the outside of the belt. It
is not very accurate and does not provide a measurement of the belt when under
tension (it will stretch slightly under load), which it would be under normal
working conditions. However, it does provide a nominal length which is easy to
measure.

Effective Length (EL)

This requires a special measuring rig consisting of two pulleys, one fixed and one
loadable with an attached measuring scale.

To measure the Effective Length of a belt it is placed around two pulleys with
specified groove sizes. One pulley is fixed and the other is designed so it can be
loaded to stretch the belt. There is a scale on the loaded pulley to indicate the
length between the two pulley centres.

The belt is placed around the pulleys and the second pulley loaded to a specified
load, the belt is moved through three complete revolutions whilst being subjected
to the load. The Effective Length of the complete belt is calculated by taking the
indicated measurement of the loaded pulley times 2 and adding this to the
circumference of one pulley (this equals the two halve circumferences of each
pulley).

It is the Effective Length that most manufacturers quote in their specifications.

Pitch Length (PL)

When the belt bends around a pulley the outside of the belt is in tension and the
inside is in compression. Where the centre of the tension occurs is called the
neutral axis or tensile chord line. The tensile chord is within the belt (towards to
outer edge) and therefore cannot be measured. The PL is the length of the tensile
chord around the complete belt.

It is calculated using equations but a qualitative approach will serve to indicate its
relationship to OC and EL.

Assume we have two identical belts with the same external dimensions but one
belt (belt 2) has a lower tensile chord (it is designed with its fabric yarns further
away from the outer edge). For the two belts the OC and EL would be the same
but the PL of belt two would be smaller than the PL of belt 1.

Pulleys (Sheaves)

These are usually made of steel and supplied in various diameters and groove
angles. Diameters specified include outside diameter and pitch diameter and
include groove angles ranging from 32 to 38°.

Synchronous Belts

These are similar to flat belts in design except that they are toothed. The teeth are
moulded as part of the inner surface and provide a positive drive with no slip (the
other belts are used where any slip, if present, is not a problem).
Synchronous belts are used with toothed pulleys and used with timing drives
such as ignition systems and valve lifting mechanisms of some piston engines.
They are more expensive than the other belts.

Figure 43 shows an example of the use of a synchronous belt system. It connects

the tailplane trim wheel in the flight deck of the A320 to sprocket drives under the
floor for chain and cable connections back to the tailplane. The system is
duplicated.

General

It is important that when replacing either a pulley or a belt of any system that it is
checked for serviceability and also that it is the correct part (check belt markings).
Many pulleys/belts, particularly of the V type construction look very similar, and
it is important that the IPC/AMM is followed closely and documents such as JAA
form ones clearly specify the correct part by name, part number, batch number,
serial number etc.