2017 Tel 8176

Delft University of Technology FACULTY MECHANICAL, MARITIME
AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Department Maritime and Transport Technology
Mekelweg 2
2628 CD Delft
the Netherlands
Phone +31 (0)15-2782889
Fax +31 (0)15-2781397
www.mtt.tudelft.nl
Specialization: Transport Engineering and Logistics
Report number: 2017.TEL.8176
Title: Safety Protection for automated guided

vehicles
Author: Jesse Kwakkenbos
Assignment: Literature Assignment (ME54010)
Confidential: No
Supervisor: dr.ir. Y. Pang
Date: November 29, 2017
This report consists of 47 pages and 4 appendices. It may only be reproduced literally and as a whole. For
commercial purposes only with written authorization of Delft University of Technology. Requests for consult are only
taken into consideration under the condition that the applicant denies all legal rights on liabilities concerning the
contents of the advice.
Delft University of Technology FACULTY MECHANICAL, MARITIME
AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING
Department Maritime and Transport Technology
Mekelweg 2
2628 CD Delft
the Netherlands
Phone +31 (0)15-2782889
Fax +31 (0)15-2781397
www.mtt.tudelft.nl
Student: Jesse Kwakkenbos Assignment type: Literature

Supervisor: Dr.ir. Y. Pang Credit points (EC): 10
Specialization: TEL
Report number: 2017.TEL.8176
Confidential: No
Subject: Safety Protection for automated guided vehicles
Nowadays, there are many systems that make use of different applications of automated guided vehicles.
There are multiple reasons to use automated guided vehicles in such systems, some benefits of the use of
these vehicles: cost reduction, reduce human labor, increase capacity, accuracy, reliability, scalability and
flexibility. Prior goal of these systems with operating automated guided vehicles is the enforcement of
safety.
The assignment is to look for and understand the different safety systems that are used for a safe
operation in an environment with automated guided vehicles. How are these systems working and
communicating to maintain safety, which sensors are used for these automated guided vehicles and
which algorithms or methods are used to transmit the data received from the sensors. It is also important
to look to the implementation of the safety standards, a requirement in these industries
The report should comply with the guidelines of the section. Details can be found on the website.
The mentor,
Summary
Automated guided vehicles are mostly used in industries, they are controlled by different algorithms and
there is no driver on board. There are multiple reasons to use automated guided vehicles in a system;
cost reduction, reduce human labor, increase capacity, accuracy, reliability, scalability and flexibility. To
determine the position of automated guided vehicles are two systems used. A centralized system is used,
where the vehicle receives information about its position from the control room. Decentralized systems
are also used, where the vehicle determines its own position. The automated guided vehicle will use
sensors to determine the position in this system.
There are different types of automated guided vehicles which are operating in different systems. Some
different types: carriers, tuggers, forklifts, unit load carriers, people movers and automated lifting
vehicles. These types of vehicles are used for different applications. Automated guided vehicles are mostly
used for transshipment, storage, transport or production.
A safe operating system with automated guided vehicles is desired, but for possible safety accidents are
three different types of conflicts introduced:
• Dynamic environment: multiple automated guided vehicles are operating in this environment,
conflicts could occur between automated guided vehicles and conflicts between automated guided
vehicles and static obstacles
• Static environment: a single automated guided vehicle is operating in a system and conflicts could
occur between the vehicle and static obstacles
• Conflicts between automated guided vehicles and human being
To take care of a safe operating system, the automated guided vehicles are equipped with a lot of
sensors. These sensors can recognize static or dynamic objects that are in the surrounding of the
operating automated guided vehicles, they are mostly equipped with:
• Ultrasonic sensors
• Surface sensors
• Safety edges sensors
• Lasers
• Time-of-flight cameras
• Bumper sensors
• Emergency-stop button
i
For a safe control of automated guided vehicles, distinction in three controls is made; collision avoidance
control, zone control and combination control. For collision control are different methods used to maintain
safety:
• Petri Net Method

• Game Theory combined with Modern control
• Time Window Method
• Dijkstra
• Ultra-wide band
Zone control eases the avoidance of automated guided vehicle collisions by demanding that each zone
can be occupied by at most one vehicle. Zone control is also important to resolve possible conflicts and
accidents between automated guided vehicles in a system. Combination control is collision avoidance
control combined with zone control.
To maintain safe operation areas, different standards are used for automated guided vehicles. Laws and
regulations, safety standards and guidelines are used to take care about the safety.
ii
Figures & Tables
Figures
figure 1: Automated guided vehicle [3] ................................................................................................. 4
figure 2: WEpod Wageningen [6] ......................................................................................................... 5
figure 3: Automated guided vehicle in production area [8] ..................................................................... 6
figure 4: The schematic diagram of the intersection of conflict situations [9]........................................... 7
figure 5: The schematic diagram of the catching up of conflict situations [9]........................................... 7
figure 6: The schematic diagram of opposite conflict situations [9] ......................................................... 8
figure 7: Visual working of ultrasonic sensor [11] ................................................................................ 11
figure 8: Triangulation [14] ................................................................................................................ 15
figure 9: Point clouds generated for Radiohead's House of Cards music video, which used lasers instead of
cameras [14] .................................................................................................................................... 15
figure 10: Different warning and protection fields [17] ......................................................................... 16
figure 11: 3D time-of-flight camera operation [18] .............................................................................. 17
figure 12: Two time-of-flight methods: pulsed (top) and continuous-wave (bottom) [18] ....................... 18
figure 13: Extending distance using a multi-frequency technique [18] .................................................. 20
figure 14: Depth map of soda cans [18] ............................................................................................. 20
figure 15: Avatar formed from point-cloud [18] ................................................................................... 21
figure 16: Safety Bumpers [12] .......................................................................................................... 21
figure 17: Example of a safety edge sensor [21] ................................................................................. 22
figure 18: Working of safety edge [21] ............................................................................................... 23
figure 19: Emergency stop button [23] ............................................................................................... 23
figure 20: Scheme of Petri net [24] .................................................................................................... 24
figure 21: The schematic diagram of collision avoidance simulation situations [9].................................. 27
figure 22: The schematic diagram of opposite conflict situations [9] ..................................................... 28
figure 23: The schematic diagram of opposite of conflict time window [9] ............................................ 29
figure 24: The schematic diagram of the catching up of conflict situations [9] ....................................... 29
figure 25: The schematic diagram of the catching up of conflict time window [9] .................................. 29
figure 26: Shortest path calculation according Dijkstra’s algorithm [28] ................................................ 30
figure 27: Representation of a 2D proposed warehouse [29] ................................................................ 32
figure 28: Flowchart representation of the routing task [29] ................................................................ 33
figure 29: Multiple stuck automated guided vehicles [31] ..................................................................... 35
figure 30: Advanced perception system [31] ....................................................................................... 36
figure 31: Grid with target nodes [1] .................................................................................................. 38
figure 32: Block diagram of the collision avoidance system architecture [33] ......................................... 39
iii
Tables
table 1: Iteration table shortest path algorithm [28] ............................................................................ 31
iv
Content
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. i
Figures & Tables ................................................................................................................................ iii
Figures........................................................................................................................................... iii
Tables ............................................................................................................................................ iv
Content .............................................................................................................................................. v
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
2. Automated guided vehicles ............................................................................................................ 2
2.1. Working of automated guided vehicle .................................................................................... 2
2.2. Different applications automated guided vehicles .................................................................... 3
2.2.1. Transshipment .............................................................................................................. 3
2.2.2. Storage......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.3. Transport ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.4. Production .................................................................................................................... 5
2.3. Different safety accidents ...................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1. Collision between automated guided vehicles .................................................................. 6
2.3.2. Collision between automated guided vehicles and static object......................................... 8
2.3.3. Collision between automated guided vehicle and human being ......................................... 8
3. Safety components ..................................................................................................................... 11
3.1. Non-contact distance sensors .............................................................................................. 11
3.1.1. Ultrasonic sensors ....................................................................................................... 11
3.1.2. Surface pressure sensors ............................................................................................. 12
3.1.3. Lasers......................................................................................................................... 13
3.1.4. Time-of-Flight cameras ................................................................................................ 17
3.2. Bumper sensors .................................................................................................................. 21
3.2.1. Safety bumpers ........................................................................................................... 21
3.2.2. Safety edges sensors ................................................................................................... 22
3.3. Emergency stop button ....................................................................................................... 23
v
4. Safety control ............................................................................................................................. 24
4.1. Collision avoidance control .................................................................................................. 24
4.1.1. Petri net method ......................................................................................................... 24
4.1.2. Game theory combined with modern control theory....................................................... 26
4.1.3. Time window method .................................................................................................. 28
4.1.4. Dijkstra’s Algorithm ..................................................................................................... 30
4.1.5. Collision avoidance using hulls ..................................................................................... 33
4.1.6. Ultra-wide band technology ......................................................................................... 37
4.2. Zone-control ....................................................................................................................... 39
4.3. Combination control ............................................................................................................ 43
5. Safety standards ......................................................................................................................... 44
5.1. Laws and Regulations ......................................................................................................... 44
5.2. Standards .......................................................................................................................... 44
5.3. Guidelines .......................................................................................................................... 45
6. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 46
References ........................................................................................................................................ 48
Appendix A: DIN EN1525 ................................................................................................................... 52
Appendix B: DIN EN ISO 3691 ........................................................................................................... 53
Appendix C: DIN EN 1175-1 ............................................................................................................... 55
Appendix D: ANSI B56.5 .................................................................................................................... 56
vi
Introduction
1. Introduction
This literature assignment is about the safety protection for automated guided vehicles. The abbreviation
of an automated guided vehicle is AGV, the full term appears in the main content of the report and
afterwards only the abbreviation is used.
The different kinds of AGVs are discussed, the way the AGVs are operating in different businesses. In this
report is talked about the different kinds of AGVs and the different applications where the AGVs are used
for. The meaning of safety will also be discussed, for example, a collision between AGVs is different than
a collision between an AGV and a human. What sensors are used for safety systems are still on the
market and how are these systems safely controlled. It is also important to follow the different safety
standards that are introduced for AGVs. The use of safety standards will improve the safety in
environments with operating AGVs.
The goal of this assignment is to achieve a better understanding of the working of the safety protection
for AGVs and the different systems that are used for different operating networks with AGVs. Two parts of
this report are the most important subjects about the safety protection for AGVs
• Safety components
• Safety control
These two subjects are mentioned after a general chapter about AGVs. In this general chapter is the
working of an AGV explained. The different applications where AGVs are used for and the different safety
accidents that can occur are also discussed in this chapter. In safety components are the different sensors
and bumpers and the working of these parts explained. The chapter safety control will explain how a safe
system with operating AGVs is obtained and how the information retrieved from the sensors is used. As
last the different safety standards that are used for operating systems with AGVs are discussed.
2017.TEL.8176 1
Automated guided vehicles
2. Automated guided vehicles

AGVs are vehicles that are used in industries mostly. The AGVs are controlled by different algorithms,
there is no driver on board.
The next properties and functions of AGVs are retrieved from Mark Duinkerken [1].
AGVs are introduced for the first time in 1953. This first AGV was used to pull a trailer and follow an
overhead wire in a grocery warehouse. In 1973 the first assembly vehicle was introduced by Volvo in
Sweden. Nowadays multiple AGVs are operating automatically in independent systems. There are multiple
reasons to use AGVs in a system, these reasons are mentioned below:
• Cost reduction
• Reduce human work
o Shortage of human labor
o Unsafe environments
o Prevent routine work
• Increase capacity
• Accuracy
• Reliability
• Scalability and flexibility
The safety aspect of the AGVs is important in this literature assignment. Safety is split up in three
categories, first the safety for humans working in AGV systems, second the AGVs self in the system and
last the AGVs compared to static objects. These categories are handled in chapter 2.3.
2.1. Working of automated guided vehicle

To describe the working of the AGV are different hardware components used, the components are
retrieved from Mark Duinkerken [1].
There are different AGV types, for example: standard carriers, tuggers, forklifts, unit load carriers, people
movers and ALVs (Automated Lifting Vehicles). All these types have different driving characteristics and
driving technologies. The different applications where these types are operating are discussed in the next
section (section 2.2.).
The safety for AGVs is also important, the safety is managed by external control. This control uses
different safety sensors to maintain safety, these sensors are mentioned in section 3. The human factor
plays also an important role in the safety for the AGVs. Different kind of accidents are mentioned in
section 2.3.
2017.TEL.8176 2
For the infrastructure are topology and docks necessary. The topology exists of a map with boundaries,
permanent obstacles, one/two-way road, road crossings and locations of the docks. Distinction is made
for different kinds of docks, pick-up and delivery points, charging/fueling locations, maintenance locations
and locations for the idle vehicles.
Even the communication is necessary in a system with AGVs, for the communications between AGVs and
the infrastructure are different components used, some of the different communication types; detections
wires, lights signals, FM radio signals, wireless LAN, Bluetooth.
For the navigation of AGVs is a guide path needed, inertial guidance is also used to determine the
position. Closed loop control is used for position updates, for the closed loop control is a centralized
positioning system or an autonomous position determination used.
For the determination of the position of the AGV are the following systems used [2]:
• Centralized (AGV receives position information)

o Natural feature: Reference images are recorded and stored, the position of the
AGV is calculated based on its relative position compared to those natural features.
• Decentralized (AGV determines own position)
o Laser triangulation: A laser scanner is scanning for reflective targets that are
mounted on fixed positions, the vehicle control algorithms can calculate the exact
position.
o Magnetic: Magnetic tape is applied to the surface of the floor, a sensor can
detect the magnetic tape.
o Wire: A wire embedded in the floor is used to determine the location.
Antennas detect the signal from the wire and the encodes can calculate the distance.
With multiple signal the position can be determined.
o Optical: Chemical or tape strip is applied to the floor, the AGV has
sensors which can detect the path.
For the detection of obstacles, AGVs mostly equipped with lasers and mechanical bumpers.
2.2. Different applications automated guided vehicles

AGVs are used if different applications areas, the main applications are discussed below
2.2.1. Transshipment
AGVs that are used for transshipment are mostly operating in terminals. The AGVs used in port container
terminals are fully automated for handling 20’, 40’ and 45’ ISO containers. The AGV can handle loads of
2017.TEL.8176 3
up to 70 tons with a maximum speed of seven meters per second. Expertise leads to good performing
container carrier AGV with good characteristics regarding fuel efficiency, CO2 emissions, noise levels,
reliability and maintainability. The result of these efforts is an environmentally friendly AGV with low
operating costs and a high MTBF rate, mean time between failure rate. The next sources are used for the
information above: VDL Group [3] and Konecranes [4].
figure 1: Automated guided vehicle [3]
2.2.2. Storage
The source Dematic Egemin automation [5] declares that AGVs are mostly used in warehouses and
distribution centers for a lot of storage applications, they are used to reduce labor costs and the efficiency
and reliability of the storage process is increased in most cases. AGVs can be used for very narrow aisles,
but also for high storing loads (6-12 meter). A few examples of storage applications with AGVs are
mentioned below:
• Block storage
• Pallet storage in warehouse racks
• Floor-based deep stack storage of pallets
• Vertical storage of reels
• Horizontal storage of reels in cradles
For a good working of these applications are some components used; the navigation sensor, a system
used for running the sensor, safety scanners, pallet position sensors to find the position of items
precisely. Most of these components are explained later.
2.2.3. Transport
AGVs are also used for transport, for example the transport of people (figure 2). The AGV will take care of
a safe and reliable transportation along designated routes. AGVs are also used as transport equipment for
2017.TEL.8176 4
the distribution of goods [1].
figure 2: WEpod Wageningen [6]
2.2.4. Production
AGVs are even used for production applications [7].
A production process consists of mobile robots, better known as AGVs, used for transportation and
automatic material handling; for example, finished goods, raw materials and products in process. The
AGV is a driverless vehicle that performs the tasks of handling of flexible materials and is therefore
considered suitable for an FMS (Flexible Manufacturing Systems) environment.
The AGV has the function to ensure efficient flow of materials within the production system. Production
systems must be flexible and must allow the dynamic reconfiguration of the system. The AGV is a key
component to achieve the objectives of an FMS. This means that the AGV should provide the required
materials to the appropriate workstation, at the right time and in the right amount. Otherwise the
production system will not perform well, making it less efficient, generating less profit or increasing the
operating costs.
2017.TEL.8176 5
figure 3: Automated guided vehicle in production area [8]
2.3. Different safety accidents

According to Juntao Li et al. [9]. AGV types of conflict can be divided into three categories in different
types of environment:
• In a dynamic environment, the quantity of AGV is greater than one, there are some conflicts
between AGV and the others and the conflicts which between AGV and the static obstacles.
• In a static environment and the quantity of AGV is one, the conflict which needs to be resolved is
the collision between AGV and static obstacles
• A conflict between an AGV or multiple AGVs with human being
2.3.1. Collision between automated guided vehicles

In a dynamic environment, conflicts between AGV and the others can be divided into three basic types:
• Including the intersection of the conflict

• The catching up of the conflict
• The opposing of the conflict
The three different types will be discussed below, these types were retrieved from Juntao Li et al. [9].
The intersection of conflict
The intersection of conflict does not belong to the catching up of conflict and the opposing of conflict. The
two AGVs which create the conflict are neither positive relative nor in the same lane, that is crossing
collision. The scenario of conflict is shown in the following figure:
2017.TEL.8176 6
figure 4: The schematic diagram of the intersection of conflict situations [9]
The catching up of conflict
The catching up of conflict here is not the conflict in the conventional sense, because the AGV is set to a
constant speed in this study, the issue that AGV2 is slower than AGV1 in speed does not exist. In this
case, when AGV2 needs to in-situ steer, it will waste more time than pass through the node straightly,
then the conflict may occur. The scenario of conflict is shown in the following figure:
figure 5: The schematic diagram of the catching up of conflict situations [9]
The opposing of conflict
The opposing conflict refers to the case that multi-vehicle AGVs meet head-on in the process of running.
AGV1 and AGV2 are in opposite direction of movement and in the same lane. The scenario of conflict is
shown in the following figure:
2017.TEL.8176 7
figure 6: The schematic diagram of opposite conflict situations [9]
If there is no corresponding avoidance strategy, whether AGVs are in a dynamic or a static environment,
they will collide. In the multi-AGVs dynamic environment, based on the differences in different
environments and task distribution, there will be a variety of complex and diverse conflicts. But these
conflicts are composed of the three most basic conflicts above. The essence of these three types of
conflicts is the problem of temporal and spatial overlapping. It can be understood as, two AGVs occupy
the same node at the same time, thus they collide. So, to resolve the complex conflicts in the case of
multi-vehicle AGVs, ultimately these three types of conflicts should be resolved, and then to ensure the
AGVs can move safely and smoothly [9].
2.3.2. Collision between automated guided vehicles and static object

AGVs are mostly equipped with sensors and are navigated by a path (section 2.1.). If the sensors are
working properly, the probability of a collision with a static object is minimized. The path is installed
before the start of use of AGVs and the whole operation area have a certain layout. If the AGV is
following the path, the probability to have a collision with a static object that belongs to the operation
area is minimized. When a static object, that does not belong the operation area, is left on the path, for
example a pick-up trolley, it is important that the sensors of the AGV detect this object. The working of
this principle is explained further in section 3.1.
2.3.3. Collision between automated guided vehicle and human being

The prevent collisions between AGVs and human beings, the AGVs are using sensors to detect the human
being if they are in the same area as the AGV. The AGVs will use different warning zones to prevent such
collisions, these zones will be explained later (section 3.1.3.)
AGVs are safer than vehicles which are controlled by humans. But sometimes accidents occur even for
AGVs, an example of an accident with an AGV and a human being is stated below. This example of an
accident is retrieved from [10].
2017.TEL.8176 8
It happened at a Kraft Food warehouse in Granite City, Ill. Early Tuesday morning an employee was
discovered pinned between a laser-guided AGV and a metal racking unit. This employee was responsible
for overseeing the operation of the facility's AGVs. OSHA and the Granite City Police Department are still
investigating this accident, but one thing seems certain: if proper safety procedures were followed this
shouldn't have happened. There's a standard that vehicle manufacturers and users are supposed to
follow: The ANSI/ITSDF B56.5-2012 Safety Standard for Driverless, Automatic Guided Industrial Vehicles
and Automated Functions of Manned Industrial Vehicles (see section 0.).
Some statements from the research:
‘Automatic guided industrial vehicles can cause injury or damage if improperly used or maintained and if
the potential risks specified in user training associated with hazard zones and restricted areas are not
respected by persons within or adjacent to these areas.’
It also states what's supposed to happen with a properly equipped AGV.
‘The braking system in conjunction with the object detection system and the response time of the safety
control system shall cause the vehicle to stop prior to impact between the vehicle structure and other
mounted equipment, including its intended load, and an obstruction being sensed in advance of the
moving vehicle in the main direction of travel.’
‘Although the vehicle braking system may be performing correctly and as designed, it cannot be expected
to function as designed and specified should an object suddenly appear in the path of the vehicle and
within the designed safe stopping distance. Examples include, but are not limited to, an object falling from
overhead or a pedestrian stepping into the path of a vehicle at the last instant.’
• Concluded from this research: training is so critical for both operators and the people working
around these vehicles. This can be reached by:
• A training program for operators and other user personnel likely to be exposed to the system in
operation, including visitors, shall include the system supplier's documented operating instructions
and procedures and the user's local applicable requirements if any.
• The initial training shall be presented by the system supplier to all operators and other user
personnel and not condensed or eliminated for those claiming previous experience.
• Oral, written, or operational performance tests and evaluations should be given during and at the
completion of all training.
2017.TEL.8176 9
But it's the failure to heed the following pointer that explains why fatalities are still associated with
industrial trucks:
• Periodic, ongoing training or refresher training sessions shall then be conducted by the user for
the benefit of existing users as well as for new user personnel and visitors. Refresher training
sessions, which may be condensed versions of the initial training sessions, and periodic on-the-
job evaluation, are as important as initial training, especially when new personnel are hired or
otherwise introduced to the system following initial deployment.
The ANSI standard defines fail-safe as a design in which no single failure can cause an unsafe condition.
It is eventually known whether the victim in this case might have been involved in multiple failures at one
time, but this should be a wake-up call for every user of automated material handling equipment: Never
fail to train.
2017.TEL.8176 10
Safety components
3. Safety components
3.1. Non-contact distance sensors

Different non-contact distance sensors are used to maintain safety for AGVs, the most used non-contact
sensors are mentioned below:
3.1.1. Ultrasonic sensors

The definition of an ultrasonic sensor is retrieved from the website Carnegie Mellon Robotics Academy
[11].
An ultrasonic sensor is a device that can measure the distance to an object by using sound waves. It
measures distance by sending out a sound wave at a specific frequency and listening for that sound wave
to bounce back. By recording the elapsed time between the sound wave being generated and the sound
wave bouncing back, it is possible to calculate the distance between the sonar sensor and the object.
figure 7: Visual working of ultrasonic sensor [11]
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑∗𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
1. 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2
The speed of sound through air is 344 m/s. If the time of the returning wave is measured and this time is
multiplied by the speed of sound, the round-trip distance of the sound wave is known. Round-trip means
that the sound wave traveled two times the distance to the object before it was detected by the sensor; it
includes the 'trip' from the sonar sensor to the object and the 'trip' from the object to the ultrasonic
sensor. To find the distance to the object, simply divide the round-trip distance in half.
It is important to understand that some objects might not be detected by ultrasonic sensors. This is
because some objects are shaped or positioned in such a way that the sound wave bounces off the
object, but are deflected away from the ultrasonic sensor. It is also possible that the object is too small to
be detected, because there is not enough reflection. Other objects can absorb the sound wave all
2017.TEL.8176 11
Safety components
together, which means that there is no way for the sensor to detect them accurately. These are important
factors to consider when designing and programming a robot using an ultrasonic sensor.
According to Mayser Industry & Mechanical Engineering [12] is ultrasonic monitoring of surroundings,
entry areas and other areas the ideal solution for non-contact detection of people and objects, as well as
for distance measurement. If a person or object is detected in the area monitored, the system can slow
down or stop an automatic movement. Even the smallest objects are reliably detected over the entire
distance, irrespective of material, shape, transparency or color. There are two important advantages of
the use of ultrasonic sensors; first, the sensors are unaffected by dirt, noise, airflow and moisture.
Operating without blind zone up to 2.5 meter is the second advantage.
3.1.2. Surface pressure sensors

According to Cynergy [13] measures a pressure sensor the pressure, typically of gases or liquids. Pressure
is an expression of the force required to stop a gas or fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms
of force per unit area. A pressure sensor generates a signal related to the pressure imposed. Typically,
such a signal is electrical, but it might also include additional means, such as optic signals, visual signals
and/or auditory signals.
Pressure sensors are used in numerous ways for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday
applications. Pressure sensors can be used in systems to measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow,
speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively called pressure transducers, pressure
transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators among other names. Pressure sensors can vary
drastically in technology, design, performance, application suitability and cost. A conservative estimate
would be that there may be over 50 technologies and at least 300 companies making pressure sensors
worldwide.
There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure in a dynamic mode for
capturing very high-speed changes in pressure. Example applications for this type of sensor would be in
the measuring of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine. These sensors are
commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials like quartz. Some pressure sensors function in a
binary manner, for example, when pressure is applied to a pressure sensor, the sensor acts to complete
or break an electrical circuit. Some speed cameras use this binary manner. These types of sensors are
also known as a pressure switches.
Pressure sensors can be classified in term of pressure ranges they measure, temperature ranges of
operation, and most importantly the type of pressure they measure. In terms of pressure type, they are
categorized in five categories [13]:
2017.TEL.8176 12
Safety components
• Absolute pressure sensor: This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect Vacuum
pressure (0 PSI or no pressure). Atmospheric pressure, is about 100kPa (14.7 PSI) at sea level.
Atmospheric pressure is an absolute pressure.
• Gauge pressure sensor: This sensor is used in different applications because it can be
calibrated to measure the pressure relative to a given atmospheric pressure at a given location.
An example of gauge pressure would be a tire pressure gauge. When the tire pressure gauge
reads 0 PSI, there is really 14.7 PSI (atmospheric pressure) in the tire.
• Vacuum pressure sensor: This sensor is used to measure pressure less than the
atmospheric pressure at a given location.
• Differential pressure sensor: This sensor measures the difference between two or more
pressures introduced as inputs to the sensing unit. For example, measuring the pressure drop
across an oil filter. Differential pressure is also used to measure flow or level in pressurized
vessels.
• Sealed pressure sensor: This sensor is the same as the Gauge pressure sensor except
that it is previously calibrated by manufacturers to measure pressure relative to sea level pressure
(14.6 PSI).
In combination with operating AGVs, pressure sensitive surface sensors detect presence in dangerous
areas of movement, for instance on machines or in spaces used in collaboration in different applications.
The presence of a person or object in the protection zone slows down or stops the movement of the AGV.
Maintenance-free, robust system setup, resistant to external influences and reliable functioning in dirty
environment conditions are benefits of surface sensors [12].
3.1.3. Lasers
The working principle of lasers is described by Ian Wright [14]. At the most basic level, laser scanning
involves a combination of controlled steering of laser beams and distance measurements. A rotary
encoder controls the scanning motion by adjusting multiple scanning mirrors to guide the beams.
Positioning the laser beam in two dimensions requires either rotating a single mirror along two axes or,
for faster scanning, reflecting the beam onto two closely spaced mirrors mounted on orthogonal axes.
The lasers can also be positioned in three dimensions via a servo-controlled lens system known as a
focus- or Z-shifter.
Single scans are generally not sufficient to produce a complete model of the subject and so multiple scans
must be brought together into a common reference system through a process known as alignment or
registration.
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Time-of-Flight
One of the central concepts in laser scanning is time-of-flight. This refers to the use of a laser range-
finder to time the round trip of a light pulse travelling from the scanner to the object and back again.
Since the speed of light is a known constant, the distance between the scanner and the object can be
calculated by measuring the time it takes for the light pulse to return to the scanner. Thus, the formula
for calculating distance based on time-of-flight is simply:
𝑐∗𝑡
2. 𝑑 =
2
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 [𝑚]
𝑚
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 [ ]
𝑠
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 [𝑠]
Therefore, the accuracy of a time-of-flight sensor depends on the accuracy of the laser scanner’s
chronometer. The main advantage of this technique is its long-distance capability, which is why some
time-of-flight scanners are used for large-scale surveying projects. However, accurately measuring a
quantity as miniscule as the time it takes for a pulse of light to make a round trip in a quality lab is
difficult. That is why time-of-flight sensors alone are insufficient for applications requiring high-accuracy
measurements.
Triangulation
Many handheld scanners use triangulation to off-set the diminished accuracy that comes with time-of-
flight measurements.
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figure 8: Triangulation [14]
For example, handheld laser scanners often incorporate a camera that tracks the laser dots projected
onto scanned subjects. This enables the scanners to triangulate the distance of the subjects much more
accurately than with time-of-flight measurements alone. However, although triangulation enables higher
accuracy, it also limits the effective range of the scanner.
Point Clouds and Registration
In the most basic terms, a point cloud refers to a set of data points in a coordinate system. In the
standard Cartesian coordinate system, points are defined in terms of X, Y and Z coordinates. In the
context of 3D scanning, point clouds represent the results of a scan as unstructured three-dimensional
data. The typical file formats of point clouds are TXT, IGS and ASCII.
figure 9: Point clouds generated for Radiohead's House of Cards music video, which used lasers instead
of cameras [14]
Point cloud data is then brought into a common reference system where the data is merged into a
complete model via the process of alignment or registration. This process can occur during the scan itself
(in the case of high-end 3D scanners) or as a post-processing step. The resulting data can be processed
further using software to clean up aberrations or fill in gaps in the data points.
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Lasers in combination with AGV
Laser scanners from SICK Insight [15] and RS [16] are used to provide collision protection from AGVs
(AGVs). Lasers scanners can enable safe travelling along complex paths and production layouts with safe
non-contact detection of personnel. When there are certain lasers used, a scanning angle of 360 degrees
is created. All-round monitoring of vehicles is now created. For the all-round monitoring are sixteen
flexibly configurable triple field sets used, each field has two warning and one protective zone, the three
different zones are described below;
• Outer zone: If a pedestrian enters, a warning alarm may be sounded

• Middle zone: The vehicle may decelerate
• Inner zone: An emergency stop can be triggered if this zone is entered.
The following example of the working of the laser scanner is retrieved from another manufacturer,
Jungheinrich [17].
If a person enters the warning field (outer zone), an alarm is used. When this person remains in this field,
the AGV immediately slows down (middle zone). If the person comes to close to the AGV, the AGV will
stop (inner zone), see figure 10. With these zones is the need to stop the vehicle for every object
detection minimized, even as the affection of the production efficiency. This system has an increased
detection of the safety field up to seven meters by continuing development.
figure 10: Different warning and protection fields [17]
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3.1.4. Time-of-Flight cameras

The next information about time-of-flight cameras is retrieved from a paper from Larry Li [18].
3D Time-of-Flight (TOF) technology is revolutionizing the machine vision industry by providing 3D imaging
using a low-cost CMOS pixel array together with an active modulated light source. Compact construction,
easy-of-use, together with high accuracy and frame-rate makes TOF cameras an attractive solution for a
wide range of applications. The TOF operation will be covered, and compare TOF with other 2D/3D vision
technologies. Then various applications that benefit from TOF sensing, such as gesturing and 3D scanning
and printing, are explored. Finally, resources that help readers get started with Texas Instruments’ 3D
TOF solution are provided.
Theory of Operation
A 3D time-of-flight (TOF) camera works by illuminating the scene with a modulated light source, and
observing the reflected light. The phase shift between the illumination and the reflection is measured and
translated to distance. The basic TOF concept is illustrated in figure 11. Typically, the illumination is from
a solid-state laser or a LED operating in the near-infrared range (around 850 nm) invisible to the human
eyes. An imaging sensor designed to respond to the same spectrum receives the light and converts the
photonic energy to electrical current. Note that the light entering the sensor has an ambient component
and a reflected component. Distance (depth) information is only embedded in the reflected component.
Therefore, high ambient component reduces the signal to noise ratio (SNR).
figure 11: 3D time-of-flight camera operation [18]
To detect phase shifts between the illumination and the reflection, the light source is pulsed or modulated
by a continuous-wave (CW), source, typically a sinusoid or square wave. Square wave modulation is more
common because it can be easily realized using digital circuits.
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Pulsed modulation can be achieved by integrating photoelectrons from the reflected light, or by starting a
fast counter at the first detection of the reflection. The latter requires a fast photo-detector, usually a
single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD). This counting approach necessitates fast electronics, since
achieving 1 millimeter accuracy requires timing a pulse of 6.6 picoseconds in duration. This level of
accuracy is nearly impossible to achieve in silicon at room temperature.
figure 12: Two time-of-flight methods: pulsed (top) and continuous-wave (bottom) [18]
The pulsed method is straightforward. The light source illuminates for a brief period (∆t), and the
reflected energy is sampled at every pixel, in parallel, using two out-of-phase windows, C1 and C2, with
the same ∆t. Electrical charges accumulated during these samples, Q1 and Q2, are measured and used to
compute distance using the formula:
1 𝑄2
3. 𝑑 = 𝑐∆𝑡 ( )
2 𝑄1+𝑄2
In contrast, the CW method takes multiple samples per measurement, with each sample phase-stepped
by 90 degrees, for a total of four samples. Using this technique, the phase angle between illumination and
reflection, φ, and the distance, d, can be calculated by
𝑄3−𝑄4
4. 𝜑 = arctan( )
𝑄1−𝑄2
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𝑐
5. 𝑑 = 𝜑
4𝜋𝑓
It follows that the measured pixel intensity (A) and offset (B) can be computed by:
√(𝑄1−𝑄2)2 +(𝑄3+𝑄4)2
6. 𝐴 =
2
(𝑄1+𝑄2+𝑄3+𝑄4)
7. 𝐵 =
4
In all the equations, c is the speed-of-light constant.
At first glance, the complexity of the CW method, as compared to the pulsed method, may seemed
unjustified, but a closer look at the CW equations reveals that the terms, (Q3 – Q4) and (Q1 – Q2)
reduces the effect of constant offset from the measurements. Furthermore, the quotient in the phase
equation reduces the effects of constant gains from the distance measurements, such as system
amplification and attenuation, or the reflected intensity. These are desirable properties.
The reflected amplitude (A) and offset (B) do have an impact the depth measurement accuracy. The
depth measurement variance can be approximated by:
𝑐 √𝐴+𝐵
8. 𝜎 = ∗
4√2𝜋𝑓 𝑐𝑑 𝐴
The modulation contrast, cd describes how well the TOF sensor separates and collects the photoelectrons.
The reflected amplitude, 𝐴, is a function of the optical power. The offset, 𝐵, is a function of the ambient
light and residual system offset. One may infer from equation 8 that high amplitude, high modulation
frequency and high modulation contrast will increase accuracy; while high offset can lead to saturation
and reduce accuracy. At high frequency, the modulation contrast can begin to attenuate due to the
physical property of the silicon. This puts a practical upper limit on the modulation frequency. TOF
sensors with high roll off frequency generally can deliver higher accuracy.
The fact that the CW measurement is based on phase, which wraps around every 2π, means the distance
will also have an aliasing distance. The distance where aliasing occurs is called the ambiguity distance,
damb and is defined as:
𝑐
9. 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑏 =
2𝑓
Since the distance wraps, damb is also the maximum measurable distance. If one wishes to extend the
measurable distance, one may reduce the modulation frequency, but at the cost of reduced accuracy, as
according to equation 9.
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Instead of accepting this compromise, advanced TOF systems deploy multi-frequency techniques to
extend the distance without reducing the modulation frequency. Multi-frequency techniques work by
adding one or more modulation frequencies to the mix. Each modulation frequency will have a different
ambiguity distance, but true location is the one where the different frequencies agree. The frequency of
when the two modulations agree, called the beat frequency, is usually lower, and corresponds to a much
longer ambiguity distance. The dual-frequency concept is illustrated below.
figure 13: Extending distance using a multi-frequency technique [18]
In TOF sensors, distance is measured for every pixel in a 2D addressable array, resulting in a depth map.
A depth map is a collection of 3D points (each point also known as a voxel). As an example, a QVGA
sensor will have a depth map of 320 x 240 voxels. 2D representation of a depth map is a gray-scale
image, as is illustrated by the soda cans example in figure 14, the brighter the intensity, the closer the
voxel. The depth map of a group of soda cans is shown in figure 14.
figure 14: Depth map of soda cans [18]
Alternatively, a depth map can be rendered in a three-dimensional space as a collection of points, or

point-cloud. The 3D points can be mathematically connected to form a mesh onto which a texture surface
can be mapped. If the texture is from a real-time color image of the same subject, a life-like 3D rendering
of the subject will emerge, as is illustrated by the avatar in figure 15. One may be able to rotate the
avatar to view different perspectives.
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figure 15: Avatar formed from point-cloud [18]
3.2. Bumper sensors

3.2.1. Safety bumpers
Safety bumpers are an important safety component for protection against risk in a system with AGVs
according to ISS Safety [19] and Mayser Industry & Mechanical Engineering [12].
According ISS Safety are shearing and crushing edges at automatically driven devices bear a substantial
risk of injury for persons. To protect against these risks, Safety Bumpers are employed. Safety Bumpers,
when activated, will immediately switch off the power source. An additional control unit is not required.
The signal is fed to the existing E-stop relay unit. The Safety Bumpers comprise a rubber-foam cushion, in
which a contact chain is embedded. Normally, the rubber-foam cushion is provided with a high abrasion
resistant, elastic polyurethane surface. For applications in harsh conditions, additional materials and
solutions can be supplied.
figure 16: Safety Bumpers [12]
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3.2.2. Safety edges sensors

Safety Edges, that are produced by Zippswitch Products [20], are industrial grade, pressure sensitive,
safety switches. Safety Edges are mounted to moving parts of an industrial machine that may cause a
hazardous work environment. The purpose of a Safety Edge is to protect personnel and machinery. The
Safety Edge is used as ‘pinch point’ and ‘collision’ safety sensors. They are designed to detect contact of
an object and to emit a signal to the machine controls in response. When activated, the Safety Edges acts
as an emergency stop that removes power from the machine. Safety Edges are safety devices which are
used as an integral part of the machine safety circuit.
figure 17: Example of a safety edge sensor [21]
The safety edges produced by Bircher Reglomat [21] have the following working principle: When a force
is applied to the rubber profile (figure 17), the profile makes contact with the conductive elements in the
contact strip (figure 18). An electrical signal is generated, this signal will stop the AGV immediately to
achieve safety.
The following formulas are used to determine the stopping distance and the overtravel.
Stopping distance of parts (AGV):
1
10. 𝑠1 = ∗ 𝑣 ∗ 𝑡
2
Minimum overtravel of the safety edge:
11. 𝑠 = 𝑠1 ∗ 𝑐
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𝑠1 = 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 [𝑚]
𝑠 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 [𝑚]
𝑚𝑚
𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 (𝐴𝐺𝑉) [ ]
𝑠
𝑡 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝐴𝐺𝑉 + 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒)[𝑠]
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 1.2)
figure 18: Working of safety edge [21]
3.3. Emergency stop button

Every AGV is equipped with an emergency stop button. If the button is activated, the AGV will
immediately stop. In a system with AGVs, the motion capable equipment will become inactive [22].
figure 19: Emergency stop button [23]
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4. Safety control
4.1. Collision avoidance control

Various collision avoidance techniques have been proposed in literature. Different collision avoidance
techniques and or methods are mentioned below. The following methods will be discussed:
• Petri net method

• Game theory method combined with modern control theory
• Time window method
• Dijkstra’s algorithms
• Hulls
• Ultra-wide band technology
4.1.1. Petri net method

The basic explanation of the Petri net method is retrieved from David A. Tanzer [24].
A Petri net is a graph with two kinds of nodes: species and transitions. The net is populated with a
collection of ‘tokens’ that represent individual entities. Each token is attached to one of the species nodes,
this attachment indicates the type of the token. A species node is like a container that holds all the tokens
of a given type. The transitions represent conversion reactions between the tokens. Each transition is
connected to a collection of input species-containers, and to a collection of output containers. When it
‘fires’, it removes one token from each input container, and deposits one token to each output container.
Here a simple example for a simplistic model of the formation and dissociation of H2O molecules. The
circles are for species, and the boxes are for transitions:
figure 20: Scheme of Petri net [24]
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The transition takes in two H tokens and one O token, and outputs one H 2O token. The reverse transition
is split, which takes in one H2O, and outputs two H’s and one O.
This difference in scale leads to a qualitative difference in the modelling. With small population sizes, the
stochastic effects will predominate, but with large populations, a continuous, deterministic, average-based
approximation can be used.
The mathematical explanation of the Petri Net Method is described by Juntao Li et al. [9]
Petri Net method was presented by Carl Adam Petri in 1960. The method is suitable to describe
asynchronous and concurrent computer system model, and describing the phenomenon of the
concurrency in a physical light, and it can describe the dynamic performance of the system greatly. At
present, the method has been used to study collision avoidance of AGV and system scheduling.
Generally, the steps of applying Petri Net method to study the issue are the next;
• construct n-tuple for the problem

• construct the model of Petri net which can describe the problem
• apply the relevant theory to analyze and solve the problem.
In the research Maria Pia Fanti [25], the application of Petri net approach to this problem has achieved
very gratifying results. In 2002, Maria used colored Petri net method to study AGV collision avoidance of
multi-vehicle AGVs, in the case of multi-vehicle AGVs, color and token in Petri net should be one-to-one
correspondence between AGVs. If the color is not token, then it will be difficult to distinguish different
AGVs while researching the model, and makes it difficult to grasp the whole model, so to grasp the overall
model, this paper will color tokens in different colors to distinguish the different corresponding AGV, color
the token pass libraries and the transition paths on the corresponding color, thereby forming a colored
Petri nets.
Coloring Petri Net (CPN) is defined below: CPN is a directed graph, which can be expressed as a five-
tuple, among which:
12. 𝐶𝑃𝑁 = {𝑃, 𝑇, 𝐶, 𝐼, 𝑂}

• P and T are expressed as a collection of pass libraries and transition paths, their definitions are
the same with basic PN
• C is expressed as a collection of the colors of pass libraries and transition paths, in particular:
𝑝𝑖 ′𝑠 collection of the colors of pass libraries:
13. 𝐶(𝑝𝑖 ) = {𝑎𝑖.1 , … , 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑢𝑖 }, 𝑢𝑖 = |𝐶(𝑝𝑖 )|, 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛
𝑡𝑖 ′𝑠 collection of the colors of collection of the colors of:
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14. 𝐶(𝑡𝑖 ) = {𝑏𝑖.1 , … , 𝑏𝑖 , 𝑣𝑖 }, 𝑣𝑖 = |𝐶(𝑡𝑖 )|, 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑚

• 𝐼(𝑝, 𝑡) expresses from the library p to transition t of input mapping (function):
𝐶(𝑝) × 𝐶(𝑡) → 𝑁 (Non-negative integer), which corresponding coloring directed arc from p to t,
and the 𝐼(𝑝, 𝑡) here is the matrix;
• 𝑂(𝑝, 𝑡) expresses from the transition t to library p of output mapping (function):

𝐶(𝑡) × 𝐶(𝑝) → 𝑁 (Non-negative integer), which corresponding coloring directed arc from t to p,
and the 𝑂(𝑝, 𝑡) here is the matrix;
If you consider the time factor to the colored Petri net method, it will constitute a timed colored Petri net
(CTPN). If you place the library as a node, and the change as a side, then the essence of Petri net is a
figure and of a general nature, of course, it also has a lot of qualities.
In recent years, Petri net in the AGV collision avoidance program areas focused on the application of
colored Petri net approach. Petri net is mainly focused on the case of a deadlock and the AGV collision
prevention, but slightly less on real-time collision avoidance.
4.1.2. Game theory combined with modern control theory

The game theory method is described by Juntao Li et al. (Li, Tao, & Xiang, 2016)
Game theory is the study of the nature of phenomena or competitive fight mathematical theories and
methods. Game theory is widely used in economic and industry. Game theory can solve a class of
problems under the background of competition well in industry, such as the issue of collision avoidance
planning of multi-vehicle AGVs. Fundamentally it can be understood as different AGVs compete for the
same resources in the same time. The game theory is put model about multi-vehicle AGVs at road
intersections. The background to the issue as shown below:
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figure 21: The schematic diagram of collision avoidance simulation situations [9]
Make a model of AGV A and AGV B by using state-space method, the state-space representation is a
mathematical model of a physical system as a set of input, output and state variables related by first-
order differential equation:
𝑥𝑎 𝑥1
15. 𝑥 = [𝑥𝑎 ] = [𝑥2 ] ∈ 𝑅3
𝑟 𝑥3
𝑥𝑎 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝐺𝑉 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝑁
𝑥𝑏 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝐺𝑉 𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝑁
16. 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑎
It can also be expressed as:
0 1 0 0 0
17. 𝑥 = [0 0 0] 𝑥 + [1] 𝑥𝑎 + [0] 𝑥𝑏 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 + 𝐷𝑑
0 −1 0 0 1
Game theory is applied to the issue of collision avoidance, and the issue as a game of two persons zero
sum, in the process of collision avoidance of two AGVs, the strategy must be one AGV pass through and
the other must stop and wait. It can be understood as the victory of the competition when one gets the
benefit and the loser lost the benefit.
The cost function can be expressed as:
18. 𝐽(𝑥 0 , 𝑢, 𝑑) = |𝑥3 (𝑇)|
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Solving the collision problem would be translated to find out one (𝑢, 𝑑) of the following conditions
19. 𝐽(𝑥 0 , 𝑢, 𝑑) > 𝑐 = |𝑥3 (𝑡)|
The (𝑢, 𝑑) which meeting the conditions can be expressed as the saddle points of the cost function.
Modern control theory has the advantage of being able to accurately model for the describing physical
system. And the advantage of game theory is that it can make rational analysis of the competitive
background of the described phenomenon. When the combination of them, this problem can be solved.
When the collision problem for two-person zero sum game must be solved, one party will benefit and the
other will lose interest. This approach would also undermine the interoperability of systems, so the issue
of collision avoidance is Nash equilibrium. The Nash equilibrium [26] is a concept of game theory where
the optimal outcome of a game is one where no player has an incentive to deviate from his chosen
strategy after considering an opponent's choice. Overall, an individual can receive no incremental benefit
from changing actions, assuming other players remain constant in their strategies. A game may have
multiple Nash Equilibria or none.
4.1.3. Time window method

The time window method is retrieved from Juntao Li et al. [9]
A time window is a collection that constitutes a specific time of the execution of an AGV. The time window
is divided into a reserved time window and a free time window. The reserved time window is the time
interval that the AGV occupies in one of the nodes, a free time window is the time window that can
schedule the other AGV within the reserved time window. Spatial feasibility is the availability of a path
physically between two nodes, time feasibility is that the AGV can leave the node within the beginning of
the next free time. The time window method is mainly detecting whether a collision will occur between
the AGVs by checking the spatial and temporal feasibility.
The next, the analysis of the two conflicts which combined with the time window is shown in the following
illustration. AGV1 moves from node i to node j, AGV2 moves from node j to node i, this kind of conflicts
will be detected by comparing the order of two nodes, when it is anti-sequence, there is a collision
problem.
figure 22: The schematic diagram of opposite conflict situations [9]
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figure 23: The schematic diagram of opposite of conflict time window [9]
As shown in the following illustration (figure 24), in the case of two AGV are in the uniform speed, after
AGV1 arriving at the node j and leaving directly, AGV2 arrives at this time, then there will be no conflict
between the two AGVs. But if AGV1 turns around in the nod, the reserved time window, which AGV1
occupying in this node, will be lengthened. If AGV2 moves uniformly in accordance with the original
planning path, then there will be a collision course between AGV1 and AGV2.
figure 24: The schematic diagram of the catching up of conflict situations [9]
figure 25: The schematic diagram of the catching up of conflict time window [9]
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4.1.4. Dijkstra’s Algorithm

Retrieved from Mark Duinkerken [27], Dijkstra’s algorithm is developed in 1959 by a Dutch computer
scientist Edsger Wybe Dijkstra. His algorithm was first intended to demonstrate the use of computers.
Later this algorithm was also used to find shortest paths between different nodes in a graph. This
algorithm is later extended to many variants. A small explanation of the working of the algorithm is stated
below Start with the origin as solved node
• For the nth iteration:

o from each solved node, find the nearest unsolved node that can be reached
o determine the unsolved node with the shortest distance from origin
o mark the found node as solved; keep record of the added connection
• Stop when new solved node is the destination
An example of the shortest path found by the Dijkstra algorithm is stated below, this example is retrieved
from Wang Shu-Xi [28]:
figure 26: Shortest path calculation according Dijkstra’s algorithm [28]
In the table on the next page is the derivation of the shortest path determined, there are two solutions of
the shortest path in this example.
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table 1: Iteration table shortest path algorithm [28]
Iteration Solved Nodes Connection Length Solved

1 V1 V1>V2 1 V2
2 V1, V2 V1>V4 3
V2>V3 1 V3
3 V1, V2, V3 V2>V5 4
V3>V4 3 V4
V1>V4 3
4 V1, V2, V3, V4 V2>V5 4 V5
V3>V6 5
V3>V7 5
V4>V5 7
5 V1, V2, V3, V4, V5>V6 5 V6
V5 V3>V6 5
V2>V7 5 V7
6 V1, V2, V3, V4, V6>V8 6 V8
V5, V6, V7
V1, V2, V3, V4,
V5, V6, V7, V8
There are two solution paths here, now started from end to start:
𝑉8 > 𝑉6 > 𝑉5 > 𝑉2 > 𝑉1
𝑉8 > 𝑉6 > 𝑉3 > 𝑉2 > 𝑉1
Both paths have a length of six, they are both shortest paths.
Concluded, from start to end:
𝑉1 > 𝑉2 > 𝑉5 > 𝑉6 > 𝑉8
𝑉1 > 𝑉2 > 𝑉3 > 𝑉6 > 𝑉8
2017.TEL.8176 31
Safety control
In addition to the general Dijkstra algorithm, according to Atique Shaikh et al. [29] should the AGVs that
are available, when they get any command, be allocated and should be send to the destination using the
shortest route. If all the AGVs are engaged then depending upon the nearest distance of the AGVs, they
should be called using the shortest path and then the AGV should be allocated the load and it should
reach the destination using the shortest route. It is well known that the selection of a certain route and a
time schedule influence the overall intelligent warehouse system performance. Therefore, one of the main
purposes of AGV routing system is to minimize the time waste in cargo transportation.
Earlier in static routing, all the information such as position, and cargo demand were known, route
calculation does not change which do not consider collision avoidance procedures which affect the system
drastically due to deadlock and traffic jams. So, the algorithm will first check the availability or the nearest
availability of the AGVs for the allotment and then try to find the real time most efficient route for all AGV
based on the several environment data and warehouse priorities information.
The goal is to find an approach for developing an approach for generating a path planning algorithm and
testing the algorithm efficiency in different working conditions to find the shortest path. It will also take
care if any obstacle comes in the path, so it will recalculate a new path and change the path.
Based on the 3D model of the warehouse a 2D map will be generated. From the 2D map, all the features
will be labeled as node and given a number. Each node will have its coordinates in the rectangular
coordinate representing x and y addresses in meters. The AGV control point will calculate the shortest
path in the routing task and send it to the nearest AGV.
figure 27: Representation of a 2D proposed warehouse [29]
The routing task is as follows, this task is based on a 3D model of a warehouse (figure 27):
2017.TEL.8176 32
Safety control
• Check the Load for selecting the numbers of AGV

• If Load > 70kg, select number of AGVs per 70kg
• Check the destination and look for any presence of obstacle in the path then calculate the route
to the destination from the loading point avoiding the obstacle using Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
• Check for the availability of AGVs at loading point and assign the available AGVs
• If no AGV are available at loading point, calculate the shortest distance of all the AGVs to return
to the loading point and assign the load to the nearest AGV
• At the next command. Calculate the shortest distance for the remaining AGV and assign the load
from them
• Repeat the cycle for the next load.
The Task undertaken by AGV is represented by the flowchart as follows:
figure 28: Flowchart representation of the routing task [29]
This is a short overview of the working of AGVs in an operating system according the shortest path
algorithm developed by Dijkstra, in this case a 2D model of a proposed warehouse is used as example
(figure 27).
4.1.5. Collision avoidance using hulls

According to the paper Decentralized Control of Automatic Guided Vehicles by Danny Weyns et al. [30].
2017.TEL.8176 33
Safety control
There are transport and AGV agents, the choice to let each AGV be controlled by an AGV agent is obvious.
Transports have to be handled in negotiation with different AGVs, therefore transport agents are defined.
Both types of agents share a common architectural structure, they have different internal structures that
provide the agents with different capabilities.
• Transport Agent: Each transport in the system is represented by a transport agent. A

transport agent is responsible for assigning the transport to an AGV and reporting the status and
completion of the transport to the client that has requested the transport. Transport agents are
autonomous entities that interact with AGV agents to find suitable AGVs to execute the
transports. Transport agents reside at the Transport Base, i.e. a dedicated computer located in
the warehouse.
• AGV Agent: Each AGV in the system is controlled by an AGV agent. The AGV agent is
responsible for obtaining and handling transports, and ensuring that the AGV gets maintenance
on time. As such, an AGV becomes an autonomous entity that can take advantage of
opportunities that occur in its vicinity and that can enter and leave the system without
interrupting the rest of the system. AGV agents are deployed on their associated AGVs.
AGV agents mark the path they are going to drive in their local virtual environment using hulls. The hull of
an AGV is the physical area the AGV occupies. A series of hulls describe the physical area an AGV occupies
along a certain path. If the area is not marked by other hulls (the AGV’s own hulls do not intersect with
others), the AGV can move along and drive over the reserved path. In case of a conflict, the involved local
virtual environments use the priorities of the transported loads and the vehicles to determine which AGV
can move on. AGV agents monitor the local virtual environment and only instruct the AGV to move on
when they are allowed. Afterwards, the AGV agents re-move the markings in the local virtual
environment.
The next section is an addition to the section above and retrieved from Elena Cardarelli et. al [31].
Since AGVs are constrained to move on fixed paths, they are not allowed to deviate from the roadmap;
therefore, in the presence of unforeseen obstacles it is necessary to find an alternative path on the
roadmap, which is not always possible as, for instance, in the frequent case of mono-directional roads. In
this situation, the AGV is forced to stop, until the obstacle has been removed. This lack of flexibility
strongly impacts on productivity and huge traffic problems can be generated, especially in the presence of
multiple AGVs, see figure 29.
2017.TEL.8176 34
Safety control
figure 29: Multiple stuck automated guided vehicles [31]
Because the ability of the presence of human workers and manually driven forklifts in warehouses where
AGVs are operating, sensors are installed onboard of each AGV, providing a reliable and robust obstacle
detection in the vehicle surrounding area. However, these sensors are not capable of classifying the
detected objects, preventing the possibility of differentiating the motion control of the AGV according to
the type of obstacle in its sensing range. While static obstacles could be easily passed, without having any
negative impact on the overall safety of the system, conversely, if a human is crossing the sensing range
of an AGV, the only safe procedure is to avoid any movement. However, these high-level decision
strategies could not be implemented, because some sensors do not allow to distinguish between humans
and other kind of obstacles. Moreover, since obstacle detection is limited to the neighborhood of each
AGV, global information on the surrounding environment is not available, hence, to avoid collision with
unexpected moving objects in critical zones as, for instance, intersections and blind spots, the AGV is
forced to reduce its speed.
2017.TEL.8176 35
Safety control
figure 30: Advanced perception system [31]
As a motivating example, consider the scenario in figure 30: in the presence of multiple objects, as well as
pedestrians, an AGV is moving on the path of roadmap represented by the orange dashed line. The on-
board perception system allows to identify only a limited portion of the obstacles about the AGV (green
area in the figure top left). Therefore, based only on local sensing, it is possible to compute an obstacle-
free deviation from the roadmap (blue line in the figure top right). However, as represented in the figure
bottom left, exploiting the local sensing capabilities could not be sufficient to guarantee collision
avoidance: following the obtained maneuver, the AGV conflicts with a previously occluded pedestrian, not
directly visible by the on-board perception system during the computation of the local deviation (top left
figure).
The mobility of the AGVs impose highly dynamic operation conditions and inherent distribution of
resources. A typical approach in mainstream software engineering is to support distribution with a suitable
middleware. Mobile applications such as an AGV transportation system are characterized by:
• Their need to consider their physical environment

• Their need to deal with dynamics and unexpected events originating from their context
The development of the application components of the AGV transportation system are simplified. The
middleware encapsulates the tedious management tasks associated with distribution in mobile systems.
2017.TEL.8176 36
Safety control
This significantly reduced the complexity of tackling distributed coordination problems such as collision
avoidance, deadlock detection, and transport assignment in the AGV transportation system.
The middleware abstractions for collision avoidance is explained; when an AGV moves on, a view is
maintained that keeps track of AGVs within a certain distance, i.e. the AGVs in collision range. When an
AGV approaches and enters the collision range, the middleware will include that AGV in the view.
Similarly, when an AGV leaves the collision range, that AGV will be removed from the view. As such, the
application components have an up to date view of the AGVs in collision range that they can use to
coordinate the vehicles avoiding collisions. To avoid collisions AGVs need to execute a mutual exclusion
protocol with the group of all vehicles in collision range. The protocol will determine which AGV can move
first. It is important to note that this group is dynamic, since AGVs may enter and leave the collision range
continuously. The middleware automates the process of discovering the group of AGVs that are in
collision range, and maintaining the group of interacting vehicles as they arrive and leave.
Currently, two of the reserved segments are in the state locked, four other segments are in the state
request. On the other hand, the state viewer at the bottom shows that all the segments reserved by for
example, a certain AGV are in the state locked. As a result, another AGV can move on while the first AGV
at the top must wait. The state viewers show that all the reserved segments of both AGVs are locked and
thus the AGVs can safely move on.
4.1.6. Ultra-wide band technology

The description of general UWB technology is retrieved from Mobil Vox [32].
Ultra-Wideband technology is a wireless technology to transmit large amounts of digital data as

modulated coded impulses over a very wide spectrum of frequency with very low power for a short
distance. Pulsed transmission is an alternative to sinusoidal waves traditionally used in wireless
communications.
There are several definitions of Ultra-Wideband radio:
• Any wireless transmission scheme occupying a bandwidth of more than 1.5 gigahertz (GHz)
• Any signal that occupies more than 500 MHz in the 3.1-10.6 GHz band and that meets the FCC,
Federal Communications Commission, spectrum mask requirements
• Any radar (signal) whose fractional bandwidth is greater than 0.25 regardless of the center
frequency or the signal time-bandwidth product. Fractional bandwidth is the ratio of the
instantaneous bandwidth to the center frequency:
𝐹ℎ −𝐹𝐿
20. 2 ∗ ≥ 0.25
𝐹ℎ +𝐹𝐿
2017.TEL.8176 37
Safety control
𝐹ℎ : ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐹𝐿 : 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
This new technology supports direct transmission of digital information as a baseband signal rather than
modulating the information within a sinusoidal carrier. Typical duration of the pulse lasts from a few tens
of picoseconds to a few nanoseconds. As the bandwidth is inversely proportional to pulse duration, the
spectral extent of these waveforms is very large. Due to low energy density UWB signals cause minimal
interference if operated on spectrum already occupied by existing radio services. However, the level of
interference of UWB signals is still under research.
The UWB technology related to collision avoidance for AGVs is written by Stefania Monica and Gianluigi
Ferrari [33] describes the collision avoidance system with ultra-wide band technology.
Ultra-wide band (UWB) signals are chosen because they represent a leading option for indoor
communications and range estimations. Their significant bandwidth guarantees considerably short
duration pulses that result in an accurate estimation of the time of flight of the signals traveling between
pairs of nodes, rendering the time-based range estimates particularly accurate. An UWB based collision
avoidance system is considered that allows the identification of target nodes (TNs), these target nodes
are shown in figure 31.
figure 31: Grid with target nodes [1]
A key assumption is that the AGVs and TNs cooperate. It is assumed that each AGV and TN within the
warehouse is equipped with a UWB module. The UWB module on each AGV is positioned on the top, front
part of the AGV and is connected to the on-board computer that can then receive all the information
acquired via the UWB channel. This allows the AGV to stop if the UWB communication between the AGV
and a TN reveals that the latter is considerably close. The accuracy of the proposed approach is
investigated considering the positions of several TNs and is aimed at exploiting the reliability of the
2017.TEL.8176 38
Safety control
considered collision avoidance system. A block scheme of the architecture of this collision avoidance
scheme is shown in figure 32.
figure 32: Block diagram of the collision avoidance system architecture [33]
So, the UWB-based collision avoidance system is aimed at increasing the safety inside warehouses. All
AGVs and people moving inside the warehouse are equipped with a UWB module. Range estimates are
used to avoid accidental collisions between the AGVs and the people/manual vehicles. Experimental
results show that the range estimates obtained using the UWB technology are sufficiently accurate for
identifying dangerous situations, namely, those in which the TN is close to the AGV. As a future
development, more modules can be placed on the AGV to not only perform the AGV/TN range estimates
but also to localize the TN.
4.2. Zone-control
In the papers, Design and Control of AGVs [34] and Zone-Control-Based Traffic Control of AGVs [35] is
the working of the zone-control for AGVs described. According to Qin Li et al. in Zone-Control-Based
Traffic Control of AGVs is zone-control important to resolve possible conflicts and accidents between
vehicles in an AGV system:
Traffic control is needed to resolve possible motion conflicts among the vehicles in an AGV system. The
most popular and widely discussed traffic control strategy for AGV systems is called zone-control strategy,
2017.TEL.8176 39
Safety control
in which the guide-path network is composed of a number of zones. This strategy eases the avoidance of
inter-vehicle collisions by demanding that each zone can be occupied by at most one vehicle. The key
traffic control issue is then to keep the vehicles away from deadlocks caused by competing for the traffic
resource: the zones. The relatively large numbers of vehicles and zones in certain applications such as
container terminals defy most existing deadlock avoidance approaches which rely on either algebraic
operations or complex searches. A time-efficient traffic control scheme based on a novel discrete-event
zone-control model is mostly proposed in such systems.
Building blocks of the road network
Lane and zone: A lane is a finite sequence of zones. Vehicles moving on a lane must visit the zones
according to their order in the sequence (so that the lane is unidirectional). cik is used to denote the kth
zone of the lane i. Particularly, the first zone and the last zone of a lane are the starting zone (SZ) and
ending zone (EZ) of the lane, respectively. In practice, physically, a zone is large enough to accommodate
one vehicle.
A depot is a zone that can accommodate all vehicles. It needs to be emphasized that a depot is not a
zone in any lane. Each depot is affiliated with at least one entry lane and one exit lane. Physically, an
entry lane (resp. exit lane) of a depot is a lane that allows a vehicle to move into (resp. out of) the depot.
The set of all zones are denoted by C.
Crossing: A crossing i is affiliated with a set of in-lanes and a set of out-lanes. Each in-lane of a crossing
has at least one out-lane of the crossing as its neighboring lane(s). Vehicles can move from an in-lane of
a crossing on to any of its neighboring lanes by passing the crossing. A zone pair (c1, c2) is called a
crossing–passing zone pair of crossing i if c1 is the EZ of some in-lane, say lane j, of crossing i and c2 is
the SZ of a neighboring lane of lane j. All the crossing–passing zone pairs of crossing i are denoted by Ri.
For each zone pair (c1, c2) ∈ Ri, there is a subset of Ri, denoted by Xi (c1, c2), in which the zone pairs are
called the conflicting crossing–passing zone pairs of (c1, c2) at the crossing i. Physically, if (c3, c4) ∈ Xi
(c1, c2), then a vehicle passing the crossing i by moving from c1 to c2 can collide with another vehicle
passing the same crossing by moving from c3 to c4. In view of this, for any crossing i, it is considered
that (c3, c4) ∈ Xi (c1, c2) if and only if (c1, c2) ∈ Xi (c3, c4). For each crossing i, the set of EZs of all its
in-lanes at-crossing zones of the crossing is called i. A zone c is called an off-crossing zone if it is not an
at-crossing zone of any crossing.
Neighboring zone: The set of the neighboring zones of a depot consists of the SZs of all its exit lanes. The
neighboring zone of a non-EZ zone cik is cik+1. The neighboring zone of the EZ of any entry lane of a depot
is the depot. The neighboring zones of the EZ of an in-lane of a crossing are the SZs of all its neighboring
lanes. Υc is used to denote the set of neighboring zones of zone c.
2017.TEL.8176 40
Safety control
Regarding the layout of the road network, the following assumptions are made:
• 𝑖1
𝑐𝑘1 𝑖2
≠ 𝑐𝑘2 𝑖𝑓 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖1 ≠ 𝑖2 𝑜𝑟 𝑘1 ≠ 𝑘2
• Each lane is either an in-lane of a unique crossing or an entry lane of a unique depot, but cannot
be both.
• Each lane can be either an exit lane of at most one depot or an out-lane of at most one crossing,
but cannot be both the exit lane of a depot and the out-lane of a crossing.
• Each lane has at least two zones if it is not an entry lane or exit lane of a depot.
These assumptions:
• Each lane neither self-intersects nor intersects with any other lane
• Implies that each lane connects to a depot or to another lane via a crossing
• Key to the deadlock avoidance by the traffic control is presented later
• The case does not exclude that some lane is neither an exit lane of any depot nor an out-lane of
any crossing
The assumptions guarantee that each zone has at least one neighboring zone.
Vehicle states
Each vehicle can have two types of states: ‘in c1 (with the next zone c2)’ and ‘moving from c1 to c2 (with
the next zone c2),’ where c1 can be any zone in C and c2 is one of the neighboring zones of c1 (i.e., c2 ∈
Υc1). The state of a vehicle is (c1, c1, c2), while in the latter, it is (c1, c2, c2). (It can be shown that c2 ≠ c1
if c2 ∈ Υc1, so that no confusions arise when using these notations.) A vehicle occupies the zone c1 (resp.
both c1 and c2) if its state is (c1, c1, c2) [resp. (c1, c2, c2)]. A zone is said to be available if it is not
occupied by any vehicle. The set of all possible vehicle states is the union of the two sets:
21. S1 = {(c1, c1, c2) ∈ C3:c2 ∈ Υc1}

22. S2 = {(c1, c2, c2) ∈ C3:c2 ∈ Υc1}.
Each vehicle is given an initial state. As the system runs, the state of each vehicle changes only at the
occurrences of vehicle events. There are two vehicle events: ‘leave’ and ‘arrival,’ denoted in short by LEA
and ARR, respectively. The following simple rules specify the feasible events for any vehicle state s and
the state transitions they lead to
• if s = (c1, c1, c2) ∈ S1, then the only feasible event for s is the LEA, which changes s to be (c1, c2,
c2) ∈ S2;
• if s = (c1, c2, c2) ∈ S2, then the only feasible event for s is the ARR, which changes s to be (c2, c2,
c3) ∈ S1, where c3 can be any zone in Υc2.
2017.TEL.8176 41
Safety control
If (1) the vehicle leaves c1 by the LEA; in (2), the vehicle arrives at c2 by the ARR. The full freedom of
selecting the zone c3 in (2) indicates that there are no constraints on routing vehicles for zone-to-zone
traveling. Furthermore, a route of a vehicle can be either prefixed or established online. For example, a
fixed route c1, c2, ..., cn may be preassigned to a vehicle that is initially in c1; then, to follow the route, the
vehicle should trigger LEA and ARR events in an alternate fashion such that it leaves c1, arrives at c2,
leaves c2, arrives at c3, and so forth. The vehicle, on the other hand, may only know the next zone c2 on
its way when it is in c1; before arriving at c2, the vehicle can pick any zone c3 out of Υc2 to be the next
zone after c2 on its route. In both cases, there is exactly one feasible event for each vehicle at any time.
It must be emphasized that an event is feasible for some vehicle state does not mean that the event is
always allowed. Indeed, the traffic rules that are presented in the following are used to judge if a feasible
event can be permitted without causing traffic problems, i.e., inter-vehicle collisions and deadlocks.
Roughly speaking, the traffic rules say that each vehicle is free to trigger an ARR yet must avoid colliding
with another vehicle as well as ending up within a cycle of vehicles when it intends to trigger a LEA.
Collision avoidance
An important goal of the traffic control is to prevent vehicles from colliding with each other. First, no-
collision cases are defined using the zone modeling language. An AGV system is said to be collision free if
the following two conditions are satisfied. There are two vehicle events: ‘leave’ and ‘arrival,’ denoted in
short by LEA and ARR, respectively:
• (C1) Each non-depot zone is occupied by at most one vehicle.

• (C2) If two vehicles are with the states (c1, c2, c2) and (c3, c4, c4), respectively, then (c1, c2) /∈
Xi(c3, c4) for any crossing i.
The condition C2 reflects our motivation for defining the notion of conflicting crossing–passing zone pairs.
The following traffic rules are sufficient to guarantee that an AGV system is collision free if the two
conditions C1 and C2 are satisfied initially:
• Rule 1: For each depot, at most one vehicle can trigger an at-depot LEA at the depot at any time.
• Rule 2: For any crossing, there is at most one vehicle that can trigger a LEA to pass the crossing
at any time.
• Rule 3: If the vehicle has the state (c1, c1, c2), with c1 an off-crossing zone, then the LEA, which
changes the state of the vehicle to (c1, c2, c2), can be triggered if c2 is available.
• Rule 4: If the vehicle has the state (c1, c1, c2), with c1 an at-crossing zone of the crossing i, then
the LEA, which changes the state of the vehicle to (c1, c2, c2), can be triggered if (1) c2 is
available and (2) there is no vehicle with the state (c 3, c4, c4), where (c3, c4) ∈ Xi(c1, c2).
2017.TEL.8176 42
Safety control
Rules 1 and 2 are imposed to exclude two vehicles occupying the same starting zone of some exit lane of
a depot or some out-lane of a crossing. These two rules can be realized by requiring any vehicle to hold
exclusively a unique local crossing (resp. depot) token whenever triggering an at-crossing (resp. at depot)
LEA at the crossing (resp. depot) and to release that token after the triggering was successful or was
prohibited by the traffic rules. Rule 3 and the first part of Rule 4 say that a vehicle cannot move to its
next zone if the zone is occupied. The second part of Rule 4 prevents the triggering of an at-crossing LEA
that leads to conflicting passing’s of the crossing.
4.3. Combination control

Combination control can also be used as control for a system with operating AGVs. Combination control is
collision avoidance control (section 4.1) and zone-control (section 4.2) combined. Zone control is used for
normal operation and the collision avoidance control is used to avoid collisions in the system. When both
controls are combined, the system is still avoiding collisions if one of the two controls is not working.
2017.TEL.8176 43
Safety standards
5. Safety standards
A lot of different standards are used for the operation with different AGVs, the most used standards are
mentioned and explained below. For most standards is a short explanation given in de Appendix, some
other standards are not available that is why no explanation is given.
5.1. Laws and Regulations

Directly related to AGV:
Retrieved from EK Automation (Automation, 2017):
• BGV D 27: Accident prevention guideline for ‘work vehicles’
Indirectly related to AGV
• ArbSchG: Work Protection Act concerning conducting measures for work protection to improve
safety and health protection of employees at work
• GPSG: Equipment and Product Safety Act on technical equipment and consumer products
• 9.GPSGV: Ninth ordinance for device and product safety (Machine ordinance)
• BetrSichV: Plant Safety Ordinance on safety and health protection in the provision of working
equipment and its use while working, safety in operating equipment requiring monitoring and on
organizing plant safety
5.2. Standards
The standards used for AGVs are retrieved from EK Automation [36], some general information about the
standards is retrieved from NEN Connect [37]:
• DIN EN 1525: Safety of working vehicles, AGVs and their systems

• DIN EN ISO 3691: Working vehicles – requirements for safety equipment and verification
• DIN EN 1175-1: Work vehicles safety, electrical requirements
• ANSI B56.5: Safety Standard for Driverless, Automatic Guided Industrial Vehicles and Automated
Functions of Manned Industrial Vehicles
2017.TEL.8176 44
Safety standards
Indirectly related to AGV:
• DIN EN 954-1: Machine safety, safety-related guidance components

• DIN EN ISO 13849: Machine safety, safety-related guidance components
5.3. Guidelines
Retrieved from EK Automation [36]:
• VDI 2510: Automated guided vehicle systems (AGVS) – Technical implementation guidelines
• VDI 2710: Overall planning of automated guided vehicle systems (AGVS)
Indirectly related to AGV:
Retrieved from EK Automation [36]:
• 2006/42/EC: New Machinery Directive since 29/12/2009 replacing Machinery Directive 98/37/EC
• 2004/108/EC: EMC Directive / EMC law on electromagnetic compatibility
2017.TEL.8176 45
Conclusion
6. Conclusion
There are different kinds of AGVs, that are used for different applications. In a system with operating
AGVs, accidents will occur. There is made a distinction between the different kind of safety accidents that
can occur. Three different kinds of safety accidents:
• Safety accidents in a dynamic environment, the quantity of AGV is greater than one, there are
some conflicts between AGV and the others and the conflicts which between AGV and the static
obstacles.
• Safety accidents in a static environment and the quantity of AGV is one, the conflict which needs
to be resolved is the collision between AGV and static obstacles
• Safety accidents between an AGV or multiple AGVs with human being
Most accidents occur in a dynamic environment, sometimes in combination with the presence of human
beings.
To reduce the probability of safety accidents and to maintain a safe operation area, AGVs are equipped
with safety systems. The safety systems of AGVs can be divided in two:
• Safety components
Different components, mostly non-contact sensors, are used for AGVs. Ultrasonic and laser sensors are
the most used non-contact sensors for AGVs. In some cases, the AGVs are equipped with surface
pressure sensors or time-of-flight cameras. Besides the non-contact sensors are AGVs equipped with
bumper sensors in most cases and an emergency stop button. The bumper sensors will immediately stop
the AGV when activated. An emergency button has the same function, but must be activated by human
control, an emergency button is required by safety standards.
• Safety control
For safety control are different methods proposed in literature, the safety control is divided in three
categories; collision avoidance control, zone-control and combination control.
For collision avoidance control are different methods proposed with the corresponding advantages and
disadvantages. The most known collision avoidance controls are the Petri net method, Dijkstra’s
algorithm, time window method and the ultra-wide band technology.
The most popular and widely discussed traffic control strategy for AGV systems is called zone-control
strategy, the guide-path network exists of a number of zones. This strategy eases the avoidance of inter-
collisions by the requirement that each zone can be occupied by at most one vehicle. The key traffic
2017.TEL.8176 46
Conclusion
control issue is then to keep the vehicles away from deadlocks caused by competing for the traffic
resource.
Combination control can also be used as control for a system with operating AGVs. It is collision
avoidance control and zone-control combined. When both controls are combined, the system is still
avoiding collisions if one of the two controls is not working.
As last are different safety standards required in operation areas with AGVs. Different laws and
regulations, standards and guidelines are consulted for such systems.
2017.TEL.8176 47
References
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2017.TEL.8176 51
Appendix A: DIN EN1525
Appendix A: DIN EN1525

1.1 This European Standard applies to all trucks and their systems except:
a) trucks solely guided by mechanical means (rails, guides, etc);

b) trucks operating in areas open to persons unaware of the hazards.
1.2 For the purposes of this European Standard, a driverless industrial truck is a powered vehicle,
including any trailers, designed to travel automatically in which the safety of operation does not depend
on an operator. Remote controlled trucks are not considered driverless trucks.
1.3 For the purposes of this European Standard, a system comprises the control system, which may be
part of the truck and/or separate from it, the guidance means and the battery charging system.
1.4 This European Standard deals with the technical requirements to minimize the hazards listed in clause
4 which can arise during the commissioning, operation and maintenance of trucks in accordance with the
specifications given by the manufacturer or his authorized representative. In addition, trucks should
comply as appropriate with EN 292 for hazards not covered by this standard or the applicable companion
standards.
1.5 This European Standard covers specific hazards related to the automated functions of trucks and their
systems listed in clause 4. This standard must be used in conjunction with one or more of the applicable
companion standards listed in the Foreword.
1.6 The provision of a portable control unit does not classify the truck as a pedestrian controlled truck.
1.7 The environment of trucks can have a significant effect on their safe operation. Annex A establishes
requirements for the preparation of the environment to eliminate the associated hazards. For the person
responsible for the integration of the trucks into the workplace, Annex A is normative.
1.8 This European Standard does not establish the following additional requirements for:
a) operation in severe conditions (e.g. extreme climates, freezer applications, strong magnetic
fields);
b) operation in environments subject to special rules (e.g. potentially explosive atmospheres);
c) electromagnetic compatibility;
d) transportation of passengers;
e) handling of loads the nature of which could lead to dangerous situations (e.g. molten metals,
acids/bases, radiating materials);
f) parts of trucks requiring manual intervention during operation.
2017.TEL.8176 52
Appendix B: DIN EN ISO 3691

1.1 This International Standard applies to pedestrian propelled
• stacking straddle, pallet and platform stacking industrial trucks with capacities not exceeding 1
000 kg with manual and electrical battery powered lifting;
• low lift pallet trucks with lift height up to 300 mm and rated capacity up to 2,300 kg;
• platform trucks fitted with a non-lifting load-carrying platform;
• scissors lift pallet trucks with lift heights up to 1 000 mm and rated capacity up to 1 000 kg with
manual or electrical battery powered lifting.
Hereinafter referred to as ‘trucks’ equipped with load handling devices for normal industrial duties e.g.
fork arms and platforms, or integrated attachments for special applications.
On board battery chargers are part of the truck.
This standard applies to trucks provided with either manual or electrical battery powered lifting operating
on smooth, level, hard surfaces.
1.2 Clarifications
1.2.1 This standard covers the technical requirements to minimize the hazards listed in Clause 4 which
could occur during commissioning, operation and maintenance of trucks when carried out in accordance
with the specifications as intended by the manufacturer.
1.2.2 Attachments mounted on the load carrier or on the fork arms which are removable by the user are
not considered to be part of the industrial truck.
1.3 This standard does not establish the additional requirements for:
• operation in severe conditions (e.g. extreme environmental conditions such as: freezer
applications, high temperatures, corrosive environment, strong magnetic fields);
• electromagnetic compatibility (emission - immunity);
• handling of loads the nature of which could lead to dangerous situations (e.g. molten metal,
acids/alkalis, radiating materials, especially brittle loads);
• during construction, transportation, decommissioning and disposal;
• when using to handle suspended loads which may swing freely;
• when using on public roads;
• wind pressure in and out of use;
• direct contact with foodstuffs;
2017.TEL.8176 53
• operation on gradients or on surfaces other than smooth, level, hard surfaces;

• lifting systems using belts;
• lifting of persons;
• trucks with overturning moment greater than 40 000 N m;
• platform trucks fitted with hinged or sliding doors;
• scissor lift trucks whose lifting is powered by external means (means electricity, pneumatic);
• roll containers;
• trucks that are intended to be towed by powered vehicles;
• trucks with powered lifting (hand pallet trucks only);
• trucks designed for special applications (e.g. trucks used in hospitals, dinner, trolley);
• winch operated trucks;
• mobile lifting tables.
1.4 Hazards relevant to noise, vibration, visibility and static electricity are not dealt with in this standard.
2017.TEL.8176 54
Appendix C: DIN EN 1175-1
Appendix C: DIN EN 1175-1

1.1 This standard specifies electrical and related mechanical safety requirements for design and
construction of the electrical installation in battery powered industrial trucks hereinafter referred to as
trucks, with nominal voltages of the truck system up to 240 V. The Annex A is normative and gives
requirements for ‘Connectors for traction batteries’. Annex В is normative and contains ‘Electric motors -
Output and test rules’ and Annex С is normative and contains ‘Electromagnetic contactors’.
• NOTE 1: Reference is made to this standard in other standards which cover the non-electrical
requirements of the various industrial truck types.
• NOTE 2: This standard does not address the subject of charging of traction batteries (CENELEC
TC 21X is preparing safety standards for battery charging).
• NOTE 3: This standard does not address the subject of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC).
• NOTE 4: The special requirements for operation in potentially explosive atmospheres are not
covered in this standard.
1.2 The requirements of this standard are applicable, when trucks are operated under the following
climatic conditions:
• Average ambient temperature for continuous duty: +25°C;

• Maximum ambient temperature, short term (up to 1 h): +40°C;
• Lowest ambient temperature for trucks intended for use in normal indoor conditions: +5 °C;
• Lowest ambient temperature for trucks intended for use in normal outdoor conditions: -20 °C;
• Altitude: up to 2000 m;
• Relative humidity: in the range 30 % to 95 % (non-condensing).
1.3 This standard covers specific hazards (listed in clause 4), which could occur during the intended use
of trucks. For hazards occurring during construction, transportation, commissioning, decommissioning and
disposal, reference should be made to EN 292:1991.
Retrieved from The Industrial Truck Standards Development Foundation (ITSDF) [38]
2017.TEL.8176 55
Appendix D: ANSI B56.5
Appendix D: ANSI B56.5

This Standard defines the safety requirements relating to the elements of design, operation, and
maintenance of powered, not mechanically restrained, unmanned automatic guided industrial vehicles and
the system of which the vehicles are a part. It also applies to vehicles originally designed to operate
exclusively in a manned mode, but which are subsequently modified to operate in an unmanned,
automatic mode, or in a semiautomatic, manual, or maintenance mode.
2017.TEL.8176 56

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Delft University of Technology FACULTY MECHANICAL, MARITIME

AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Specialization: Transport Engineering and Logistics

Report number: 2017.TEL.8176

Title: Safety Protection for automated guided

Author: Jesse Kwakkenbos

Assignment: Literature Assignment (ME54010)

Supervisor: dr.ir. Y. Pang

Date: November 29, 2017

Student: Jesse Kwakkenbos Assignment type: Literature

Subject: Safety Protection for automated guided vehicles

• Petri Net Method

Figures & Tables ................................................................................................................................ iii

2. Automated guided vehicles ............................................................................................................ 2

2.1. Working of automated guided vehicle .................................................................................... 2

2.2. Different applications automated guided vehicles .................................................................... 3

2.2.1. Transshipment .............................................................................................................. 3

2.2.3. Transport ...................................................................................................................... 4

2.2.4. Production .................................................................................................................... 5

2.3. Different safety accidents ...................................................................................................... 6

2.3.1. Collision between automated guided vehicles .................................................................. 6

2.3.2. Collision between automated guided vehicles and static object......................................... 8

3. Safety components ..................................................................................................................... 11

3.1. Non-contact distance sensors .............................................................................................. 11

3.1.1. Ultrasonic sensors ....................................................................................................... 11

3.1.2. Surface pressure sensors ............................................................................................. 12

3.1.4. Time-of-Flight cameras ................................................................................................ 17

3.2. Bumper sensors .................................................................................................................. 21

3.2.1. Safety bumpers ........................................................................................................... 21

3.2.2. Safety edges sensors ................................................................................................... 22

3.3. Emergency stop button ....................................................................................................... 23

4.1. Collision avoidance control .................................................................................................. 24

4.1.1. Petri net method ......................................................................................................... 24

4.1.2. Game theory combined with modern control theory....................................................... 26

4.1.3. Time window method .................................................................................................. 28

4.1.4. Dijkstra’s Algorithm ..................................................................................................... 30

4.1.5. Collision avoidance using hulls ..................................................................................... 33

4.1.6. Ultra-wide band technology ......................................................................................... 37

4.2. Zone-control ....................................................................................................................... 39

4.3. Combination control ............................................................................................................ 43

5. Safety standards ......................................................................................................................... 44

5.1. Laws and Regulations ......................................................................................................... 44

5.2. Standards .......................................................................................................................... 44

5.3. Guidelines .......................................................................................................................... 45

Appendix A: DIN EN1525 ................................................................................................................... 52

Appendix B: DIN EN ISO 3691 ........................................................................................................... 53

Appendix C: DIN EN 1175-1 ............................................................................................................... 55

Appendix D: ANSI B56.5 .................................................................................................................... 56

2. Automated guided vehicles

2.1. Working of automated guided vehicle

• Centralized (AGV receives position information)

2.2. Different applications automated guided vehicles

figure 1: Automated guided vehicle [3]

the distribution of goods [1].

figure 2: WEpod Wageningen [6]

figure 3: Automated guided vehicle in production area [8]

2.3. Different safety accidents

2.3.1. Collision between automated guided vehicles

• Including the intersection of the conflict

The intersection of conflict

figure 4: The schematic diagram of the intersection of conflict situations [9]

The catching up of conflict

figure 5: The schematic diagram of the catching up of conflict situations [9]