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Membrane technologies for water treatment
and agroindustrial sectors
Aldo Bottino, Gustavo Capannelli*, Antonio Comite, Fiorenza Ferrari,
Raffaella Firpo, Silvia Venzano
Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università degli Studi di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 31, 16146 Genova, Italy
Received 30 May 2008; accepted after revision 10 June 2008
Available online 31 December 2008
Abstract
Although water is essential for human survival and progress, it is distributed very unevenly and with a different purity over the
surface of the earth. A variety of contaminants can be present in raw water, depending on its origin. The size of these contaminants
ranges from the micrometer (e.g. bacteria) to the tenths of a nanometer order (ions). Membrane processes like microfiltration,
ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis could be a solution for an advanced physical treatment of water for drinking
purposes as well as for agroindustrial sectors. Many applications are well assessed and are expanding very quickly; however, to
obtain an ever-growing performance, it is necessary to prepare membranes with tailored structure and transport properties.
Characterisation methods play also a role of paramount importance for the selection of the more appropriate membrane for the
above-mentioned applications. In this work the main membrane preparation techniques and characterisation methods will be
reviewed and discussed. To cite this article: A. Bottino et al., C. R. Chimie 12 (2009).
Ó 2008 Académie des sciences. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Résumé
Bien que l’eau soit essentielle pour la vie et le progrès humain, elle n’est pas distribuée d’une façon homogène ; en outre,
elle est présente sur la surface de la planète à des niveaux différents de pureté. Une variété de substances contaminantes peut
être présente dans l’eau avant de la traiter, en fonction de ses origines. Les dimensions des particules contaminantes peuvent
être comprises entre le micromètre (comme les bactéries) et l’ordre du dixième de nanomètre (ions). Les systèmes mem-
branaires, comme la microfiltration, l’ultrafiltration et l’osmose inverse, peuvent représenter des solutions à appliquer dans le
traitement physique avancé des eaux, pour la potabilisation aussi bien que pour son utilisation dans les secteurs agricole et
industriel. Beaucoup d’applications sont déjà utilisées et leur diffusion est très rapide ; pourtant, afin d’obtenir une perfor-
mance toujours meilleure, il est indispensable de préparer des membranes ayant une structure et une capacité de transport
adaptées aux différents usages. Les techniques de caractérisation ont un rôle remarquable dans le processus de sélection de la
membrane la plus adapte pour une certaine application. Les techniques et les méthodes de préparation et caractérisation des
membranes seront illustrées et approfondies par cette étude. Pour citer cet article : A. Bottino et al., C. R. Chimie 12 (2009).
Ó 2008 Académie des sciences. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: capannel@unige.it (G. Capannelli).
1631-0748/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Académie des sciences. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.crci.2008.06.021
A. Bottino et al. / C. R. Chimie 12 (2009) 882e888 883
Table 2
Membrane used in membrane processes for water treatments.
Membrane process Application Membrane type Material
Microfiltration Sterilisation Porous-symmetrical or asymmetrical Ceramic
Removal of suspended solids and colloids Polymeric
Metallic
Ultrafiltration Removal of viruses and macromolecules Porous-symmetrical or asymmetrical Polymeric
Ceramic
Nanofiltration Removal of organic compounds and some dissolved salts Dense or nanoporous asymmetrical Polymeric
Reverse osmosis Removal of salts Dense composite or skinned Polymeric
On the other hand, each new potential application of all the membrane processes while ceramic and metallic
membrane processes requires an individual study of membranes are mainly limited to MF and UF.
the suitable membrane material (chemical stability in Membranes can be prepared with different geometries.
aggressive environments such as chlorine containing Table 3 compares different membrane geometries.
water, antifouling properties) and of the operating Ceramic membranes are mainly used in a tubular
conditions (control of fouling phenomena and scaling). multichannel configuration.
Fouling can be due to metal oxides, organic or inor-
ganic colloids, bacteria or other microorganisms, while 3. Membrane preparation methods
scaling is due to the presence of high levels of calcium
sulphate, carbonate or fluoride or of silica or magne- There are several techniques and materials available
sium hydroxide. to prepare membranes [7,8]. Table 4 reports some of
The research effort on membrane preparation is now the materials that are currently used in industrial
focused on solving these problems and the challenges membrane manufacturing, along with the type of
of academic and industrial research are the synthesis of membrane that can be prepared. Obviously the type of
membranes with high chemical stability for wastewater membrane prepared depends on the type of synthesis
recovery, the development of membranes and modules and in some cases on the operating conditions adopted.
with antifouling properties, the preparation of large The attention of both membrane producers and
membrane surfaces with homogeneous characteristics researchers is focused on the study of both traditional
and minimising energy consumption during applica- and novel materials, on the preparation of antifouling
tions by an appropriate study of the membrane module membranes and on developing methods to produce large
and equipment. In order to improve the performance of membrane surfaces with homogeneous characteristics
the membrane process in the production of drinking (scale up from the laboratory membrane to the module).
water a suitable choice of the membrane material and For the preparation of a membrane with antifouling
structure, the module configuration, pre-treatments and properties the recent research trend is moving in two
the operational modes to recover the initial membrane directions: (a) starting from materials with antifouling
performance are essential. properties; and (b) providing antifouling properties
through chemical treatments of the membrane after
2. Survey of membranes for water treatment synthesis or after module realisation. Some of the
preparation techniques will be briefly discussed.
Membrane preparation methods are widely dis-
cussed in the literature and although there is a high 3.1. Sintering
number of membrane retailers, industrial membrane
preparation is handled by a limited number of indus- This technique is mainly used to prepare UF and
tries. Organic polymer membranes are widely used for MF ceramic or metallic membranes. Particles of the
Table 3
Comparison of the different membrane configurations.
Membrane geometry Suspended solids tolerance Control of fouling Cleaning easiness Packing density Cost for unit of volume
Tubular Good Excellent Excellent Lowemedium Mediumehigh
Spiral-wound Low Limited Medium High Low
Hollow fibre (external feed) Scant (good) Scant (good) Scant (good) Excellent High (low)
Flat Medium Good Medium Medium Mediumelow
A. Bottino et al. / C. R. Chimie 12 (2009) 882e888 885
3.6. Membrane surface modifications are not yet standardised and harmonised [3]. There are
different moments in which the characterisation tech-
Surface modification techniques are frequently used niques are applied. A researcher uses the greatest
to give the polymeric membrane surface some desired number of characterisation techniques after membrane
properties, such as a given degree of hydrophylicity, synthesis to find the preparative conditions that lead to
which improves the fouling resistance of the a membrane with the best performance. Manufacturers
membrane. There are several surface modification use some techniques to test membrane integrity and the
methods (chemical oxidation, plasma treatment, poly- module (seals and leaks). End-users monitor membrane
mer grafting, etc.). performance using some techniques before and during
the membrane application. Further characterisations can
3.7. Solegel and slipcasting be carried out on the membrane at the end of its life to
investigate the cause of its degradation (chemical,
These techniques are used for the preparation of physical) or loss of performance (fouling, pore
asymmetrical UF ceramic membranes (or NF ones, at plugging).
experimental production level) through the deposition Characterisation techniques can be classified into
of a mesoporous film on the surface of a macroporous static and dynamic techniques. Dynamic techniques
ceramic support [9]. The solegel technique is based on are of fundamental importance to investigate
inorganic polymerisation reaction where hydrolysis membrane performance. Static methods mainly give
and condensation of a precursor lead to a macromo- information on the membrane morphology and struc-
lecular network that is first dried and then fired or ture. Some characterisation techniques involve
sintered to form the membrane. The precursor is membrane destruction. Non-destructive techniques are
usually an alkoxide or a metal salt. The film deposition more suitable to monitor the membrane performance
on the macroporous support can be also made, starting also during its use.
from a slurry of oxide particles.
4.1. Flux
4. Membrane characterisation
Flux measurements represent a fundamental step in
Table 5 resumes the main techniques used for membrane characterisation. The fluid is generally pure
membrane characterisation along with the measured water or a dilute solution containing a model species
characteristics and the kind of information (morphology (solute, macromolecule, particle, etc., see retention
or performance related parameter) supplied. Some of below) and the results depend on the operating
these techniques are well assessed while other methods conditions (pressure, temperature, velocity at the
Table 5
Membrane characterisation techniques.
Method Characteristic Typology Morphology Performance
Gas adsorption/desorption Pore size distribution Static
Non-destructive
Electron microscopy Top layer thickness Static
Surface porosity Destructive
Pore size distribution
Qualitative structure analysis
Flux measurements Hydraulic pore radius Dynamic
Pure water flux Non-destructive
Retention and selective permeation Retention Dynamic
Cut-off value Non-destructive
Bubble pressure method and liquid displacement method Pore size distribution Dynamic
Non-destructive
Permporometry Pore size distribution Dynamic
Non-destructive
Burst pressure Maximum pressure Destructive
Membrane compaction
Contact angle Hydrofilicity or hydrofobicity Static
Non-destructive
A. Bottino et al. / C. R. Chimie 12 (2009) 882e888 887
membrane surface) that must consequently be well necessary to observe the first gas bubble. The most
defined. The flux method is applicable to both organic important factor is the surface tension of the liquid
and inorganic membranes, for any basic geometry (flat which fills the membrane. The greater the surface
or tubular) and module configuration (spiral-wound, tension for a given pore size is, the lower the pressure
multichannel, hollow fibre). needed. With the airewater pair the method is
Flux measurements are also useful for supplying an substantially limited to the characterisation of MF
appraisal of the fouling tendency of the membrane (by membranes. Bubble pressure is used by manufacturers
comparing the fluxes before and after a given appli- to obtain information on membrane integrity, and by
cation) as well as proper information on the effec- end-users who want know about the membrane status
tiveness of a given detergent to remove foulants from when it is new, or after storage or use. By further
the membrane surface (by comparing the fluxes before increasing the gas pressure, pores of progressively
and after membrane cleaning). lower sizes are emptied and the gas flow passing
through the membrane is measured for any given
4.2. Retention and molecular weight cut-off pressure increase, allowing for the pore size distribu-
tion of MF membrane to be calculated. Liquideliquid
Retention measurements exploit the membrane displacement porosimetry seems to be a more suitable
separation properties for ions, solutes, macromolecules method for characterising UF membranes since pore
or suspended solids present in the feed. The retention size distribution can be evaluated without the need of
method (like the flux technique) is applicable to any high pressures, as the interfacial tension between two
type of membrane. Different model solutions are used immiscible liquids are lower that the interfacial tension
depending on the type of membrane process consid- between the gas and the liquid. The comparison
ered. For RO and NF very low molecular weight between pore size distribution of the membrane before
solutes (generally NaCl, MgSO4, glucose and sucrose) and after a given application supplies important
are used. A very good RO membrane would have information of the fouling tendency.
a NaCl rejection greater than 99.7%. Model solutions
of electrolytes are sometimes used at different pH to 4.4. Pressure based test
characterise NF membranes. Molecular Weight Cut-
Off (MWCO, corresponding to the molecular weight of Pressure Decay Test (PDT) consists of putting the
the macromolecule with a 90% retention) is membrane at a pressure below the bubble pressure
a commonly used parameter to characterise UF (pref- (usually at 80% of the bubble pressure) and monitoring
erably using macromolecules of different molecular the pressure decay against the time. If the pressure
weight alone, rather than in a mixture). Microorgan- decay is faster than the decay trend registered after the
isms (e.g. Pseudomonas diminuta) or latex particles of membrane module installation then some membranes
a known size can be normally used for MF membrane in the module do not work correctly and are probably
characterisation. damaged. This test is widely used for testing MF and
UF membrane integrity.
4.3. Bubble point and porosimetry (gaseliquid and Monitoring of the trans-membrane pressure (other
liquideliquid displacement methods) than the permeate flux) during a given application can
give information on the progressive fouling or eventual
These methods are all based on the intrusion of deterioration of the membrane.
a liquid inside or through the membrane pores and the
interpretation is based on the YoungeLaplace equa- 4.5. Electron and atomic force microscopy
tion. They are of great importance because the results
of these techniques are directly linked to membrane Electron Microscopy (EM) is a powerful tool to
performance since they give information on the open characterise membrane. Scanning Electron Microscopy
or passing pores. (SEM) gives important information on the overall
Bubble point measurements are used to determine membrane structure. Transmission Electron Micros-
the largest membrane pore (maximum pore size). The copy (TEM) has a greater resolution than SEM and is
membrane pores are filled with a liquid which also consequently more useful to investigate the skin
covers the membrane surface and the pressure of a gas selective layer of the asymmetric membrane, but the
on the opposite side of the membrane is then increased. sample preparation is more difficult and delicate than
The bubble pressure corresponds to the gas pressure for SEM observations. Both the instruments can be
888 A. Bottino et al. / C. R. Chimie 12 (2009) 882e888
equipped with an EDS probe for a semi-quantitative Many characterisation techniques are used for
elemental analysis and a Back Scattering detector for controlling membrane performance during its use in
the compositional and topographic information. order to test membrane integrity in real time.
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) gives a topo-
graphical map of the membrane surface. The basic References
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