Types of measures/scales to assess different aspects of human behavior:

 In psychology, various types of measures are used to assess and to quantify different
aspects of human behavior, cognition, and emotions.

Common types are following:

 Psychological Tests
 Surveys and questionnaires
 Observational Measures
 Neurophysiological Measures
 Psychophysiological Measures
 Interviews
 Projective Tests
 Sociometric Measures
 Case Studies

 Psychological Tests:
This test is designed to measure specific psychological traits, abilities, or characteristics.

Examples:
 Intelligence tests
 Personality assessments
 Clinical assessments
Surveys and Questionnaires:
These are self-report measures in which individuals answer a series of questions about their
thoughts, feelings, behaviors or attitudes.
Example: This is used in research to collect subjective data.

 Observational Measures:
Observation measures are methods used to collect and record data about specific
behaviors,events,or phenomena. The collected information can then be analyzed to draw
conclusions or make assessments.
Example: Behavior observation in classroom.

 Neurophysiological Measures:
These involve the recording of physiological activity in the nervous system. This include
following techniques.
Examples: EEG(electroencephalography)
PET scans( positron emission tomography) to study brain activity.

 Psychophysiological Measures:
These assess the physiological responses associated with psychological processes. This include
following measures.
Examples:
 Heart rate
  Muscle tension which can be indicative of emotional arousal and stress.

 Interviews:
In addition to questionnaires psychologists may use interviews to gather information. These can
be structured and unstructured.

 Projective tests:
These assessments involve presenting ambiguous stimuli (such as pictures or words) and asking
individuals to respond, revealing underlying thoughts, emotions or conflicts.

 Sociometric Measures:
These are used to measure social relationship and interactions with in a group. These can help
assess popularity, friendship networks, and social dynamics.

 Case Studies:
Case studies involve in-depth examination of one or a few individuals, often over an extended
period. They provide detailed qualitative information about specific cases.
Responses in statistics:
 In statistics responses are the variables in which researchers are interested in studying or
analyzing. These are dependent variables that you want to explain ,predict or study in
research.
 Example:If you want to analyze the result of test that how the amount of sleep affect the
test score(response).
 In this sleep is independent variable and test score is dependent variable. From this you
can find the hours of sleep and test scores to analyze the results.

Types of responses
1-Open-ended Responses:
 In these responses, the respondent provide the unrestricted and text based answers.
• The open ended responses are not given in ‘yes’ and ‘no’ responses Or statistic response. They
are phrased as a longer statement.
• The open ended responses allows the respondent to develop their ideas without Limiting
response or controlling responses. It required more than one word answer.

2-Close-ended Responses:
 The closed ended responses allows the respondents to give predefined Options that are
often in the form of multiple choice questions.
• These have fixed options like yes or no .
• Example : you want to buy a car?
• Yes
• No
 descriptions of the response types for each type of measure or scale in statistics.

 1. Nominal Scale:
 Response Type: Nominal scales represent categories or labels with no inherent order or
ranking. They are used for data that can be divided into distinct groups, but these groups
don't have a natural order.
 Examples: Gender (Male, Female, Other)▸ Eye color (Blue, Brown, Green)City names
(New York, Los Angeles, Chicago)
 SPSS Coding: In SPSS, you assign numerical codes to each category for data entry or
analysis. These codes have no mathematical meaning other than distinguishing between
categories (e.g., 1 for Male, 2 for Female).
  2. Ordinal Scale:
 Response Type: Ordinal scales represent data with ordered categories where the order
has meaning, but the intervals between categories are not necessarily equal. In other
words, you can rank the categories, but you can't say how much better one is than the
other.
 Examples: Likert scale responses (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral,4=
strongly Agree,5= Agree)
 SPSS Coding: You use numerical values that maintain the rank order, but you shouldn't
assume equal intervals between values. For example, you might code 1 for Low, 2 for
Medium, and 3 for High.
 3. Interval Scale:
 Response Type: Interval scales represent data with ordered categories where the intervals
between categories are equal, but there is no true zero point. This means you can measure
the difference between values, but you can't say that one value is "twice" another.
 Examples:▸ Temperature in Celsius (0°C doesn't represent the absence of temperature)▸
IQ scores (100 is not twice as intelligent as 50)
 SPSS Coding: You can directly use the numerical values in SPSS without any
transformation.
 4. Ratio Scale:
 Response Type: Ratio scales are similar to interval scales but have a true zero point,
meaning that zero indicates the absence of the attribute being measured. You can perform
all mathematical operations on ratio scale data.
 Examples: Height (0 cm means no height)► Weight (0 kg means no weight)Income (0
income means no income)
 SPSS Coding: Like interval scales, you can directly use the numerical values in SPSS
without any transformation.
 Understanding the response type is crucial for selecting the appropriate statistical analysis
methods and correctly interpreting the results in SPSS or any statistical software.
3-Likert Scale:
 It is commonly a closed ended response with a variety of options for example : strongly
agree to strongly disagree.
• A likert scale is a psychometric tool for measuring attitudes and options. It consist of series of
questions Or statements in which respondents are asked to give their response according to the
scale.
• From the scoring of scale their level of agreement and disagreement could be found.
• It is usually used to find the People attitude and perception on specific topic by surveys and
research.
Format:
 In statistics and SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), a format refers to the
way data values are displayed or represented. It defines how numerical values, dates, and
categorical variables are shown in the output or screen.
 In statistics, data presentation formats are crucial for conveying information accurately
and effectively.
 Here are some common formats used in statistical analysis and reporting:
1. Descriptive Statistics:
• Measures of Central Tendency: Includes mean (average), median (middle value), and
mode (most frequently occurring value).
• Measures of Dispersion: Includes range(difference between the maximum and minimum
values), variance, and standard deviation (measure of data spread around the mean).

Form name gender siblings age

no
 Valid 200 200 200 200 200

Missing 0 0 0 0 0

Mean 100.50 1.81 4.21 20.85

Median 100.50 2.00 4.00 21.00

Mode 134 2 4 20

Std. Deviation 57.876 .393 1.508 2.323

Range 199 1 9 26

Minimum 1 1 1 17

Maximum 200 2 10 43

Form name gender siblings age

no

Valid 200 200 200 200 200

Missing 0 0 0 0 0
Mean 100.50 1.81 4.21 20.85

Median 100.50 2.00 4.00 21.00

Mode 134 2 4 20

Std. Deviation 57.876 .393 1.508 2.323

Range 199 1 9 26

Minimum 1 1 1 17

Maximum 200 2 10 43

2- Tabular Format:
 Frequency Tables: to describe single categorical variable/data we use frequency table.
 Steps for SPSS:
1- Go to “Analyze”> Descriptive Statistics. 2- Then click on “frequencies”> put variables. 3-
Then click OK.
 Contingency Tables: Also called cross-tabulation. To describe relationship between two
categorical variables, we use contingency table.

Cross Tabulation in SPSS:

1-Go to “analyze” ”> Descriptive Statistics. 2- Then click on “Cross-tabs”> put variables you
want to compare in row and column.. 3- Then click OK.
3- Graphical Format:
• Histograms: Graphical representation of frequency distribution. The data is divided into
bins, and the height of each bar represents the frequency.
 In the Chart Builder's Chart Types section, click the Histogram icon.
 The canvas updates to display a histogram
chart template.
• Then there is an option,
Show normal curve, click it
And then press OK.
  Box Plots (Box-and-Whisker Plots):Display the distribution of numerical data and
highlight the median, quartiles, and potential outliers.
 go to "Graphs"
 go to "Legacy Dialogs"
 Next go to"Boxplot".
 Then, select the variable you want to analyze and
click "OK".
 Scatter Plots: Display the relationship between two numerical variables.
 To create scatter plots, follow these steps:
1. Go to "Graphs" in the menu bar.2. Select "Legacy Dialogs".3. Choose "Scatter/Dot".4. Select
"Simple Scatter" for a basic scatter plot.5. Select the variables you want to plot on the X and Y
axes.6. Click "OK" to generate the scatter plot.
 Time Series Plots: Display data points collected or recorded at regular time intervals.
 To create a time series plot in SPSS, follow these steps:1. Go to "Graphs" in the menu
bar.2. Select "Legacy Dialogs".3. Choose "Line".4. Select "Multiple" if you have multiple
time series variables, or "Simple" for a single variable.5. Select the time series variable(s)
you want to plot.6. Click "OK" to generate the time series plot.
4- Statistical Report:
 Regression: Is a statistical technique that we use to relate between one or more
dependent and independent variable.
 Go to “Analyze”> Regression (linear). 2- Put Dependent and independent variables. 3- In
most cases the default settings are correct. 4- Click OK.
  Correlation: Statistical technique that describes the strength of association between two
variables.
 Click on Analyze\Correlate\Bivariate. Select your two variables and move them into the
box Variables. In the Correlation Coefficients section, Pearson is the default option. If
you wish to request the Spearman rho, tick the Spearman box as well (or instead)
 ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used when
comparing the mean scores of more than two groups. One-way analysis of variance
involves one independent variable (referred to as factor) which has a number of different
levels (groups or conditions). The dependent variable is a continuous variable.
 Steps for SPSS:
 Click on Analyze\Compare Means\One-way ANOVA.Move your dependent continuous
variable into the Dependent List box.Move your independent categorical variable into the
box Factor. Click the Options button and click on Descriptive, Homogeneity of variance
test, Brown-Forsythe, Welch and Means Plot. For Missing Values, make sure that you
mark Exclude cases analysis by analysis. Click on the button Post Hoc and click on
Tukey.Click on Continue and OK.
 Chi-Square Test Output: A chi-square test is a statistical test used to compare observed
results with expected results. The purpose of this test is to determine if a difference
between observed data and expected data is due to chance, or if it is due to a relationship
between the variables you are studying.

5- Scientific Notation:
• Used for presenting very large or very small numbers. It's a way of expressing numbers
that are too big or too small to be conveniently written in decimal form.
• When working with statistics, the Choice of format depends on the type of data, the
research question and the audience.
• Clear and appropriate presentation formats enhance the understanding and
interpretability of statistical results.

Sampling:
Methods of Sampling
 Random Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Systematic Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
1-Random Sampling
 Every individual or unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. This
method is straightforward but may not be practical for large populations.
Example:
 For example, consider a university with 1,000 students. To perform simple random
sampling, you could assign each student a unique number from 1 to 1,000, and then use a
random number generator to select 100 students for a survey. This method guarantees that
each student has an equal probability of being chosen, making it a simple random sample.
This sample can be used to make inferences about the entire student population.
Use in SPSS:
 To perform random sampling in SPSS, you can follow these steps,
 1. Open your dataset in SPSS
 2. Go to the "Data" menu.
 3. Select "Select Cases.“
 4. In the "Select" dialog box, choose "Random sample of cases.“
 5. Specify the desired sample size or the percentage of cases you want to include.
 6. Click "OK
2-Stratified Sampling
 The population is divided into subgroups (strata), and then random samples are taken
from each stratum. This method ensures representation of different subgroups.
Example:
 For example, let's say you want to conduct a survey in a city to understand the opinions
of its residents regarding a new public transportation system. You know that the city has
three main residential zones: urban, suburban, and rural. To perform stratified sampling,
you would first divide the city's population into these three strata. Then, you would
randomly select a sample of residents from each stratum. This ensures that your sample
includes people from different types of residential areas in the city.
Use in SPSS:
 1. Open your dataset in SPSS.
 2. Go to the "Data" menu
 3. Select "Select Cases.“
 4. In the "Select Cases" dialog box, choose "Based on time or case range" if you want to
apply stratified sampling to the entire dataset. If you want to apply it to a subset of cases,
you can use other criteria.
 5. Click on the "If" button, and this is where you define the strata for your sampling. You
can set conditions based on variables to create the strata. For example, if you have a
variable for age groups, you can set conditions to sample proportionally from each age
group.
 6. After defining your conditions for each stratum. click the "Continue" button.
3- Systematic Sampling
Randomly select a starting point Within the population. Choose a fixed interval(n) By which
you will select items.
Start with the randomly selected Point and then select Every nth items thereafter.

.
 Example:
 Imagine you have a list of 1,000 students and you want to survey their opinions. You use
systematic sampling as follows:
 1. Randomly select a number between 1 and 10 as your starting point, let's say you
choose 3.
 2. Choose an interval, say every 20th student.
 3. Start at the 3rd student, and then select every 20th student on the list.
 So, you would survey the 3rd, 23rd, 43rd, 63rd, and so on until you reach the end of the
list. This way, you have a random starting point, but the sampling process is systematic
and evenly spaced, making it more efficient than simple random sampling for large
populations.
 The following steps to perform systematic sampling.
 1. Open your dataset in SPSS.
 2. Go to the "Data" menu.
 3. Select "Select Cases.
 "4. In the "Select" dialog box, choose "Systematic sample" under the "Select" section.
 5. Enter the sampling interval or step size, which is the "n" in "every nth element.
 "6. Optionally, you can set a starting point by specifying the first case to be selected.
 7. Click "Continue" and then "OK" to apply the systematic sampling to your data.
 4- Cluster Sampling
 The population is divided into clusters, and then a random sample of clusters is chosen.
All individuals within the selected clusters are included in the sample.

Example:
 if you wanted to conduct a survey of students in a large university, you could use cluster
sampling by first dividing the university into departments or schools (clusters), and then
randomly selecting a few departments. Within the chosen departments, you would survey
all the students or a random sample of students, rather than surveying every student in the
university.
 Use in SPSS:
1. Identify clusters: Define the clusters in your dataset. Clusters could be, for example,
geographic regions, schools, or households.
2. . Randomly select clusters: Use SPSS to randomly select a subset of clusters from your
population.
3. 3. Collect data: Once clusters are selected, gather data from all elements within these
clusters.
Variables in Statistics:
 Variable refer to a characteristic or attribute that can very among a individual or object in
population or sample it can take different values or level and it is fundamental unit of
analysis in statistical studies variable can be categorical or numerical.
Types of Variables:
 Categorical variable
 Numerical variable
 Two major types of variable:
 Independent variable
 Dependent variable
CATEGORIAL VARIABLE
 These variable represent qualities or characteristics that are not numerical in nature.
 NOMINAL VARIABLE
 ORDINAL VARIABLE
 Nominal Variable:
Nominal variable have categorized with no inherent order such as color or type of fruits.
 Ordinal Variable:
Ordinal variable have categorize with a specific order or ranking such as educational level or
survey rating.
NUMERICAL VARIABLE
 These variable represent quantities or measurement and can taken on numerical value
 DISCRETE VARIABLE
 CONTINOUSE VARIABLE
 Discrete Variable:
Discrete variable have distinct and separate values such as the number of sibling and car in a
house hold.
 Continuous variable
Continuous variable have a infinite number of possible value within a range such as a height
or weight
1-Dependent Variable
 Dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or observed and is affected by
the independent variable .
EXAMPLE:
An example of dependent variable in statistics could be test score of student .The test score
of student depend on various factor such as habit, testing method or the amount of sleep a
student get.
2- Independent Variable
 In statistic ,the independent variable is the variable that is manipulated or controlled by
researcher.
EXAMPLE:
An example of an independent variable in statistics could be the amount of time spent
studying for a test.
Why variables are used in Statistics?
 In SPSS, variables are used to store different types of data, such as numerical values,
categories, or text. They help organize and analyze your data by assigning labels and
values to each observation. You can perform various statistical operations on these
variables, such as calculating means, frequencies, or conducting regression analyses.
Variables are an essential part of conducting statistical analyses in SPSS.