Ils 7000B

As per ICAO DOC 10057
2023
वायु यातायात सुरक्षा इलेक्ट्रॉनिक्ट्स कानमिक योग्यता आधाररत

प्रनिक्षण एवं मलू यांकि
Air Traffic Safety Electronics Personnel Competency-Based
Training and Assessment
योग्यता प्रनिक्षण
Qualification Training
निक्ट्चालि
“NAVIGATION”
नवषयः भू आधाररत प्रणाली (आई.एल.एस.)
SUBJECT: GROUND BASED SYSTEMS (ILS)
सी.ए.टी.सी., प्रयागराज
CATC, PRAYAGRAJ
AAI/CNS/CBTA/QUALIFICATION/Navigation/B3/ILS
(NM 7000B)/ Ver.3.0
Version Control
Module AAI/CNS/CBTA/Navigation/QUALIFICATION B3/ILS/ Ver.2.0

Version 1.0 Compiled by V. BALAJI, JGM ICNS) CHENNAI
Version 1.0 1. Sh. Rajiv Badoni, Jt.GM(CNS)
Vetted by 2. Sh. Pravin Kr. Singh, MGR (CNS)
3. Sh. Aditya Kumar, MGR(CNS)
4. Sh. D. C. Mishra, MGR(CNS)
Version 2.0 1. Sh. S K Singh, AGM (CNS), CATC
Compiled by 2. Sh. Amit Kr. Chaurasia, AGM (CNS), CATC
3. Sh. Pravin Kr. Singh, SM (CNS), CATC
4. Sh. D.C. Mishra, SM (CNS), CATC
5. Sh. Mithun Biswas, Manager (CNS), CATC
6. Sh. Devendra Kr Tiwari, Manager (CNS), CATC
Version 2.0 1. Sh. Rajendra Prasad, JGM (CNS), CATC
Vetted by 2. Sh. R. Padmanabhan, AGM (CNS), Chennai
3. Sh. O.P. Sharma, SM (CNS), CATC
4. Sh. Hasan Ashraf, SM (CNS), CATC
Version 2.0 15th Oct 2019 to 17th Oct 2019
Vetting period
Version 3.0 1. Sh. D R Yadav, AGM(CNS), CATC-Prayagraj
Compiled by 2. Sh. DC Mishra, AGM(CNS), CATC-Prayagraj
Version 3.0 1. Sh. Pravin Kumar Singh, AGM(CNS), CATC-Prayagraj
Vetted by 2. Sh. DC Mishra, AGM(CNS), CATC-Prayagraj
Maintained By CDRC, CATC, PRAYAGRAJ
Version Number Modified By Date Modified Date approved
Preface
This “NAVIGATION-GROUND BASED SYSTEMS (ILS)” module conforms to the

standards and recommended practices of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) vide
Doc. 9868 (PANS Training) Part IV Chapter 4 for ATSEP and Doc. 10057 (Manual on
Air Traffic Safety Electronic Personnel Competency- based Training and Assessment).
With pleasure, I authenticate this handout and make it available for imparting
training for the Initial Qualification Course for ATSEPs at CATC and RTCs in AAI.
The course content has been approved by CHQ of AAI. It is hoped that the new
recruits and would be ATSEPs will find it informative, interesting and better in presentation.
I am sure that the trainees will carry a sense of pride in undergoing this basic course
module of ICAO standard.
This handout on “NAVIGATION-GROUND BASED SYSTEMS (ILS)” deals with the ILS.
Discussions are made about the Use of the System, Fundamentals of ILS, Two-Frequency
System Limitations, Ground-station Architecture, Antenna subsystem, Monitoring & Control
subsystems, On- board equipment, System Check & Maintenance.
This handout is intended to be kept up to date. It will be amended periodically as

new developments are made to aviation industry.
In the development and presentation of this module is as per ICAO Doc 10057, I
would like to appreciate the meticulous and excellent work done by the course developers.
Errors, if any or suggestions if brought to the notice of undersigned would be highly

commendable as it will serve to improve upon this module and contribute to our objective
of achieving excellence in the field of ATSEP training.
(Sharnagat Srivastava)
GM (CNS)/ Head of ATSEP training CATC,
Prayagraj-211012
About the module
ATSEP CBT & A – QUALIFICATION ‘B3’ TRAINING –GROUND-BASED SYSTEMS (ILS)
Preface
This initial Qualification training module on the course “NAVIGATION” deals the subject
“GROUND BASED SYSTEMS- ILS” with the sub-topics given.
 The initial sub-topic deals with the Use of the system which consists of Overall
performance of ILS, Limitations of ILS, Facility performance, Obstacle-free zones and its
importance, and current situations
 The 2nd topic deals with the fundamentals of ILS which consists of obtaining DDM in
terms of angular position, Adjustments of signals to generate a beam pattern,
Performance of an Antenna-Array.
 The next topic deals with the TWO Frequency systems used because of limitations
in a SINGLE Frequency system and the Ground station Architecture explaining Main
components of ILS which includes LLZ, GP & Marker ground stations, its operational
requirements.
 The next subsequent topics deal with the Antenna subsystems which explains about
the Types, patterns, Antenna matching, Distribution units, Ground Reflections, and the
Monitoring & control subsystems checks the quality of radiated signals in terms of
Integrity and Continuity of service, operational parameters, Additional requirements
of monitoring, Far-field Monitoring.
 A discussion is made on on-board equipment, instruments that are used to display
the information from ILS
 The final sub-topic deals with the System check and maintenance, which explains
about the Regulations, Downgrading of ILS based on performance, tasks that are to be
carried by Maintenance ATSEPs during regular checks and during flight calibration,
Troubleshooting, Origins of errors.
This module has ONE Topic and NINE sub-topics under a subject “GROUND-BASED SYSTEMS -
ILS”. The contents of each topic have been developed as per the expected level of
accomplishment given in DOC 10057. The source of contents is given at the end of this trainee
handout. However, the exact contents in this module may not fully represent the original
source or documents, as the contents are customized for the internal training purpose of AAI
by the course developers those who have significant exposure in the industry.
All ATSEP should successfully complete this basic training. Assessment at this stage will
normally be conducted using assessment tools such as multiple-choice questions, written/oral
examinations, practical examinations, group discussion, performing tasks in a group,
presentation etc. as applicable.
Objective
After completion of their module, the

trainees would be able to:
 Discussions are made about the

Use of the System, fundamentals of
DME, Ground Station Architecture,
receiver subsystem, Signal
Processing, Transmitter subsystem,
Antenna subsystem, Monitoring &
control subsystems, On board
equipment, system Check &
Maintenance.
TABLE OF CONTENT
SUBJECT -6: GROUND-BASED SYSTEMS (ILS) .................................................................................................... 1
TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM ........................................................................................................ 1
SUB-TOPIC 1.1: USE OF THE SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 2

1.1.1. DESCRIBE THE OVERALL PERFORMANCE FOR ILS ......................................................................... 2
1.1.2. EXPLAIN THE LIMITATIONS OF ILS .............................................................................................. 10
1.1.3. INTERPRET ILS FACILITY PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES ............................................................... 13
1.1.4. DEFINE OBSTACLE FREE ZONES (OFZ) FOR ILS COMPONENTS ................................................... 20
1.1.5. EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE AND NEED FOR OBSTACLE FREE ZONES ......................................... 22
1.1.6. EXPLAIN THE CURRENT SITUATION ............................................................................................ 24
1.1.7. CONSIDER THE NEED FOR ATC ILS STATUS INDIATION ............................................................... 25
SUB-TOPIC 1.2: FUNDAMENTALS OF ILS ................................................................................................ 26
1.2.1. EXPLAIN HOW TO OBTAIN CHANGE IN DEPTH OF MODULATION OF AN AMPLITUDE
MODULATED SIGNAL AS A FUNCTION OF ANGULAR POSITION. ................................................................. 26
1.2.2. CHARATERIZE THE SIGNALS TO BE RADIATED ............................................................................ 35
1.2.3. RELATE THE ADJUSTMENTS OF SIGNALS GENERATED TO THE RESULTING BEAM PATTERNS AND
STANDARDS.................................................................................................................................................. 37
1.2.4. EXPLAIN THE REQUIRED PERFORMANCE OF AN ANTENNA ARRAY ............................................ 52
SUB-TOPIC 1.3: TWO FREQUENCY SYSTEM ............................................................................................ 54
1.3.1. EXPLAIN THE LIMITATION OF A SINGLE FREQUENCY SYSTEM .................................................... 54
1.3.2. DESCRIBE THE CAPTURE EFFECT ................................................................................................. 59
1.3.3. DESCRIBE THE RADIATION PATTERN OF 2F LLZ AND 2F GP ........................................................ 60
SUB-TOPIC 1.4: GROUND STATION ARCHITECTURE ............................................................................... 79
1.4.1. DESCRIBE THE LAYOUT OF ILS .................................................................................................... 79
1.4.2. DESCRIBE THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF LOCALIZER/GP/MARKERS/FIELD MONITORS .............. 80
1.4.3. RELATE ILS STATION DESIGN TO OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENT ................................................ 99
SUB-TOPIC 1.5: TRANSMITTER SUBSYSEM........................................................................................... 104
SUB-TOPIC 1.6: ANTENNA SUBSYSTEM ............................................................................................... 105
1.6.1. EXPLAIN ILS ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................ 105
SUB-TOPIC 1.7 MONITORING AND CONTROL SUBSYSTEM ................................................................. 117
1.7.1. DESCRIBE THE PURPOSE OF MONITORING .............................................................................. 117
1.7.2. DESCRIBE THE PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING ACCORDING TO ANNEX-10 .......................... 117
1.7.3. EXPLAIN THE KEY ADDITIONAL REQUIRED MONITORING ........................................................ 121
1.7.4. EXPLAIN THE PURPOSE, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FFM ................................... 125
1.7.5. DIAGRAM OF MONITORING SYSTEM (NORMARC) ................................................................... 126
1.7.6. OPTIONAL DME INTERFACE ...................................................................................................... 127
SUB-TOPIC 1.8: ON-BOARD EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................. 128
1.8.1. ON-BOARD EQUIPMENT ASSOCIATED WITH ILS ....................................................................... 128
1.8.2. DESCRIBE HOW ILS INFORMATION IS USED ON-BOARD .......................................................... 130
SUB-TOPIC 1.9 SYSTEM CHECK AND MAINTENANCE .............................................................................. 133
1.9.1. CONFORMITY OF LOCALIZER, GP, AND MARKER BEACONS TO INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL
REGULATIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 133
1.9.2. JUSTIFY THE OCCASIONS WHEN IT IS NECESSARY TO DOWNGRADE AN ILS FACILITY
PERFORMANCE CATEGORY ........................................................................................................................ 137
1.9.3. EXPLAIN THE IMPLICATIONS OF ILS FACILITY PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES TO THE PILOT ...... 143
1.9.4. PERFORM SOME TYPICAL MEASUREMENTS ............................................................................. 143
1.9.5. CALIBRATION AND FLIGHT INSPECTION RESULTS .................................................................... 143
1.9.6. Appreciate troubleshooting of ILS LOC, GP and marker beacons. ............................................ 166
1.9.7. APPRECIATE THE ORIGIN OF ILS ERRORS .................................................................................. 166
SUMMARY…………………. ........................................................................................................................... 169
AIRPORTS AUTHORITY OF INDIA
QUALIFICATION TRAINING - NAVIGATION
B3 OF DOC 10057
SUBJECT -6: GROUND-BASED SYSTEMS (ILS)
TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
The basic philosophy of ILS is that ground installations, located in the vicinity of the runway, transmit
coded signals in such a manner that pilot is given information indicating position of the aircraft with
respect to correct approach path. To provide correct approach path information to the pilot, three
sort of guidance is provided; one in Azimuth, second in elevation and the last one is the distance from
the touchdown.
Because of the worldwide-adopted ICAO's performance specifications, any ILS-equipped aircraft can
expect satisfactory operation from the system at any airport equipped with an ILS installation.
The figure given below depicts the ILS components and distances with respect to a runway.
FIG: 1.1. ILS COMPONENTS
AAI/CNS/CBTA/QUALIFICATION/Navigation/B3/ILS (NM7000B)/Ver.3.0 Page 1 of 187

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The ILS normally consists of a VHF "Localizer" for runway alignment guidance, a UHF "Glide
Path" for elevation guidance and "Marker Beacons" for providing key checkpoints along the
approach.
At some airports, the marker beacons are replaced or supplemented by a "DME" (Distance
Measuring Equipment) to provide continuous reading of distance
SUB-TOPIC 1.1: USE OF THE SYSTEMS

1.1.1. DESCRIBE THE OVERALL PERFORMANCE FOR ILS
 COVERAGE
ILS signals are transmitted by space waves which follows the principles of line of sight
propagation. The effective range depends on the power of the transmitted carrier and the
aircraft altitude. Standard Service Volumes (SSV) defines the volume in which the aircraft shall
get correct course guidance. It defines the reception limits and is published.
LOCALIZER
The function of ILS localizer unit is to provide, within its coverage limits, a vertical plane of
course, aligned with the extended centre-line of runway for AZIMUTH guidance to the landing
aircraft. The radiation from the localizer antenna system shall produce a composite field
pattern which is amplitude modulated by a 90Hz and a 150Hz tone. The radiation field pattern
shall produce a course sector with one tone predominating on one side of the course and with
the other tone predominating on the opposite side. When an observer faces the localizer from
the approach end of a runway, the depth of modulation of the radio frequency carrier due to
the 150Hz tone shall predominate on the observer’s right hand and that due to the 90Hz tone
shall predominate on the observer’s left hand. All horizontal angles employed in specifying
the localizer field patterns shall originate from the centre of the localizer antenna system
which provides the signals used in the front course sector. The figure given below shows the
LOCALIZER beam.

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FIG: 1.2 LOCALIZER BEAM

o HORIZONTAL PLANE
The localizer shall provide signals sufficient to allow satisfactory operation of a typical aircraft
installation within the localizer and glide path coverage sectors. The localizer coverage sector
shall extend from the centre of the localizer antenna system to distances of:
 46.3 KM (25 NM) within ±10° from the front course line;
 31.5 KM (17 NM) between 10° and 35° from the front course line;
 18.5 KM (10 NM) outside of ± 35°from the front course line if coverage is provided;
FIG: 1.3 LOCALIZER NORMAL COVERAGE

Except that, where topographical features dictate or operational requirements permit, the
limits may be reduced down to 33.4KM (18 NM) within the ±10° sector and 18.5KM (10 NM)

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within the remainder of the coverage when alternative navigational means provide
satisfactory coverage within the intermediate approach area.
FIG: 1.4 LOCALIZER COVERAGE ACCOUNTING TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

o VERTICAL PLANE
The localizer signals shall be receivable at the distances specified at and above a height of
600m (2000 feet) above the elevation of the threshold, or 300m (1000 feet) above the
elevation of the highest point within the intermediate and final approach areas, whichever is
the higher, except that, where needed to protect ILS performance and if operational
requirements permit, the lower limit of coverage at angles beyond 15° from the front course
line shall be raised linearly from its height at 15° to as high as 1350m (4500 feet) above the
elevation of the threshold at 35° from the front course line. Such signals shall be receivable,
to the distances specified, up to a surface extending outward from the localizer antenna and
inclined at 7° above the horizontal.
FIG: 1.5 ELEVATION COVERAGE

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NOTE:
 ‘D’ indicates the coverage requirement as given earlier
 Point ‘P’ is either 600m (2000 feet) above the elevation of the threshold, or 300m
(1000 feet) above the elevation of the highest point within the intermediate or final
approach areas, whichever is the higher.
o COURSE ALIGNMENT ACCURACY
According to ICAO Annex 10, Volume 1, the mean course line shall be adjusted and
maintained within limits equivalent to the following displacements from the runway
centreline at the ILS reference datum:
a) For Facility Performance Category I localizers: plus or minus 10.5m (35ft),or the linear
equivalent of 0.015DDM,whichever is less;
b) for Facility Performance Category II localizers: plus or minus 7.5m (25ft);
c) for Facility Performance Category III localizers: plus or minus 3m (10ft).
Please refer ICAO Annex 10, Volume 1, Para 3.1.3.6.
o FIELD STRENGTH
The field strength in all parts of the defined coverage volume shall be not less than 40 µV/m(-
114 dBW/m2).This minimum field strength is required to permit satisfactory operational
usage of ILS localizer facilities.
The category of localiser based on field strength are following:
CATEGORY-I LOCALIZER
The minimum field strength on the ILS glide path and within the localizer course sector from
a distance of 18.5 KM (10 NM) to a height of 60m (200 feet) above the horizontal plane
containing the threshold shall be not less than 90 µV/m(- 107 dBW/m2).
CATEGORY-II LOCALIZER
The minimum field strength on the ILS glide path and within the localizer course sector shall
be not less than 100 µV/m(-106 dBW/m2) at a distance of 18.5KM (10 NM) increasing to not
less than 200 µV/m(-100 dBW/m2) at a height of 15m (50 feet) above the horizontal plane
containing the threshold.

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CATEGORY-III LOCALIZER
The minimum field strength on the ILS glide path and within the localizer course sector shall
be not less than 100 µV/m(-106 dBW/m2) at a distance of 18.5KM (10NM), increasing to not
less than 200 µV/m(-100 dBW/m2) at 6m (20 feet) above the horizontal plane containing the
threshold. From this point to a further point 4m (12 feet) above the runway centre line, and
300m (1000 feet) from the threshold in the direction of the localizer, and thereafter at a
height of 4m (12 feet) along the length of the runway in the direction of the localizer, the field
strength shall be not less than 100 µV/m(-106 dBW/m2).
The field strengths given for CAT-ii & CAT-III are necessary to provide the SNR required for
improved integrity.
FIG: 1.6 LOCALIZER COVERAGE VOLUME
 GLIDEPATH
The figure given above shows the beam produced by GLIDEPATH ground equipment. The
function of the Glide Path unit is to provide, within its coverage limits, an inclined plane
aligned with the glide path of the runway for providing elevation guidance to landing aircraft.
The radiation from the UHF glide path antenna system shall produce a composite field pattern
which is amplitude modulated by a 90Hz and a 150Hz tone. The pattern shall be arranged to
provide a straight line descent path in the vertical plane containing the centre line of the
runway, with the 150Hz tone predominating below the path and the 90Hz tone
predominating above the path.

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FIG: 1.7 GLIDE PATH BEAM

The glide path equipment shall provide signals sufficient to allow satisfactory operation of a
typical aircraft installation in sectors of 8° in azimuth on each side of the centre line of the ILS
glide path, to a distance of at least 18.5 KM (10NM) up to 1.75θ and down to 0.45θ above the
horizontal or to such lower angle, down to 0.30θ, as required to safeguard the promulgated
glide path intercept procedure.
FIG: 1.8 GLIDEPATH ELEVATION COVERAGE

Point ‘R’ at which the downward-extended straight portion of the ILS glide path intersects
the runway centre line and ‘ϴ’ is Glide-angle.
FIG: 1.9 GLIDEPATH AZIMUTH COVERAGE

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FIELD STRENGTH OF GP
In order to provide the coverage for glide path performance specified, the minimum field
strength within this coverage sector shall be 400µV/m (-95 dBW/m2).
For Facility Performance Category-I glide paths, this field strength shall be provided down to
a height of 30m (100feet) above the horizontal plane containing the threshold.
For Facility Performance Categories II and III glide paths, this field strength shall be provided
down to a height of 15m (50feet) above the horizontal plane containing the threshold.
FIG: 1.10 GLIDEPATH COVERAGE

o Glidepath Accuracy:
According ICAO Annex 10, Volume 1, para 3.1.5.1.2.1 , The glidepath angle shall be adjusted
and maintained within:
a) 0.075θ from θ for Facility Performance Categories I and II - ILS Glidepath;
b) 0.04θ from θ for Facility Performance Category III - ILS Glidepath.
Please refer ICAO Annex 10, Volume 1, Para 3.1.5.1.2.1
MARKER BEACONS
The function of the marker beacons is to provide distance information from the touch-down
point to a landing aircraft. The marker beacons, installed at fixed distances from the runway
threshold, provide specific distance information whenever a landing aircraft is passing over
any of these beacons so that the pilot can check his altitude and correct it if necessary.

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FIG: 1.11 LOCATION OF MARKERS AND IDENTIFICATION
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

The function of locators, installed co-located with the marker beacons, is to guide aircraft
coming for landing to begin an ILS approach. The coverage of DME is directional to provide
the distance information to the landing aircraft.
 AVAILABILITY OF THE SYSTEM

Recall the performance measure Availability discussed in the BASIC course.
Availability is defined as the performance measure which ensures the service of ILS facility is
available to the user during intended flight operation fulfilling accuracy, integrity and
continuity.
This can be achieved by having redundant set of transmitters in ILS. During failure of one set
of the equipment the other one can be put in to operation.
* CNS Manual recommends an AVAILABILITY of 99.2% for ILS.
 INTEGRITY
Integrity is the quality which relates to the trust that can be placed in the correctness of the
information supplied by the ILS facility. It ensures that an aircraft on approach will have a low

B3 OF DOC 10057
probability of receiving false guidance. Integrity is a key safety factor during the critical phase
of approach and landing. It is generally accepted that irrespective of operational objective,
the average rate of fatal accidents during landing, or due to failures or shortcomings of whole
system, comprising the ground equipment, the aircraft and the pilot, should not exceed 1 x
10-7. This is frequently referred as global risk factor.
The level of integrity of the Localizer or the glide path is expressed in terms of the probability
of not radiating false guidance signals. The probability of not radiating false guidance signals
shall not be less than [1 –(0.5 × 10-9)] in any one landing for Facility Performance Categories
II and III localizers and Glidepath.
 CONTINUITY
It is the quality which relates to the rarity of radiated signal interruptions. The level of
continuity of service of the localizer or the glide path is expressed in terms of the probability
of not losing the radiated guidance signals.
The requirements for integrity and high continuity of service require highly reliable
systems to minimize the probability of failure which may affect any characteristic of the total
signal-in-space. Reliability of equipment is governed by basic construction and operating
environment.
Please refer ICAO Annex 10, Volume 1, Para 3.1.3.12 & 3.1.5.8 : Integrity and continuity of
service requirements
 NUMBER OF USERS
The users are passive in which the airborne equipment receives the signal and process it to
obtain the guidance information as the ground system does not receive any signal from the
airborne system. Hence, any number of users having appropriate receiver and supporting
instruments can use the guidance information provided by the ILS.
1.1.2. EXPLAIN THE LIMITATIONS OF ILS

The Instrument Landing System (ILS) has served as the standard precision approach and
landing aid for the last 40 years. During this time it has served well and has undergone a
number of improvements to increase its performance and reliability. However, in relation to
future aviation requirements, the ILS has a number of basic limitations:

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 Site sensitivity and high installation costs;
 Single approach path;
 Multipath interference; and
 Channel limitations which are 40 channels only.
o MULTIPATH INTERFERENCE
The occurrence of interference to ILS signals is dependent on the total environment around
the ILS antennas, and the antenna characteristics. Any large reflecting objects, including
vehicles or fixed objects such as structures within the radiated signal coverage, will potentially
cause multipath interference to the ILS course and path structure. The location and size of
the reflecting fixed objects and structures in conjunction with the directional qualities of the
antennas will determine the static course or path structure quality whether Category I, II or
III.
Movable objects can degrade this structure to the extent that it becomes unacceptable. The
areas within which this degradable interference is possible need to be defined and
recognized. For the purposes of developing protective zoning criteria, these areas can be
divided into two types, i.e. critical areas and sensitive areas.
 CHANNEL LIMITATIONS
The localizer operates in the band 108 MHz to 117.975 MHz and Glidepath in the band
between 328.6 MHz and 335.4MHz. The same Localizer band is also shared with VOR; in that
case the frequency allocations are done based on the defined specifications so that no
harmful interference is caused to ILS.
FIG: 1.12 CHANNEL ALLOCATION

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The above table provides the frequency allocation for Localizer and Glidepath. If shared, VOR
frequencies ending in even tenths or even tenths plus a twentieth of a megahertz are used.
For example, VOR frequencies shall be 108.2 MHz, 108.4 MHz etc., the frequency pairing of
Localizer and Glidepath are made based on sharing with VOR. In that case 40 channels are
available for frequency allocation taking in to account 50 KHz channel spacing.
o SINGLE APPROACH PATH

Instrument approach procedures are classified as follows:
 Non-precision approach (NPA) procedure is designed for 2D instrument approach
operations which provide lateral guidance only.
 Approach procedure with vertical guidance (APV) is PBN instrument approach

procedure designed for 3D instrument approach operations which provides both
lateral and vertical guidance.
 Precision approach (PA) procedure is an instrument approach based on navigation

systems (ILS, MLS, GLS and SBAS CAT-I) designed for 3D instrument approach
operations.
FIG: 1.13 APPROACH PROCEDURE
The figure given above shows an Approach procedure with FIVE segments.
FAF: The final approach point is a fix that marks the end of an intermediate segment (IF) and
the beginning of the final approach segment (FAF) for precision approach using ILS. The final
approach point on an instrument approach with vertical guidance is glide slope or glide path
intercept at the lowest published altitude. It is called the final approach fix (FAF) and marked
on an Instrument Approach Chart.

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A final approach may be made to a runway for a straight-in landing, or to an aerodrome for a
visual manoeuvre (circling). A straight-in approach is aligned with the runway centre line
whereas, a circling approach is an extension of an instrument approach procedure which
provides for visual circling of the aerodrome prior to landing which may due to terrain
constraints, descent gradient.
The final approach (also called FINAL LEG and final approach leg) is the last leg in an aircraft's
approach to landing, when the aircraft is lined up(only single approach path) with the runway
and descending for landing. In aviation terminology, it is often shortened to FINAL.
In the figure shown below in the case of ‘Precision Approach’ the final approach segment
begins at the final approach point (FAP) which is a point on the final approach track where
the intermediate approach altitude intercepts the nominal glide path. From that point
onwards the aircraft is guided by both the LLZ and GP to make a perfect landing.
Fig 1.14
1.1.3. INTERPRET ILS FACILITY PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
o ILS CATEGORIES
A precision approach is an instrument approach and landing using precision lateral and
vertical guidance with minima as determined by the category of operation. The Lateral and
vertical guidance refers to the guidance provided either by:
 A ground-based navigation aid; or
 Computer generated navigation data displayed to the pilot of an aircraft.
 A controller interpreting the display on a radar screen (Precision Approach Radar
(PAR)).
Categories of precision approach and landing (including Instrument Landing System (ILS) and
Auto-land) operations are defined according to the applicable Decision Altitude ‘DA’ /Decision
Height ‘DH’ and Runway Visual Range (RVR) or visibility.

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CATEGORY-1 ILS provides guidance information from the coverage limit of the ILS to the point
at which the localizer course line intersects the ILS glide path at a height of 60m (200 feet) or
less above the horizontal plane containing the threshold.
This definition is not intended to preclude the use of Facility Performance Category-1 ILS
below the height of 60m (200 feet), with visual reference where the quality of the guidance
provided permits, and where satisfactory operational procedures have been established.
CATEGORY-2 ILS provides guidance information from the coverage limit of the ILS to the point
at which the localizer course line intersects the ILS glide path at a height of 15m (50 feet) or
less above the horizontal plane containing the threshold.
CATEGORY-3 ILS with the aid of ancillary equipment where necessary, provides guidance
information from the coverage limit of the facility to, and along, the surface of the runway.
While the CAT-I ILS is just fine for most situations, auto landings made in extremely low
visibility require use of CAT-III ILS procedures. The higher the ILS category (I, II, or III) the lower
the minima allowed. The approach minimums are based on reported visibility and are
expressed in terms of both a ceiling and a visibility. A ceiling minimum, where it exists, should
not be confused with a decision height ‘DH’. The ceiling minimum is simply the lowest
reported ceiling for which one can legally accept the approach. The ‘DH’ is the point at which
a missed approach must be commenced, if certain approach lighting or other runway
environment references have not been visually acquired by the pilot.
o CATEGORY DETAILS
ICAO ANNEX-10 defines
Facility Performance Category-I ILS provides guidance information from the coverage limit of
the ILS to the point at which the localizer course line intersects the ILS glide path at a height
of 60 m (200 feet) or less above the horizontal plane containing the threshold. This definition
is not intended to preclude the use of Facility Performance Category-I ILS below the height of
60 m (200 feet), with visual reference where the quality of the guidance provided permits,
and where satisfactory operational procedures have been established.
The operational objectives are
 Decision Height not lower than 60m (200 feet)
 The visibility not less than 800m or RVR of 550m

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Facility Performance Category-II ILS provides guidance information from the coverage limit
of the ILS to the point at which the localizer course line intersects the ILS glide path at a height
of 15 m (50 feet) or less above the horizontal plane containing the threshold.
 Decision Height lower than 60m (200 feet) but not lower than 30m (100 feet)
 The RVR not less than 300m
Facility Performance Category-III ILS with the aid of ancillary equipment where necessary,
provides guidance information from the coverage limit of the facility to, and along, the surface
of the runway.
For CAT-IIIA operation
 A decision height lower than 30 m (100 feet), or no decision height;
 A RVR not less than 175m
For CAT-IIIB operation
 A decision height lower than 15 m (50 feet), or no decision height;
 A RVR less than 175m but not less than 50m
For CAT-IIIC operation
 NO decision height;
 NO RVR limitations.
o CATEGORY DIFFERENCES
CAT-I and CAT-II procedures differ from those of CAT-IIIA in one important respect. They
require that the crew visually spot the approach lights and, eventually, other runway
environment cues in order to safely continue to a landing by visual reference alone. In other
words, the landing pilot must be able to properly judge the flare point, make the landing, and
execute the rollout visually.
CAT-III approaches, on the other hand, merely require that the pilot establish sufficient visual
reference with the touchdown zone lights to ensure that landing is occurring in the
touchdown zone. The pilot may never even see the approach lights. Visual reference may be
such that the pilot is unable to properly judge the flare point or manually control the aircraft
during the initial rollout. The autopilot will normally execute the flare, landing, and rollout
down to taxi speed.

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For example, CAT-IIIB auto-landings is a fully automated landing procedure with flight crew
supervising the process. It is designed to make landing possible without any visual reference
with the runway is established by the pilot. Since there is no "decision" to be made based on
visibility, the approaches employ an ALERT HEIGHT (AH) instead of a DH. The ‘AH’ is merely a
point above which a failure in certain required airborne or ground equipment mandates a
missed approach. If the equipment failure occurs below the AH, the flare, touchdown, and
rollout can still be safely accomplished by using redundant CAT-III auto-land components.
Rather than using outside cues to ensure that landing is occurring in the touchdown zone, the
crew may verify this by using on-board instrumentation and warning systems.
AERODROME LIGHTING SYSTEMS

Aerodrome lighting systems are arrangement of Approach lighting systems on the extended
centreline of the runway up to threshold and lighting systems present on the runway. It is
categorised as
 Approach lighting systems
 Visual Approach slope guidance such as Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) and
Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or T-VASI a variation of VASI.
 Runway Lighting such as Runway Edge Lights and Runway Threshold and Runway End
Lights.
 In-runway lighting such as Runway Centre Lights, Touchdown Zone Lights, Runway Exit
Taxiway Indicator Lights
 APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEM (ALS)
Approach Lighting Systems (ALS) provide the basic means to transition from instrument flight
to visual flight for landing. Operational requirements dictate the sophistication and
configuration of the approach lighting system for a particular runway. A simple approach
lighting system shall consist of a row of lights on the extended centre line of the runway
extending, whenever possible, over a distance of not less than 420m from the threshold with
a row of lights forming a crossbar 18m or 30m in length at a distance of 300m from the
threshold. The lights of a simple approach lighting system shall be fixed lights and the colour
of the lights shall be such as to ensure that the system is readily distinguishable from other
aeronautical ground lights, and from extraneous lighting if present. Depending on the

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approach category a lighting system consists of row of lights on the extended centreline of
the runway over a distance from threshold and two side rows of light.
FIG: 1.15 APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEM
 VISUAL SLOPE APPROACH GUIDANCE

A precision approach path indicator (PAPI) is a visual aid that provides guidance information
to help a pilot acquire and maintain the correct approach (in the vertical plane) to an airport
or an aerodrome. It is generally located beside the runway approximately 300 meters beyond
the landing threshold of the runway.
FIG: 1.16 PAPI

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FIG: 1.17 PAPI INDICATIONS TO THE PILOT

The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses light units installed in a single row of either
two or four light units. These lights are visible from about 5 miles during the day and up to
20 miles at night. The visual glide path of the PAPI typically provides safe obstruction
clearance within ± 10° of the extended runway centreline and to 3.4 NM from the runway
threshold. Descent, using the PAPI, should not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned
with the runway. The row of light units is normally installed on the left side of the runway and
the glide path indications are as depicted. Lateral course guidance is provided by the runway
or runway lights. In certain circumstances, the safe obstruction clearance area may be
reduced by narrowing the beam width or shortening the usable distance due to local
limitations, or the PAPI may be offset from the extended runway centreline.
VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATORS (VASI)

VASI installations may consist of 2, 4, 6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars referred to as
near, middle, and far bars. The basic principle of the VASI is that of colour differentiation
between red and white. Each light unit projects a beam of light having a white segment in the
upper part of the beam and red segment in the lower part of the beam. The light units are
arranged so that the pilot using the VASIs during an approach will see the combination of
lights shown below.

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FIG: 1.18 TWO BAR VASI

 RUNWAY EDGE IDENTIFIER LIGHTS (REIL)
REILs are installed at many airfields to provide rapid and positive identification of the
approach end of particular runway. The system consists of a pair of synchronized flashing
lights located laterally on each side of the runway threshold. REILs may be either Omni-
directional or unidirectional facing the approach area. They are effective for:
 Identification of a runway surrounded by a preponderance of other lighting,
 Identification of a runway which lacks contrast with surrounding terrain,
 Identification of a runway during reduced visibility.
 RUNWAY EDGE LIGHT SYSTEMS (RELS)
Runway edge lights are used to outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or
restricted visibility conditions. These light systems are classified according to the intensity
or brightness they are capable of producing namely, High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL),
Medium Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL), and the Low Intensity Runway Lights (LIRL). The
HIRL and MIRL systems have variable intensity controls, whereas the LIRLs normally have only
one intensity setting.
The runway edge lights are white, except on instrument runways the yellow lights replaces
white on the last 2000 feet or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution
zone for landings. The lights marking the ends of the runway emitted light toward the runway
to indicate the end of runway to a departing aircraft and emit green outward from the runway
end to indicate the threshold to landing aircraft.

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 IN-RUNWAY LIGHTING
Runway centreline lights are installed on some precision approach runways to facilitate
landing under adverse visibility conditions. They are located along the runway centreline and
are spaced at50feet intervals. When viewed from the landing threshold, the runway
centreline lights are white until the last 3000 feet of the runway. The white lights begin to
alternate with red for the next 2000 feet, and for the last 1000 feet of the runway, all
centreline lights are red.
Touchdown zone lights (TDZL) are installed on some precision approach runways to indicate
the touchdown zone when landing under adverse visibility conditions. They consist of two
rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically about the runway centreline. The system
consists of steady-burning white lights which start 100 feet beyond the landing threshold and
extend to 3000 feet beyond the landing threshold or to the midpoint of the runway,
whichever is less.
FIG: 1.19 A TYPICAL RUNWAY LIGHTING SYSTEM VIEWED AT NIGHT
The figures given in the next page illustrates lighting systems available in an airport with its
locations. Note the colours of the lights clearly demarcate the threshold, Runway edges and
stop-end. The bottom one depicts the runway lights viewed during landing at night.
1.1.4. DEFINE OBSTACLE FREE ZONES (OFZ) FOR ILS COMPONENTS
The objectives of obstacle free zone define the airspace around aerodromes to be maintained
free from obstacles so as to permit the intended aeroplane operations at the aerodromes to

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be conducted safely and to prevent the aerodromes from becoming unusable by the growth
of obstacles around the aerodromes. The airspace above the inner approach surface, inner
transitional surfaces, and balked landing surface and that portion of the strip bounded by
these surfaces, which is not penetrated by any fixed obstacle other than a low-mass and
frangible mounted one required for air navigation purposes. OFZ was introduced for safety
reasons as obstacles penetrated the transitional surfaces. This was not satisfactory in case of
Precision Approaches.
The area in which a new navigation aid is to be installed is determined by operational
requirements. The actual site will normally be selected taking into account satisfaction of the
operational requirements, construction aspects and maintainability. Generally, the site
selected should be reasonably level, have adequate drainage, be above local flood levels of
rivers or sea, and should not have an excess of vegetation such as high grass or trees. In
addition, it is desirable that the site be close to electric power and telephone service
connections and be accessible from existing roads. In mountainous areas the site chosen
should be one that is capable of development to meet the main operational requirements at
reasonable cost.
FIG: 1.20 Typical LLZ Critical and Sensitive area Localizer

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The figure given below shows the obstacle free zone dimension requirement for Localizer and
Glidepath. Obstacle free zones are divided as CRITICAL and SENSITIVE areas for ILS.
The figure given above depicts the critical and sensitive area requirement for a Localizer. The
size of the area depends on the Aircraft type, Localizer antenna aperture. The sensitive area
given in dimension X, Y depends on the category of ILS.
FIG: 1.21 TYPICAL CRITICAL AND SENSITIVE AREAS FOR A GP

The figure given above shows the dimensions of critical and sensitive areas defined for
Glidepath. Again the X, Y dimensions depends on the aircraft type and ILS categories.
REFER ICAO ANNEX-10 VOL-1 & CNS CIRCULAR?? For typical dimensions.
1.1.5. EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE AND NEED FOR OBSTACLE FREE ZONES
o ILS BEAM PROTECTION
Obstructions within the defined zones create beam bends in the course structure in the field.
Beam bends are defined as performance degradation of course structure because of
reflecting objects and its properties. Course bends are unacceptable when they preclude an
aircraft under normal conditions from reaching the decision height in a stable attitude and at
a position, within acceptable limits of displacement from the course line, from which a safe

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landing can be affected. Automatic and semi-automatic coupling is affected to a greater
degree than manual coupling by the presence of bends. Excessive control activity after the
aircraft has settled on an approach may preclude it from satisfactorily completing an
approach or landing. Additionally, when automatic coupling is used, there may be an
operational requirement to continue the approach below the decision height. There is a limit
for beam bends along the path at defined points during precision approach and depends on
ILS category.
FIG: 1.22 ILS CATEGORY POINTS IN THE APPROACH

The distance of points from Runway Threshold is given below.
 Point ‘A’ 4NM
 Point ‘B’ 3500 feet
 Point ‘C’ 1000 feet
 Point ‘T’ is THRESHOLD
 Point ‘D’ 3000 feet towards the STOPEND
 Point ‘E’ 2000 feet from STOPEND of the runway
Bends or other irregularities that are not acceptable will normally be ascertained by flight
tests in stable air conditions requiring precision flight check techniques.
the ILS antennas, and antenna characteristics. The environment, for the purpose of
developing protective zoning criteria, can be divided into two types namely the Critical Areas
and the Sensitive Areas.

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o CRITICAL AREA
It is an area of defined dimensions about the localizer and glide path antennas where vehicles,
including aircraft, are excluded during all ILS operations. The critical area is protected because
the presence of vehicles and/or aircraft inside its boundaries will cause unacceptable
disturbance to the ILS signal-in-space;
o SENSITIVE AREA
It is an area extending beyond the critical area where the parking and/or movement of
vehicles, including aircraft, is controlled to prevent the possibility of unacceptable
interference to the ILS signal during ILS operations. The sensitive area is protected against
interference caused by large moving objects outside the critical area but still normally within
the airfield boundary.
o INCREASED SIGNIFICANCE DURING LVP
Low visibility procedures (LVP) means specific procedures applied at an aerodrome for the
purpose of ensuring safe operations during Categories II and III approaches and/or low
visibility take-offs. During precision instrument approach operations, interference with the
signal guiding the aircraft can cause deviation to the aircraft’s flight path and can cause
unnecessary go‐around. The ILS protection areas are marked with signage boards. The
vehicular movement near to the area are to be avoided to ensure the ILS signal-in-space isnot
affected for safe operations of the aircrafts during approach.
1.1.6. EXPLAIN THE CURRENT SITUATION

ILS transmits the signals in a particular direction based on the runway configuration. Any
number of users having appropriate receiver and supporting instruments can obtain the
AZIMUTH and ELEVATION guidance information from the ILS and provides suitable indication
in the cockpit display. The fixed distance from the threshold is obtained using Markers. In
addition the pilot obtains continuous distance information from the collocated DME with the
GP equipment or. The number of DME installed is available from e-AIP.
AAI has installed 42 ILS stations all over the country to provide the navigational services. The
table given below shows few ILS and its location. It is highlighted that ILS installed at Delhi-
PALAM and Bangalore share the same frequency and also ILS installed in Chennai and Kolkata.
The frequency allocation is done based on the planning to avoid interference. Also, the ILS is

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identified using a four letter Morse code starting with alphabet ‘I’ to discriminate against
other NAVAIDS in the immediate area.
1.1.7. CONSIDER THE NEED FOR ATC ILS STATUS INDIATION

The status and control is part of ILS monitoring system which can be done either at local site
or from a remote site; the remote site being the equipment room or ATC tower building. The
ILS remote site is equipped with a Remote Control Status unit by which the status can be
monitored and control exercised. The Remote control and Indicator equipment is one of the
basic requirements for any ILS defined in ICAO ANNEX-10.
This is required to provide a warning or alarm conditions at the remote control point in order
to indicate the loss of integrity of Signal-in-Space. If alarm conditions persist for a defined
time period the facility is shutdown making radiation to cease or removes navigation tones or
identification. This is intended to protect the aircraft in the final stages of approach against
prolonged or repeated period of guidance outside the limits.
With reference to ICAO ANNEX 10, Volume 1, Para 2.3 , Aerodrome control towers and units
providing approach control service shall be provided with information on the operational
status of radio navigation services essential for approach, landing and take-off at the
aerodrome(s) with which they are concerned, on a timely basis consistent with the use of the
service(s) involved.
It is essential for the ATC controller to know the status of landing aid so that controller can
take decision in time whether to clear ILS approach or not or clear approach using alternate
navigational aid or visual approach if visibility conditions permits. Timely information on the
status of ILS will help ATC controller taking decisions on the type of approaches cleared thus
saving time and fuel consumption of aircraft and ensure the safety of aircraft.

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SUB-TOPIC 1.2: FUNDAMENTALS OF ILS
1.2.1. EXPLAIN HOW TO OBTAIN CHANGE IN DEPTH OF MODULATION OF AN AMPLITUDE
MODULATED SIGNAL AS A FUNCTION OF ANGULAR POSITION.
The ILS employs Amplitude modulation of a RF carrier by 90Hz and 150Hz navigation tone to
provide the guidance information. An approaching aircraft receives the Amplitude Modulated
carrier and demodulates the navigation tones. The aircraft equipment calculates the
Difference in Depth of Modulation (DDM) to obtain the guidance information at the receiver
output in which 150Hz predominates on the right hand side of the course line and 90Hz tone
predominates in the left hand side and on the course line both the 90Hz and 150Hz tone
amplitudes are equal. To obtain the above said requirement in the coverage the ILS both
LOCALIZER and GLIDEPATH radiates two signals in the space which are
 Carrier and Sideband (CSB) signal
 Sidebands Only (SBO) signal.
REPRESENTATION OF SIGNALS
o CSB SIGNAL
This is an RF signal in which the RF carrier is amplitude modulated simultaneously by the
navigation tones of audio frequencies 90Hz and 150Hz. If ‘VcSinωct’ is the carrier signal, the
resultant CSB signal is given by mathematical expression.
This equation gives the following frequency components:

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 RF carrier ‘fc’
 90Hz Lower Sideband component ‘fc-90’
 90Hz Upper Sideband component ‘fc+90’
 150Hz Lower Sideband component ‘fc-150’
 150Hz Upper Sideband component ‘fc+150’
This signal in time-domain when viewed on a CRO looks like the figure as given below:
FIG: 1.23 CSB WAVEFORM

NOTE: The PLUS and MINUS given in the waveform indicates the RF phase.

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FIG: 1.24 ON TOP 90Hz/150Hz MODULATED CARRIER &ON BOTTOM COMBINED CSB
SIGNAL
(TIME SCALE GIVEN IN milliseconds)

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The signal in Frequency-domain when viewed on a Spectrum Analyser looks like the figure as
given below:
FIG: 1.25 FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF A CSB SIGNAL

The amplitude of individual sideband components shown in the above figure is dependent on
the modulation percentage ‘m’.
o SBO SIGNAL
This is an RF signal in which the carrier is amplitude modulated simultaneously by the
navigation tones of audio frequencies 90Hz and 150Hz with the carrier component removed.
If
‘VcSinωct’ is the carrier signal, the resultant SBO signal is expressed by:
The above equation gives the following frequency components:
a) 90Hz Lower Sideband component [fc-90]
b) 90Hz Upper Sideband component [fc+90]
c) 150Hz Lower Sideband component [fc-150]
d) 150Hz Upper Sideband component [fc+150]
NOTE: NEGATIVE sign is used in 90Hz LSB component and POSITIVE sign for the same
component in CSB signal.

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This SBO signal in time-domain when viewed on a CRO looks like the figure as given below:

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FIG: 1.26 SBO WAVEFORM

The frequency spectrum and vector representations are given below:

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NOTE: The phase difference of 90Hz sideband vectors with respect to 90Hz sideband vectors
in CSB signal.
THREE-ELEMENT ARRAY CONCEPT IN PRODUCING ‘DDM’ IN SPACE

The figure given in the next page shows the configuration of a three element Localizer
antenna array. This concept gives a better understanding of the principle used to produce
DDM. Consider Aerial ‘B’ is located at the extended centreline of the runway whereas; Aerial
‘A’ and ‘C’ are displaced by an equal distance from Aerial ‘B’. Aerial ‘B’ radiates CSB signal
while Aerial ‘A’ radiates +SBO and Aerial ‘C’ radiates -SBO signal. The phase difference
between the SBOs is 180°; whereas between CSB and SBO it is 90°. The vector representation
of these signal are also shown in the figure.
Assume that an aircraft is located in BLUE SECTOR which falls on the RHS of runway while
approaching say at point R1.It receives three signals (CSB, +SBO and -SBO) through three
different paths (AR1, BR1 and CR1).Since the path lengths are not equal, the relative phases
of the signals at point R1 will not be the same as it was at points A, B and C. The phase of the
+SBO signal will advance in phase with respect to CSB signal at point R1 because of shorter
path length(AR1 < BR1). Similarly the phase of the -SBO signal will retard in phase with respect
toCSB signal at point R1 due to longer path length (CR1 > BR1). Advancing phase of +SBO signal
is shown as a rotation in anti-clockwise direction and phase retardation in -SBO signal is shown
as clockwise rotation. Vector addition of all these three signals, makes that 150Hz sideband is
strengthened, whereas 90Hz sideband is reduced. This creates difference in depth of
modulation (DDM) where 150Hz tone is greater than 90Hz tone.

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At any point (‘O’) at the extended centre line of the runway, the path travelled by +SBO(‘AO’)
and -SBO (‘CO’) are equal in length and are greater than the path travelled by CSB(‘BO’) signal
by the same amount. Thus +SBO signal and -SBO signal are phase retarded by the same
amount and hence are 180° out of phase at point ‘O’. Hence SBO signals are cancelled out
and only CSB signal is present at point ‘O’. As the depth of modulation by 150Hz and 90Hz are
equal in CSB (20% each), ZERO DDM results at any point on the centre line of runway.
FIG: 1.27 THREE ELEMENT LOCALIZER ANTENNA ARRAY

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By similar arguments it can be proved that the difference in depth of modulation (DDM) in
YELLOW sector which falls on the LHS of Runway the amplitude of 90Hz tone is greater than
150Hz tone which is vector addition of +SBO, -SBO and CSB signals.
From the above discussion, the following important points emerge:
 CSB is the only signal existing on the centre line because SBO signals cancels. Hence,
at all points on the centre line of runway DDM (Difference in depth of modulation) is
ZERO.
 150Hz tone modulation predominates in BLUE SECTOR.
 90Hz tone modulation predominates in YELLOW SECTOR.
This, so far presents to us qualitative analysis of tone predominance at various places. But it
is quite evident from the vector addition of CSB, -SBO and +SBO signals that the resultant
signal will have depth of modulation by 150Hz and 90Hz which depends upon relative strength
of SBO signals with respect to CSB signal and also on angle of phase advance or phase retard.
From the above we may say that value of DDM depends upon:
 Relative strength of SBO with respect to CSB signal.
 Azimuth angle (where DDM is being measured).
The DDM increases as azimuth angle from the centreline increases. A 15.5% DDM is adjusted
at 105 meters from the runway centre-line at the landing threshold in order to meet
specification of displacement sensitivity (DS). This can be achieved by adjusting SBO Power.
While discussing it was assumed that SBO signal, CSB signal and –SBO signal are being radiated
from aerials, ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ respectively. In other words, it is clear that signal with specific
phase relationship is being radiated from various antenna elements. Imagine the effect in
tone predominance if SBO signals were interchanged. Certainly then tone predominance is
BLUE and YELLOW sectors would also have changed in a manner where 90Hz > 150Hz in BLUE
SECTOR and 150Hz > 90Hz in YELLOW SECTOR, which is totally undesirable. Hence, it is stated
that the correct tone predominance is set by proper phasing of the SBO signals relative to
CSB.
The SUM of DEPTH OF MODULATION (SDM) which is addition of 90Hz and 150Hz modulation
depth on carrier remains same everywhere in the pattern.

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1.2.2. CHARATERIZE THE SIGNALS TO BE RADIATED
The above discussions gave the Amplitude and Phase relationship between CSB and SBO to
produce DDM. However, the three element aerial array does not unfortunately provide
required coverage and Displacement Sensitivity (DS). The DS is the ratio of measured DDM to
the corresponding lateral displacement from the appropriate reference line which is the
COURSE line.
Also, it does not remain linear out to 18% DDM. CSB signal fed to Aerial ‘B’ located on the
extended centre line of runway provide excess coverage and reflections due to objects like
tall building, hills and bridges located in this wider coverage area may create complications in
localizer radiation such as course bending etc. Hence, practical Localizer antenna array system
consists of more number of antenna elements. These antenna array systems not only restrict
the localizer azimuth coverage within the specified limit but also meet the requirement of
displacement sensitivity (DS).
The practical ILS Localizer antenna array will consist of either 12, 14, 16, 20 or 24 elements
depending on the local requirements.
The figure given below shows the typical radiation pattern of LLZ antenna from which CSB
and SBO signals are radiated to produce the required pattern to obtain DDM in space. It can
be seen that radiations in front of the antenna and in course sector produces the required
DDM. However, back side radiation also exists behind the antenna array which produces the
same effect as the front course sector but in at a considerable reduced amount. The aircraft
shall not use for guidance purposes.

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FIG: 1.28 COMBINED RADIATION PATTERN
In the field, since all the RF signals are in phase, the sidebands will either add or subtract
depending on the polarity to produce the tone predominance on each side of the runway. It
can be seen that patterns are very similar to those achieved with 3-elements localizer array
system except the signal is now concentrated in a smaller area and displacement sensitivity
is linear out to 18% DDM. The same criteria which was applicable to the 3-element localizer
also apply in this case:
 The relative phase of SBO signals set the tone predominance.
 The SBO power will set the displacement sensitivity.
When CSB and SBO signal of Clearance radiations are combined together with the radiation
of course signals a radiation pattern of wider coverage is achieved.
In similar way, tone predominance is obtained from GP, by radiating CSB and SBO signals from
antenna array. The 150Hz tone predominates below and 90Hz predominates above the
COURSE line (Glidepath) respectively.
Please refer ICAO Annex 10, Volume 1 , Para 3.1.3.7 Displacement sensitivity

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1.2.3. RELATE THE ADJUSTMENTS OF SIGNALS GENERATED TO THE RESULTING BEAM
PATTERNS AND STANDARDS.
PHASES AND AMPLITUDE IN ANTENNA ARRAY
An antenna array is an arrangement of several individual antennas so spaced and phased that
their individual contributions combine in one preferred direction and cancel in undesired
directions to get directivity. Thus an antenna array is a method of combining the radiations
from a group of similar antennas.
An antenna array is said to be linear if the individual antennas of the array are equally spaced
along a straight line. Individual antennas of an antenna array are also called “Elements of the
antenna array”. These elements can either be ‘λ/2’ antenna elements or any other complex
radiating antenna elements like Log Periodic Antenna Array (LPDA).
The total field produced by an antenna array system is equal to the vector sum of the fields
produced by individual antennas of the array system. Hence, the amplitude and phase of the
signals fed to each of the elements of the array is of great significance as it influences the total
field produced. The ILS antenna array consists of a number of pairs of antennas. In order to
understand the radiation pattern of these arrays, it is essential to consider the radiation
pattern produced by one pair of antennas and then the combined radiation pattern is
obtained by phasor addition. In this lesson we shall adopt some standard notations, namely:
I = Im Sin (ωt+φ)
Since the antennas in given array will be supplied energy from a single RF source, the term
containing frequency (‘ωt’) may be omitted when writing the polar form. In the polar form,
‘φ’ expresses the initial phase angle of the current and the bar above ‘I’ indicates that it is a
phasor quantity. The ILS antenna arrays can be easily analysed on the basis of two specific
types of antenna pairs namely:
 Signal In-Phase (SIP) are those antenna feed currents which are of equal amplitude
and in phase; and
 Signal Out-of-Phase (SOP) are those antenna feed currents which are of equal
amplitude but of opposite phase.

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o EFFECT OF SEPERATION BETWEEN TWO ANTENNAS
In general, the effect of increasing the separation between antennas of an array is two-fold:
 The number of lobes in the pattern will increase; and
 The width of major lobe will reduce.
Since the array is considered to be composed of isotropic radiators, each lobe will be of the
same magnitude. It should be noted that the pattern shown in the figure ‘b’ given below
would not be adversely affected even if the radiators were composed of antenna elements.
In the discussion to follow, the lobe of this figure is considered the major lobe. In the figure
the antennas are separated by a distance of ‘λ/2’, fed with EQUAL currents and SAME phase.
It produces two lobes one in the front side of the array and at the rear.
FIG: 1.9 BASIC 2-ELEMENT ANTENNA ARRAY

The REFERENCE ARRAY of TWO ISOTROPIC radiators is shown in the above figure ‘a’ and the
resultant pattern is shown in figure ‘b’.
It is not necessary to solve for the resultant field intensity at all angles in order to sketch a
radiation pattern. A sketch, while not accurate at all points in the pattern; does present the
critical points (i.e. the MAXIMUM and NULLS), which are usually the main points of interest.
The critical points of a pattern can usually be determined by inspection of the array diagram,
and furthermore, because of the symmetry of a pattern, the critical points need to be
determined only in one hemisphere.

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Since these two antennas have equal current amplitudes and equal current phases of 0°, it is
apparent that the maximum resultant field intensity occurs on the reference line (θ = 0°). As
the point of observation is moved from the reference line (a change in the angle ‘θ’) the
individual antenna phasors rotate in opposite directions by an amount given by the quantity
(a sinθ). Since 90° of phasor rotation is required for an oppositely phased condition between
the two antenna phasors (remember, both phasors rotate at the same rate, but in opposite
directions) the angle ‘θ’ at which the out-of-phase condition occurs in quadrant ‘I’ can be
determined as follows:
 a Sinθ = Phasor rotation, where a = λ/4 = 90°
 a Sin θ = 90° which denotes NULL or Sin θ = 90°/90° = 1,or θ = 90°
Therefore, the first maximum is at θ = 0° and the first null is at θ = 90°.
If the separation between the antennas is increased the pattern in space gets modified. The
resultant radiation pattern is shown below. In this the separation between the antennas is
increased to ‘λ’ and again fed with EQUAL currents and SAME phase. It is to be noted that the
number of lobes has now increased to FOUR and the width of major lobe has got reduced.
FIG: 1.30 A VARIATION IN BASIC 2-ELEMENT ARRAY

Refer again to above figure. The two diagrams are divided into quadrants I, II, III, and IV.
Since it is only necessary to determine critical points in one hemisphere, quadrants I
and IV are used, and furthermore, the 0° bisector of these two quadrants becomes the
reference line. After the radiation pattern for quadrants I and IV is determined, quadrants II
and III are drawn in as the minor image of ‘I’ and ‘IV’. Since the antennas have EQUAL currents

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in amplitude and EQUAL current phases which are 0°, it is apparent that maximum resultant
field intensity occurs at the REFERENCE line. As the point of observation is moved away from
the centre line the individual antenna phasors rotate in opposite directions by an amount
given by the quantity ‘aSinϴ’. Since, 90° phasor rotation is required for an oppositely phased
condition between two antenna phasors, the angle ‘ϴ’ at which the out-of-phase condition
occurs in quadrant ‘I’ can be determined as follows:
 a Sin θ = 90° which denotes NULL or Sin θ = 90°/180° = ½ ,or θ = 30°.
As shown above the first critical point of quadrant ‘1’ is located at θ = 30° and because the
phasors are diametrically opposed and of equal magnitude, this critical point is a NULL.
The maximum amount of phasor rotation possible in any quadrant is given by the value of ‘a’.
Since only 90° of phasor rotation has been considered so far resulting in a NULL another 90°
of rotation is possible, and of course will result in the phasors returning to an in-phase
condition which produces MAXIMUM radiation.
The value of ‘ϴ’ at which it occurs is again determined by
 a Sin θ = 180° which denotes MAXIMUM or Sin θ = 180°/180° = 1,or θ = 90°.
Hence, the second critical point is a maximum and occurs at θ = 90°. Since θ = 90° is the limit
of quadrant ‘I’, there can be no other critical points in the first quadrant.
The critical points of quadrant ‘IV’ are yet to be determined. To do so requires, first of all, a
return to the initial condition, or θ = 0°, and then an investigation of the critical points in
quadrant ‘IV’. Again, each phasor will rotate as the point of observation is moved into
quadrant IV. Since 180° of phasor rotation is possible, and both phasors are initially in phase,
there will be a null and a maximum in the fourth quadrant, just as in the first quadrant. The
astute observer will note, however, that the critical points of quadrants ‘I’ and ‘IV’ occur at
respective values of angle only because the relative phase of the exciting currents is 0°. Also,
it should be noted that the minimums are complete NULLS only because the magnitudes of
the exciting currents are equal.

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In the final analysis, it can be stated that when the separation between the isotopic radiators
was ‘λ/2’ or 180°, there was one lobe in the ‘I’&‘IV’ quadrants, and the first nulls occurred at
± 90°. As against this, when the separation was increased to ‘λ’ or 360°, there were two lobes
in the ‘I’&‘IV’ quadrants and the first NULLS occurred at ±30°. It can therefore be concluded
that the effect of increasing the separation between antennas of an array is two-fold:
 The number of lobes in the pattern increases
 The width of the major lobe reduces.
o IN-PHASE PAIR [SIGNAL-IN-PHASE (SIP)]

A discussion is made on a particular antenna pair, the SIP in which thoseantennas fed with
EQUAL CURRENTS and PHASE. It is limited to horizontal radiation pattern.
FIG: 1.31 SIP ANTENNA PAIR
The above figure shows the SIP diagram, in which the distance between the antenna pair is
given as ‘2a’ with currents ‘I’ = I Cos ωt. The resultant radiation at a point ‘R’ due to antenna
feeds are
 Due to antenna ‘A’ it is I Cos [ωt - φ] because of phase advancement
 Due to antenna ‘B’ it is I Cos [ωt+φ]because of phase retardation.

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‘IR’ = I Cos [ωt - φ] + I Cos [ωt+φ]
= I CosωtCosφ + I SinωtSinφ + I CosωtCosφ - I SinωtSinφ
= 2I CosωtCosφ
= 2I Cosωt Cos [aSinϴ]
= K Cos(a sinϴ), where K = 2I Cosωt.
IR = K Cos (a Sinϴ)
From the above equation,

The direction of MAXIMUM radiations are always at ‘ϴ’ = 0° & 180° and also when
ϴ = Sin-1(n*180/a)
)
The direction of NULL radiations will be at

ϴ = Sin-1 [(n*180) + 90] / a
)
Thus it can be concluded that when the isotropic elements of a 2-ELEMENT ARRAY are fed
with signals-in-phase, the total field produced would have following characteristics:
 Maximum field on the centre-line
 The number of lobes produced per quadrant is equal to the number of wavelengths
‘λ’ separation between the two antennas.
 Alternate lobes are always in anti-phase.
The figure given below shows the radiation pattern produced by a 2-Element array in which
the separation between the antennas is ‘2λ’. In this the 0° refers the centreline.

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FIG: 1.32 RADIATION PATTERN DUE TO SIP (a = 2λ)
o OPPOSITELY-PHASED PAIR [SIGNALS OUT-OF-PHASE (SOP)]

In this a discussion is made on a particular antenna pair, the SOP in which those antennas fed
with EQUAL CURRENTS but OUT-OF-PHASE. It is limited to horizontal radiation pattern.
FIG: 1.33 SOP ANTENNA PAIR

The above figure shows the SOP diagram, in which the distance between the antenna pair is
given as ‘2a’ with currents in one of the antenna is ‘I Cos ωt’ and the other ‘-I Cos ωt’. The
resultant radiation at a point ‘R’ due to antenna feeds are
 Due to antenna ‘A’ it is I Cos [ωt - φ] because of phase advancement
 Due to antenna ‘B’ it is -I Cos [ωt+φ]because of phase retardation.

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‘IR’ = [I Cos (ωt-φ)-I Cos (ωt+φ)]

= I CosωtCosφ + I SinωtSinφ-I CosωtCosφ + I SinωtSinφ
= 2I SinωtSinφ
= 2I SinωtSin [aSinϴ]
= K Sin (a sinϴ), where K = 2I Sinωt.
IR = K Sin (a Sinϴ)
From the above equation,

The direction of MAXIMUM radiations occurs at
ϴ = Sin-1[(n*180) + 90] /a
)
The direction of NULL radiations will be at 0° and 180° as well as at

ϴ = Sin-1 (n*180) / a
)
Thus it can be concluded that when the isotropic elements of a 2-ELEMENT ARRAY are fed
with signals in OUT-OF-PHASE, the total field produced would have following characteristics:
 ZERO radiation field on the centre-line
 The number of lobes produced per quadrant is equal to the number of wavelengths
‘λ’ separation between the two antennas.
 Alternate lobes are always in anti-phase
 The phase of the radiation is changed as centre-line is crossed.

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For example aerials spaced ‘λ’ apart, will produce one lobe per quadrant as shown in figure
given below. In this the 0° refers the centreline.
FIG: 1.34 RADIATION PATTERN DUE TO SOP (a = λ)
o COMBINED RADIATION PATTERN

When an array contains two or more antenna pairs, and all the pairs are either fed in phase
or in phase opposition, the combined radiation pattern from such an array in a particular
direction could be obtained by simple algebraic addition of field strength magnitudes due to
individual pairs. All normally operating ILS antenna arrays consists of various combinations of
in-phase and oppositely phased pairs. If an array consists of an in-phase pair and an oppositely
phased pair, particular current phasing conditions must be chosen if the combined fields from
each pair are to add algebraically in all directions. It can be proved that if the currents in one
pair are in quadrature with the other pair, then the fields will add algebraically. This fact is
made use of in the Localizer array where the sideband antenna pairs are fed currents with
relative phase angles of 0° and 180° while the carrier pairs are fed currents at the relative
phase angle of 90°, so that the effective radiation in any direction is readily obtained by simple
algebraic addition of the various combined fields.
o ENHANCING RADIATION PATTERN USING PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
If the isotropic antennas in an array are replaced by directional antennas like dipole, the
resultant radiation pattern of the array becomes more directional. The total field pattern of

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an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the product of the individual source pattern
and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources each located at the phase-centre of the
individual source and having the same relative amplitude and phase, while the total phase
pattern is the sum of the phase patterns of the individual source and the an-ay of isotropic
point sources.
As discussed earlier, by feeding equal signals to all the elements of an array, in addition to the
principal or major lobe, secondary or minor lobes are also produced. The minor lobes are
usually undesirable, because not only considerable amount of power is wasted in the
directions of the minor lobes but also unnecessary interference is caused in these areas. By
using a reflector behind the aerials, the back radiation will be eliminated and the forward
radiation is enhanced.
All these techniques are employed in the design of ILS antennas.
o ELEVATION COVERAGE
The elevation coverage of Localizer Antenna Array can be explained based on Image Antenna
theory. Consider an isotropic horizontally polarized antenna above a perfectly conducting
plane as shown in the figure given below.
FIG: 1.35 IMAGE ANTENNA CONCEPT

The electric field intensity received at any point will consist of two components namely:
 Due to direct wave from the antenna and
 Due to the reflected wave from the conducting surface.
Since the antenna is horizontally polarized, ‘E’ field will reverse its direction upon reflection.
The same can be applied to any antenna placed above the ground. Ground can be considered

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a perfect conducting plane for all practical purposes. Hence, it follows, from the simple
geometry that an antenna kept at a height ‘H’ above the ground may be considered as two
radiating elements, ‘A1’ and ‘A2’, spaced 2H apart and radiating in anti-phase. Now a
maximum signal will be received when the signal from antennas ‘A1’ and ‘A2’ arrive at the
receiver in phase. For this to happen, the path difference in the two path lengths must be
equal to ‘λ/2’. This result in the maximum radiation at an angle ‘θ’ which is related to the
height ‘H’ as given the formula:
 E = A sin (H sin θ)
 Sin (λ Sin θ) = 1 = Sin λ/4; where lobe MAXIMUM radiation is achieved
 or λ Sin θ = λ/4
 or Sin θ = ¼
 or θ = 14.5’
The desired direction of radiation is typically 3° in elevation defined in ICAO ANNEX-10
specification; at which localizer coverage should be available; however to cater to such low
elevation angles, the localizer antenna array will have to be placed abnormally high, becoming
a source of obstruction for landing and take-off aircrafts. For this reason, as a compromise
between the obstruction clearance and desired angle of radiation, the height of localizer
antenna array is usually kept at ‘1λ’, which is a height of approximately 3m at localizer
frequency. The antenna and its image form an out of phase antenna pair spaced ‘2λ’ apart,
and hence there will be an additional lobe at a higher angle.
The Localizer antenna array is mounted at a height ‘λ’ above the ground and hence, maximum
radiation occurs at 14.5° with respect to ground. As aircraft approach a runway typically at 3°,
it can be seen that only the lowest portion of the lobe is used. However, the regulations state
that the field strength in a section between 2000 feet and 7° from the horizontal must be of
useable amplitude. Therefore, the power of the transmission must be increased considerably.
MODULATION ON CARRIER SIGNAL

The nominal depth of modulation of the radio frequency carrier due to each of the 90Hz and
150Hz tones shall be 20% along the course line. The depth of modulation of the radio
frequency carrier due to each of the 90Hz and 150Hz tones shall be within the limits of 18%
and 22%.

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The modulation tones shall be phase-locked so that within the half course sector, the
demodulated 90Hz and 150Hz wave forms pass through zero in the same direction within:
 for Facility Performance Categories ‘I’ and ‘II’ localizers it is 20°; and
 For Facility Performance Category ‘III’ localizers it is 10°,
The above are relative phase with respect to the 150Hz component, every half cycle of the
combined 90Hz and 150Hz wave form.
PHASE AND AMPLITUDE OF SIDEBAND

In ILS, the CSB and SBO signals from the transmitter are fed to the antenna array using
separate transmission lines. Also, the signals are fed in pairs to obtain the required radiation
pattern. Considering the 3-Element array, and as discussed earlier the CSB and SBO signals
are fed to the antenna array maintaining a particular phase. The CSB signal is fed to the array
as SIP, and the SBO signal in SOP. The phase relationship is such that phase quadrature (90°)
is maintained between CSB and SBO, so that the resultant signal will get added in the field
due to space modulation. The SBO signal to the antenna pair are fed with out-of-phase (180°)
between the antennas. The exact feed of SBO signal to the antenna pair determines the
correct tone predominance.
o AZIMUTH COURSE COVERAGE USING MUTIPLE ANTENNAS IN ARRAY
The azimuth guidance in the course area is produced by radiating two signals namely
 CSB/CL (Carrier with Sidebands/Course)
 SBO/CL (Sidebands Only/Course)
FIG: 1.36 CSB/CL DISTRIBUTION & RADIATION PATTERN

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As shown in the above figure across the length of the array (12-ELEMENT ARRAY) the
distribution of CSB/CL signal produces a MAXIMUM in the centre and reducing to MINIMUM
at the ends. As mentioned earlier the CSB signals are fed in RF phase to the required pairs
obtain the required radiation pattern consisting of a single narrow major lobe falling to 11.5°
from the centreline and having minimum side lobes. Since, the DDM due to 90Hz and 150Hz
tone is set to 20% in the CSB/CL signal, ZERO DDM will result everywhere in the radiation
pattern. The SBO/CL (SOP) is fed to all SIX pairs of the antennas. The distribution of SBO signal
across the length of the antenna array produces a MAXIMUM at either side equally placed
from the centreline and MINIMUM at the centre and both the ends. The amplitude of RF feed
is shown in the figure given below.
FIG: 1.37 SBO/CL DISTRIBUTION & RADIATION PATTERN
If the CSB and SBO patterns are combined the following radiation pattern results in the field.

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FIG: 1.38 COMBINED PATTERN

The ratio of CSB and SBO signal level produced in the field determine the DDM. It is known
that the CSB signal consists of both carrier and sideband frequency components with
percentage of modulation of each tone kept at 20%. The SBO power fed to the antenna is
considerably smaller than the CSB power, so that the DDM achieved in the field is due to the
SBO power which gets added with CSB signal. As seen before at any point on the centreline
the DDM obtained is ZERO. It is due to the fact that as no SBO signal is present in the
centreline, the DDM obtained in the field is due to the modulation depth of 90Hz and 150Hz
tones in CSB signal which is due to the transmitter modulation only. Hence, the DDM is ZERO
everywhere on the centreline.
As the observation point is moved away from the centreline SBO signal will be present which
gets added with CSB to achieve DDM. Here, it is necessary to understand the effect of phasing
between the CSB and SBO signals. Recall from our earlier subject the concept of space
modulation. As CSB and SBO signals gets added in the field due to space modulation, any
amount of mis-phasing between CSB and SBO results in reduction in space modulation which
affects DDM and hence, indication in the airborne receiver. Away from the centreline on
either side the DDM rises equally with set tone predominance to make the airborne receiver
indicate the amount of angular deviation or displacement from the centreline properly. This
is defined as Displacement Sensitivity.

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FIG: 1.39 CHANGE IN DDM BECAUSE OF ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT

As shown above the CSB and SBO signals are in RF phase, the sidebands will add or subtract,
depending on the polarity to produce the tone predominance on each side of the runway. It
can be seen that patterns are very similar to those achieved with 3-Elements LLZ array system
except the signal is now concentrated in a smaller area and displacement sensitivity is linear
out to 18° DDM.
The same criterion which was applicable to the 3-Element localizer also applies in this case.
 The relative phase of SBO signals set the tone predominance.
 The SBO power will set the displacement sensitivity.
ICAO ANNEX-10 defines the nominal displacement sensitivity within the half course sector
shall be the equivalent of 0.00145 DDM/m OR 0.00044 DDM/feet at the ILS reference datum.
The ILS HALF COURSE for LLZ is defined in a horizontal plane containing the course line and
limited by the loci of points nearest to the course line at which the DDM is 0.0775 (7.75%)
and in GP this sector in the vertical plane containing the ILS glide path and limited by the loci
of points nearest to the glide path at which the DDM is 0.0875 (8.75%).
The REFERENCE DATUM is a point ‘T’ at a specified height located above the intersection of
the runway centre line and the threshold and through which the downward extended straight
portion of the ILS glide path passes.
The increase of DDM shall be substantially linear with respect to angular displacement from
the front course line (where DDM is ZERO) up to an angle on either side of the front course

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line where the DDM is 0.180 (18%). From that angle to ± 10°, the DDM shall not be less than
0.180. From ± 10° to ± 35°, the DDM shall not be less than 0.155 (15.5%). Where coverage is
required outside of the ± 35°, the DDM in the area of the coverage, except in the back course
sector, shall not be less than 0.155 (15.5%).
The maximum course width angle for LLZ shall not exceed 6°.
1.2.4. EXPLAIN THE REQUIRED PERFORMANCE OF AN ANTENNA ARRAY

BEAMBEND POTENTIAL
As discussed before, the 3-Element array provides a better understanding of achieving DDM
in the field. However, it was seen earlier it suffers from poor performance issues such as wider
azimuth coverage produced by CSB & SBO signals and Displacement Sensitivity (DS). Also, the
DS does not remain linear out to 18% DDM. The effect of excess coverage produces reflections
due to objects like tall building, hills and bridges located in that area which may create
complications in localizer radiation such as course bending etc. Hence, practical Localizer
antenna array system consists of more number of antenna elements. These antenna array
systems not only restrict the localizer azimuth coverage within the specified limit but also
meet the requirement of displacement sensitivity (DS).
o SBO FEED
The course structure performance degradation (bends, etc.) is determined by the SBO
radiation on the reflecting object and on the reflecting properties of the object. Any object
inside the sector from 12° to 23° is responsible to produce severe beam bends. Beam-bend
potential gives the maximum performance degradation on the course if the object reflects all
the incidental radiation in the direction to the approaching aircraft. This issue is mitigated by
producing low radiation intensity in the direction of objects which is achieved by feeding
lesser amount of SBO signal power to particular set of antenna pairs. The beam bend potential
in the vertical pattern is less pronounced due to the fact that the aircraft usually approaches
at 3° elevation angle, and quite often the vertical angle to the buildings is less than 3° which
gives lower radiation from the objects.

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o CRITICAL AREA
The environment of an airport in terms of large fixed objects such as tall buildings cause the
structure of the LLZ and/or GP to be near the tolerance limits for the category of operation,
much larger sensitive areas may need to be established. This is because the effect of moving
objects, which the sensitive areas are designed to protect the ILS against, has to be added to
the static beam bends caused by fixed objects. However, direct addition of the maximum
bend amplitudes is not considered appropriate and a root sum square combination is felt to
be more realistic.
Let us take two cases of example in which static objects produce beam bend. If LLZ course
bends due to static objects equals ± 0.155% DDM (1½μA) and with the limits ±5μA the
allowance for moving objects to define localizer sensitive area is
In second case if LLZ course bends due to static objects equals ± 0.413% DDM (4μA) and with
the limit is ±5μA the allowance for moving objects to define localizer sensitive area is
In the second case as the allowance is less the sensitive area would have to be larger, thus
keeping interfering objects further away from the runway so that they produce 3μA or less
distortion of the localizer beam. The same principle is applied to the glide path sensitive area.
COVERAGE
LLZ bends and areas can be reduced with insufficient difference in depth of modulation
(DDM). Owing to site effects at certain locations, it is not always possible to produce, with
simple standard ILS installations, LLZ courses that are sufficiently free from troublesome
bends or irregularities. If this is the case, it is highly preferable to use two RF carriers to
provide the standard coverage and signal characteristics. When using the coverage reduction
care needs to be taken to ensure that the reduced coverage volume is consistent with the
minimum altitudes published for the instrument approach procedure. Additionally, normal
vectoring operations should not be terminated and a clearance to intercept the localizer
should not be issued until within the promulgated coverage area. This is sometimes referred
to as the operational service volume.

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SUB-TOPIC 1.3: TWO FREQUENCY SYSTEM
1.3.1. EXPLAIN THE LIMITATION OF A SINGLE FREQUENCY SYSTEM
MULTIPATH IN ADVERSE ENVIRONMENT AND TERRAIN
As stated in ICAO specifications the LLZ azimuth coverage is restricted to ±35°. It should be
mentioned at this stage that one of the paramount problems with LLZ are reflections from
the objects in the area of HIGH DDM on the runway centreline. This is illustrated using the
figure given below.
Fig: 1.40 EFFECT OF REFLECTIONS ON LOCALIZER COURSE

One reason of coverage restriction to only ±35° is to eliminate the effects of objects outside
this area. However there remains the problem of reflection from objects sited within the
COURSE coverage area.
The basic Course Coverage pattern suffers from two drawbacks:
 Main-lobe beam-width does not provide the coverage specified by ICAO as 17NM up
to ±35°
 The COURSE pattern produces side-lobes which give false guidance information.
To reduce this problem the coverage area is divided into two areas namely the COURSE and
CLEARANCE areas. The COURSE area is defined as the area within ±10° on either side of the
centreline and the CLEARANCE area is between ±10° and ±35°.
There are three methods by which the CLEARANCE coverage can be obtained namely:
 In-phase clearance
 Two frequency clearance
 Quadrature clearance.
In-phase clearance employs signals at the same frequency and in-phase with the course
transmission, but only fed to the centre antenna elements giving greater coverage. In this
case the antenna elements are highly directive thus suppressing side-lobes.

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Quadrature clearance employs signals at the same frequency but at an AUDIO and RF
quadrature from the course transmission, fed only to the inner central elements pair.
STAN/GCEL LLZ employed this method of clearance.
Two frequency Clearance employs signals displaced approximately 10 KHz from the COURSE
transmission and fed only to centre antenna elements. Present day ILS such as NORMARC,
THALES employs this method.
In a SINGLE frequency LLZ the effect of reflections in the course line at far field can be
attributed to the reflections from the nearby objects in the vicinity of the antenna array. The
effect is such that reflections of CSB signal from the objects would normally be well below the
level of direct path signal and thus its effect can be regarded as ZERO for all practical purposes.
However, the effect of SBO signal needs to be considered because there would be no SBO
signal along the extended centreline. The reflections of SBO signal from nearby objects in the
far field create course line bends at the far-field. The effect can be mitigated by employing a
CLEARANCE signal apart from the COURSE signal.
EXAMPLE:
The figure given below shows the signal distribution of NORMARC NM 3522 6-Elements
Antenna Array.
FIG: 1.41 6-ELEMENT ANTENNA ARRAY SPACING

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The spacing and amplitudes are optimised to give radiation patterns of low intensity inside
the critical sector between 10°& 20° from the course line, where most of the major reflecting
objects are located.
FIG: 1.42 SIGNAL DISTRIBUTION ACROSS ANTENNA ARRAY
The figure given above shows the CSB and SBO signal distribution across the antenna array.
The centre elements are fed with maximum amplitude and diminishes towards the end and
the phase of CSB RF signal is 0° across the array. The SBO signal to the centre elements are
fed with equal signal amplitude but in OUT-OF-PHASE. This produces a deep NULL at the
centreline. The outer antennas are fed with lesser amount of signal to achiever desired
radiation pattern. It is to be noted that the phase difference between SBO signals on the LHS
and RHS of the array is 180°, but both are in phase quadrature (90°) with the CSB signal. This
is necessary to produce tone predominance and course width. The COURSE WIDTH produced
by this array with the set signal distribution is 5° which conforms to the ICAO specification.
The radiation pattern of the array is the sum of the patterns of each antenna element pair.
The CSB and SBO patterns of the three element pairs are shown in the figures given below.

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FIG: 1.43 CSB RADIATION PATTERN

The above figure depicts the CSB radiation pattern in the far-field. It can be seen that the field
amplitude is MAXIMUM at the centre and rolls-off as the azimuth angle is increased. The CSB
pattern has a null at 42.5°, which gives an infinite DDM at this angle. The aircraft ILS receiver
will react on this signal by course indication (DDM = 0) and a FLAG WARNING. The "flag"-
warning results from a too low sum of depth of modulation (SDM) of 90 Hz and 150 Hz. The
pilot should not use the guidance information with a "flag"-warning, and neither should an
ILS be used outside the ±35° sector. In the figure the difference between the radiation
patterns generated by ISOTROPIC elements and LOG-PERIODIC DIPOLE ARRAY elements. It is
obvious from the figure that LPDA generated radiation pattern is superior to that of Isotropic
pattern.
FIG: 1.44 SBO RADIATION PATTERN

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The above figure shows that SBO pattern’s NULL at 64°, which gives course information as
DDM is ZERO with no FLAG warning. This false course has no practical interest as it is well
outside the ±35°sector
.
FIG: 1.45 CALCULATED DDM AND MODULATION DISTRIBUTION

The figure given above shows the resulting DDM and modulation distribution in the far field.
Values below 40% modulation are DDM values; above 40% are SDM values. It may be noted
that the negative section of the Modulation (%) axis indicates that the resulting modulation
component (150 Hz) changes phase polarity.
The distribution conforms to ICAO specification in which the increase of DDM shall be
substantially linear with respect to angular displacement from the front course-line (where
DDM is zero) up to an angle on either side of the front course line where the DDM is 0.180.
From that angle to ± 10°, the DDM shall not be less than 0.180. From ± 10°to ± 35°, the DDM
shall not be less than 0.155. Where coverage is required outside of the plus or minus 35°
sector, the DDM in the area of the coverage, except in the back course sector, shall not be
less than 0.155.

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1.3.2. DESCRIBE THE CAPTURE EFFECT
ILS has been developed and utilized that employ the capture-effect principle in order to
provide a narrowly defined course radiation pattern and a wider, clearance pattern which
cannot interfere with the course. The capture-effect system relies on frequency separation
between the course and clearance signals, often radiated by two separate antenna arrays.
The course array and the clearance array radiate signals of slightly different carrier
frequencies, typically a frequency separation of from 5 KHz to 10 KHz. It may be appreciated
that this frequency separation is relatively small, particularly in view of the fact that the
localizer frequency band is from 108 MHz to 112MHz.
The capture-effect is a phenomenon resulting from the nature of the linear detectors utilized
in airborne localizer receiving equipment. The receiver pass-band is sufficiently wide to accept
both the course frequency and the clearance frequency signals. However, when two signals
of slightly different frequency are simultaneously present in the pass-band of the receiver,
the linear detector will discriminate against the weaker signal, in favour of the stronger one
here being the course signal, thereby causing the receiver to capture the stronger signal and
to essentially ignore the weaker, clearance signal.
The aircraft AF circuits will reject the beat signal provided it is above 4 KHz. It can be seen that
it is important that the tolerances, of the two transmitters are strictly controlled. If the
frequency difference is too large the transmissions may interfere with the adjacent channels
and if it is too small the beat frequency will pass through the aircraft receiver circuits and
upset the DDM measurements. The tolerance for the transmitters, in this case is ± 0.002%
instead of ± 0.005% allowed for signal frequency system.

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1.3.3. DESCRIBE THE RADIATION PATTERN OF 2F LLZ AND 2F GP
The figure given below shows the signal distribution of TWO FREQUENCY NORMARC LLZ NM
352616-Element Antenna Array.
FIG: 1.46 COURSE /CLEARANCE SIGNALS DISTRIBUTION ACROSS ANTENNA ARRAY
The above figure depicts NORMARC’s 16-Element Antenna Array. The distance between the
antenna elements are given. The antenna array aperture dimension is 38.46m. The following
are worth noting in respect of CSB and SBO signal distribution.
 CR/CSB signal is fed to all the antenna pairs. Elements ‘7’ & ‘10’ are fed with maximum
amplitude and diminish towards the end. The signal phase is maintained at 0°.
 CR/SBO signal is fed to all the antenna pairs. Elements ‘4’ & ‘13’ are fed with maximum
amplitude and diminish slowly towards the end. However, the signal feed to the
central pairs diminishes rapidly. The signal phase is maintained at +90° and -90° across
the array.
 CR/CSB signal is fed to all the antenna pairs except elements ‘2’ & ‘15’. Also, the
amplitude feed to elements ‘8’ & ‘9’ is maximum and very large and the amplitude to
other elements are highly irregular. The signal phase is maintained at 0° & 180°. The
signal phase at centre antenna produces NULL at the centre.

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 CLR/SBO signal is fed to all the antenna pairs except the end elements ‘1’ & ‘16’. The
centre antenna pair is fed with maximum amplitude and diminishes rapidly to the
other antenna pairs. The signal phase is maintained at +90° and -90° across the array.
Compare the relative amplitudes of CR CSB/SBO and CLR CSB/SBO signals.
The figure given below shows the radiation pattern produced based on the above signal
distribution. Several minor lobes are generated apart from the main lobe. The amplitude scale
is between ‘0’dB and ‘-60’ db. The main lobe amplitude is MAXIMUM at the centre and falls
to a MINIMUM (-50dB) near to 8° azimuth angle from the centre.
FIG: 1.47 CR/SBO LOBE STRUCTURE

The figure given above shows the radiation pattern produced by the SBO signal distribution.
The amplitude scale is between ‘0’dB and ‘-40’ db. A deep NULL exists at 0° indicating no SBO
power and rises to MAXIMUM rapidly. Thereafter, the amplitude drops near to -35dB near to
8° azimuth and several minor lobes are generated.

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FIG: 1.48 CLR/CSB LOBE STRUCTURE

The figure given above shows the clearance CSB radiation. The amplitude scale is between
‘0’dB and ‘-60’ db. Two lobes are produced, wherein at the centre 0° the amplitude is -20dB
relatively lesser than CR/CSB. The pattern has constant amplitude between 8° and 40°
azimuth and a deep NULL occurs near to 40° azimuth. After that the amplitude rises and falls
to ZERO at 90° azimuth, though do not have any practical importance.
FIG: 1.49 CR/SBO LOBE STRUCTURE

The figure given above shows the clearance SBO radiation. The amplitude scale is between
0dB and -50 db. Single lobe is produced, wherein at the centre 0° the amplitude is greater

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than -50dB which indicates a DEEP NULL with respect to CLR/CSB. The pattern has constant
amplitude between 8° and 30° azimuth and falls gradually up to 80° and thereafter it rolls-off
rapidly to ZERO at 90°azimuth.
FIG: 1.50 DDM DISTRIBUTION

The figure given above illustrates the DDM distribution in the far-field. From the centreline
(0°) the DDM rises linearly up to 40% which is achieved at 5° azimuth. Thereafter, it reduces
to 30% near to 7° and never falls below 30% up to 35°. The 35° azimuth is the coverage area
of LLZ. After that the DDM rises rapidly to INFINITY, though no practical importance is there
as far as operational requirement is concerned.
o GLIDEPATH ANTENNA ARRAY

The glide path aerial system provides the means for transmitting the ILS elevation guidance
information. This is achieved by transmitting combinations of glide path CSB and SBO signals
in the proper amplitude and phase relation from two or three radiating elements raised at
critical heights above the ground. These elements are mounted on a common mast, sited at
safe distance from the runway, adjacent to touchdown.
The following are the basic specifications for an ILS glide path:
 Carrier frequency predetermined between 328 MHz and 336 MHz
 Navigation tones consists of 90 Hz AND 150 Hz, modulated on the RF carrier at40 %
each tone on the glide path. Offset, one tone must predominate. The 150 Hz tone
modulation predominates below the glide angle and the 90 Hz above the glide angle.

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 Glide angle (θ) is set at a predetermined value between 2° and 4°.
 Displacement Sensitivity defines the DDM should be 0.0875 (8.75%) at ± 0.12 θ
and0.175 (17.5%) at ± 0.24 θ.
 Azimuth coverage is up to 10 NM at ± 8 degrees from the course line.
 Elevation coverage is up to 10 NM between 1.75 θ and 0.45 θ or to such low angles as
0.3 θ if required as per the promulgated ILS let down procedures.
Three types of GP antenna arrays are in use which is namely:
 NULL REFERENCE ARRAY
 Sideband Reference Array
 M-Array.
The principle of operation of a Glide path array can be explained using the Null Reference
Array.
o NULL REFERENCE ARRAY
The principle of operation of a null reference array is based on the Image Antenna theory.
Based on the Image theory, a dipole placed at a height of ‘H’ above the ground can be
considered as an anti-phase antenna pair with spacing of 2H. If the distance ‘2H’ is made equal
to ‘λ’ then one lobe of radiation is produced in the quadrant above the ground and the
radiated field is proportional to:
 sin (H sin θ) ; [E = Ao Sin (H Sin θ)]

Where, ‘θ’ is the elevation angle.
Hence, it can be easily seen that the maximum radiation occurs at the angle ‘θ’ given by the
formula:
 θ = sin-1 (λ/4H)
Conversely, for a given elevation angle of maximum radiation, the height of the antenna
above ground ‘H’ is given by the formula:
 H = λ /(4 sin θ)
From the above equation, it can be easily shown that for three degree elevation angle of
maximum radiation, the height of the antenna above ground ‘H’ is ‘5λ’.In this case although
there will be ten lobes of radiation (because 2H = 10λ), the first lobe will havea maximum
radiation at 3° as shown in figure given below.

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FIG: 1.51 RADIATION PATTERN OF AN ANTENNA KEPT AT HEIGHT ‘H’
By similar argument, if the antenna is kept at the height of 10λ, there will be twenty lobes per
quadrant in this case the lobes are produced above the ground plane. The first two lobes will
be so formed that there will be a NULL at 3° as shown in the figure given below. The amplitude
of signal fed to upper antenna is much less as compared to lower antenna.
FIG: 1.52 RADIATION PATTERN OF AN ANTENNA KEPT AT HEIGHT ‘2H’

A combination of the above two radiation patterns will result in the null reference glide-path.
This is achieved by the antenna array consisting of two antennas placed above the ground as
shown in the figure given below.

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FIG: 1.53 COMBINED RADIATION PATTERN

The lower antenna is placed at a height ‘H’ above the ground and radiates the CSB signal. The
upper antenna is placed at a height ‘2H’ above the ground and radiates the SBO signal. The
CSB signal will have carrier and sidebands in phase with the modulation depth of each tone is
40%. The SBO signal is has sidebands in anti-phase. The combination of the two signals will
produce a glide path as shown in figure shown in the next page.
Below glide angle, the vector addition of CSB and SBO signal will result in difference in DDM
where 150 Hz is greater than 90 Hz. At glide angle only CSB signal exists hence DDM will be
ZERO as depth of modulation in CSB signal by 150 Hz and 90Hz are equal (40% each). Above
glide angle 90 Hz is greater than 150 Hz.
The figure given below illustrates the radiation pattern in rectangular coordinates.
Examination of the situation at ‘3θ’ will reveal that a false glide angle exists with reversed
guidance information.

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FIG: 1.54 CSB/SBO SIGNAL AMPLITUDE IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

The configuration discussed so for is known as the NULL REFERENCE GLIDE PATH. It is,
perhaps, the simplest option and easiest to maintain as the height of the top aerial
determines the glide angle (assuming CSB is set to ‘0’ DDM). Electrical adjustment of the glide
angle can be made by adjusting the DDM of the CSB signal but this is not recommended as it
complicates maintenance. Additionally, the displacement sensitivity may be adjusted by
means of the SBO power, as in the case of the localizer. Increasing the SBO power increases
sensitivity and reduces the half sector width, which is the angle between ‘θ’ and the angle
where 8.75 % DDM is achieved. Reducing the SBO power does first the reverse.
The fact that false glide angle information is given at ‘3θ’ should not concern aircraft pilots
because the aircraft normally approaches an airfield below ‘θ’ which is due to the range.
Therefore, the receiver will capture the lowest lobe. For a glide angle of 2.5° and a height of
2000 feet to 5000 feet, the range at which this occurs is about 10 NM. The false glide angle
will be at a height of 4000 feet to 5000 feet, at this range the aircraft will therefore only uses
the lowest (correct) lobe for guidance. If the second lobe is captured the guidance information
is reversed which is not flyable. The NULL REFERENCE GP requires rather special
circumstances for optimum operation.

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Firstly, there is the subject of aerial height. For a typical value for 3° the height of lower
antenna ‘H’ which is 5λ equals 4.5 meters and the height of upper antenna is 2H which is
10λequals 9.0 meters.
It can be seen that aerial mast requirement for this case, is at least 9 meters. In many cases a
mast of this height is an unacceptable obstruction, so an alternative system must be used.
Additionally, because of the aerial height, it requires reasonably flat ground free from
modules out to at least 360 meters and thereafter no substantial obstruction out to ±10° each
side of the course line. Obstructions will create reflections resulting in distortion of the
elevation guidance information (beam bends).It is therefore required that an alternative
system should have lower aerials and some immunity from reflectors. This has resulted in the
development of two more glide path antenna systems namely:
 Sideband Reference System; and
 Quadrature clearance or M-Array system.
FIG: 1.55 TYPICAL VECTOR REPRESENTATION (NORMARC)

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FIG: 1.56 DDM vs ELEVATION ANGLE

o SIDEBAND REFERENCE SYSTEM
In the sideband reference system the antenna heights are ‘H/2’ and ‘3H/2’ thereby resulting
in a reduction of about 2.25 meters from the null reference mast working with the same value
of ‘H’. Since the heights of the aerials are lower, the effects of irregularities in ground level
are more pronounced but the area required for beam formation is less than that for the null
reference system.
The sideband reference system employs two transmitting aerials, mounted one above the
other at ‘H/2’ and ‘3H/2’ above the ground.
Where,
H = λ/4 Sinϴ
For‘H’ = 5λ MAXIMUM is obtained at 3°, then for H/2 = 2.5λ MAXIMUM will be at 6°.
 2.5λ = λ/4Sin θ
 Sin θ = [λ/4 * 2.5λ]
 θ=6°

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So, if a signal is fed to an aerial of height 2.5λ (H/2) the lobe maximum will be at approximately
6°.Consider an aerial kept at a height 3H/2. For each lobe produced from an aerial at H/2;
there will be three lobes produced from the aerial at 3H/2.
FIG: 1.57 RADIATION LOBES FOR ANTENNA HEIGHTS AT H/2 and 3H/2.
The CSB & SBO signals are fed to the lower antenna and SBO signal to the top antenna phased
as shown in the figure given below a glide path will result at ‘θ’ as shown. It is to be noted
that CSB maximum exists at ‘2θ’, so there is less signal on the glide path. There is
correspondingly less reflections from obstructions. In fact the reduction of signal on the glide
path is in the order of -6dB and the immunity from reflections is of the order of -2.3 dB over
the null reference system.
The coverage and DDM and predominance specifications are met. Because the top aerial is at
3H/2, it can be seen that the mast height is now of the order of 4.5m
FIG: 1.58 DISTRIBUTION OF CSB/SBO SIGNALS AND THEIR PHASE

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o M-ARRAY SYSTEM
This system is used at some sites which provide a very high immunity from reflections, even
at the expense of other factors. The QUADRATURE clearance or M-Array system is widely used
with NORMARC Installations. This array consists of three aerial elements mounted vertically
one above the other kept at heights H, 2H and 3H above the ground as shown in figure given
in the next page.
Each element is fed with the proportions of course CSB, course SBO and clearance CSB signals
in order to transmit the glide path radiation pattern with the minimum of interference from
the obstructions and rising ground lying directly in the glide path field. The clearance radiation
is phase advanced 90° on the course radiation to create a crossover region at ±0.66 about the
angle of elevation, and also being modulated to a depth of 60 % with 150 Hz tone and 20 %
with 90 Hz tone, ensures high values of FLY UP DDM at low elevations.
FIG: 1.59 M-ARRAY ANTENNA

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The array offers a potential improvement of 27.5 dB over the null reference array, with regard
to glide path interference, assuming an overall reflection factor of 10%. The DDM is linear
throughout the glide path width, being 17.5% at ± 0.24 θ.
COURSE CSB RADIATION
The course CSB/CL is fed to the lower and middle antenna elements, so that the lower
elementsignal is twice as great as, and in RF anti-phase with, the middle element signal.
TheCourse CSB radiation pattern is shown in the figure given below.
The height ‘H’ is calculated from the equation
H = λ/4 Sinϴ
Where, ‘θ’ is the required glide path angle.

The lower course CSB signal has a sinusoidal distribution, the field strength beinggiven by the
equation
 F ∞ sin [H sin (φ)]
The middle course CSB signal has sinusoidal distribution at twice the frequency, thefield
strength being given by the equation.
 F ∞ -1/2 sin [2H sin (φ)]
FIG: 1.60 COMBINED CSB SIGNAL DISTRIBUTION

The resultant CSB distribution, obtained by vector addition of the two CSB signals has low
values at low elevations and rises to maximum at about 1.3θ, the DDM distribution being
linear within the glide path width angle ± 0.24θ.

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COURSE SBO RADIATION
The course SBO signal is fed to all three aerial elements, so that the upper and the lower
elements signals are half the amplitude of, and in RF anti-phase with, the middle element
signal. The figure given below depicts the Course SBO radiation.
FIG: 1.61 COURSE SBO RADIATION

The lower course SBO signal has sinusoidal distribution the field strength being given by the
equation
 F∞ -1/2 sin [H sin (φ)]
The middle course SBO signal has sinusoidal distribution at twice the frequency of the lower
SBO signal, the field strength being given by equation
 F∞ sin [2Hsin(φ)]
The upper course SBO signal has sinusoidal distribution at the three times the frequency of
the lower SBO signal, the field strength being given by the equation
 F ∞ -1/2 sin [3H sin φ)]
The resultant course SBO pattern is obtained by vector addition of the lower, middle and
upper SBO distribution and has low values at low elevations, the first lobe maximum occurring
at about 0.7θ. The resultant has a null at the glide angle and rises to a second lobe maximum
at about 1.6 θ. The distribution through the glide path width of ± 0.24 θ is linear.

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CLEARANCE CSB RADIATION
The clearance CSB is fed to the upper and lower aerial elements at a relative signal level of
30% of the course CSB signal, and in quadrature with it. The figure given below shows the
clearance CSB radiation.
FIG: 1.62 COMBINED CLEARANCE CSB RADIATION

The clearance CSB signal applied to the lower aerial element has sinusoidal distribution, the
distribution being given by the equation
 F ∞ 0.3sin [H sin φ)]
The clearance CSB signal applied to the upper aerial element has a sinusoidal distribution at
three times the frequency of the lower element, the distribution being given by the equation
 F ∞ 0.3sin [3Hsinφ]
The distribution of the resultant CSB/CLR signal is symmetrical about the glide path angle,
giving a null on the glide path angle and having maxima at 0.4θ and 1.6θ. The resultant
clearance CSB signal being modulated to 60% depth with 150 Hz tone and to 20% with 90 Hz
tone gives a depth of 40% DDM indication at the aircraft receiver at lower angles than the
cross-over angle of 0.6θ . This signal therefore produces a full scale FLY UP indication at the
aircraft receiver as required. At the cross-over angle, the relative amplitude of the course CSB
carrier and the clearance CSB carrier become equal, but are phased in quadrature. Because
of the high rate of change of the course CSB and clearance CSB through the cross-over region,

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the aircraft receiver will capture the stronger signal, ensuring that spurious indications are
completely eliminated.
COMBINED PATTERN CR/CSB, CR/SBO, CLR/CSB SIGNALS
FIG: 1.63
o PHASE ERRORS DUE TO PROXIMITY EFFECT
In previous discussions pertaining to the radiation pattern, it was assumed that the distance
from an antenna array to points of reception was very much greater than the spacing between
the antenna elements in the array. This justifies the assumption that the paths of radiation
from antennas in the array to the distant point in the far-field are parallel and the path
distances equal. In effect, the array appears as a ‘point source’ antenna with energy radiating
from a single antenna. As points of reception are moved closer to the array i.e. NEAR FIELD
the point source analogy will be no longer valid. The physical spacing between the antenna
elements becomes more apparent and the paths of radiation are no longer parallel. As a
result, the distance of travel from each antenna of a pair becomes UNEQUAL and causes the
resultant received energy in near field to be misphased with respect to the resultant in far-
field. This misphasing is called as PROXIMITY ERROR and is a very normal effect both in LLZ
and GP. As misphasing of signals occur in near-field, widening of course or path occurs. This
causes insensitive pointer indications and is potentially dangerous. This is not a serious
problem in LLZ as an aircraft would have landed prior to the near-filed point. However, facility

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monitoring and ground checks are performed in near-field and this necessitates an
understanding of Proximity Error.
GP antenna element offset

Since the glide path antenna is of the order of 10m high, it cannot be sited on or close to the
runway surface. Typically it is located 120 m to the side of the runway and opposite the
required touchdown point.
This amount of antenna offset has only a small effect on the signal quality. The most
noticeable effect is that the locus of zero DDM is no longer an exactly straight line but has a
hyperbolic bend or "flare" over the final few hundred meters.
To compensate for this effect the antenna elements are offset. This offset is such that the
distance from each of the elements to the centreline of the runway adjacent to the mast is
the same.
To calculate the offset, use Figure 1-46, which gives the offset equal to:
Where
d = distance from the base of the antenna mast to the centreline
h1 = height of the lower antenna element (H)
h2 = height of the upper antenna element (2H)
Fig: 1.64 Antenna Element Offset

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o RAYLEIGH DISTANCE (NEAR-FIELD & FAR-FIELD, FRESNEL & FRAUNHOFER REGION)
ANALYSIS
Consider an antenna array with an aperture of length ‘L’ and two receivers, oneof which (Rx1)
is kept in the near-field and the other (Rx2) in the far-field which is as given below.
Fig: 1.65
It can be seen in the case of RX1, distance ‘D1’ is less than d1, implying that, if signals are
radiated from the center of the array and extremities of the array in phase, the signal received
at Rx1 from the center of the array will be different to that received from the extremities. This
could lead to distortion of the signal received at Rx1. In the case of Rx2, ‘D2’ is almost the
same distance as ‘d2’ so there will be only a very small phase difference between the signals
received. The greater the distance to the receiver from the array, the lesser will be the phase
error. The distance at which the correct signals may be received will depend on the size of the
array and the operating wavelength. The near field region where unrealistic signals are
received is known as the RAYLEIGH region. The distance from which correct signals are
received is known as the RAYLEIGH DISTANCE and can be found by:
D = L2/λ
Where,
‘L’ is Aperture length,
‘D’ is RAYLEIGH distance and
‘λ’ is operating wavelength
In the case of the NULL REFERENCE glide path system, the maximum height of the antennas
may be say ‘9’ meters above the ground but the effective aperture is twice that length i.e., 18
meters because of the image theory. Using the above formula we have:

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 D = L2/λ;
 (18)2/0.9 = 360 Meters.
From this distance CORRECT information is received.
In the case of the ‘M’ array glide path system, the antenna height may be 13.5 meters, giving
an effective aperture of 27 meters. Using the same formula we get:
 D = L2/λ;
 (27)2/0.9 = 810 Meters.
These distances are evidently unacceptable because, accurate glide path data is required
down on the runway to a distance of the order of 120 meters (400 feet) from the transmitter.
This means that the phase errors have to be minimized in the near-field.

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SUB-TOPIC 1.4: GROUND STATION ARCHITECTURE
1.4.1. DESCRIBE THE LAYOUT OF ILS
Fig: 1.66
The figure given above depicts typical layout of ILS components.
The LOCALIZER installed near to the stop-end of the runway which provides azimuth guidance
to the landing aircraft. The antenna array of the ILS localizer transmitter is located on the
extension of the centreline of the instrument runway of an airfield, but is located far enough
from the stop end of the runway to prevent it being a collision hazard. The localizer antenna
radiates a field pattern directed along the centreline of the runway towards the middle and
outer markers. The antenna also furnish information outside the front course area in the form
of full FLY-LEFT or full FLY-RIGHT indications (CLEARANCE).All localizer installations transmit a
STATION IDENTIFICATION in Morse code at periodic intervals. This is a 1020 Hz tone that is
keyed to form the basic station identifier.
The GLIDEPATH is located laterally from the runway and longitudinally from the threshold at
a distance to provide elevation guidance. The glide path site may be located on either side of
the runway, but the most reliable operation will be obtained if the site is selected on terrain
least obstructed by taxiways, aircraft holding aprons, parking ramps, buildings, power lines
etc. The glide path antenna system should be located at a distance of 75m to 200m from the
runway centre line. The distance from the runway threshold is a function of several factors
upon which establishment of the optimum operational conditions depend on several factors.

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The MARKER beacons are located in the extended centreline of the runway to provide fixed
distance from the runway threshold. In addition Marker beacons are collocated with Locator
beacons for homing purposes.
Low power non-directional compass locators may be installed at the middle/outer marker
sites as an auxiliary aid to ILS and are designated as Locator middle Marker (LMM) and Locator
outer Marker (LOM). These operate on MF band 200 KHz to 400 KHz. Locator beacon transmit
1020 Hz identification tone which modulates a two letter Morse code signal. The LOM is
identified by the first two letters of three letter ILS identification and LMM by the last two
letters.
1.4.2. DESCRIBE THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF LOCALIZER/GP/MARKERS/FIELD MONITORS
The picture given in the next page illustrates various blocks of NORMARC LOCALIZER. It
consists of electronics cabinet which houses transmitters, Monitors, Change-over relays, TX
control unit, Power supply modules. The outputs of transmitters are fed to the Antenna Array
through Antenna Distribution Unit (ADU). FOUR signals are fed to the ADU which are CSB/CL,
SBO/CL, CSB/CLR, SBO/CLR. ADU distributes these signals to the antenna array with proper
amplitude and phase to generate the required radiation pattern. Array can be of 12/16/20/24
elements which depend on the configuration. The signals radiated are taken back to the
electronics cabinet to feed the monitors to check the integrity of the signals. One such
feedback is the signal pickup taken from each element of the array called as Integral
Monitoring and fed to the Monitor Combining Unit (MCU), which combines these signals to
provide three outputs which are CL, DS, and CLR signals. The other feedback is directly taken
from the NEAR FIELD (NF) antenna located before the antenna array at a specific distance.
This monitors the actual radiated signal from the antenna. CL, DS, NF, CLR signals are fed to
Monitors to check the integrity of signals against alarm limits. Any deviation in the parameters
away from the normal initiates a suitable control action either to change-over or to shut down
the facility. The Power supply block provides the required supply for operation of the
equipment. The status can be monitored at LOCAL and also suitable control action can be
carried out at site. In addition, the status and control of the equipment can be carried out
from the Remote Control and Status unit installed in the ATS block. A SLAVE panel is provided
to the ATS Tower personnel to know the status of NAVAID. ATSEP maintenance personnel can
carry out complete checks on the equipment using a Remote Monitoring System (RMM).

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o LOCALIZER
o
FIG: 1.67 NORMARC LLZ BLOCK DIAGRAM
ELECTRONICS CABINET
The Power supply is a separate, wall mounted unit. Back-up batteries are float charged, and
are connected to the LLZ cabinet. The Remote Control unit is intended for installation in the
tower or a technical room to give remote control and status indication. An optional Remote
Slave panel can be used if control and status indication is required in additional positions. The
RMM system comprises the built-in RMS system in the LLZ cabinet, and a data program
running on a standard PC. The PC can be connected directly to the cabinet, or by modems
through leased or switched telephone lines.

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Monitor Alarm
Input Signals Data &
Monitor
Signals Diagnostics Transmitter-1
Remote Course & CLR
Control Data & ILS
Diagnostics Control Signals Signals
External Out
Sensors Control Changeover
RMS TX Control Signals
Comm. Relay
Ports Control Signals
Data &
Diagnostics Transmitter-2
Monitor Data & Course & CLR
Input Monitor Diagnostics
Alarm
Signals
Signals
FIG: 1.68 ILS BLOCK DIAGRAM

The ILS cabinets can be configured for CAT-I, CAT-II, or CAT-III requirements with no basic
changes.
The system is based on modern technology with extensive Remote Monitoring and
Maintenance capabilities, and very high reliability and integrity. To meet this objective, the
monitor comparator and station control are based on digital hardware, while the RMS
interface is microprocessor based.
The figure given in the next page depicts the electronics cabinet.
The cabinet contains three sections:
 The electronics card cage
 The change-over section
 The transmitter / Power Amplifier (PA) section

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FIG: 1.69 NORMARC 7014 LOCALIZER CABINET

The electronics card cage contains the RF oscillators, (OS 1221A) the LF signal generators (LF
1223A), the monitors (MF 1211A, MO 1212A), the station control (TAC 1218B), the RMS
processor (RMA 1215A), and the voltage regulators (PS 1227A).The change-over section (COA
1207B) contains coaxial relays, attenuators and phasors for the RF outputs. The transmitter /
PA section (LPA 1230) contains the PA blocks including couplers etc. for each output. The
cabinet is divided in two parts, with the rear part fixed to a wall, and the front part hinged to

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give access to interior of the cabinet. All external connections are made to the rear part of
the cabinet.
Localizer Equipment Technical Specifications
Signal Minimum Performance LLZ

Transmitter
Frequency range 108-112 MHz
Frequency tolerance ± 0.0004%
Output power (CSB) 5-25 W adjustable
Output power (SBO) 0.15W-1.6W
RF difference frequency (2-freq. only) 10 kHz ± 1 kHz
Modulator
Modulation depth 90/150 Hz 20%
Adjustable range 10-30%
Identity keyer
Modulation frequency 1020 Hz ± 10 Hz
Modulation depth 5-15% adjustable
Speed of identification 7 Words/min. approx.
Monitoring
RF power reduction 1-5 dB
Change of nominal CL ± 4-25 µA
Change of nominal DS from nominal value ± 10-50 µA
Change of nominal CLR (2-freq. only) ± 10-60 µA
Change of nominal NF ± 4-25 µA
Change of nominal SDM ± 2-6% SDM
Difference frequency (2-freq. only) ± 2-5 kHz
Total period of radiation out of tolerance 1-10 sec
Warning functions: 40-75% of alarm limit
Power Supply
Power Supply: 7013 7014

Input voltage: 230V ± 20% AC 230V ± 20% AC
Frequency 0-66 Hz 0-66 Hz

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Output voltage: 27,2V DC 27,2V DC
Output Power: 960 W 2 x 720 W
Standby 24V Nominal 24V Nominal
Battery: 90Ah Nominal 90Ah x 2 Nominal
ILS cabinet:
Input voltage: 22-28V DC 22-28V DC
Current consumption: Typical 15A + Typical 22A +
Charging Charging
Glide path Equipment Technical specifications
Signal Minimum Performance GP
Transmitter
Frequency range 328.6-335.4 MHz
Frequency tolerance ± 0.0004%
Output power (CSB + SBO) course 3-8 W adjustable
Output power (CSB) clearance 0.3-1 W adjustable
Output power (SBO) 0.15W – 0.8 W
RF difference frequency (2-freq. only) 15 kHz ± 3 kHz
Modulator - course line
Modulation depth 90/150 Hz 40%
Adjustable range 10-50%
Frequency tolerance 0.01 %
Modulator - clearance
Modulation depth 80%
90 Hz component 20%
150 Hz component 60%
Adjustable range DDM 20-100% 150Hz dominance
Adjustable range SDM 20-90%
Stability ± 0.2 dB
Frequency tolerance ± 0.05 Hz
Monitoring
RF power reduction 1-5 dB
Change of nominal CL ± 10-60 uA
Change of nominal DS from nominal ± 10-60 uA
value

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Change of nominal CLR (2-freq. only) ± 10-60 uA
Change of nominal NF ± 10-60 uA
Change of nominal SDM ± 2-8% SDM
Difference frequency (2-freq. only) ± 2-5 kHz from nominal
Total period of radiation out of 1-6 sec
tolerance
Additional NF delay 0-20 sec
Line break, ILS-remote control
(disable optional).
Monitor stability at nominal levels:
RF power values ± 0,3 dB
DDM values ± 1 uA
SDM values ± 1% SDM
Warning functions: 40-75% of alarm limit
Power Supply
Power Supply: 7013 7014

Input voltage: 230V ± 20% AC 230V ± 20% AC
Frequency 0-66 Hz 0-66 Hz
Output voltage: 27,2V DC 27,2V DC
Output Power: 960 W 2 x 720 W
Standby 24V Nominal 24V Nominal
Battery: 90Ah Nominal 50Ah x 2 Nominal
ILS cabinet:
Input voltage: 22-28V DC 22-28V DC
Current consumption: Typical 7A + Charging Typical 9A + Charging
MONITORS
The ILS has duplicated monitors with inputs for Course Line (CL), Displacement Sensitivity
(DS), Near Field (NF), and Clearance (CLR) (Dual Frequency only). The signals are detected by
the input stage, and then digitized. In the next block they are filtered by a Fast Fourier
Transform performed by a signal processor. The results for each parameter are then
compared with stored limits in a digital hardware comparator.

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Each of the two monitors consists of two modules.
• Monitor Front End (MF1211A/MF1219A)
• Monitor(MO1212A)
For CAT-III use, Hot Standby monitoring can be added by using one additional monitor and
associated RF couplers and combiners. The design of the monitors ensures a very high
integrity due to the use of digital hardware for the alarm comparators and a very simple Fast
Fourier filtering with a signal processor. In addition, the monitor is checked by automatic self-
tests.
The alarm limits are stored locally in EEPROM, and can be updated from the RMS processor,
with a separate hardware write protection to ensure that the integrity is not affected by the
RMS system.
MF 1211A (LOC) and MF 1219A (GP)
The RF signals in to the cabinet are split in two with power dividers and fed to each monitor.
The board has input step attenuators that have to be set at installation to compensate for
different antenna systems, different output level of transmitter, different cable lengths etc.
The demodulator is a temperature compensated AM diode demodulator and the output is a

stabilized envelope (baseband) of the incoming signal. The board also comprise a RF level
detector that outputs a DC voltage proportional to the RF level on the input.
MO 1212A (LOC and GP)

This is a complicated board that has 5 distinct functions.
Analogue multiplexer
Each of the analogue signals from the 4 monitor channels are sampled with the help of a
multiplexer. All signals that include a frequency component (baseband signals) are sampled
with a frequency of 640Hz. Signals that does not include a frequency component (RF level
voltages etc.) are sampled with a lower frequency.
Analogue / Digital converter

After the signals have been routed through the multiplexer all samples are converted to a
digital word in a 12 bit A/D converter.
Signal processing
The digital words representing the samples are then processed in the digital signal processor.
The samples for the baseband signals are used to carry out a Fast Fourier Transform analysis
that gives us the modulation depth of the 90Hz, 150Hz and 1020Hz (LOC only) signals.

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These values are then used to calculate the DDM and SDM of the signals. For signals that has
no frequency component, an average is calculated.
Comparator
After the values of the parameters have been found they are compared with the alarm limits.
The alarm limits are stored locally on the board in an EEPROM.
The output of the board is a continuous data stream with a single bit for each parameter
checked. It is either OK or outside the alarm limit set.
RMS Interface / EEPROM Interface

The alarm limits can be updated from the RMS processor through RMS Interface and EEPROM
Interface
TRANSMITTERS / MODULATORS
The transmitters are duplicated, either single frequency or dual frequency. On the Dual
Frequency ILS the DF (difference frequency) between the Course and the Clearance
transmitters are 10 kHz for the LOC and 15 kHz for the GP. The Course frequency is always
the higher of the two.
Each transmitter consists of a RF oscillator, a LF generator, and one or two PA blocks (single
or dual frequency).
OS 1221A/OS 1706A (LOC) and OS 1221B/OS 1706B (GP)
The RF oscillator uses a synthesizer for easy frequency changes and simple logistics. The
frequencies are set with jumpers at the front edge of the board. The board has two outputs
for use in dual frequency systems (course and clearance).
LF 1576A
The LF generator contains the circuits to generate CSB and SBO (90Hz and 150Hz) and keying
(1020Hz) modulating signals. It also contains the ident keyer / sequencer and interface for
DME master or slave keying. A digital signal processor generates all signals ensuring very
stable phase and amplitude relations between the modulation signals.
All modulation parameters, such as Modulation Balance, Modulation Sum, RF level, SBO
attenuation, SBO phase, Ident code and Ident modulation are controlled by this module. The
values are stored locally in EEPROM and can be updated from the RMS processor.
The same board is used for single and dual frequency systems and for LOC and GP.
LPA 1580A (LOC), GPA 1581A (GP course) and GPA 1582A (GP clearance)

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The LPA/GPA amplifies the carrier from the OS board and modulates the LF from the LF board
thus generating CSB and SBO power to feed the distribution network.
In localizer one LPA generates course CSB, SBO, the other equivalent LPA generates clearance
CSB, SBO. The CSB power is 20W nominal.
In glide path one GPA generates course CSB, SBO. The CSB power is 6W nominal; the other
GPA generates clearance CSB only, power being 0.6W nominal.
Transmitter Control
The transmitter control module controls the system dependent on alarms from the monitors
and inputs from the local control, the remote control and, optionally, the RMS. It also
generates status information to the same modules. The local control and status indicators are
a part of the transmitter control module.
TCA 1218A (LOC & GP), TCA 1218B (LOC and GP with Hot Standby monitor)
The Transmitter Controller Assembly is the executive controller of the system. It receives
alarm information from both Monitor 1 and Monitor 2 (and Standby monitor if used). The
board decides which action is necessary to take when an alarm arises. In addition to the
signals from the MO 1212A board the TCA 1218A checks the status of the local front panel
switches and the information from the remote control before action is taken.
The board is made completely with digital hardware circuits to ensure the highest integrity.
The local control and status indicators are a part of the board.
LOCAL CONTROL PANEL

The picture given in the next page shows the LOCAL STATUS & CONTROL PANEL. The
maintenance personnel can control the equipment such as the TX Master select, ON/OFF;
Changeover can be done with the help of push switches. In addition the COURSE & CLR TXs
can be controlled individually from the lamp switches. This will be useful during maintenance
purposes. AUTOMATIC switch enables the automatic mode of operation so that any detected
alarms will lead to change-over or shut-down of the equipment. The MANUAL mode switch
disables the automatic action. When ILS is in ACTIVE INTERLOCK mode (the interlock signal is
an input to the remote control), the ILS will turn off all active transmitters and not allow them
to be turned on before the interlock condition is removed. This signal overrides LOCAL/AUTO

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mode of operation, but not LOCAL /MANUAL mode of operation. INTERLOCK is used when
reciprocal ILS are in use.

FIG: 1.70 LOCAL CONTROL OPERATION [TCA]
The SYSTEM STATUS indicates about the operational status of the equipment. The status are
 SERVICE which indicates the service mode of operation
 ALARM indicates presence of one or more alarms
 WARNING indicates the pre-alarm condition, activated by RMS
 NORMAL indicates no abnormality
 STB ALARM indicates standby TX is on alarm. Available in HOT STANDBY configuration
 STB NORMAL indicates no abnormality in the second TX
 PARAMETER indicates one or more monitor warning parameters is present
 DISAGREE indicates that DUAL monitor disagreement on parameters in ALARM state
 BATTERY indicates the equipment is operating on battery supply
 IDENT indicates warning condition. This indicates loss of Morse code orCONTINUOUS
IDENT.
 MAINTENANCE indicates a warning condition. One or more maintenance parameter
warnings detected.

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KEYBOARD PANEL
The front panel menu system includes a 20 x 4 character LCD and seven push-buttons. The
buttons are used for navigating in the menus displayed on the LCD and to control/adjust
various parameters.
A typical top-level LCD screen is shown in the figure given below. This is the screen that is
displayed when the ILS is powered on. This screen displays the following information.
FIG: 1.71 KEYBOARD/DISPLAY

The Keyboard access is secured with levels. Three levels are configured. The settings are menu
based.
 L1 permits basic readout of system parameters with no ACCESS lock. Anybody can use
this menu.
 L2 permits to carryout system test and control with Access Lock using LOCAL/REMOTE
switch in control panel
 L3 permits to carryout System configuration and adjustments with Access lock in the
form of password and WRITE PROTECT switch in the control panel kept in horizontal
position.

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REMOTE MONITORING (RMS) UNIT
RMA 1215A (LOC and GP)
The RMS unit contains a microprocessor. It is connected to almost all the other boards in the
cabinet and reads built-in-test-points from each boards. It handles storage and read-out of
monitor parameters, measurements for maintenance and fault finding, and performs fault
analysis to isolate faults to line replaceable units. It is also used to set monitor limits and
transmitter adjustments.
The RMS board handles communication to local and remote RMM computers, and in addition
it handles the small local display and keyboard for parameter setting and read-out.
All Warnings (Pre-alarms) in the system are generated by the RMA-board.
Even if the board is U/S the system can operate due to that the MF-MO-TCA chain controls all
critical alarm parameters. In such an instance, all Warnings will be activated and it is no longer
possible to read or change any limits
Change Over section

The section contains the coax relays making it possible to change between TX1 and TX2
hence the name. The local RMM connector (standard RS232) and BNC test points for the
radiated CSB course and clearance signals are found on the front of the section.
MB 1575A (LOC and GP)

MB 1575A is the backplane for the 19" sub-rack in the NORMARC 70xxB cabinet. MB 1575A
is a passive motherboard that provides all interconnections between the printed circuit board
in this sub-rack and all interface for external signals except from RF (Coax) cabling
PS 1227 (LOC and GP)
The two DC/DC converters operate in parallel, the outputs are wired-OR with help of diodes,
and provides the modules in the cabinet with the following DC voltages:
-15V, +5V, +8,5V, +15V
In addition the PS-board includes relays that turn off the voltage to the power amplifier
stage in the transmitter in case of a Terminator alarm.
CI 1748A and PC 1749A (LOC and GP)
The CI 1748A Connection Interface (CI) module unit provides a connection point for all
signals except RF signal and high current signals into to the ILS cabinet. The CI module is
located in the rear of the ILS cabinet. The CI module is used together with one or two PC1749
modules that handles the power input and associated signals. These boards will still carry
voltage even if the two circuit breakers in the top front of the cabinet are deactivated. To
carry out maintenance on these boards or to change any of its configurations, please note
the label on the cover.

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Fig:1.72 CI1748A and PC1749A
The CI module is one circuit board with the following blocks.

 DME interface
 Analogue multiplexer
 USB to serial converter
 RS-232 drivers and receivers
 Micro controller
 Modem
 Shift registers
 LEDs
 Configuration
 Connectors
The main task of the CI module is to provide connection points for external signal for the ILS
cabinet. It interfaces the external signals (voltages) to levels that can be handled by the
internal modules in the cabinet.
The Connection Interface also formats serial data to and from the remote control depending
on the configuration. The RC data to/from the TX control is always routed through the micro

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controller on the CI module, and then to the internal or external modem. If configured, the
micro controller will include RMM data from the RMS and RC data in the same data stream.
If not configured, the RMM data will be routed to Remote 1. Depending on the configuration
different formats on the data and bit rates will be selected.
Remote Maintenance Monitoring (RMM)

The NORMARC 7000B series has a built-in Remote Maintenance Monitoring system. This
system consists of the RMS, remote PC terminals with the RMM program installed, and the
local keyboard/display. Figure 1-4 illustrates the RMM/RMS systems. The centre of the RMS
is a CPU with the RMS core program. The RMS collects measurements and diagnostic data,
and makes them available to the user. The collected information allows easy and cost
effective maintenance, fault finding and routine reporting. In addition, system settings are
distributed and parameter readings are collected via the RMS/ CPU.
External personal computers are used for a user-friendly interface to the RMM system. The
equipment has three serial output ports, typically used to connect a local PC, a PC in the air-
port technical equipment room, and a modem for connection to a central maintenance
facility.
The local keyboard/display allow readings and control through an LCD display and a seven-
button keypad. This gives access to the RMM functionality without the need for a PC.
RMM Access
Access to the RMM system is controlled by multiple hardware and software access controls.
One password is required for each access level, i.e. one password for level 1, two for level 2
and three for level 3. Optional hardware controls may inhibit writing in the upper access
levels.
The operations that are permitted to a logged on user depend on the logon access level. The
NORMARC 7000B ILS defines four access levels:
Access Number of Allowed operations
level passwords
Level 1 1 Read-out of all measurements and all configuration data,

except user passwords.
Level 2 2 Level-1 operations + turning transmitters and LF signals
on/off.
Level 3 3 Level 1 and 2 operations + setting all configuration data,
except user passwords.
MASTER 3 Level 1, 2 and 3 operations + setting/viewing users and
passwords, setting the ILS real time clock.
Table 2.1 RMM Access Levels

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REMOTE CONTROL UNIT
The remote control unit is used in the tower or in the technical control room. It has indicators
for operating status as well as detailed warnings and an aural alarm device with reset. It can
control equipment on/off and change-over, and has an Access Grant-switch to allow remote-
control from the RMS. The Remote Control Unit is connected to the ILS by one telephone pair
cable.
REMOTE SLAVE PANEL

The slave panel is connected to the remote control by a multi-pair wire. It is intended for use
in the control tower. It has indicators for normal/warning/alarm and has an aural alarm
device. In addition it can turn the equipment on and off, and has an aural alarm reset.
Optionally a slave panel with remote control functionality can be delivered.
Fig: 1.73

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o GLIDEPATH
The ILS block diagram is as same as that of LOCALIZER blocks. However, the operational
parameters are different. The GP operates in the UHF band, the modulation tone percentages
of navigation tones are 80% each. The power output of transmitter is less than the Localizer
as it has to provide coverage only up to 10NM. The monitor limits are different.
The output of transmitter consists of three signals which are
 CSB/CL
 SBO/CL
 CSB/CLR
The above signals are fed to the Antenna Array distribution unit to generate the signals in
proper amplitude and phase. The antenna array shown here is for M-ARRAY system, wherein
three arrays are used. The signals radiated are picked with the help of integral and NF
monitoring. These signals are fed to the monitors to check the integrity of radiated signals by
the monitors against the alarm limits. Control unit takes suitable action in case of any
parameter deviating away from the limits.
FIG: 1.74 NORMARC GP BLOCK DIGRAM

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Fig: 1.75
The figure given above shows the GP cabinet rack. It is as same as that of LLZ rack except with
some differences. There is no separate SBO PA unit as only CLEARANCE
CSB is used.
External AC/DC converter (LOC and GP)
The cabinet is supplied with +27V from two
external switch mode power supplies that operate in
parallel.
The two power supplies are configured for load
sharing. They have an adjustment potentiometer to
allow from 20 - 29.5VDC adjustment of the output
voltage.
This is an factory adjustment, and should be
adjusted to 26.8VDC
The supplies also include alarm circuits that will
send a warning to the ILS if there is anything wrong with
the supplies.
Fig: 1.76

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o MARKERS
A Marker beacon is a particular type of VHF radio beacon which is a part of ILS used by the
pilot to determine the fixed distance along the extended C/L of the runway. It produces highly
directional fan-shaped radiation pattern which makes the aircraft to detect the signal from
the marker beacon only for a short time. The markers are replaced by DME.
The Indications presented to the pilot
The ‘OM’ identifies the Final Approach Fix (FAF) which is situated on the extended C/L of the
runway at a distance of 4NM to 7NM. ‘MM’ is usually located at about 0.5NM to 1.8NM from
the threshold. Flying over ‘MM’ alerts the pilot that he is above CAT-I missed approach point
of height 200 feet. If runway is not sighted the pilot has to carryout missed approach. ‘IM’
identifies the beginning of runway threshold on some ILS. At present ‘IM’ is not used.
MARKER CODE LIGHT AUDIO TONE

OM ___ BLUE 400Hz; 2-dashes/sec
MM ._ ._ ._ AMBER 1300Hz; Alternate dot-
dash
IM ...... WHITE 3000Hz; Only dot
BC .. .. WHITE --
The above table illustrates the CODE and LIGHT indications in cockpit deck.
Notice above that the sound gets "quicker" and the tone "higher" as the aircraft moves
towards the airport namely first with dashes, then dots and dashes, finally just dots.
Back-Course (BC): Most, but not all, airports with an ILS also offer guidance on the back
course. The BC marker identifies the FAF for the back course. A Back-Course approach is non-
precision since there is no glide path associated with it.

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1.4.3. RELATE ILS STATION DESIGN TO OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENT
(a) COVERAGE
The coverage requirement defined by ICAO is met by generating the required RF power to
radiate CSB and SBO signals. As seen before the transmitter section consists of RF generator
which produces the station frequency using synthesizer. The LF generator produces the
modulating signals which are addition of 90Hz and 150Hz tones. This signal along with station
IDENTITY modulates the RF carrier, suitably amplified and fed to the antenna array. The power
output of CSB and SBO depends on the site and is usually checked by flight calibration during
commissioning checks.
In LLZ the generated COURSE CSB/SBO RF power is typically 20W/0.16W; and CLEARANCE
CSB/SBO RF power is 15W/0.47W; whereas, for GP the COURSE CSB/SBO RF power is
5.0W/0.5W and for CLEARNCE CSB it is 5.0W
(b) IDENTITY CODE

The localizer provide for the simultaneous transmission of an identification signal, specific to
the runway and approach direction, on the same RF carrier or carriers as used for the localizer
function. The transmission of the identification signal shall not interfere in any way with the
basic localizer function. The identification signal shall be produced by Class A2A modulation
of the radio frequency carrier or carriers using a modulation tone of 1020Hz ± 50Hz. The depth
of modulation shall be between the limits of 5% and 15% except that, where a radiotelephone
communication channel is provided.
The identification signal shall employ the International Morse Code and consist of two or
three letters. It may be preceded by the International Morse Code signal of the letter “I”,
followed by a short pause where it is necessary to distinguish the ILS facility from other
navigational facilities in the immediate area. The identification signal shall be transmitted by
dots and dashes at a speed corresponding to approximately seven words per minute, and
shall be repeated at approximately equal intervals, not less than six times per minute, at all
times during which the localizer is available for operational use
(c) SITING CRITERIA
Runway End Safety Area (RESA) is an area symmetrical about the extended runway centre
line and adjacent to the end of the strip primarily intended to reduce the risk of damage to
an aeroplane undershooting or overrunning the runway.

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 LOCALIZER
The Localizer consists of an antenna, monitor field detectors and equipment shelter. The
localizer is normally located near the stop end of the approach runway. The antenna array is
the prime consideration and will, to a certain extent, fix the location of the building and that
of the field detectors. The LLZ antenna system must be symmetrically positioned about the
extended centreline of runway with the longitudinal axis of the array perpendicular to the
extended runway centre line.
The optimum distance from the stop end of the runway to the localizer array for each site is
determined by consideration of several factors mainly:
1. The required obstruction clearance criteria
2. Useable distance and signal coverage requirements
3. Presence of reflecting or reradiating objects in the vicinity
4. Safety considerations
5. Back-course requirements
6. Anticipated facility upgrading and/or airport expansion
7. Establishment costs
8. Approach Road
The criteria for minimum antenna distance from the stop end of runway are as follows:
 Within 300m of the overrun area (RESA) after the runway end, installed equipment
should be of low mass and frangible.
 The LLZ antenna array shall be located beyond 1000 feet from the paved over-run
area, provided clear graded area extends to a distance of 1250 feet from the stop-end
of the runway. Localizer will not be located at a distance less than 300 feet from the
stop end of the runway to ensure minimum protection from the effects of the aircraft
engine jet blasts, at airports where commercial jet aircrafts are in operation.
 The elevation of the array shall be considered in conjunction with the distance
requirements. Majority of airports require ground mounted array. In some selected
airports elevated antenna array may become necessary to meet the required
minimum signal coverage. This may occur due to hump in the runway or the presence
of hills and other obstructions in the vicinity which causes a shadow effect. The array
shall be mounted so that antenna radiating element is in line of sight with the

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threshold crossing height at the approach end of the runway. The maximum height of
the antenna shall not exceed 35 ft above immediate terrain.
 The presence of signal reflecting or re-radiating objects in the vicinity may place an
additional restriction on the location of the localizer antenna system. The terrain
between the antennas and the end of the runway shall contain no severe irregularities
or obstructions that may affect the localizer signal quality. Grading requirements to
remove obstructions such as roughness, slope, metallic structures, fencing, walls play
a crucial role.
 Critical and Sensitive areas also play a key role to maintain Signal in Space quality.
 GLIDEPATH
DISTANCE CRITERIA
The glide slope antenna masts shall be located on a longitudinal reference line that is parallel
to runway centre line and laterally displaced at a distance which meets the obstacle free zone
criteria. The glide slope shall be located at optimum distance which will be determined by site
analysis. Normally Glidepath equipment is installed at a distance of 400 feet displaced
laterally from centreline of runway. The lateral displacement of the ILS GP Antenna system
should not be less than 120m with respect to the runway centre line which are defined in DOC
9157 Part-6. The antenna mast shall meet the frangibility requirement. The glide slope
antenna mast height shall comply with the lateral distance obstruction criteria.
The GP antenna is offset longitudinally from the landing threshold and this longitudinal offset
has to be determined along with the lateral offset to locate the Glide Path site. The
longitudinal location should be selected to place the ILS reference datum, as close as possible
to the recommended nominal value of 15 m above the threshold. Various factors that affect
the longitudinal offset are:
 GP angle
 ILS Reference Datum
 Required obstruction clearance
 Slope of the terrain along the longitudinal reference line
 The extent of smooth terrain in the site area and beyond the threshold.
The longitudinal offset distance from the threshold depends on the Glide-Angle ‘Θ’. The
calculated values are:

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For ‘Θ’ = 2.5°, it is 1145 feet
‘Θ’ = 2.75°, it is 1041 feet
‘Θ’ = 3.0°, it is 954 feet.
TERRAIN CRITERIA
The glide slope depends on the terrain conditions due to inherent image antenna concept.
Radiation from an antenna located above a reflecting surface (the ground terrain in the case
of glide slope) travels to different paths to the receiving antenna, a direct path and an indirect
path via the reflecting surface. The reflected signal appears to emanate from an ‘image
antenna’ along the same vertical plane as the real antenna and at a distance below the
reflecting surface equal to the distance of the real antenna above the surface. Siting of glide
slope is limited by the terrain irregularity or roughness in front of the antenna. The degrading
effect of rough terrain results from the random dispersion and /or phase shift of the ground
plane signals, which precludes formation of the desired glide slope pattern. The calculated
roughness limit for 3° angle is 1.22 feet/1000 feet.
CRITICAL AND SENSITIVE AREAS

Refer earlier topic pertaining to critical and sensitive areas
The sensitive area includes the critical area plus an area bounded by lines at ± 30º to a ray
commencing at the antenna and extending parallel to the runway centre line towards the
threshold. An allowance of 0.5º elevation is permitted for obstructions outside the critical
area.
SITE PREPARATION
It is desirable to provide an ideal site for glide slope facility with no obstruction in the first
Fresnel zone but it becomes cost prohibitive at most of the locations. Thus the site
preparation is compromised between theoretical and practical requirements. When
preparing a site, following criteria are considered:
 First Fresnel zone extends outward from antenna array for 300 feet up to 130 feet
wide
 Whole Fresnel zone should be graded to achieve satisfactory performance
 Use of NR GP system is limited by unavailability of graded area up to 3000 feet; The
first Fresnel zone requires good grading and leveling of obstructions, if any; therefore,
as an alternate SB REFERENCE system can be used as it requires smooth terrain of area

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up to 2000 feet; Type ‘M’ array with clearance can be used at a place which have
severe roughness throughout first Fresnel zone.
 The presence of signal interference sources such as power-lines, buildings, fences and
other metallic structures which may reflect or reradiate the glide slope signal into the
useable sector should be considered before selecting the type of G.P. aerial system.
When feasible all such structures should be removed especially in approach zone. If
removal is impossible and the interference source is sufficiently low, a capture effect
system will partially overcome the effects of the low angle reflection.
MARKER BEACONS
The primary function of ILS markers is to designate specific point in the ILS approach path.
Marker radiates a highly directional vertical pattern at 75 MHz which is elliptical in horizontal
plane. ILS approach path passes through minor axis of the beacon antenna pattern. Aircraft
determines its fix from the touchdown point, at predetermined distance, at which markers
are positioned, as the modulation of beacon equipment causes a particular color of light to
glow in the instrument panel of aircraft and specific audio tone for the marker. For ILS, Outer
and Middle Markers are normally installed at specified distances from the threshold.
(e) SITE LOCATION

For MM the longitudinal distance from the landing threshold shall be 1050m ± 150m and not
more than 75m laterally from the extended centreline of the runway. The OM shall be ideally
located at 3.9NM from the threshold however; due to site problems, if any it can be located
between 3.5NM and 6NM from the extended centreline and not more than 75m laterally.
(f) OBSTRUCTIONS
The site should be free from buildings, power or telephone lines, or trees should not extend
into the critical area defined by a point 1.5m below the marker beacon antenna and then out
horizontally for 5m and up at an angle of 60° to the horizontal after that. Within 5m of the
antenna all power and telephone lines are to be laid underground. Beyond this distance any
overhead construction should meet the obstruction requirements.
Grass, shrubs, etc., should be kept cut to a reasonable level, e.g. less than 0.6m. Trees on the
site should not be allowed to infringe the obstruction limits.
Refer Subject ‘NDB’ for LOCATOR criteria.

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SUB-TOPIC 1.5: TRANSMITTER SUBSYSEM
Already covered in Sub-topic 1.4

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SUB-TOPIC 1.6: ANTENNA SUBSYSTEM
1.6.1. EXPLAIN ILS ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
o LOCALIZER
LOG-PERIODIC DIPOLE ARRAY
The LOCALIZER antenna array employs LPDA as antenna elements. A log-periodic dipole
antenna (LPDA) is a broadband narrow-beam antenna that has impedance and radiation
characteristics that are regularly repetitive as a logarithmic function of the excitation
frequency.
The LPDA belongs to a class of antennas with broadband properties. These antennas will have
an infinite bandwidth if their dimensions were unlimited. The term “log-periodic” refers to
the logarithmical frequency periodic variation of antenna properties.
Each LPDA consists of seven dipoles. The dipole length and spacing are adjusted so that the
feed to the LPDA is at the apex (the smaller end) and is such that each consecutive dipole
element is fed 180° in respect to the next element.
The resultant field backwards from two elements will be cancelled due to the small distance
compared to a wavelength. Due to the distance ‘d n’ between elements the phase difference
between these leads to an in-phase forward field from the element. The radiation then is off
the apex of the antenna.

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FIG: 1.77 LPDA
FIG: 1.78 LPDA [τ = 0.93, α = 10°]
The frequency independency over a certain bandwidth can be explained as follows:

The amount of energy that is extracted from the passive wave in the feeder line (and radiated)
by a given dipole depends on the electrical length of that particular dipole at the operating
frequency. Frequency independent performance is obtained from the LPDA by virtue of the
fact that the dipole lengths and spacing vary in such a manner that the function of the

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resonant element (the electrical length is ‘λ/2’) is transferred smoothly along the structure,
from one dipole to the next, as the operating frequency changes.
Transportation of the polarity of the driven signal applied to alternate dipole along the
balanced feeder line is necessary in order to achieve a concentration of radiation energy
towards the front of the structure, even though the wave on the line progresses towards the
back end.
A layer of ice and snow on the dipoles will increase their electrical length and reduce their
resonant frequency. For a constant frequency, the position of the resonant element will then
move towards the apex. Accordingly, the phase centre of the LPDA will also move, and if shift
of the phase centre position differs for the other LPDA’s this will give a change of the localizer
course line.
The influence of rain, ice and snow on the impedance of the dipoles and the shift of the phase
centre is reduced by using “thick” dipoles. An ordinary dipole has often a length to thickness
ratio of about 100, the dipoles used in this LPDA the ratio is approximately 20.
The impedance of the LPDA is given by the feeder line impedance and the thickness of the
dipoles. A matching network is used to ensure that matching and phase centre are within
specification. The feeder line is short-circuited at the end of the line. The signal level at the
end is very low as nearly all of the power fed to the line is radiated.
The position of the short circuit has a small influence on the design of the LPDA.
FIG: 1.79 LPDA

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The table given below depicts the specification of LPDA.
FIG: 1.80 HORIZONTAL RADIATION PATTERN OF LPDA IN FREE SPACE
ANTENNA ARRAY
The choice of using a particular antenna array depends on the Category of ILS, runway length,
obstacles and structure close to the runway. Various antenna configurations are available
such as 12/16/20/24 element array.

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For example, NORMARC 7220A is a 20-Element Antenna Array which is used for DUAL
FREQUENCY CAT-II and CAT-III ILS, Runway length of greater than 2500m, and obstacles, large
structures present close to the runway. Depending on the array, the Antenna Distribution
Unit (ADU) and Monitor Combining Unit (MCU) differs.
FIG: 1.81 COMBINED RADIATION PATTERN [NORMARC 7216 ANTENNA ARRAY]
The above picture illustrates the radiation pattern produced by NORMARC 7216 Antenna
Array. The COURSE CSB pattern is very narrow and its MAXIMUM is at 0°, whereas the
COURSE SBO pattern has a deep NULL at the centre and rises rapidly on either side of
centreline. The azimuth coverage of both the course CSB and SBO falls off near to ±10° on
either side of the centreline.
The CLEARANCE CSB and SBO radiation pattern has a wider coverage as defined by the
standard. The CLR CSB, CLR SBO falls off at the centre allowing only COURSE signals to be
present which are responsible for producing DDM within the course sector.
Away from ±10° either side of centreline CLR CSB or SBO are responsible for providing DDM.
The side lobes generated by the COURSE CSB and SBO pattern are masked by respective
Clearance signals.
ANTENNA DISTRIBUTION UNIT (ADU)

The purpose of ADU is to distribute the COURSE CSB/SBO, CLEARANCE CSB/SBO signals fed at
its input to each element in the antenna array in correct amplitude and phase. The antenna
feed to the elements are fed in pairs such as A1, A12; A2, A11 etc.,

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The antenna distribution unit (ADU) consists of a micro strip circuit board mounted in a hinged
frame, cables for interconnections and a variable phasor (PH1) provided for fine-adjustment
of the course alignment. ADU consists of CSB and SBO divider to split the signals and Antenna
combiner which combines the divided CSB and SBO signals using RF quadrature hybrids.
FIG: 1.82 ANTENNA DISTRIBUTION UNIT

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FIG: SIGNAL DISTRIBUTION FOR 16-ELEMENT & 20-ELEMENT
The table given in the previous page shows the output of ADU to feed 16-Element and 2-
Element antenna array. It is worth to note the difference in amplitude level of CSB and SBO
power fed to the antenna elements. For example, all the 8-pairs are fed with SBO power in
16-element array whereas; only 5-pairs are fed in 20-element array.

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MONITOR COMBINER UNIT (MCU)
The purpose of Monitor Combining unit is to take sample signals provided by the coupling
network available in each of the LPDA element of Array.
The signal samples from the antennas are fed to the MCU where they are combined to
produce the three monitor signals: CL, DS and CLR. The network has two line phase shifters
for fine adjustment of the CL and DS signals.
The samples are processed in the combiner unit using RF hybrids to produce COURSE LINE
(CL), DISPLACEMENT SENSITIVITY (DS) and CLEARANCE (CLR) signals. This process is called as
integral monitoring as the samples are taken from the antenna elements. Depending on the
array configuration the signals are processed to a required level that can be accepted by the
Monitor units installed in the cabinet rack.
CLR
DS
FROM ANTENNA
CL
FIG: 1.83 12-ELEMENT MCU

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ILS
CABINET
ADU MCU
DC LOOP
FIG: 1.84 ANTENNA SYSTEM
NEAR FIELD MONITOR DIPOLE

The antenna is a COMROD AV42-110 half-wave dipole antenna with reflector. Weather
protection is achieved by embedding all conductors in glass fibre reinforced tubes. Cavities
are filled with polyurethane foam. The gain of NF dipole is 6.5dBi and Front-to-back ratio is
9dB.
Fig: 1.85

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o GLIDEPATH
FIG: 1.86 M-ARRAY ADU/MCU
Recall earlier subtopic on GP signals distribution. The ADU used in GP depends on the system
being used. It can be a NULL REFERENCE system or SIDEBAND REFERENCE system or M-ARRAY
system. It consists of various RF components such as Adjustable power dividers, Adjustable
phase shifters, Hybrid junctions to provide signals to the antenna assemblies. These are to be
adjusted during installation only. Once set NO ADJUSTMENTS ARE DONE.
The radiating element is a stacked dipole antenna with reflector, housed in a fibre-glass
radome for weather protection. It is a stacked dipole with reflector. The gain is 12.5dBi and
Front-to-back ratio is 16dB. The antenna impedance is 50Ω. A signal coupler network linked
to all dipole elements is used to monitor the signal fed to the antenna elements. The signal
from the coupler is about 35dB below the level of the feed signal. The antenna element is
fastened to the mast assembly with brackets at the back of the reflector
Kathrein Glide Path antenna element 713 316 B
The radiating element is a stacked dipole antenna with reflector, housed in a fiberglass
radome for weather protection. The figure given below depicts the antenna assembly.

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SAMPLES
FIG: 1.87 Kathrein GP ANTENNA ASSEMBLY & INSIDE VIEW

A signal coupler network linked to all dipole elements is used to monitor the signal fed to
the antenna elements. The signal from the coupler is about 35dB below the level of the feed
signal.
The antenna element is fastened to the mast assembly with brackets at the back of the
reflector.
FIG: 1.88 ANTENNA ELEMENT RADIATION PATTERN

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FIG: 1.89 GP ANTENNA FRANGIBLE MAST

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SUB-TOPIC 1.7 MONITORING AND CONTROL SUBSYSTEM
1.7.1. DESCRIBE THE PURPOSE OF MONITORING
The purpose of monitoring is to check the integrity of signals that are radiated from ILS. This
is required to protect the aircraft from ILS malfunctions. ICAO defines that the total period of
radiation outside the performance limits should be as short as possible. The total time periods
specified are never-to-be-exceeded limits and are intended to protect aircraft in the final
stages of approach against prolonged or repeated periods of localizer guidance outside the
monitor limits and also it should be consistent with the need for avoiding interruptions of the
navigation service provided by the ILS.
1.7.2. DESCRIBE THE PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING ACCORDING TO ANNEX-10
FIG: 1.90 BLOCKS IN MONITOR

The figure given above shows the monitor blocks used in NORMARC ILS. The RF signals from
MCU are fed to DUAL monitors to check the integrity of radiated signals. The MF 1211A
module comprises four identical circuits that receive RF monitoring signals from the antenna
monitoring network. The RF signals are detected and their baseband signals (envelope of the
signals) are generated. In addition the module generates DC signals proportional to the input
RF levels. In two-frequency systems a pulse train which frequency is identical to the difference
of frequency between the CL and CLR signals are extracted.

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The monitor checks the signal parameters and takes suitable action when outside the
performance limits (alarm limits) shall be as short as possible, consistent with the need for
avoiding interruptions of the navigation service provided by the ILS.
The total period (Monitor Delay) shall not exceed under any circumstances:
 10 seconds for CAT-I LLZ; 6 seconds for CAT-I GP
 5 seconds for CAT-II LLZ; 2 seconds for CAT-II GP
 2 seconds for CAT-III LLZ; 2 seconds for CAT-II GP
The automatic monitor system shall provide a warning to the designated control points and
cause one of the following to occur, within the period specified above:
 Radiation to cease; and
 Removal of the navigation and identification components from the carrier.

LOCALIZER
o RF LEVEL
The MONITOR checks the RF level in COURSE, DS, NF, and CLR which is proportional to the RF
power transmitted by the ILS.
The RF level is checked against the alarm limits set at 50%
o DIFFERENCE IN DEPTH OF MODULATION
FIG: 1.91 DDM & DS

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COURSE LINE & NEAR FIELD

The mean course shall be adjusted and maintained with
 For CAT-1 which corresponds to a shift of mean course line by 10.5m
 For CAT-II which corresponds to a shift of mean course line by 7.5m
 For CAT-II which corresponds to a shift of mean course line by 6.0m
The above parameters are checked from CL which is from integral monitoring and also from
NF which is kept at near field.
DISPLACEMENT SENSITIVITY
The nominal displacement sensitivity within the half course sector shall be the equivalent of
0.00145 DDM/m (0.00044 DDM/feet) at the ILS reference datum. The maximum course sector
angle shall not exceed 6°.
The Displacement Sensitivity shall be adjusted and maintained with
 ±17% for CAT-I/CAT-II of nominal value which is 15.5%
 ± 10% for CAT-III of nominal value.
ICAO defines that the increase of DDM shall be substantially linear with respect to angular
displacement from the front course line (where DDM is zero) up to an angle on either side of
the front course line where the DDM is 0.180.
From that angle to ± 10°, the DDM shall not be less than 0.180. From ± 10° to ± 35°, the DDM
shall not be less than 0.155.
Where coverage is required outside of the ± 35°, the DDM in the area of the coverage, except
in the back course sector, shall not be less than 0.155. The linearity of change of DDM with
respect to angular displacement is particularly important in the neighbourhood of the course
line.
CLEARANCE
In LLZ, the Clearance DDM is checked to find the value does not fall below the 15.5%.
o SUM OF DEPTH OF MODULATION (SDM)

The nominal depth of modulation of the radio frequency carrier due to each of the 90 Hz and
150 Hz tones shall be 20% along the course line. The depth of modulation of the radio

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frequency carrier due to each of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones shall be within the limits of 18%
and 22%.
The following tolerances shall be applied to the frequencies of the modulating tones:
 the modulating tones shall be 90 Hz and 150 Hz within ± 2.5%;
 the modulating tones shall be 90 Hz and 150 Hz within ± 1.5% for CAT-II;
 the modulating tones shall be 90 Hz and 150 Hz within ± 1% for CAT-III;
GLIDEPATH
o RF LEVEL
The MONITOR checks the RF level in COURSE, DS, NF, and CLR which is proportional to the RF
power transmitted by the ILS.
The RF level is checked against the alarm limits set at 50%
o DIFFERENCE IN DEPTH OF MODULATION
Fig: 1.92
COURSE LINE & NEAR FIELD
The mean course shall be adjusted and maintained with
 For CAT-I & CAT-II which corresponds to a shift of mean course line by 0.075ϴ
 For CAT-III which corresponds to a shift of mean course line by 0.04ϴ
The above parameters are checked from CL which is from integral monitoring and also from
NF which is kept at near field.
DISPLACEMENT SENSITIVITY
The Displacement Sensitivity shall be adjusted and maintained with

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 ±25% for CAT-I of nominal value
 ± 20% for CAT-II of nominal value
 ± 15% for CAT-III of nominal value
FIG: 1.93 DS TOLERANCE FOR CAT-III

o SUM OF DEPTH OF MODULATION (SDM)
The nominal depth of modulation of the radio frequency carrier due to each of the 90 Hz and
150 Hz tones shall be 20% along the course line. The depth of modulation of the radio
frequency carrier due to each of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones shall be within the limits of 18%
and 22%.
The following tolerances shall be applied to the frequencies of the modulating tones:
 the modulating tones shall be 90 Hz and 150 Hz within ± 2.5%;
 the modulating tones shall be 90 Hz and 150 Hz within ± 1.5% for CAT-II;
 the modulating tones shall be 90 Hz and 150 Hz within ± 1% for CAT-III;
1.7.3. EXPLAIN THE KEY ADDITIONAL REQUIRED MONITORING

The performance monitoring of ILS components is mandatory. The monitor system must
detect system changes that would cause an unsafe condition to exist at a facility. If an
equipment parameter were to exceed a prescribed tolerance the monitor system must
initiate an equipment transfer or shutdown.
GLIDEPATH MONITORING
The four main parameters that are monitored to prescribed tolerance in a Glidepath are the
GLIDEPATH, PATH WIDTH (Course-Width), RF level and Modulation percentage.

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There are two methods of sampling the radiated signals for input to the monitor. They are
integral and near field m onitoring. As the name implies, near- field monitoring is
accomplished by placing a receiving antenna in the near field in front of the array. Integral
monitoring is accomplished by placing pickup loops or dipoles in very close proximity to the
radiating element.
 INTEGRAL WIDTH MONITORING
The path width of a null reference glideslope (NRGS) is a function of the sideband to carrier
ratio for various glide angles. This ratio is simply called the ‘A’ ratio.
In the integral width monitor network the carrier and sideband signals are sampled by probes
that are in close proximity to the antenna radiator, with coupling factors of -25 dB being
typical. The sampled signals are combined in a combining and phasing unit and fed to the
width detector through a double-stub tuner. The double-stub tuner is used to match the
impedance of the bridge port to the monitor input detector.
 NEAR-FIELD MONITORING
In order to monitor the glide angle it should be a simple matter to calculate the glide angle
height above ground at a certain distance by using the trigonometric expression of:
(Tanθ).(Adjacent side)=Opposite side
Where,
 ‘Θ’ is the glideangle,
 Adjacent side is the distance from the Glidepath antenna, and
 Opposite side would be the height of the monitor antenna.
At Θ=3°the height of the glideangle in feet for a distance of 220 feet from the base of an
antenna array is (tan3°). (220)= 11.53 feet.
So, in order to monitor the glideangle it would appear that mounting the antennas at the
calculated height and distance from the array would be sufficient. However, in near field
we know proximity error exists directly in front of the array which is taken into
consideration.
 PLACEMENT OF THE FIELD MONITOR ANTENNA
The distances where the phase error due to the proximity effect is 360° and 180° would be
the most logical place to position the near field monitor pole. These two positions duplicate

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the far field path width conditions. The only difference at 180° phase error is REVERSE
SENSING.
Normally the monitor pole is positioned at the 180° phase error point, rather than the 360°
point, for stability in monitoring. We can use quadrature phasing to locate the actual phase
error position of an existing monitor pole. We require this information so we can set the alarm
points on the monitor. If the monitor pole were not placed at exactly 180° phase error point
then the DDM must be modified by the cosine of misphasing.
LOCALIZER MONITORING
The parameters that must be monitored in any localizer are course alignment, course width,
modulation percent, transmitter RF output level, and identification.
The antenna systems such as the traveling wave, dipole and log periodic array use the integral
monitor system. In the integral monitoring system, a sample of the radiated energy is fed back
to a monitor combining circuit and then to the monitor equipment.
 COURSE ALIGNMENT
In an ideal localizer system, transmitter modulation would be 20% each frequency; also, the
composite sideband null would be exactly on runway centerline. Slight errors in the physical
placement of the array and individual antennas will cause the sideband null not to be exactly
on runway centerline. Also, small differences in the phase of antenna currents of a pair will
cause the on course ‘0’ DDM to be slightly displaced off the runway centerline when the
modulation factor ‘m90’ and ‘m150’ are equal.
To correct for these slight differences the modulation equality of the ‘m90’ and ‘m150’ is
unbalanced. So the ILS receiver on centerline will indicate ‘0’ DDM. With the localizer
centerline established, the monitoring of this parameter is of considerable importance.
Course alignment is the most important parameter monitored and consequently if not
closely checked could allow an aircraft to fly into an obstruction. Course alignment for CAT-I
Localizers has a "standard" tolerance of 5% of the commissioned course width. In other
words, a facility with a width of 5° could have a maximum alignment change of ±0.25°.
 COURSE WIDTH
Usually Localizers will be tailored to a course width between 3° and 6° at 700 feet points from
the C/L at the threshold. Tolerance for course width is ± 17% of the normal width. Therefore,

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the tailored course width at runway threshold will be 700 feet ± 119 feet and the edge of
course can shift ± 59.5 feet.
 INTEGRAL MONITORING
Integral monitoring (monitoring of unradiated signals) is used to sense out-of-tolerance
conditions in the radiated signals. Samples of the radiated RF signals from each antenna are
recombined to develop:
 A course data signal that will sense changes in course alignment, RF level and
modulation.
 A width data signal that will sense changes in course width.
Recombination circuits are used to combine the sideband and carrier signals from all
antennas. The outputs of the recombination circuits were routed to bridge circuits to form
the final output signals to the monitors.
EXTERNAL MONITORING
The performance stability within the limits defined for course line accuracy, DS in LLZ and DS
in GP is well within the monitor limit, which can be can readily be achieved. However, the
equipment operation near to the monitor limit due to errors and normal day to day variations
are to be eliminated
 to reduce greatly the possibility of critical signal parameters hovering near the
specified monitor limits;
 To ensure a high continuity of ILS service
It is accomplished using monitor devices placed in NEAR FIELD and FAR FIELD. In NF the course
line signal is picked up by the monitor dipole installed at a specific distance from the LLZ array.
This is part of normal monitoring of any ILS requirement. Care has to be taken for any local
variations occurring in the monitoring devices such as icing, snow, and birds. These
extraneous disturbances should not cause any changes in the monitor system itself do not
cause course or ILS glide path variations outside the specified limits without alarming the
monitor.
One possible form of monitor is an integral monitor in which the contribution of each
transmitting antenna element to the far-field course signal is measured at the antenna

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system. Experience has shown that such monitoring systems, properly designed, can give a
close correlation between the monitor indication and the radiated signal in the far field. This
type of monitor, in certain circumstances, overcomes the problem outlined above.
1.7.4. EXPLAIN THE PURPOSE, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FFM

Far field monitors (FFM) are provided to monitor course alignment but may also be used to
monitor course sensitivity. A FFM operates independently from integral and near field
monitors. Its primary purpose is to protect against the risk of erroneous setting-up of the
localizer, or faults in the near field or integral monitors. In addition, the far field monitor
system will enhance the ability of the combined monitor system to respond to the effects of
physical modification of the radiating elements or variations in the ground reflection
characteristics. Moreover, multipath effects and runway area disturbances not seen by near
field and integral monitors, and some occurrences of radio interferences may be substantially
monitored by using a far field monitoring system built around a suitable receiver(s), installed
under the approach path.
A FFM is generally considered essential for Category-III operations, while for Category-II it is
generally considered to be desirable. Also for Category-I installations, a far field monitor has
proved to be a valuable tool to supplement the conventional monitor system.
The signal received by the FFM will suffer short-term interference effects caused by aircraft
movements on or in the vicinity of the runway and the experience have shown that it is not
practical to use the far field monitor as an executive monitor but used as a passive monitor.
Additional possible applications of the far field monitor are as follows:
 It can be a useful maintenance aid to verify course and/or course deviation sensitivity
in lieu of a portable far field monitor;
 It may be used to provide a continuous recording of far field signal performance
showing the quality of the far field signal and the extent of signal disturbance.
Possible methods of reducing the occurrence of nuisance downgrade indications include:
 Incorporation of a time delay within the system adjustable from 30 to 240 seconds;
 The use of a validation technique to ensure that only indications not affected by
transitory disturbances are transmitted to the control system;
 Use of LPF circuits

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A typical far field monitor consists of an antenna, VHF receiver and associated monitoring
units which provide indications of DDM, SDM, and RF signal level. The receiving antenna is
usually of a directional type to minimize unwanted interference and should be at the greatest
height compatible with obstacle clearance limits. For course line monitoring, the antenna is
usually positioned along the extended runway centre line. Where it is desired to also monitor
displacement sensitivity, an additional receiver and monitor are installed with antenna
suitably positioned to one side of the extended runway centre line. Some systems utilize a
number of spatially separated antennas.
1.7.5. DIAGRAM OF MONITORING SYSTEM (NORMARC)
Fig: 1.94
The block diagram given above shows the monitor block receiving its inputs from integral
monitoring, NF, FFM. The received signals are shown in shaded circles. The integral
monitoring signal is obtained from MCU which provides CL, DS, and CLR signals. NF dipole
provides signal picked up from near-field. Signals from FFM are received as FSK signals
through media. An interface block is provided between the FFM and Monitors to process the
signal and to provide based on the requirement of monitors.

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1.7.6. OPTIONAL DME INTERFACE

The IDENT code to DME can be extended from the ILS cabinet or DME can send to ILS. If LLZ
is selected as MASTER the Morse code used to identify the station is extended to the DME
facilitythrough media. The ratio can be 3:1 where, every fourth word is sent to the DME for
ID transmission.

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SUB-TOPIC 1.8: ON-BOARD EQUIPMENT
1.8.1. ON-BOARD EQUIPMENT ASSOCIATED WITH ILS
o ANTENNAS
FIG: 1.95 ANTENNA LOCATIONS

The diagram given above depicts typical antenna locations in an aircraft.
o RECEIVER
The salient features of the airborne display unit are:
 There are TWO needles; the vertical and horizontal needles crossing each other at the
centre of the instrument and graduated with series of dots; to the LEFT and RIGHT and
TOP and BOTTOM.
 The VERTIICAL needle provide guidance in terms of deviation from the centre line
provided by the LOCALIZER and the HORIZONTAL needle by the GLIDEPATH
 The LOCALIZER and GLIDEPATH needles are driven by respective DDM.
The figure given below shows another type of RX used in aircraft.
The RF Amplifier increases the level of the received signal and AGC circuit stabilises the signal
at the output. A simple detector demodulates the navigation tones from the carrier. Three
separate filters are used to filter 1020Hz, 150Hz and 90Hz. The 150Hz and 90Hz tones are
rectified and subsequently added and subtracted using two different circuits. The addition of
DC voltage produces SDM which drives the FLAG and the subtraction provide DDM driving
the CDI needle.

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The ILS is designed to enable the aircraft to fly in close proximity to the ground in bad weather
conditions. It is therefore, essential that prominent alarm flags be fitted in the instrument to
Fig: 1.96
give immediate indication of equipment unreliability. The alarm or malfunctioning conditions
which might arise within either the ground or airborne equipment warns the pilot in the form
of receiver alarm systems using a FLAG. The alarm system is actuated by the sum of two
modulation depths (SDM) and, therefore, the removal of the ILS course modulation
components from the radiated carrier results in the actuation of the alarm.
The alarm system indicates the pilot and to any other airborne system which may be utilizing
the localizer and glide path data, the existence of any of the following conditions:
 If there is significant distortion in the ground transmitter radiation pattern
 If the aircraft flies outside the service volume
 The absence of any RF signal as well as the absence of simultaneous 90 Hz and 150 Hz
modulation;
 The percentage modulation of either the 90 Hz or 150 Hz signal reduction to zero with
the other maintained at its normal 20% and 40% modulation respectively for the
localizer and glide path.

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The sensitivity of the needle deviation differs between VOR and LLZ which use the same CDI.
It is 2° per dot in the case of VOR and 0.5° in the case of LOCALIZER. The rate of deviation is
LINEAR from the centre to the end and the maximum deviation corresponds to 15.5% DDM
(150µA) in the case of LOCALIZER and it is 17.5% DDM (150µA) for GP. The maximum
deflection on either side of centre signifies the COURSE WIDTH points both for LOCALIZER and
GLIDEPATH. The width point will be between 3° and 6° for LOCALIZER from the runway
centreline which depends on the length and it is 0.75° above and below the glide anglefor GP.
o FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

*Already Covered in Initial Basic Course.
1.8.2. DESCRIBE HOW ILS INFORMATION IS USED ON-BOARD

o APPROACH PROCEDURE
An ILS approach is a type of instrument approach consisting of a localizer, a glideslope and
specific approach and runway lighting. It is one of many kinds of instrument approaches which
enable an airplane to safely get from the en-route environment down to a position where the
pilot can see the runway and make a landing. There are three kinds of ILS approach with the
CAT-III being the one with the lowest minimums typically allowing the approach to be flown
even with no visibility.
ILS APPROACH
ILS Approach is probably the best-known of all instrument approaches, the ILS is considered
as a PRECISION approach, and provides both lateral and vertical guidance to the aircraft,
normally enabling the aircraft to safely manoeuvre to a height of 200 feet above the runway
(or higher), from which point the landing is continued visually. This is a category-I ILS, and in
addition to the navigational resources, it requires certain runway lighting and markings. There
are also CAT-II and CAT-III approaches with lower minimums. To conduct an ILS approach, the
pilot tunes to LOCALIZER frequency in the navigation receiver, and the aircraft is flown, either
by PILOT NAV which means the pilot is responsible for navigating to the Initial Approach Fix
(IAF), or by VECTOR meaning ATC will provide guidance to the initial approach fix (IAF). As the
aircraft approaches the IAF, the LOCALIZER begins to display guidance by moving the CDI
needle either from the LEFT or RIGHT toward the centre of the instrument. When the aircraft

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is established on the inbound localizer course and centred on the localizer beam, the display
in the aircraft will be at the centre. If the aircraft continues precisely on this course, it will
proceed directly to the runway associated with the localizer.
At the same time, for a full ILS approach, the aircraft receiver uses the vertical beam similar
to the localizer, and interprets this as the glide slope which will provide vertical navigation to
the runway. Most ILS approaches are set up so that the glide slope centres on the navigation
display (ND) just as the aircraft crosses the Final Approach Fix (FAF) inbound. If the aircraft
descends from that point with the glide slope indicator centred on the display, it will arrive at
the 200 feet (or other height as appropriate) in position to land, provided the runway or its
environment is visible.
Any published instrument approach requires certain visibility to exist in order to begin the
approach. There are variations of this rule in several forms, but in general, these requirements
are available on the approach plate for every approach depicted.
LOCALIZER APPROACH
This is a NON-PRECISION approach which is basically one half of an ILS approach in which the
glide slope is either unavailable or not present. A LOCALIZER approach can be either a stand-
alone, without a glide slope, or it can be an ILS without vertical guidance, which means only
the localizer portion of the approach is available. This means higher "minimums" to the pilot;
the aircraft cannot descent as low as the full ILS permits because the precision vertical
guidance is not available. To conduct a localizer approach, the aircraft is navigated or vectored
just as it is for the full ILS, with the difference being that the pilot is responsible for descending
in a series of STEP DOWN levels to a point at which either the runway environment is visible
or not. If not, a missed approach procedure is initiated. It should be noted that because the
localizer approach is a non-precision approach with no vertical guidance, the minimums, that
is the limit of the descent on the approach is higher than for a precision or ILS approach.
Since in NON-PRECISION approach there is NO vertical guidance there exists some methods
to determine the DME distance from the runway or a VOR crossing radial or an NDB. At the
point of crossing called the Final Approach Fix (FAF) the aircraft will be cleared to descend
down to final altitude. Some pilots chose to do an immediate steep descent down to that
altitude, others choose to do a slower descent at a rate which will get them there by the time
they reach the missed approach point (MAPt). It may be defined several ways by a DME

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distance, or the distance from a marker beacon, or elapsed time since leaving the Final
Approach Fix) usually defined on the chart. Once reaching MAPt, if the runway environment
in not sighted and are in a position to land, the pilot must execute a missed approach.

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SUB-TOPIC 1.9 SYSTEM CHECK AND MAINTENANCE
1.9.1. CONFORMITY OF LOCALIZER, GP, AND MARKER BEACONS TO INTERNATIONAL AND
NATIONAL REGULATIONS
LOCALIZER one of the components of ILS operates in the frequency range between 108 MHz
and 112 MHz in the Aeronautical Radio Navigation Service (ARNS) band with a 50 KHz or 100
KHz channel spacing depending on the regional agreement. The sub-band between 108 MHz
and 111.975 MHz is shared by VOR and ILS in an interleaved fashion. Likewise, GLIDEPATH the
other part of the ILS component also operates in the ARNS band between 328.6 MHz and
335.4 MHz. The MARKER beacons if used, provides the fixed distance from the threshold
FIG: 1.100 UNWANTED EMISSIONS (DOC 9718)

operating between 74.8 MHz and 75.2 MHz in ARNS band. The final component the DME also
operates in ARNS band. Both the LLZ and GP provide navigation guidance for specific runway
configurations used for landing. Its accuracy allows the aircrafts to follow a precise path
during landing for a particular runway configuration. In some cases a runway can be served
with TWO ILS to facilitate landing from both the ends. These ILS are called as RECIPROCAL ILS.
It is mandatory that at a time only one of the ILS has to provide the service. The other one is

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automatically kept OFF to avoid interference. However, this requires careful allocation of
frequencies between the stations. Apart from the above, the ILS operating in neighbourhood
in a region also requires careful allocation of frequencies. It was discussed in earlier subjects
the effects of interference, harmful interference, spurious and out-of-band emissions.
From the above figure, it is evident that the frequency spectrum generated by an equipment
in our case it is the ILS transmitter depends on the design and operational factors.
The NECESSARY BANDWIDTH is defined as for a given class of emission, the width of the
frequency band which is just sufficient to ensure the transmission of information at the rate
and with the quality required under specified conditions. With increased congestion in
spectrum utilization, this set of interlinking Regulations has become the highly important
starting point for dealing with interactions between adjacent services, between services
sharing the same frequency band, and in any other situation of frequency use conflict.
Regulations also specify permissible level of spurious emissions which refers to the power
supplied to the antenna transmission line from the transmitter and are “never to be exceeded
values”. It is recognized that more stringent levels may be laid down by Conference
agreement or by special agreement between administrations. For system performance
reasons, ICAO SARPs often specify more stringent levels in effect, meeting the spirit of the
“special agreement” requirements of the Regulations. These definitions have been developed
to provide a basis for planning, and they highlight the fact that frequency planning is
essentially a process involving the control of interference.
When frequency is shared the concept of permissible interference and is the application of
an agreed protection criterion to ensure that the strength of the unwanted signal from a like
facility, or a similar facility in the same service, is the agreed number of decibels below that
of the wanted signal. In these cases, the acceptable performance change is normally minimal
and quite often is a change in the noise floor or the received SNR. This is highly important for
systems such as VOR or ILS, or navigation systems in general, where the changes to the
received signal are not easily detectable by the user. All of these quantitative criteria for in-
service planning are developed by ICAO for harmonized worldwide application.

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ILS conforms to the specification defined in the ICAO ANNEX VOLUME-1 part 3.1.4 for
LOCALIZER, 3.1.5 for GLIDEPATH, 3.1.6 for frequency pairing between LLZ and GP & 3.1.7 for
MARKER beacons. The specifications conforms to
 RF carrier frequency, Carrier modulation
 Coverage
 Course structure for LLZ & GP and Course alignment accuracy
 Displacement sensitivity
 Identification and Voice if used
 Siting
 Monitoring
 Integrity and Continuity of service
 Interference immunity for receivers
FACILITY INTERLOCK
Various facilities of suitable quality are routinely used to provide automatic approach and
landing experience in visibility conditions permitting visual monitoring of the operation by the
pilot. They should therefore be protected, by interlocks, from interference due to the
simultaneous radiation of opposite-direction localizer beams. Where this is impracticable for
technical or operational reasons and both localizers radiate simultaneously, pilots should be
notified by the appropriate ATS unit, by ATIS broadcast, by NOTAM or in the relevant part of
the AIP. Similar harmful interference can occur if aircraft in the final phase of approach or roll-
out pass closely in front of the ILS localizer antenna serving another runway.
IMMUNITY INTERFERENCE
It is possible for signals-in-space to be affected by the presence of signals from radio and
television transmitters, citizen band radios, industrial plastic welders, intentional jammers,
etc. Periodic measurements should be made, and the level of any signals detected should
then be compared with an accepted maximum. Such measurements can be made by
positioning a wide frequency band receiver in the vicinity of the middle marker. Complaints
by flight crews of signal disturbances should be investigated, and special flight checks should
be made when there is reason to believe that serious interference is occurring. Every effort
should be made to identify and eliminate the cause of the interference.

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ANNEX-10 defines the ILS localizer receiving system shall provide adequate immunity to
interference from two-signal, third-order inter-modulation products caused by VHF FM
broadcast signals. The FM broadcasting stations operate between 88 MHz and 108 MHz. The
criteria for signal levels for the frequencies between 107.7 MHz and 108 MHz and for the
frequencies below 107.7 MHz. When the levels are exceeded the desensitization circuits
operate in the receiver. The
levels are given as follows:
FREQUENCY OF OPERATION
LOCALIZER
The localizer shall operate in the band between 108 MHz & 111.975 MHz. Where a single RF
carrier issued, the frequency tolerance shall not exceed plus or minus 0.005%. Where TWO
RF carriers are used, the frequency tolerance shall not exceed 0.002% and the nominal band
occupied by the carriers shall be symmetrical about the assigned frequency. With all
tolerances applied, the frequency separation between the carriers shall not be less than 5 kHz
nor more than 14 kHz.
GBAS is standardized to operate in the band between 108 MHz and 117.975 MHz. GBAS/ILS
and GBAS/VHF COM frequency planning criteria are currently under development. Until these
criteria are defined and included in SARPs, GBAS frequencies should be selected from the
band between 112.050 MHz and 117.900 MHz.
GLIDEPATH
The Glidepath shall operate in the band between 328.6 MHz &335.4MHz. Where a single RF
carrier issued, the frequency tolerance shall not exceed plus or minus 0.005%. Where TWO
RF carriers are used, the frequency tolerance shall not exceed 0.002% and the nominal band
occupied by the carriers shall be symmetrical about the assigned frequency. With all
tolerances applied, the frequency separation between the carriers shall not be less than 4 kHz
nor more than 32 kHz.

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MARKERS
The frequency 75 MHz is assigned to marker beacons. Administrations shall refrain from
assigning frequencies close to the limits of the guard-band to stations of other services which,
because of their power or geographical position, might cause harmful interference or
otherwise place a constraint on marker beacons. Every effort should be made to improve
further the characteristics of airborne receivers and to limit the power of transmitting stations
close to the limits 74.8 MHz and 75.2 MHz. The carrier frequency tolerance shall be 0.005%
ICAO DOC 8071
The DOC 8071 recommends ground testing requirements and checks that are to be carried
out on all ILS components periodically so as to conform to the specifications. A summary of
the above said requirements are available. These tests and checks are carried out based on
the maintenance schedules defined by the CHQ which is available in CNS MANUAL that agrees
to the ANNEX-10, DOC-8071 and Manufacturer specifications.
1.9.2. JUSTIFY THE OCCASIONS WHEN IT IS NECESSARY TO DOWNGRADE AN ILS FACILITY

PERFORMANCE CATEGORY
o SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
In earlier sub-topic it was discussed that an ILS facility provides guidance information to the
landing aircrafts in low visibility and ceiling conditions. The information provided shall be of
greater accuracy to prevent any untoward incident.
The ILS facility classification system provides a more comprehensive method of describing ILS
performance than the simple CAT I/II/III classification. An example of an ILS facility
classification is “III/E/4”. ILS facility classification is described in Annex 10, Volume I. A facility’s
“class” of performance is defined by using three characters as follows:
 The first group of characters (I or II or III) indicates conformance to the facility
performance category Standards contained in Annex 10, Volume I. This character
indicates if the ground equipment meets a facility performance CAT-I, II or III.
 The second group, comprised of a single character, defines the ILS point to which the
localizer conforms to the facility performance Cat II/III course structure tolerances.
These classifications indicate ILS conformance to a physical location POINTS on the
approach or runway as follows:
POINT ‘A’ : 7.4 km (4 NM) before the threshold;

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POINT ‘B’ : 1050 m (3 500 feet) before the threshold (CAT-I decision point);
POINT ‘C’ : Glide path altitude of 30 m (100 feet) Height Above Threshold ( CAT-
II decision point);
POINT ‘T’ : Threshold;
POINT ‘D’ : 900m (3000 feet) beyond the threshold (facility performance CAT-III
requirement only);
POINT ‘E’ : 600m (2000 feet) before the runway end (facility performance CAT-III
requirement only).
FIG: 1.101 COURSE STRUCTURE BEND AMPLITUDE LIMITS

 The third group, comprised of a single character, indicates the level of integrity
and continuity of service. It is generally accepted, irrespective of the operational
objective, that the average rate of a fatal accident during landing due to failures
or shortcomings in the whole system, comprising the ground equipment, the
aircraft and the pilot, should not exceed 1x10-7. This criterion is frequently referred
to as the GLOBAL RISK FACTOR. In CAT-III operations, this objective should be
inherent in the whole system. In this context it is of the utmost importance to
endeavour to achieve the highest level of integrity and continuity of service of the
ground equipment. Integrity is needed to ensure that an aircraft on approach will
have a low probability of receiving false guidance. Continuity of service is needed

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to ensure that an aircraft in the final stages of approach will have a low probability
of being deprived of a guidance signal.
o SYSTEM FAILURE
The ILS facilities should be ground and flight checked at the time of commissioning and at
regular intervals in accordance with the requirements of Annex 10, Volume-I, to ensure an
adequate and uniform standard of non-visual guidance. In the event that a facility fails to
meet the requirements for which it was commissioned, or if a periodic flight-test cannot be
completed within the appropriate time interval, its status should be reviewed and the facility
downgraded as necessary. Users should be advised of changes in facility status through the
AIS or NOTAM process.
An ILS providing CAT-III operation shall consist of the following:
 Dual Transmitters operating in Hot standby configuration with specified tolerances
 Dual Monitors and Far-field monitors
 Configurations to meet the performance
The performance of the ILS facility depends on the category of service provided by it. The
maintenance schedules are to be strictly followed to ascertain the level of performance. There
are various schedules available such as daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, and annual. The
inspections and checks needs to be carried out strictly. The checks are
 Field modulation measurements such as COURSE LINE at THRESHOLD, Sector Width
 Field DDM measurements across the antenna array in the NF for CAT-I & CAT-II
 For CAT-III the measurements are to be carried out from THRESHOLD to point ‘E’
 Monitor Integrity checks to avoid false radiation and the specified TIME DELAY to shut-
off
 ALARM checks on STANDBY monitors
 NF DELAY checks
If any of the configured parameters fails, or one of the transmitter, or monitor fails the
equipment needs to be reverted to the next below category and provided for operation.
Before putting it in to operation to the designated category on restoration, proper assessment
and certification needs to be done.
* For example, if the STANDBY transmitter of CAT-III ILS that provides the service in an airport
fails, CAT-IIIB service is NOT ALLOWED for operation.

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o ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES/DISTURBANCES
Landing in low visibility is perhaps one of the most exciting ways to operate an aircraft but is
certainly the most demanding. Such progress in civil aviation was made possible by huge
improvements in aircraft automatic control systems. This was coupled with stringent
requirements for airfield equipment and crew qualification. In Category III, pilots see the
runway lights only about 5s before touch-down therefore; there is no margin for error.
The basis for Category II/III operations, such as aircraft certification or airline operational
demonstration, ensures a high level of safety. Moreover, approach success rate in actual in-
line services is now nearly 100%. ALL WEATHER OPERATIONS (AWO) encompasses all aspects
of CAT-II, CAT-III, LV T/OFF, LV TAXING operations.
Fig: 1.102
All Weather Operations (AWO) are approvals which allow the aircrafts to make LOW VISBILITY
TAKE-OFFs and Landings. ICAO DOC 9365 Manual of All-Weather Operations defines the
standards.
The aerodrome operating minima for approach operations comprise a horizontal and a
vertical component and are expressed in terms of minimum visibility/runway visual range
(RVR) and minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H) or decision altitude/height (DA/H). An
operator needs to establish aerodrome operating minima in accordance with an approved
method for each aerodrome to be used. In many States the designed approach procedure is
published in the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) and includes the obstacle
clearance altitude/height (OCA/H) only and gives no information on what the minimum
visibility/RVR must be. Based on this information the operator will develop aerodrome
operating minima.

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RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR)

Runway Visual Range (RVR) is the range over which a pilot of an aircraft on the centreline of
the runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or
identifying its centreline (ICAO). CAT-II and CAT-III operations require rapidly updated and
reliable reports of the visibility conditions which a pilot may expect to encounter in the
touchdown zone and along the runway. RVR measurements replace the use of Reported
Visibility Values (RVV) which is not appropriate for conditions encountered during the final
approach and landing in low visibility, because the visibility observations are often several
miles away from the touchdown zone of the runway. RVR is different from the Slant Visual
Range (SVR). SVR is the range over which a pilot of an aircraft in the final stages of approach
or landing can see the markings or the lights as described in RVR definition. The figure given
in next page shows the difference between RVR and SVR.
Fig: 1.103
RVR MEASUREMENTS
For CAT-II and CAT-III operations, the RVR measurements are provided by a system of
calibrated transmissometers and account for the effects of ambient background light and the
intensity of runway lights.

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FIG: 1.104 TRANSMISSOMETERS

Transmissometer systems are strategically located to provide RVR measurements associated
with three basic portions of a runway:
 the touchdown zone (TDZ),
 the mid-runway portion (MID), and
 The rollout portion or stop end.
For CAT-II operations the TDZ measurement is required, and for CAT-III operations the TDZ
and MID measurements is mandatory.
ESTABLISHMENT OF RVR MINIMA

In CAT-II and CAT-III operations, the minima are expressed in terms of ‘DH’ and ‘RVR’. It is
relatively simple to establish the ‘DH’. But it is more difficult to establish the RVR to be
associated with that DH in order to ensure the required visual reference (three-light
segment).
In case of any environmental changes or disturbances that occur in an airfield, the operating
minima also gets changed which modifies the limits of usability of an aerodrome either for
TAKE-OFF or LANDING usually expressed in terms of VISIBILITY, RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE
(RVR), or DECISION ALTITUDE (DA/DH) or MINIMUM DECISION ALTITUDE (MDA/MDH) and
cloud conditions. To establish the DH for a particular category of operation FIVE parameters
are taken in to account. Also, Flight manual provides the required DH minima which depend
on the performance of ILS ground installation performance, Obstacle Clearance Height (OCH).
However, the DH requirement for CAT-III is different compared to CAT-II operations.

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1.9.3. EXPLAIN THE IMPLICATIONS OF ILS FACILITY PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES TO THE
PILOT
*Already covered in Topic 1 of Qualification training course
1.9.4. PERFORM SOME TYPICAL MEASUREMENTS
The measurements are to be carried out on the familiarization practical classes.
The tasks are
 Measurement of OUTPUT power
 Spectrum analysis
 Modulation &
 ID code.
These measurements are also carried out as per the maintenance schedules.
* Refer Maintenance schedules for ILS given in CNS VOLUME-VII.
Carryout measurement in practical sessions (specify exercise)
1.9.5. CALIBRATION AND FLIGHT INSPECTION RESULTS

ICAO DOC 8071 defines the purpose of flight testing is to confirm the correctness of the
setting of essential signal-in-space parameters, determine the operational safety and
acceptability of the ILS installation, and periodically correlate signal patterns observed in flight
and from the ground. Since flight testing instrumentation varies greatly, a general
methodology is given.
Flight tests constitute in-flight evaluation and sampling of the radiated signals in the static
operating environment. The signals-in-space are evaluated under the same conditions as they
are presented to an aircraft receiving system and after being influenced by factors external
to the installation, e.g. site conditions, ground conductivity, terrain irregularities, metallic
structures, propagation effects, etc.
The schedules of flight inspections are
 Site-proving inspection to determine the suitability of the proposed site and is not
recurring one
 Commissioning and categorization inspection provides comprehensive inspection
designed to obtain complete detailed data relating to the facility performance and to
establish that the facility meet operational requirements. Two types of inspections are
done which are as follows:

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o Initial commissioning which is made prior to commissioning of ILS
o Re-commissioning is done after relocation of antenna or installation of
different type of antenna or transmitters
o At the time when categorization is required
 Periodic inspections which are regularly scheduled flight inspections conducted to
determine whether the facility performance continues to meet standards and satisfy
its operational requirements. Transmitters are checked for normal and alarm
conditions and path structure is evaluated.
 Special flight inspection is a flight inspection required by special circumstances, e.g.
major equipment modifications such as change in operating frequency, antenna
replacement, replacement of RF components Phasors cables, and reported or
suspected malfunctions, etc.
 Flight inspections following ground maintenance activities such as changes in ground
environment near radiating antennas, requiring a confirming flight inspection. This is
because ground measurements sometimes cannot ascertain the operational use of
the signals in some respects.
ICAO DOC 8071 provides the summary of test requirements for LLZ, GP and Markers to be
carried out on ground and by flight inspection.
TYPICAL TASKS
Periodicity of flight inspection depends on
 The checking method used
 Reliability of ground equipment
 Extent and fidelity of monitoring capability
 Proficiency of maintenance personnel
 Extent of correlation established between ground check and Flight check.
NOTE: Inspection periodicity for ILS it is 150 days ± 30 days and for ILS DME it is as per the
ILS.
Maintenance team can draw a schedule for flight inspection as per the data above. In case
the established intervals are exceeded because of weather or other factors the facility status
(Certification) shall not be changed for the sole reason that the inspection could not be carried

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out within the maximum allowable intervals. The facility may continue to remain in service,
provided the ground checks indicate normal performance.
PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION PREPARATIONS

Following are the points to be observed during Pre-flight Inspection Preparation:
 Ensure that the result of all possible ground calibration and checking of equipment are
satisfactory.
 Competent Maintenance personnel should be available to make corrections and
adjustments during flight inspection.
 The DGPS and Laser Tracker (LT) Platform should be constructed, as advised by the
FIU, along with a suitable Power supply Point. Such positions should be maintained
properly for subsequent Flight Checks. The position of LT reference reflector or its
bracket should also be maintained properly
 Availability of dedicated transport for equipment and personnel should be ensured
during the entire course of flight check.
 Ensure all special tools and instruments are available at the site.
 Availability of last Flight Inspection Report
 Any requirement of special investigation during flight inspection must be intimated in
advance and followed up with FIU during flight inspection.
 In case the facility is not expected to be ready as per the regular scheduled inspection,
FIU must be advised accordingly.
 NOTAM action for withdrawal of facility during Flight Inspection must be taken
without fail.
IN-FLIGHT INSPECTION ACTION BY THE GROUND PERSONNEL

During the inspection the Flight Inspector will advise maintenance personnel of observed
conditions which require adjustment in ground equipment. Request for adjustment will be
specific and readily understandable by ground personnel. Normally the Flight Inspector is not
expected to diagnose the fault, but will furnish sufficient information to enable the
maintenance team to make the corrective adjustment, when the aircraft is airborne. Record
the adjustments done, for post analysis. Take down relevant measurements on ground for
establishing a meaningful correlation with the flight check results after each run.

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POST-FLIGHT INSPECTION ACTION BY THE GROUND PERSONNEL

Ground maintenance, personnel will complete the following actions:
 Take action as per the advice of Flight Inspector.
 Take down relevant measurements on ground for establishing a meaningful
correlation with the flight check results.
 Implement the suggestions contained in the remarks column of “Flight Inspection
Report”
 Intimate FIU and all concerned regarding any major change in the facility performance
suitably by NOTAM
FLIGHT INSPECTION CHECKS

1. Identification Coding Checks
2. Mod-Balance and Mod-Depth Checks
3. Course width and Clearance Check
4. Course Structure, Course Alignment and Flyability Check
5. High angle clearance check
6. Alignment Monitor Alarm check
7. Width Monitor Alarm check
8. Coverage and Power Monitor Alarm Check
9. Polarization Check
10. Course width Symmetry Check.
In case of Routine/Periodic inspections, adjustments are normally carried out on one of the
transmitters and then:
 All the monitors are adjusted to ZERO.
 Transmitter is changed over.
 Controls of this transmitter are adjusted to obtain similar readings on the monitor.
 A confirmatory air check is made for this transmitter. It saves time and ensures that
both the transmitters are balanced on monitors.
This procedure is also employed in glide path calibration.
APPRECIATE THE CALIBRATION CHECKS AND PROCEDURES

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1. IDENTIFICATION CODING CHECK
IDENT should have no effect on cross pointer. Modulation level is adjusted to 10%.
2. MOD-BALANCE & MOD-DEPTH CHECK

The purpose of this check is to confirm that modulation balance and modulation depth are
set properly. On centre line of LLZ the DDM should be ZERO and Mod sum should be 40%.
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The flight procedure defines that the calibration aircraft is parked on Centreline at Threshold,
and the Ground staff has to adjust the levels.
MOD BAL is adjusted to 0 ± 5µA in the cross-pointer of FIS console
MOD DEPTH adjusted to 40% ± 4% for CAT-I and CAT-II
40% ± 2% for CAT-III
Final adjustments of Mod Balance and Mod depth are carried out during approaches.
3. COURSE WIDTH AND CLEARANCE CHECK

The purpose of this task is to check that the COURSE WIDTH is satisfactory.
During COMMISSIONING & ANNUAL CHECKS the course width is adjusted for a nominal value.
During ROUTINE checks it is ensured that the course width is within the tolerance. Also OFF
course clearance is checked between ±10° to ±35°
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The calibration aircraft flies an arc about Runway centre line at approximately 5NM from LLZ
&1500 feet AGL as shown in the figure given in the next page.
The Ground-staff is required to adjust Course-Width control as advised by the Flight Inspector.
In case of NORMARC ILS, SBO Power control is adjusted. A clockwise rotation increases the
attenuation which increases the course width and vice-versa.
In-sufficient clearance may be caused due to:-
 Imperfect Phasing
 High VSWR in the RF Feeder / Dipoles. (It should be re-checked and corrected)
Desired Result / Tolerances:

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The COURSE WIDTH (W) should be W ±17% for CAT I, II & III
Course width adjustment:
Adjustment = [DDM (SBO) X Measured CW]/Required CW
Adjustment (dB) = 20Log10 (Required CW/ Measured CW)
The clearance current should increase LINEARLY to 175µA which corresponds to 18% DDM
from centreline and must not fall below this value up to 10° azimuth either side of centreline.
Minimum clearance current should be 150µA (15.5% DDM) in the sector ±10° to ±35°. During
routine check, if width is found outside ±4%, it is adjusted for ±1%
FIG: 107 LLZ COURSE WIDTH & CLEARANCE CHECK
4. COURSE STRUCTURE ALIGNMENT & FLYABILITY CHECK

The purpose of this task is
 To check the alignment of electronic centre line with the physical runway centre line
 To check that the quality of course signals is satisfactory. The Course bends,
Roughness, scalloping and all combined should be within tolerance limits of the
applicable categories
 Flyability is checked to ensure it is satisfactory that an aircraft following the ILS can fly
smoothly both in MANUAL as well as in AUTOPILOT.

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FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The Calibration A/C carries out ILS approaches inbound from 8 NM up to R/W Threshold on
LLZ and on Glide Slope for CAT-I & CAT-II facility. For CAT-III facility the calibration A/C carries
out ILS approaches inbound from 8 NM and then follows the LLZ approach50´ above the RWY
up to Reciprocal Threshold.
LASER TRACKER / DGPS
When approaches are made the positional (aircraft position with respect to threshold) data
correction is given by DGPS automatically. Calibration Aircraft is automatically tracked by
DGPS/ Laser Tracker. In-the case of Tracker, continuous azimuth deviation data of the A/C
position gets automatically transmitted to the console through RTT UHF up-link and course
structure is calculated by the computer immediately after the completion of the exercise. The
Laser Tracker is controlled by the Flight Inspector/AFIS-200 system depending on the chosen
exercise.
GROUND ADJUSTMENT
Normally NO adjustment is carried out for the above exercise. However, slight adjustment of
MOD BAL and MOD DEPTH may be required to optimize the far field performance to achieve
acceptable alignment value
DESIRED RESULTS AND TOLERANCES

ALIGNMENT
ILS CATEGORY PERIODIC COMMISSIONING
CAT I ± 14.6 µA ± 1.5µA
CAT II ± 10.5 µA ± 1.1µA
CAT III ± 04.2 µA ± 0.5µA
STRUCTURE
Usable distance to ILS point ‘A’ : 30µA
ILS point ‘A’ to point ‘B’ for CAT-I : Linear decrease from 30µA to 15µA
For CAT-II : Linear decrease from 30µA to 5µA
For CAT-I ILS point ‘B’ to point ‘C’ : To maintain 15µA
For CAT-II ILS point ‘B’ to Threshold : 5µA
For CAT-III ILS point ‘B’ to point ‘D’ : 5µA
For CAT-III ILS point ‘D’ to point ‘E’ : Linear increase from 5µA to 10µA

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FLYABILITY
It must be SATISFACTORY and is subjective assessment of the pilot
ILS POINTS
ILS Point ‘A’ : On extended C/L, on G/P to 4NM (7.5KM) from the threshold
ILS Point ‘B’ : On extended C/L, on G/P to 3500 feet (1050m) from the
threshold
ILS Point ‘C’ : On extended C/L. Downward extended straight portion of G/P
where it crosses 100 feet above horizontal plane containing the
threshold
ILS Point ‘T’ : A point at a specified height located above the intersection of
the runway centreline and the threshold and through which the
downward extended straight portion of ILS GP passes
ILS Point ‘D’ : A point 4 m (12 feet) above the runway centre line and 900 m
(3000 feet) from the threshold in the direction of Localiser
ILS Point ‘E’ : A point 4 m (12 feet) above the runway centre line and 600 m
(2000 feet) from the STOP END of the runway in the direction of Threshold
FIG: 1.08 COURSE STRUCTURE ALIGNMENT AND FLYABILITY CHECK
Refer COURSE STRUCTURE BEND AMPLITUDE

B3 OF DOC 10057
FIG: 1.109 EVALUATION OF COURSE/PATH BEND AMPLITUDE
5. HIGH ANGLE CLEARANCE

The purpose of this task is to evaluate the combination of ground environment and antenna
height can cause nulls or false courses. These may not be apparent at normal instrument
approach altitudes.High Angle Clearance should therefore be investigated upon in case of:
 Initial Commissioning
 Change in location of Antenna
 Change in height of Antenna
 Installation of a different type of Antenna
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
This check is similar to clearance check described earlier except that aircraft flies the arc at
4500 feet AGL or at maximum service altitude of LLZ in use.
6. WIDTH MONITOR ALARM CHECK

The purpose of this task is to confirm that the adjustment of Width, Monitor alarm is
satisfactory.

B3 OF DOC 10057
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
This exercise is conducted similar to that of Course-Width check. However, ground procedure
is different.
WIDTH WIDE-ALARM CHECK

This check ensures that even during wide width condition, clearance current does not reduce
below the minimum. In this check off-course Clearance current must not fall below 160μA in
the Zone± 10° & 135μA in the Zone ±10° to ±35°.
GROUND PROCEDURE
Inspection of width alarm is carried out on one TX only. Decrease in SBO power simulates
wide alarm condition. For narrow alarm condition, increase the SBO power till monitor gives
alarm. FIU checks the air performance under this condition. During narrow alarm under the
advice of FIU, the alarm limits may be required to be adjusted. Return the control to earlier
position to obtain original value of width DDMat the end.
PERMISSIBLE COURSE-WIDTH (DS) CHANGE FOR EACH CATEGORY
CAT-I and CAT-II : ± 17%
CAT-III : ± 10%
7. COVERAGE AND POWER MONITOR ALARM CHECKS

The purpose of this task is to confirm that the LLZ provides coverage to the defined service
volume even when operating at half power.
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The FIU aircraft carries out exercise as shown in the figure
GROUND PROCEDURE
The field strength of the LLZ signal is measured on course at greatest distance at which it is
expected to be used (but not less than 18 NM) while operating with 50% of normal power. If

B3 OF DOC 10057
the field strength is less than 5μV, the power will be increased to provide at least 5μV and
monitor limit is adjusted to produce alarm at that level. Normalize the power output to the
original value after the check is done.
FIG: 1.110 LLZ USABLE AIRSPACE CHECK
DESIRED RESULT
Throughout the coverage volume the minimum field strength shall be
 40 µv/m throughout the coverage volume
 90 µv/m for CAT-I (from 10 NM to Point ‘B’)
 100 µv/m to 200 µv/m for CAT-II (from 10 NM to Threshold )
 100 µv/m to 200 µv/m for CAT-III(from 10 Nm to 20 feet above threshold),
above100µv/m at 12 feet
Minimum AGC : 5 µv
Minimum SDM : 36%
Maximum SDM : Below 95%
8. POLARIZATION CHECK
The purpose of this check is to confirm that no adverse effect due to undesired vertical

B3 OF DOC 10057
polarization component will be encountered while flying LLZ Course. The desired polarization
is horizontal.
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The calibration A/C flies in-bound on Localizer at 1500 feet AGL between 6-10 NM. The A/C is
made to Bank 20° each side while remaining on centre line as shown in the figure given below.
Fig: 1.111
DESIRED RESULT
No appreciable deflection of Cross Pointer on Banking. Tolerance in cross pointer current
(DDM)
CAT-I : ± 15μA
CAT-II : ± 8μA
CAT-III : ± 5µA
9. COURSE-WIDTH SYMMETRY CHECK

The purpose of this task is to confirm that the LLZ Course-width on either side of the C/L is
symmetrical within the prescribed limit.

B3 OF DOC 10057
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The FIU aircraft carries out exercise as shown in the figure given below. The calibration A/C
flies in-bound fromOuter Marker to Runway threshold at half width (75 ± µA -offset) point on
either side of the LLZ Centre line.Pilot flies with the help of FIS-CDI. The A/C is tracked
automatically by Local Tracker.
Fig: 1.112
DESIRED RESULT
Symmetry (half-width on 90 Hz side compared to width on 150 Hz side) must be within 10%
of the total Sector Width.
This check is done only during commissioning. After the flight Inspection is completed the
ground staff should ensure that both the TX’s are Balanced on Monitors.
GLIDEPATH FLIGHT INSPECTION CHECKS

1. Antenna NULL
2. Phasing
3. Sector-Width and Glide-angle
4. Glide-angle and Course structure
5. Monitor
a. Position Alarm
b. Width Alarm
6. Azimuth Coverage

B3 OF DOC 10057
1. ANTENNA NULL CHECK

The purpose of this check is to confirm and if required the height of GP antenna elements
above ground. This check is performed during commissioning or after major maintenance of
antenna
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The calibration aircraft flies at 1000 feet/1500 feet AGL on LLZ, from a distance of 8 NM to a
point overhead G/P antenna. The A/C positional information is provided by PDGPS
(Positional Reference System) as shown in the figure given below.
GROUND FACILITY ADJUSTMENT
The SBO signal in the Coaxial Distribution Unit /Antenna Changeover Unit is put on DUMMY
LOAD. The CSB signal is fed to the antenna being checked (one antenna at a time) then the
antenna height is adjusted appropriately to get correct nulls. Antenna should be raised to
decrease the NULL ANGLE and vice-versa.
FIG: 1.113 GP CHECKS

B3 OF DOC 10057
DESIRED RESULTS
NULL REFERENCE SYSTEM
Upper antenna ϴ, 2ϴ
Lower Antenna 2ϴ, 4ϴ
SIDEBAND REFERENCE SYSTEM
Upper antenna 4ϴ/3, 8ϴ/3
M-ARRAY SYSTEM
Upper antenna 2ϴ/3, 4ϴ/3
Middle antenna ϴ, 2ϴ
2. PHASING CHECK
The purpose of this check is to establish that correct Quadrature phase relationship exists
between CSB and SBO signals.
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The figure given below shows the flight procedure for Phasing Check. The calibration A/C flies
inbound on Centre line at 1000’ AGL (Level Run). The exercise is started at 10 NM from
Runway threshold and is terminated at 1 NM before Outer Marker.
FIG: 1.114 PHASING CHECK

B3 OF DOC 10057
In the case of NORMARC Glide Path equipment air phasing is seldom required. Necessary
phasing adjustments are made in the Antenna Distribution Unit (ADU) on ground itself. The
details given below pertain to STAN/GCEL ILS. However it is required to know the RF
adjustments, which constitute the phasing procedure.
 Terminate SBO O/P on Dummy load at Antenna Changeover Unit & radiate only CSB.
Adjust MOD BAL Control as advised by flight inspector to attain zero cross pointer
current in the a/c Console.
 Insert quarter wave-length (λ / 4) cable in SBO feeder and radiate, both CSB and SBO
signals.
FOR NULL REFERENCE SYSTEM

For proper phasing the ground staff should always be quick and alert to monitor and act on
instructions received through VHF R/T by FIU personnel. After radiating CSB and SBO signals,
if the Cross-pointer (CP) is not ZERO then flight inspector will inform CP current on VHF R/T,
to carryout required adjustment in the Sideband phasor control. On completion remove the
λ/4 cable inserted in SBO path.
FOR SIDEBAND REFERENCE SYSTEM

Put upper antenna on Dummy Load before flying is started. Adjust power ratio Control on
ADU to feed equal SBO power to both Antennas. Put the SBO feed on DUMMY LOAD and
radiate only CSB. Check with the aircraft if CP current is ZERO. Insert ‘λ/4’ cable in SBO path
and then adjust SBO phasor to get ZERO CP current. Remove Dummy Load from Antenna
feeder and adjust upper antenna phase control on ADU as advised by FIU to get CP current as
ZERO. Remove ‘λ/4’ cable and normalize the feeds.
FOR M-ARRAY SYSTEMS

Adjust various power ratio controls on ADU as prescribed. Put the Middle and Upper Antenna
on DUMMY Load. Insert ‘λ/4’ cable in SBO feed and put it on DUMMY Load. Radiate only CSB
and check for ZERO CP current. Radiate SBO also with ‘λ/4’ cable. Adjust Sideband phasor to
attain ZERO CP current. Remove DUMMY Load from Middle Antenna and adjust Middle
antenna phasor to attain ZERO CP current. Remove DUMMY Load from Upper Antenna and

B3 OF DOC 10057
adjust upper antenna phasor to achieve ZERO current. Finally remove ‘λ/4’ cable and
NORMALISE the equipment. While carrying out phasing by SBO phasor if ZERO CP current
cannot be attained, then insert about 3-inch of extra cable length in SBO feeder. If phasing
comes proper then CSB cable may be cut equal to extra length (3 inch in this case). Extra
length of cable can be put in CSB cable also if required to get ZERO CP current. In this case
SBO cable may be cut.
It is advisable to carry out the phasing of M-Array Glide-Path system on ground without any
requirement of flying the FIU Aircraft.
3. GLIDEANGLE AND SECTOR WIDTH CHECK

The purpose is to determine the Glide-angle, sector-width and adjust, if necessary.
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The calibration aircraft flies in-bound on extended centre line (level run) at 1500 feet AGL
from 10 NM to MM. The aircraft receives positional information from the PDGPS positional
reference system.

o ANGLE
If the angle is out of tolerance and MOD BAL setting is correct, antenna height will have to be
adjusted, Minor adjustment of MOD BAL can be made as advised by of Flight Inspector. During
the adjustment, put the FTS on CSB course socket. In case the DDM is on 90Hz side the G/P
angle is low and if DDM is on 150 Hz side then G/P angle is High. To increase the glide path
angle, obtain a higher DDM predominant on 150Hz and vice versa.
* For 0.01° adjustment change DDM on path will be 0.24% or by 2.08µA
o WIDTH
o Adjust SBO power attenuator. To increase the sector-width reduce the SBO power (or
increase the attenuation and vice versa).Carry out adjustment of SBO Power control
as per advice of Flight Inspector.
DESIRED RESULTS
Glide-Angle ϴ
Lower Half-sector width 0.12ϴ

B3 OF DOC 10057
Upper Half-sector width 0.12ϴ
TOLERANCES
ON GLIDEPATH
COMMISSIONING NO TOLERANCES ALLOWED
ROUTINE ±7.5% of ‘ϴ’ for CAT-I & CAT-II
±4.0% of ‘ϴ’ for CAT-III
ON HALF-SECTOR WIDTH
For CAT-I Lower half-sector width from 0.07ϴ to 0.14ϴ
For CAT-II & CAT-III Lower half-sector width from 0.10ϴ to 0.14ϴ
4. GLIDEANGLE AND PATH STRUCTURE CHECK

The purpose is to
 Determine the computed (ACTUAL) Glide-angle
 To confirm the bends, scalloping and roughness in GP structure are within the
tolerances.
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
The calibration Aircraft flies inbound on G/P on extended centre line from 10NM up to
threshold. The aircraft is continuously tracked by PDGPS system/Laser Tracker. The Path
Structure is computed automatically. The processes results are displayed in the aircraft
FIU system console.
No adjustment is required in ground equipment for path structure but the averaged path
angle may be required to be adjusted as given above. If structure results are not up to the
mark the facility may be down categorized or restricted. Site improvements may solve an
out-of-tolerance structure situation.
DESIRED RESULT
The Computed Glide Angle (average of the samples collected between points ‘A’ and ‘B’)
should be within Tolerance and Path deviations must meet the following
criterions/tolerances.

B3 OF DOC 10057
TOLERANCES
The path structure should not exceed
For CAT-I Up to point ‘A’ ± 30µA
Point ‘A’ to ‘B’ ± 30µA
Point ‘B’ to ‘C’ ± 30µA
For CAT-II& CAT-III Up to point ‘A’ ± 30µA
Point ‘A’ to ‘B’ ±Linear decrease from 30µA at ‘A’ to ±20µA at ‘B’
Point ‘B’ to ‘T’ ±20µA
DESIRED RESULTS AND TOLERANCES ON GLIDEANGLE AND SECTOR-WIDTH

As given in the preceding paragraph.
5. MONITOR CHECKS
o ANGLE ALARM
The purpose is to confirm that the Angle alarm is adequately sensitive to detect a change in
GLIDEPATH Angle. This check is carried out on one TX only.
FLIGHT PROCEDURES
It is generally carried out during normal Aircraft approach wherein it flies ILS from 8 NM, to
point ‘C’ or point ‘T’.

Connect the Field Test Set (FTS) to course CSB socket in the changeover unit and note the
DDM. On request from FIU A/C, move MOD BAL in one direction till both Monitor-1 and
Monitor-2 are just at the threshold of alarm condition. Keep an eye on the C/L DDM display
on the monitor. On advice of the flight inspector move the MOD BAL control in the other
direction to achieve alarm condition as above. Afterwards, on advice of Flight Inspector,
restore the control to obtain original value of DDM on FTS.

B3 OF DOC 10057
FIG: 1.115 GP COURSE BEND AND MAXIMUM BEND AMPLITUDE CRITERIA
DESIRED RESULTS
The change in Glide Angle obtained by calibration A/C must be within ± 7.5% of ‘θ’.
o WIDTH ALARM
The purpose is to confirm that the Width alarm is adequately sensitive to detect an out-of-
tolerance change in sector width value.
FLIGHT PROCEDURES
The Aircraft flies 1000 feet AGL (LEVEL RUN) along the extended C/L from 10NM to 2NM.
GROUND ADJUSTMENT
Set Monitor display for DS DDM and note the value. Actuate width (DS) Wide alarm condition
on both monitor-1 and monitor-2 by increasing SBO power attenuator. On advice of flight
inspector move the attenuator on the other side to obtain narrow alarm condition. Finally, as
advised, restore the control and reconfirm by obtaining the original value of DS DDM.
DESIRED RESULTS
For CAT-I Lower Half-sector width within ±0.037ϴ
For CAT-II & CAT-III Lower Half-sector width within 25% of nominal value of DS

B3 OF DOC 10057
6. AZIMUTH COVERAGE
The purpose is to confirm that usable signals available in the ±8° azimuth zone (With the
extended centre line as the reference).This check is carried out only during commissioning or
after major maintenance of the antenna.
FLIGHT PROCEDURE
A/C flies in arc at 1500 ft(± 8°) of the extended centreline.
GROUNDFACILITYADJUSTMENT
NO adjustments are required.
DESIRED RESULTS
Glide path signal should have minimum signal strength of -92 dBm/m2, minimum
150µAFLYUPcurrentandSDM/MODSUM more than 48 %.
FLIGHT INSPECTION REPORT

The Result of flight inspection is given to maintenance personnel at the station itself. AFTN
Signal/FAX message to the effect is given to ED (FIU), GM (Region), and OIC Station, GM (N&S).
The final flight inspection report is prepared after return to the base and is generally sent to
the concerned offices within seven days. The data collected during flight inspection are
archived in our records along with the report.

B3 OF DOC 10057

B3 OF DOC 10057
FIG: 1.116 TYPICAL FLIGHT INSPECTION REPORT

The above shown flight report provides the operational information of one of the ILS at
Chennai Airport serving Runway-25.

B3 OF DOC 10057
 TWO frequency LLZ/GP; CAT-1 ILS
 Type of inspection is SPECIAL; flying duration is 2 ½ hours
 Commissioned Course-width is 3.10° and Glide-Angle is 3.0°
 LLZ course alignment for TX1 and TX2
 LLZ course width for TX1 and TX2
 GP half-sector width
 Minimum clearance current in 150Hz/90Hz area for TX1 and TX2
 Course structure at different points
 IDENT in case of LLZ
 Monitor alignments in LLZ/GP
 Flyability
 Item No.20 gives the final FACILITY CERIFICATION. In this case for LLZ it is RESTRICTED,
whereas for GP and DME it is UNRESTRICTED.
1.9.6. Appreciate troubleshooting of ILS LOC, GP and marker beacons.
Remarks: Covered under practical session.
1.9.7. APPRECIATE THE ORIGIN OF ILS ERRORS

o MULTIPATH INTERFERENCE
the ILS antennas, and the antenna characteristics. Any large reflecting objects, including
vehicles or fixed objects such as structures within the radiated signal coverage, will potentially
cause multipath interference to the ILS course and path structure. The location and size of
the reflecting fixed objects and structures in conjunction with the directional qualities of the
antennas will determine the static course or path structure quality whether CAT-I,CAT-II or
CAT-III. Movable objects can degrade this structure to the extent that it becomes
unacceptable. The areas within which this degradable interference is possible need to be
defined and recognized. For the purposes of developing protective zoning criteria, these areas
can be divided into two types, i.e. critical areas and sensitive areas. The objective of defining
critical and sensitive areas is to afford adequate protection to the ILS. The critical and sensitive
area for LLZ/GP has been discussed earlier.
PROTECTION OF CRITICAL AND SENSITIVE AREAS

B3 OF DOC 10057
 By prohibiting all entry of vehicles and the taxiing or parking of aircraft within this area
during all ILS operations.
 By providing proper signage
 Operational procedures need to be developed for the protection of sensitive areas.
SIZE OF PROTECTION AREAS

 Depends on number of factors such as ILS antenna type, topography, Size of man-
made objects and its orientation which includes large aircrafts and vehicles
 Designs of localizer and glide path antennas can be very effective in reducing the
disturbance possibilities and hence the extent of the sensitive areas. Larger aircrafts
has a greater potential for disturbing ILS signals, the sensitive areas for these aircraft
extend a considerable distance beyond the critical areas.
 In the case of the localizer, any large objects such as aircraft on the runway and on
some taxiways. The dimensions of the sensitive areas required to protect CAT-I, CAT-
II and CAT-III operations will vary, the largest being required for CAT-III. Only the least
disturbance can be tolerated for CAT-III, but an out-of-tolerance course along the
runway surface would have no effect on CAT-I or CAT-II operations. If the course
structure is already marginal due to static multipath effects, less additional
interference will cause an unacceptable signal. In such cases a larger-size sensitive
area may have to be recognized.
 In the case of the glide path, experience has shown that any object penetrating a
surface above the reflection plane of the glide path antenna and within azimuth
coverage of the antenna must be considered as a source of signal interference. The
angle of the surface above the horizontal plane of the antenna is dependent on the
type of glide path antenna array in use at the time. Very large aircraft, when parked
or taxiing within several thousand feet of the glide path antenna and directly between
it and the approach path, will usually cause serious disturbance to the glide path
signal. On the other hand, the effect of small aircraft beyond a few hundred feet of
the glide path antenna has been shown to be negligible.
Experience has shown that the major features affecting the reflection and diffraction of the
ILS signal to produce multipath interference are the height and orientation of the vertical
surfaces of aircraft and vehicles. The maximum height of vertical surface likely to be

B3 OF DOC 10057
encountered must be established, together with the “worst case” orientation. This is because
certain orientations can cause out-of-tolerance localizer or glide path deviations at greater
distances than parallel or perpendicular orientations.
o INTERFERENCE WITH RADIO BROADCAST TRANSMISSION

Refer Immunity interference given in sub-topic 1.9.1
****** END ******

B3 OF DOC 10057
SUMMARY
 Use of the system

o Overall performance of ILS, Limitations of ILS, Facility performance, Obstacle-
free zones and its importance, and current situations
 Fundamentals of ILS
o Obtaining DDM in terms of angular position, Adjustments of signals to
generate a beam pattern, Performance of an Antenna-Array.
 TWO Frequency systems
o Limitations in a SINGLE Frequency system
 Ground station Architecture
o Main components of ILS which includes LLZ, GP & Marker ground stations, its
operational requirements.
 Antenna subsystems
o Types, patterns, Antenna matching, Distribution units, Ground Reflections
 Monitoring & control subsystems
o Quality of radiated signals in terms of Integrity and Continuity of service,
operational parameters, Additional requirements of monitoring, Far-field
Monitoring.
 On-board equipment
o Instruments used to display the information from ILS
 System check and maintenance
o Regulations, Downgrading of ILS based on performance, tasks that are to be
carried by Maintenance ATSEPs during regular checks and during flight
calibration, Troubleshooting, Origins of errors.

ATSEP CBT & A
B3 OF DOC 10057
QUALIFICATION Training
on ILS
CONTENT
 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

 USE OF THE SYSTEMS
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ILS
 TWO FREQUENCY SYSTEM
 GROUND STATION ARCHITECTURE
 TRANSMITTER SUBSYSEM
 ANTENNA SUBSYSTEM
 MONITORING AND CONTROL SUBSYSTEM
 ON-BOARD EQUIPMENT
 SYSTEM CHECK AND MAINTENANCE
CATC, Allahabad
सी.ए.टी.सी., प्रयागराज AAI/CNS/CBTA/QUALIFICATION/N
CATC, PRAYAGRAJ avigation/B3/ILS(NM7000B)/
AAI/CNS/CBTA/QUALIFICATION/Navigation/B3/ILS (NM7000B)/Ver.3.0 VERSION-3
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As per ICAO DOC 10057

वायु यातायात सुरक्षा इलेक्ट्रॉनिक्ट्स कानमिक योग्यता आधाररत

Module AAI/CNS/CBTA/Navigation/QUALIFICATION B3/ILS/ Ver.2.0

This “NAVIGATION-GROUND BASED SYSTEMS (ILS)” module conforms to the

This handout is intended to be kept up to date. It will be amended periodically as

Errors, if any or suggestions if brought to the notice of undersigned would be highly

After completion of their module, the

 Discussions are made about the

TOPIC 1: INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM ........................................................................................................ 1

SUB-TOPIC 1.1: USE OF THE SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 2

FIG: 1.1. ILS COMPONENTS

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SUB-TOPIC 1.1: USE OF THE SYSTEMS

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FIG: 1.2 LOCALIZER BEAM

FIG: 1.3 LOCALIZER NORMAL COVERAGE

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FIG: 1.4 LOCALIZER COVERAGE ACCOUNTING TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

FIG: 1.5 ELEVATION COVERAGE

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FIG: 1.6 LOCALIZER COVERAGE VOLUME

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FIG: 1.7 GLIDE PATH BEAM

FIG: 1.8 GLIDEPATH ELEVATION COVERAGE

FIG: 1.9 GLIDEPATH AZIMUTH COVERAGE

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FIG: 1.10 GLIDEPATH COVERAGE

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FIG: 1.11 LOCATION OF MARKERS AND IDENTIFICATION

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

 AVAILABILITY OF THE SYSTEM

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1.1.2. EXPLAIN THE LIMITATIONS OF ILS

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FIG: 1.12 CHANNEL ALLOCATION

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o SINGLE APPROACH PATH

 Approach procedure with vertical guidance (APV) is PBN instrument approach

 Precision approach (PA) procedure is an instrument approach based on navigation

FIG: 1.13 APPROACH PROCEDURE

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AERODROME LIGHTING SYSTEMS

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FIG: 1.15 APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEM

 VISUAL SLOPE APPROACH GUIDANCE

FIG: 1.16 PAPI

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FIG: 1.17 PAPI INDICATIONS TO THE PILOT

VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATORS (VASI)

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FIG: 1.18 TWO BAR VASI

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FIG: 1.19 A TYPICAL RUNWAY LIGHTING SYSTEM VIEWED AT NIGHT

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FIG: 1.20 Typical LLZ Critical and Sensitive area Localizer

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FIG: 1.21 TYPICAL CRITICAL AND SENSITIVE AREAS FOR A GP

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FIG: 1.22 ILS CATEGORY POINTS IN THE APPROACH