Sources of Light

and Blackbody
Radiation
spectral irradiance (W/m2/pm)

Sources of light:
accelerating charges
Boltzmann's Law and
blackbody radiation

Prof. Rick Trebino

Georgia Tec!"
www.frog.
gatech.
edu
How Light and Matter are Studied: Spectra
Some hot media emit light with broad continuous spectra (like a light
bulb):

Some hot media (hot atomic gases) emit only a few frequencies of light:

A cold gas absorbs some frequencies from light with a broad continuous
spectrum:
 Example of a blackbody:
Blackbody Radiation almost everything!

Blackbody radiation is spectrally broad light emitted by a hot body.

It's anything but black!
The name comes from the assumption that, at low temperature, the
body absorbs at every frequency and hence looks black.

Hot

T (ºK) T (ºK)

Blackbody spectra depend only on their temperature.

19th-century physicists recognized that such sources were
fundamentally important and so merited study.
Explaining blackbody radiation was one of
the great challenges of the 19th century.
In a speech to the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1900, Lord
Kelvin described “two dark clouds on the horizon” of physics:

One was the “aether” Classical

and the Michelson- Rayleigh-
Jeans

Spectral irradiance
Morley experiment. formula
The other was the
failure of classical
physics to explain
Experimental data
blackbody radiation.

Wavelength (nm)
UV

This huge discrepancy was known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.

Where does light come from?
We’ve seen that Maxwell’s Equations (i.e., the wave equation)
describe the propagation of light.
But where does light come from in the first place?
Electron
clouds
Light is emitted by matter. This happens Nuclei
via the matter’s polarization:

! ! !
P (t) = ∑ qi xq (t) = Nqxq (t) Note that matter’s polarization is
i analogous to the polarization of light.
i if all N charges and their Indeed, it will yield emission of light
motions are the same with the same polarization direction.

where N is the number ! of charged particles, qi is the charge

of each particle, and xq (t) is the position of the charge, qi.
i
Unpolarized and Polarized Media
Slightly polarized medium— Highly polarized
much cancellation, but not zero; medium; like lasers and
incoherent light sources other coherent light
(like blackbodies) sources

Unpolarized
media

On the right, the displacements of the charges are correlated, so it is

highly polarized at any given time (and its polarization is oscillating).
Each medium will emit light at its oscillation frequency(ies).
Maxwell’s Equations in a Medium*
!
The medium polarization, P , contains the effect of the medium and is
included in Maxwell’s Equations:
!
! ! ! ! ∂B
∇ ⋅E = 0 ∇ ×E = −
∂t ! !
! ! ! ! ∂E ∂P
∇ ⋅B = 0 ∇ × B = µ0ε0 + µ0
∂t ∂t
This extra term also adds to the wave equation, which is known as
the in homogeneous wave equation:
! ! 2!
The polarization is the
!2 ! 1 ∂E 22
∂P ∂ xq source term and tells
∇ E − 2 2 = 0µ0 2 = µ0 Nq 2 us what light will be
c ∂t ∂t ∂t emitted.

2! 2
Note that ∂ xq / ∂t is just the charges’ acceleration!

So light is emitted by accelerating charges!

Sources of Light
Accelerating charges emit light.

Linearly accelerating charge:

Synchrotron radiation—
light emitted by charged r
particles deflected by a B
magnetic field:

Bremsstrahlung (Braking radiation)—

light emitted when charged particles
collide with other charged particles:
But most light in the universe is emitted by
atomic and molecular vibrations.

Electrons vibrate in their motion around nuclei.

High frequency: ~1014 - 1017 cycles per second.

Nuclei in molecules vibrate

with respect to each other.
Intermediate frequency:
~1011 - 1013 cycles per second.

Nuclei in molecules rotate.

Low frequency: ~109 - 1010 cycles per second.
Atomic and molecular vibrations
correspond to excited energy levels in
quantum mechanics.
Energy levels are everything in quantum mechanics.

Excited level

Energy
ΔE = hν = ħω

Ground level

The atom is vibrating The atom is at least partially

at frequency, ν. in an excited state.

h is Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10-34 Joule-seconds

Alternatively, we could use ω, instead of ν, and then use E = ħω:
ħ ≡ h/2π = 1.05 × 10-34 Joule-seconds.
Excited atoms emit photons spontaneously.

When an atom in an excited state falls to a lower energy level, it emits

a photon of light of frequency ν , and ΔE = hν = photon energy.

Excited level

ΔE = hν
Energy

Ground level

Molecules typically remain excited for no longer than a few

nanoseconds. This is often also called fluorescence or, when it
takes longer (say, ms), phosphorescence.
Different atoms emit light at different,
usually widely separated frequencies.
These are
emission
spectra from
gases of hot
atoms.

Each colored
emission line
corresponds to
a difference
between two
energy levels.
Frequency (energy)

Atoms lack nuclear vibrations and rotations and so have relatively

simple energy level systems (and hence simple spectra).
Collisions broaden the frequency range of
the charge motion and light emission.
A collision abruptly changes the phase of the motion and the light
emission. So atomic and molecular emissions usually have broader
spectral lines, depending on the collision rate.

Collisions
emitted electric field
Charge motion and

time

Quantum-mechanically
New frequencies in the speaking, the levels shift
motion and emission during the collision.

Gases at atmospheric pressure have emission widths of ~109 Hz.

Solids and liquids emit much broader ranges of frequencies (~1013 Hz!).
Molecules have many energy levels.
A typical molecule’s energy levels:
E = Eelectronic + Evibrational + Erotational
2nd excited
electronic state
Lowest vibrational and
rotational level of this
electronic “manifold”
Energy

1st excited
Excited vibrational and
electronic state
rotational level

Transition There are many other

complications, such as
Ground spin-orbit coupling,
electronic state nuclear spin, etc.,
which split levels.

As a result, molecules generally have very complex spectra.

Atoms and molecules can also absorb
photons, making a transition from a lower
level to a more excited one.
Excited level
This is, of
ΔE = hν
Energy

course,
absorption.
Ground level

Absorption lines in an otherwise

continuous light spectrum due to
cold atomic gases in front of a
hot (blackbody) source.
Absorption and emission
spectra of the same species will
be different when different
states are populated.
In 1916, Einstein showed that another
process, stimulated emission, can also
occur.
An excited state can also be stimulated by an incident photon to fall
to a lower energy level and emit another photon.

Excited level
Energy

ΔE = hν

Ground level

Stimulated emission makes lasers possible. Too bad Einstein didn’t

realize it in 1916. The laser was eventually invented in 1957.
There are three fundamental interactions
between molecules and photons.
Before After

Spontaneous
emission

Absorption

Stimulated
emission
 Blackbody radiation results from a Blackbody
combination (balance) of spontaneous
emission, absorption, and Radiation
stimulated emission
occurring in a medium
More realistically (and equivalently),
at a given temperature.
a blackbody contains many different
molecules that together have
transitions at every wavelength.

A perfect
blackbody
Energy

has
transitions
at every
wavelength.
In what energy levels do molecules reside?
Boltzmann Population Factors
Ni is the number
density (also
E3 known as the
N3
population
N i ∝ exp ( − Ei / k BT ) density) of mole-
cules in state i
E2 N2 (i.e., the number
Energy

of molecules per
cm3).
Low T T is the
N1 temperature, and
E1 kB is Boltzmann’s
constant =
Population density 1.3806503 ×
(Number of molecules per unit volume) 10-23 J/ºK
 The Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
In the absence of collisions,
(low T) molecules tend to remain
in the lowest energy state
available.
Collisions can knock a molecule
into a higher-energy state. The
higher the temperature,
the more this happens.

Low T High T

Energy
N 2 exp ( − E2 / k BT )
Energy

3 3
=
2 N1 exp ( − E1 / k BT ) 2
Molecules Molecules
= exp [ −( E2 − E1 ) / k BT ]
1 1

frequency of
The ratio of the population densities of two states is: a photon for
an E2 – E1
N2 / N1 = exp(-ΔE/kBT ), where ΔE = E2 – E1 = hν transition
Einstein A and B Coefficients
In 1916, Einstein considered the various transition rates between
molecular states (say, 1 and 2) involving light of irradiance, I:
at frequency ν

Spontaneous emission rate = A N2

Absorption rate = B12 N1 I

Stimulated emission rate = B21 N2 I

In equilibrium, the rate of upward transitions equals the rate of

downward transitions:
A N2 + B21 N2 I = Down = Up = B12 N1 I

Dividing by N1 (A + B21I ) yields N2/N1: Recalling the Maxwell-

Boltzmann distribution
for N2 / N1
N2 / N1 = (B12 I ) / (A + B21 I ) = exp(–hν /kBT)
Blackbody Radiation
Now solve for the irradiance in: (B12 I) / (A + B21 I) = exp(-hν /kBT)

Multiply by (A + B21 I) exp(hν /kBT): B12 I exp(hν /kBT) = A + B21 I

Solve for I: I = A / [B12 exp(hν /kBT) – B21]

Dividing numerator and denominator by B21:

I = (A/B21) / [(B12 /B21) exp(hν /kBT) – 1]

Now, when T → ∞, I should also. As T → ∞, exp(hν /kBT) → 1.

So: (B12 /B21) – 1 = 0

And: B12 = B21 ≡ B Coeff up = coeff down!

And: I = (A/B) / [exp(hν /kBT) – 1]

Blackbody Radiation
I = (A/B) / [exp(hν /kBT) – 1]

We can eliminate A/B based on other information and, writing in

terms of the irradiance per unit frequency, Iν :

8πhv3 / c 2 Iν is called the

Iv = spectral irradiance.
exp(hv / k BT ) − 1

This is the total irradiance per unit frequency (that is, in a range
from ν to ν + δν ) emitted by an arbitrary blackbody.

We considered only two levels, but our approach was general and
so applies to any two levels and hence to the entire spectrum.

Notice that it’s independent of the size of the object, but, to obtain
the emitted power, multiply by the surface area of the blackbody.
 Writing the Blackbody Spectrum vs.
Wavelength
Units of Iν(ν): irradiance
per unit frequency
Total 8πhv3 / c 2
irradiance I=
∫ Iν (ν ) dν =
∫ exp(hv / k BT ) − 1
dν
ν=
c
λ
Change variables from ν to λ: dν c
=− 2
dλ λ
8πh (c / λ )3 / c 2 dν
I=
∫ exp(h(c / λ ) / k BT ) − 1 d λ
dλ

8πhc 2 / λ 5
I=
∫ exp(hc / λ k BT ) − 1
dλ =
∫ I λ (λ ) d λ

2 5 Units of Iλ(λ): irradiance per

8πhc / λ unit wavelength. Iλ is also
I λ (λ ) =
exp(hc / λ k BT ) − 1 called the spectral irradiance.
Total Emitted Blackbody Irradiance:
the Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Performing either of the integrals of blackbody emitted light over all
frequencies or wavelengths yields a very simple result for the total
emitted blackbody irradiance at its surface:
I total = σ T 4
where:

2π 5 k B4
σ= −8 −2 −4
3 2 = 5.670373×10 W m K
15 h c

σ is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (not to be confused with

Boltzmann’s constant, kB).

Multiply by the blackbody surface area to find the total emitted power.
Blackbody Emission Spectrum

Blue hot is hotter

The higher the than white hot,

spectral irradiance (W/m2/pm)

temperature, which is hotter
the more the than red hot..
emission at all
wavelengths
and the shorter
the peak
wavelength.

The sun’s surface is ~5800º K, so its blackbody spectrum peaks at

~500 nm—in the green. However, blackbody spectra are broad, so it
contains red, yellow, green, and blue, too, and hence looks white.
Wien’s Law: The blackbody peak
wavelength scales as 1/Temperature.
Spectral irradiance (arb units)

λmax ≈ (2.90 × 106 nm ºK) / T

Wavelength (µm)
We can tell how hot a star is by its
emission spectrum.
Spectral irradiance (arb units)

°
Wavelength (A)
The earth is a blackbody, too.
Spectral irradiance [W/(m2 µm)]

Wavelength [µm]
Cosmic
Microwave
Background
The 3° cosmic microwave
background is blackbody Microwave background
radiation left over from the Big Bang! vs. angle. Note the
slight variations.

Peak frequency is
~ 150 GHz Interestingly,
[nW/(m2 sr cm-1)]
Spectral radiance

blackbody radiation
retains a blackbody
spectrum despite
the expansion the
universe. It does
get colder, however.
Wave-number [cm-1]
Emissivity

Emitted irradiance (W/m2)

Blackbody at 21ºC
We assumed a perfectly Quartz at 21ºC
black object. But the object
may not have transitions at
all wavelengths, and it may
not be “optically
thick” (opaque).
The emissivity takes this Wavelength (µm)
into account. It’s the ratio of
the actual emitted spec-
trum and the theoretical
blackbody spectrum.
Emissivity

It depends on the medium

and its density.
Atomic gases have mostly
zero emissivity and a few
non-zero points. Wavelength (µm)
 Color Temperature

Blackbodies are so pervasive that a

light spectrum is often characterized
in terms of its temperature even if
it’s not exactly a blackbody.

Keep in mind that blackbody

spectra are broad, so they usually
look white with a tint of the peak
color (wavelength).
Light Bulb
Spectra
Ordinary
incandescent light

Intensity
bulbs have a color
temperature of
~3000º K, so much
of their light is in
the IR and is
wasted. They also
appear yellowish.

Fluorescent light bulbs have a small blackbody component and many

additional narrow-spectrum atomic emission lines.
Fluorescent light bulbs aren’t blackbodies, but their spectra are often
fit to a blackbody curve. Same for LED bulbs.
Cheap LED Light Bulb Spectra
Inexpensive “white" LEDs are just a blue LED with a “phosphor”—a
fluorescent material.
The phosphor converts ~half the LED light to a lower frequency range.
The two frequency ranges (badly) approximate a white blackbody.
Relative Radiant Power

Blue LED
Better LED Lightbulbs
Higher-quality LED bulbs use up to four separate, different-color LEDs.

The CREE Xlamp MC-E bulb with all four LEDs (red, green, blue,
and white) on:

4000K

6000K

Even these bulbs aren’t very close to a blackbody and so usually

also appear unnatural.
The Individual LEDs in a CREE LED Bulb
Emission spectra of the individual LEDs in the CREE Xlamp MC-E bulb:

There’s no fundamental reason for these bulbs to look so unnatural (the

eye is a lousy spectrometer). Part of the problem is that these bulbs are
engineered to look much whiter than familiar incandescent bulbs (2700K).