585

20

Pharmacology of Marine Macroalgae

Kasım Cemal Güven1, Burak Coban2 and Osman Özdemir3
1
Turkish Marine Research Foundation (TUDAV), PO Box: 11 Beykoz, Istanbul, Turkey
2
Chemistry Department, Bulent Ecevit University, Zonguldak, Turkey
3
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Cyprus International University, Lefkoşa, North Cyprus, Cyprus

20.1 ­Introduction oldest article in the scan is from 1883. When

Medical use of marine algae goes back to the
ancient China [1–3] and the use of algae as
food continues today. Alginic acid is the oldest
pharmaceutically active constituent isolated
from brown algae [4]. The antihelmentic
­properties of Digenea simplex [5] and
Corallina officinalis [6] were also known in
Mediterranean countries. The first alkaloid
from algae was isolated by Guven et al. [7,8].
General use of algae was first mentioned by
Hoppe et al. [9,10]. Medicinal use of algae was
first published in 1969 by Baslow [11]. In previ-
ous reviews the pharmacology of alkaloids
from algae [12,13] and volatile oils of algae [14]
were summarized. Subsequent titles were
summarized according to the chronological
order in this chapter. A detailed book
Anticancer Activities of Algae was been pub-
lished by Kim (2015) [15] and this hot topic is
not included in this chapter. Anticoagulant
and antilipemic activities of algae have not also
been included in this chapter because they
have been prepared for publication elsewhere
recently [16].
In this literature review, we took care to put
the earliest studies in the first place and the
available active ingredients were written before
the name of the alga, otherwise algal extracts
have been indicated in this review.
20.2 ­Anti-Bacterial Activity
20.2.1 Green Algae
Extracts of Caulerpa sertularioides, Penicillus
capitatus and Aurainvillea rawsoni [5], Entere­
morpha linza [17], lipidic extracts of Clad­
ophora rupestris [18], Ulva reticulate, Caulerpa
accidentalis and Cladophora socialis extracts
[19], Codium decorticatum [20], Caulerpa rac­
emosa var. occidentalis [19], Caulerpa prolifera
[21], C. protera and C. cupressoides [22], Ulva
lactuca [23,24], Ulva pertussa [25], U. fasciata
[22,26], U. reticulata [19], Ulva rigida [27],
Enteremorpha intestinalis [23], E. linza [17],
Chlodophora rivularia [28], C. socialis [19],
Chlodophora rupestris [23], Codium bursa
[27], C. fragile [24], Scenedesmus quadricauda
[29], Chaetomorpha linum [30], C. antennina
[26] showed antibacterial effect. Enteromorpha
intestinalis extract proved to be particularly
effective against Gram-positive and marine
bacteria [23].

Encyclopedia of Marine Biotechnology: Five Volume Set, First Edition. Edited by Se-Kwon Kim.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
586 20 Pharmacology of Marine Macroalgae
20.2.2 Brown Algae
The extracts of Laminaria digitata [31],
Desmarestia aculeate and Fucus serratus [32],
Sargassum natans [33], S. kjellmanianum [34],
S. wightii [35], S. muticum [23], Laminaria
japonica and Kjellmaniella crassifolia [25], L.
ochroleuca, Fucus vesiculosus, Ectocarpus siliqu­
losus, Pelvetia canaliculata and Ascophyllum
nodosum [23], Himanthalia elongata [36],
Padina gymnospora [30,37,38], Colpomenia sin­
uosa, Scytosiphon lomentaria, Dictyota dicho­
toma var. implex, D. dichotoma and Petolonia
fascia [39], P. binghamiae [40], Dictyota indica,
D. divaricata, D. flabella and Padina concresceus,
Fucus serratus [5,24], dictyol F and epidictyol F
from D. dichotoma [41], phlorotannins from
Eisenia bicyclis, Ishige okamurae and Pelvetia
siliquosa [42], Ecklonia cava [42,43], E. kurome
[42,44], E. stolonifera [42,45], lipid extracts of
Zanardinia prototypus, Cystoseira barbata and
C. jabukae [46] showed antibacterial activities.
20.2.3 Red Algae
Laurencia sp. generally showed antibacterial
effects such as: Methanolic extracts [5,47,48], a
sesquiterpene allolaunterol [49], polyhalogen-
ated terpenes [50], volatile oils and hydrophilic
extracts of L. obtusa [51], brominated indols
from L. mariannensis, L. majuscula, L. nidifica,
L. cartilaginea, L. concreata [52], pre-pacifenol
from L. filiformis [53], a halogenated C15 ace-
togenin from L. mariannensis and a halogen-
ated sesquiterpene from L. majuscula [54],
chamigran, a sesquiterpene from L. okamurae
[55], ethanolic extracts of L. johnstonii [24], L.
papillosa, [56], L. brongniartii [57], L. pinnati­
fida [23], L. ceylonica, L. brandenii [58] showed
antibacterial activities.
The other red algae with antibacterial activi-
ties are Chondrus crispus, Ceramium rubrum,
Cryptoleura ramosa, Polysiphinia lanosa [23],
Dictyopteris justii, D. plagiogramma, Chondria
littoralis, Falkenbergia hillebrandii, Goniyaulax
tamarensis, Wrangelia argus and W. bicuspidata
extracts [5], Hypnea valentine, Asparagopsis
taxiformis [58], Galaxoura cylindrinea [56],
Gracilaria verrucosa [25], G. dendiroides [19],
G. domingensis, G. corticata, Amansia multifida
[22], Dasya pedicellata and Griffithsia globifera
[5], Junia rubens [59], Rhodomela larix [60], R.
subfusca, Delesseria sanguine extracts [32].
Asparagopsis taxiformis also showed activity
against Leptospira javanica [61]. 3-bromo-
4,5-dihydroxybenzaldehyde from Halopytis
incurvus [62], cycloeudesmol, a cyclopropane
containing sesquiterpene from Chondria oppo­
site clada [63], halogenated acyclic monoterpe-
nes from Plocanium cartilagenium [50], simple
bromophenols isolated from Polysiphonia sp.:
P. violacea, P. thuyoides, P. urceolata, P. brodiaei,
P. nigra, P. nigrescens, P. elongata, P. lanosa and
P. fruticulosa [64], showed antibacterial activi-
ties. A polybrominated 2-heptanone isolated
from Bonnemaisonia hamifera showed anti-
fouling activity against bacterial colonization
on the surface of alga [65].
20.3 ­Antifungal Activity
20.3.1 Green Algae
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii extract was active
against marine fungi and Caulerpa prolifera
ether extract showed weak effect [23]. Caulerpa
rasemosa, C. taxiflora, Halimeda opuntia and
Udotea flabellum extracts showed weak anti-
fungal activity [66].
20.3.2 Brown Algae
Dictyosphaeria favulosa, Dictyota bartayresii, D.
divaricata, D. indica and Padina gymnosphora
[66] showed strong antifungal activity.
Sargassum muticum, S. filipendula, S. stenophyl­
lum, Stypopodium zonale were active against
marine fungi [23], etanolic extracts of S. muti­
cum, Pelvetia canaliculata, Stypopodium zonale,
Laurencia dendroidea, Ascophyllum nodosum
and Fucus spiralis inhibited Colletotrichum
lagenarium but not Aspergillus flavus [67].
Sesquiterpene cyclodesmol from Ascophyllum

nodosum and Chondria oppositiclada, meth-
oxybifurcarenone from Cystoseira tamariscifolia
[68] were active against Candida albicans
[23,63]. Turbinaria conoides and Padina gymno­
spora extracts found active against fungi [69].
Dictyota dichotoma, Dilophus fasciola and D.
spiralis were active but Taonia atomaria was
inactive against dermatophytes [70]. Dictyota
dichotoma [71] and Laminaria ochroleuca, L.
pinnatifida [23] showed antifungal activity.
20.3.3 Red Algae
Laurencia papillosa and Wrangelia argus extracts
[66], Odonthalia corymbifera containing bromo-
phenol [72], Chondrus crispus, Polysiphonia
lanosa and Chryptopleura ramosa extracts [23],
Falkenbergia rufolanosa extract [73], sesquiter-
pene allolaurinteral from Laurencia obtusa
[49,66], showed antifungal activity.
20.4 ­Antiviral Activity
20.4.1 Green Algae
Cladophora sp. inhibited viral maturation [74].
Polysaccharides of green algae with antiviral
activity are: Ulvan from Ulva lactuca has anti
influenza A virus (IAV) activity [75] and caul-
erpin from Caulerpa sp. had antiviral effects on
bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) [76].
20.4.2 Brown Algae
Dictiyota acutiba extract inhibits viral matura-
tion [74]. Fucoidan from Fucus vesiculosus [77–
80] and from Undaria pinnatifida [78,81] was
found active not only depending on ionic
changes but also sugar rings [81] and potency
increases with the number of sulfate groups
[82]. Galactofucan from Sargassum horneri
[83,84], S. piluliferum [85], S. tenerrimum, S. pat­
ens [86], S. latifolium [83,84,87–89] showed anti-
viral activities. Diterpenes from Stoechospermum
marginatum and Canistrocarpus cervicornis [90],
sulfolipids from Dilophus fasciola [91], extracts
20.5 ­Antiherpetic Activit 587
of Zanardinia prototypus and Cystoseira
­balerica [92], C. myrica [89,93], C. indica [86]
exhibited antiviral activity. Laminaran from
Laminaria sp. showed inhibitory effect on
virus profileration [94].
20.4.3 Red Algae
Gelidium cartilagineum containing a linear pol-
ysaccharide inhibited the growth of IBV and
mumps virus [95]. Halogenated triterpenes
obtained from Laurencia venusta showed
­antiviral activities [96,97]; sesquiterpenes,
peyssonol-A and peyssonol-B, from Peyssonelia
sp. showed HIV-1 and HIV-2-RT activity [98];
extracts of Constantinea simplex and Farlowia
mollis [99], lentil, a lectin from Ptilota plumosa
[100] showed antiviral activities. A sulfolipid
from Gigartina tenella [101] and glycolipids
from Osmundaria obtusiva showed inhibitory
effect against HIV-reverse transcriptase (RT)
[102]. Polysaccharides from Schizymenia
pacifica [103], sulfated xylomanan fraction
from Nothogenia fastigiata [104], carrageenans
from Cryptopleura ramose [105], Gigartina
skottsbergii [106,107], G. acicularis and G. pistil­
lata [82], Meristiella gelidium [108], Lau­rencia
dendroidea [109], polysaccharides from
Grateloupia indica [110], sulfated polysaccha-
rides from Aghardhiella tenera and Eucheuma
cottonii [82,111] showed antiviral activities.
Antivirus activities of carrageenan types have
been studied: Κ-carrageenan [82,107,112–115],
λ-carrageenan [107,113,116–121], ί-carrageenan
[117,121–125].
20.5 ­Antiherpetic Activity
20.5.1 Green Algae
Caulerpa brachypus, C. okamurai, C. scapell­
iformis, Chaetomorpha crassa, C. spiralis,
Codium adhaerens, C. fragille, C. latum,
Enteromorpha compressa and Monostroma niti­
dum extracts showed potent anti-HSV-1 activi-
ties [126], a rhamnan sulfate from Monostroma
588 20 Pharmacology of Marine Macroalgae
latissimum [127] and Ulva fasciata and Codium
decorticatum extracts were active against HSV-1
[109], Caulerpa rasemosa extract was active
against HSV-1 and HSV-2 [128].
20.5.2 Brown Algae
Sargassum natans [33], S. kjellmanianum [34],
S. muticum [23], S. tenerrimum [69,86], S. ptero­
pleuron [129], S. linum and S. wightii [38],
S. horneri [84,130], S. patens [131,132], S. latifo­
lium [88], Undaria pinnatifida [78,93,133,134],
Cystoseira indica [135], Adenocystis utricularis
[136], Stoechospermum marginatum [137],
Leathesia difformis [138] containing sulfated
polysaccharides were found to have antiviral
activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2.
The extracts of Cystoseira myrica [89] and C.
balearica [92], methoxybifurcarenone from C.
tamariscifolia [68], a diterpenoid from C. medi­
terranea [139], crude extracts of S. cymosum, S.
polyceratum and Stypopodium zonale [109],
Dilophys fasciola [56], Canistrocarpus cervi­
cornis [90], diterpene derivative from Dictyota
pfaffii and D. menstrualis [140] showed antivi-
ral activities against HSV.
20.5.3 Red Algae
Extracts of Cryptosyphonia woodii and Farlowia
mollis [141], Polysiphonia denudate [142],
Asparagopsis armata, Ceramium rubrum,
Gelidium pulchellum, Gelidium spinulosum,
Halopitys incurvus, Hypnea musciformis,
Plocamium cartilagineum, Boergeseniella thuy­
oides, Pterosiphonia complanata and Sphaero­
coccus coronopifolius [143], Symphyocladia
latiuscula [144], bromophenols from Symphyo­
cladia latiuscula [144,145] and glycolipids from
Osmundaria obtusiloba [146] showed
anti-HSV-activities.
Algae containing sulfated polysaccharides
having anti-HSV properties are [112], Notho­
genia fastigiata [104,147], Cryptonemia crenu­
lata [148], Sebdenia polydactyla [149], Bostrychia
montagnei [150], Acanthophora spicifera [151],
Gracilaria corticata [152], G. salicornia [153],
Schizymenia binderi [154], Callophyllis varie­
gata [155], Cryptopleura ramose [105],
Pterocladia capillacea [156], Gymnogongrus
Torulosus [157], Gymnogongrus griffithsiae and
Cryptonemia crenulata [158], Scinaia hatei
[159], Schizymenia binderi [154], Gigartina
skottsbergii [106,116], Meristiella gelidium [108].
20.6 ­Antioxidative Activity
An antioxidant is a molecule that has a role for
inhibiting oxidation reactions in the human
body caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS)
and this leads to various disorders. Several
compounds such as phlorotannin, carotenoids,
sulfated polysaccharides, astaxantin, lutein,
lycopene have antioxidant activities. Algal pig-
ments chlorophyll, phaeophytin and porphy-
rin derivatives showed antioxidant activities
[160–164]. Algal extracts possessing antioxi-
dant activities are listed below.
20.6.1 Green Algae
Phenolic meso-terpenoids from Halimeda inc­
rassata [165,166], a glycoprotein extracted and
purified from Codium decorticatum [167],
7-hydroxycymopol from Cymopolia barbata
[168], methanolic extracts of Halimeda monile
[169], H. tuna, Caulerpa cupressoides, C. pas­
paloides [129], Enteromorpha sp. [170],
Enteromorpha linza [171], E. compressa [172],
E. intestinalis, Monostroma nitidum and Ulva
lactuca [173], Chaetomorpha morphamelagan­
ium [174], Ulva intestinalis and Cladophora
vagabunda [175], U. pertusa [176–178], U.
rigida, U. fasciata [179], Codium bursa [27],
Codium tomentosum [180], Chaetomorpha
antennina and Gayralia nitidum [181] showed
antioxidant activities.
20.6.2 Brown Algae
Carmalol isolated from Ishige okamurae
[182], meso terpenoids from Cystoseira crinita
[165,183], phlorotannins from Eisenia bicyclis

and Undaria pinnatifida [184,185], E. bicyclis
[186], pyropheophytin from Eisenia bicyclis
[187], polyphenols from Undaria pinnatifida,
Ecklonia cava, Hizikia fusiforme [178], Ecklonia
stolonifera [188], Sargassum siliquastrum
[189], phenolic meso terpenoids from Cysto­
seira sp. [165], Cystoseira barbata extract [27],
crude polysaccharides from Turbinaria ornata
[190], taondiol, isoepitaondiol, stypodiol, sar-
gaguinon and sargol from Taonia atomaria
[191], Sargassum pallidum [192], fucoxanthin
from Hizikia fusiformis [193,194], sulfated pol-
ysaccharides of Fucus vesicolus [195] and from
Sargassum pallidum [196] and Sargassum ful­
vellum [197], a lipophilic extract of Laminaria
japonica [198], Petalonia binghamiae [199],
Scytosiphon lomentaria, Papenfussiela kuromo
[200], Turbinaria conoides and T. ornata [201],
Dictyopteris undulata, Sargassum micracan­
thum [202], extracts of Sargassum ringgoldi­
anum [203], Sargassum siliquastrum [204],
Hydroclathrus clatratus, Sargassum echinocar­
pum, Colpomenia sinuosa [205,206], Sargassum
horneri, S. siliquastrum, S. macrocarpum,
Eisenia bicyclis [207], Sargassum polycyclum
[208], Ctyopteris undulata, Sargassum hemi­
phyllum [173], methanolic extracts of
Sargassum marginatum, Padina tetrastomatica
and Turbinaria coincides [201], and Sargassum
pallidum [192] showed antioxidant activities.
The phospholipid fractions of Fucus vesiculo­
sus, F. serratus [209,210] and Ascophyllum
nodosum showed very low activity [209].
20.6.3 Red Algae
The extracts of Chondria baileyana, C. atropur­
purea, Heterosiphonia gibbesii, Acanthophora
spicifera, Bryothamnian triquetrum, Ceramium
nitens, Polysiphonia urceolata, Polysiphonia
morrowii [211], Bryothamnion triquetrum
[212], Plocamium cartilagineum [180],
Euchema kappaphyces, Gracilaria edulis,
Acanthophora spicifera [213], Polysiphonia
urceolata [214], Stictosiphonia arbuscula [215],
Grateloupia filicina [198,216], Rhodomela
­confervoides [198,200], Laurencia obtuse [208],
20.7 ­Hypoglycemic Activit 589
Ahnfeltiopsis concinna, Polysiphonia hovei,
Polysiphonia urceolata, Pterocladia capillacea
[205], Polysiphonia morrowii [205,217], Por­
phyrin derivatives extracted from Porphyra
haitenensis [218], Plocamium cartilagineum
[180], ethanolic extracts of Porphyra sp. [207],
porphyra 334 and shinorin from Porphyra
yezoensis [219], floridosides from Laurencia
undulata, sesquiterpenes from L. dendroide
[220], phenolic compounds from Gracilaria
bursa-pastoris [221], Gelidiella acerosa [222],
Ceramium diaphanum [27], bromophenols
from Rhodomela confervoides [223], extracts of
Laurencia intermedia and Porphyra dentata
[173] showed antioxidant activity. Chondrus
ocellatus, Gelidium amansii, Gracilaria verru­
cosa, Grateloupia pradicocytes extracts inhibit
ROS generation [202].
20.7 ­Hypoglycemic Activity
20.7.1 Green Algae
The extract of Ulva rigida showed anti-hyper-
glycemic effect in experimental diabetes [224].
Ulva lactuca, Palmaria palmate [225], Codium
tomentosum [226] and Petalonia sp. [227]
extracts exerted antidiabetic effect.
20.7.2 Brown Algae
Sargalin from Sargassum confusum was first
isolated compound showed antidiabetic effect
[228]. Fraction II of sargalin had blood reduc-
ing effect, 19% and 23% for sargalin I. Chemical
studies of sargalin gave arginine and phenol.
Phenolic part showed a remarkable suppres-
sive action on diabetes mellitus [229]. Sargas­
sum vulgare extract fractionated on sephadex
G.25 and fraction separated (100–150 mL) had
hypoglycemic activity. Blood sugar lowered by
17% after hydrolysis of this fraction [230].
Phyllophora nervosa extract slightly lowered
blood sugar level [231]. Cystoseira barbata was
extracted and fractioned by the same method
590 20 Pharmacology of Marine Macroalgae
and tested on 30 albino rats of Wistar star strain
(against saline and regular insulin references)
in one week interval, during 1 month. The frac-
tion II showed antidiabetic activity similar to
insulin 60 min after administration blood glu-
cose level decreased 32% [232].
Phlorotannins, dieckol, diphloroethohydroxy
carmalol, 7-phloroeckol isolated from Ecklonia
sp. showed antidiabetic effect in type II diabetic
mice [233]. Dieckol from E. cava exerted anti-
diabetic effect [234,235]. Methanolic extract of
E. cava increased insulin concentration in type
I diabetes [236]. Fucosterol obtained from
Eisenia bicyclis and E. stonolifera [237] and
Petolonia siliquosa [238] have effects on diabe-
tes treatment. Fucus vesiculosus and Himantalia
elongata extracts showed significant reduction
in blood glucose level [226]. Brown algae
extracts of Palmaria dulce, Ascophyllum nodo­
sum and Alaria esculenta showed antidiabetic
properties [225]. Bromophenol from Grate­
loupia elliptica prevent diabetes mellitus [239].
There are many patents on the treatment of
diabetes by using seaweed consisting red,
brown and green algae [240].
20.7.3 Red Algae
A fraction of the extract obtained from
Corallina rubens showed high hypoglycemic
activity, its effect was very close to insulin
[241]. A fraction of Pterocladia capillaceae
showed the highest activity among other algae
tested with a sugar reducing effect from 104
mg to 72.7 mg at dose of 20 mg/kg [242].
Cystoseira crinata and C. corniculata extract
showed a blood sugar level fall from 130 mg to
65 in 120 min [243].
20.8 ­Gastrointestinal Tract
Diseases
The problem of this area is ulceration and
spasmolysis caused by Helicobacter pylori.
There are number of algal preparations used to
treat this condition.
20.8.1 Brown Algal Sulfated
Polysaccharides
Alginic acid and its derivatives were also used
for gastrointestinal ulcer [244,245]. Sodium alg-
inate forms a thick layer of protection over the
lesion against the hydrochloric acid and it was
used for the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers
[246–248]. Alginic acid-antacid also decreased
postprandial reflux in the upright position [249].
Fucoidans from Cladosiphon okamuranus,
Fucus evanescens, F. vesiculosus inhibited the
attachment of H. pylori adhesion to the gastric
mucosa [250].
20.8.2 Red Algal Sulfated
Polysaccharides
The therapy of peptic ulcer by carrageenans is a
controversial topic. Antiulcer activities of
native, innative and degraded carrageenans
were discussed in various papers, between 1962
and 1980. Some authors found evidence on
ulseration but others did not. Sulfated algal pol-
ysaccharides interfere with proteolysis by reduc-
ing the proteolytic activity of pepsin by forming
a complex [251]. Carrageenan inhibited the
digestion of egg albumin by pepsin [252].
Degraded carrageenan reduced the total acid
concentration of gastric juice [253]. Degraded
carrageenan prevented the formation of peptic
ulcer in guinea pigs when given orally prior to
histamine [254]. Activities of native and
degraded carrageenan were not similar [255].
Carrageenan was used for digestive diseases in a
formulation [256]. There are other formulations
with therapeutic effects on duodenal ulcers
[257]. Sulfated polysaccharide fraction of
Hypnea musciformis exerts a protective effect
against ethanol induced gastric damage [258].
20.9 ­Anti-Inflammatory Activity
Inflammation is a pathological process involved
in various disorders. The compounds isolated
from algae or where they themselves itself show
anti-inflammatory effects are listed below.

20.9.1 Green Algae
3-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-stigmasta-5,25-dien
isolated from Ulva lactuca [259] and Cladophora
fascicularis, phaephytin from Ulva rigida, Codium
bursa, Enteromorpha prolifera [260], lectin from
Caulerpa cupressoides [261], extracts of Halimeda
incrassata [166] and Chaetomorpha melagonium
[174] showed anti-inflammatory effects.
20.9.2 Brown Algae
A fucoxantin from Myagropsis myagroides extract
containing 6,6′-bieckol [262], pheophorbide from
Saccharina japonica [263], Cystoseira barbata
[27], phenolic mezoterpenoid from Cystoseira sp.
[165] and phlorotannins from Eisenia bicyclis
[186], extracts of Dictyopteris undula, Laminaria
japonica [264], Dictyopteris undulata, S. hemi­
phyllum var. chinense [173], S. ringgoldianum
[203], S. siliquastrum [204], S. echinocarpum,
Colpomenia sinuusa, Hydroclathrus clatratus
[205], S. polycyclum [208], Sargassum sp. [207]
demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects.
20.9.3 Red Algae
Anti-inflammatory activities have been reported
for brominated diterpenes isolated from Jania
rubens [265], vidalol A and B from Vidalia obtusa­
loba [266], two new C15 acetogenins (12Z)-cis-
maneonene-D and (12E)-cis-maneonene-E
from Laurencia obtusa [267], polysaccharides
isolated from Gracilaria caudate [268], from
Digenea simplex [269], sulfated galactan from
Gracilaria fisheri [270], extracts of Ceramium
diaphanum [27] and Hypnea musciformis [271]
and they can be useful as therapeutic agents
against inflammatory diseases.
20.10 ­Miscellaneous
20.10.1 Acetylcholine Esterase
Activity and Alzheimer’s Disease
Dieckol and phlorofucofuroeckol, the poly-
phonic compounds found in brown algae Eisenia
sp. and Ecklonia sp. [272] and phlorotannins
20.10 ­Miscellaneou 591
from Ecklonia maxima [273] showed inhibitory
effects on acetylcholine esterase activity. These
compounds maintain memory-enhancing abili-
ties in mice. Spongomorpha indica, Udotea
indica, Laurencia pedicularioides, Hypnea
­valentiae, Padina gymnospora, Ulva reticulate,
Gracilaria edulis showed cholinesterase inhibi-
tory activity [274,275]. Ochtodes secundiramea
extract showed 48% inhibitory activity [276].
Farnesylacetone derivatives isolated from Sar­
gassum sagamianum showed moderate activi-
ties [277]. Phlorotannins from Eisenia bicyclis
can be a preventative agent for Alzheimer’s dis-
ease, the neurodegenerative disease of human
brain [278–280]. Brown alga Ishige okamurae
suppresses Alzheimer’s disease [281].
20.10.2 Anti-allergic
In Korean folk medicine Sargassum hemiphy­
lum was used for the treatment of various
allergic diseases [282]. Dioxinodehydroeckol
(DHE) and phlorofucofuroeckol A (PFF-A)
isolated from Ecklonia stolonifera exerted anti-
allergic effect via the inhibition of Fc(epsilon)
RI expression in KU812F cells [283]. The rats
fed with Eisenia arborea became more anti-
allergic, suggesting that E. arborea might pos-
sess anti-allergic effects [284]. Ethanol extracts
of brown seaweeds Sargassum tennerimum, S.
cervicorne, S. graminifolium, S. thunbergii, and
Laminaria japonica have antiallergenic activi-
ties [285]. Green alga Enteromorpha compressa
inhibited IgE immune response and may have
potential in curing various types of allergies
[286]. Phlorotannins, polysaccharides, carote-
noids, polyunsaturated fatty acids and phyco-
cyanin derived from various marine algae were
discussed by Vo et al. (2012) [287].
20.10.3 Antiplasmodial Activity
Ethanolic extracts of Caulerpa toxifolia and C.
peltata showed potential in vitro antiplasmo-
dial activity against drugs resistant Plasmodium
falciparum [288]. Halogenated terpene from
South African marine red alga Plocamium
592 20 Pharmacology of Marine Macroalgae

c­ ornutum showed antiplasmodial activity toward 20.10.8 Protective Effect Against

a chloroquine sensitive strain of Plasmodium Radiotherapy Damage
­falciparum [289]. Codium bursa, Caulerpa rase­
Polysaccharides from red algae Ecklonia cava
mosa and Dasya pedicellata extracts showed
[302], Fucus vesiculosus and Laminaria japon­
antiplasmodial activity [290]. P-hydroxy-
ica [303], Ulva pertussa [304], Monostroma
benzaldehyde from Laurencia papillosa showed
angicava [305], Laminaria sp. [306], phenolic
antiplasmodial activity [291]. Bromophycolides
compounds from E. cava and Ishige okamurae
extracted from Callophycus serratus exhibited
[307,308], carotenoids isolated from Sargassum
antiplasmodial activity [292,293].
siliquastrum [309], Dunaliella bardawil [310]
reduced side effects and damage caused by
20.10.4 Anti-Asthmatic Activity
radiotherapy [311].
Ethanolic extract of brown alga, Ecklonia cava
induced a significant inhibition of asthmatic
reactions in a mouse [294,295]. 20.10.9 Vermifuge
Kainic acid and allokainic acid containing
20.10.5 Immune Stimulatory Activity marine algae Digenea simplex has long been
Sulfated galactans isolated from Gracilaria fish­ used in China as a vermifuge [312,313].
eri exhibits immune stimulatory and antiviral
activities against white spot syndrome virus
20.10.10 Antihypertensive and
(WSSV) in shrimp Penaeus monodon [296].
Hypotensive Activity
Polysaccharide immunomodulators biogly-
canes isolated from Laminaria cichorioides Eckol isolated from the brown alga Ecklonia
acted as activators of Fc-gamma-R and C3bR stolonifera, phlorofucofuroeckol A and dieckol
activity, that is the base for control of pathologi- were shown to have marked inhibitory activity
cal processes, related to immune system [297]. against angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
[314–316]. Peptides from Undaria pinnatifida,
20.10.6 Anti-osteoporotic Hizika fusiformis and Porphyira yezoensis
­possess antihypertensive activity [317–319].
Dictyol from Padina pavonica extract increased
Prostaglandins from Gracilaria lichenoides
the uptake and fixation of calcium by osteo-
showed antihypertensive effect [320].
blasts in culture. Sargassum horneri proved
Prostaglandin-like activity was observed from
osteoblastic bone formation properties and
Halopteris filicina [321,322]. Jania rubens eth-
inhibitory effects on bone resorption [298].
anolic and water extracts had a transient
Various brown algae species include Padiva
hypotensive effect [323].
pavonica, Sargassum horneri, Undaria pinnati­
Laminine, a choline-like amino acid, iso-
fida, S. horneri, Eisenia bicyclis, Cryptonemia
lated from Laminaria angustata, Heteroch­
scmitziana, Gelidium amansii, and Ulva per­
ordaria abietina, Chondria armata showed
tusa which showed a preventative effect against
hypotensive effect [324–326]. This activity
osteoporosis [299]. Fucoxantin from Laminaria
was also found in Laminaria species:
japonica, Undaria pinnatifida, Eisenia bicyclis
Laminaria japonica, L. fragilis, L. religiosa,
suppressed osteoclastogenesis [300].
L. angustata, L. cichorioides, L. yessoensis,
L. diabolica, and in small quantities in
20.10.7 Spasmolytic Activity
Kjellmaniella gyrate, K. crassifolia, Costaria
Caulerpine, bis-indole alkaloid isolated from costata, Arthorothammus bifidus, Eisena
Caulerpa genus showed spasmolytic effect on bicyclis, Eckloniopsis radicosa and Ecklonia
guinea pig ileum [301]. cava [325].

20.10.11 Antihepatotoxic Effect
Hot water extract of Ulva reticulate showed
antihepatotoxic effect against acetaminophen
induced hepatotoxicity in experimental rats
[327]. Laurencia obtusa and Caulerpa prolifera
extracts are active against aflatoxin B(1) initi-
ated hepatotoxicity in rats [328].
20.10.12 Hypo-Cholesterolemic Activity
The green alga Enteromorpha compressa
decreased the plasma cholesterol levels of rats
[329]. Ulva pertussa, Enteremorpha prolifera
and Monostroma nitidum showed a positive
effect in reducing the plasma cholesterol levels
in rats [330]. Monostroma nitidum extract frac-
tions are effective in lowering the plasma cho-
lesterol levels [331–333]. Sterols from brown
algae Fucus gardneri and Sargassum muticum
caused a significant diminution in plasma cho-
lesterol in Leghorn cockerels [334]. Fucosterols
and other unsaponifiable Sargassum lipids
slightly reduced plasma and liver cholesterol
[335]. Na-alginate demonstrated significant
hypocholesterolemic activity [336,337]. Hetero­
cordaria abietina unsaturated fatty acids
depressed the blood cholesterol levels [337].
The red algal polysaccharide carrageenan
exhibited hypocholesterolemic activity [336–
338]. Porphyra tenera reduced plasma choles-
terol in rats [330,339].
20.10.13 Antiobesity Effect
Fucoxanthin in brown algae Sargassum horneri,
S. thunbergii, S. fusiforme, U. pinnatifida, Peta­
lonia binghamiae and Laminaria japonica is an
effective antiobesity supplement [340–342].
Fucoidan from brown algae showed antiobesity
effect [343]. Phlorotannins from E. cava may be
effective for antiobesity [340,344,345]. The
antiobesity effect of Ascophyllum nodosum was
reported [346]. Laurencia intermedia, Ecklonia
cava, Sargassum macrocarpum, Polysiphonia
morrowii, Ishige okamurae, Dictyopteris undu­
lata, S. micracanthum, Chondrus ocellatus,
20.11 ­Conclusio 593
Gelidium amansii, Gracilaria verrucosa, and
Grateloupia lanceolata extracts significantly pro-
tected against obesity [202].
20.10.14 Hemagglutination Inhibition
Lectins from Anadyomene plicata, Avrainvillea
erecta, Gracilaria eucheumatoides, G. salicor­
nia, Kappaphycus striatum showed hemagglu-
tinin effect [347]. The lectin grifithsin from red
alga Griffithsia sp. showed a strong anti-HIV
effect [348].
20.10.15 Antinociceptive Activity
Lectin from Caulerpa cupressoides extract
induced a powerful inhibition of pain sensa-
tion [349]. Polysaccharides from the red alga
Digenea simplex possess anti-inflammatory
and antinociceptive effect [269]. Sulfated
­polysaccharide carrageenan from Gracilaria
caudate showed an intrinsic peripheral antino-
ciceptive action [350]. Corallina officinalis
extracts induced analgesic, antipyretic activi-
ties [351]. The extract of red alga Laurencia
glandulifera containing brominated diterpene
exerted analgesic properties in mice [352].
Hypnea cervicornis agglutinin, a lectin isolated
from the red marine alga showed important
antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity
via interaction with the lectin carbohydrate-
binding site [353,354].
20.10.16 Antiophidic Effect
Dolastane, diterpene isolated from Canistrocarpus
cervicornis showed antiophidic properties on
envenomation by Lachesis muta snake venom
[355].
20.11 ­Conclusion
A large number of active substances have been
isolated from algae. The pharmacological
properties of algae and these active substances
have been studied. Some of these are used in
594 20 Pharmacology of Marine Macroalgae
the food, textile and adjunct pharmaceutical
industries, but not as medicines. The algal
preparations are not allowed to be used as
medicines although they are shown as medi-
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