Grounding Design Calculations – Part One

I indicated that the Earthing Systems Design Steps process has (3) main steps::

Earthing Systems Design Steps

A grounding system design process has (3) main steps:

1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
3. Grounding Design Calculations.

And I explained the first step: Data Collection in the following Articles:

 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part One

 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Two

I explained the second step: Data Analysis in the following Articles:

 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Three

And I explained What we are going to design for grounding system in any building in
the following Articles:

 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Four

 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Five

 Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Six

  Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Seven

Today, I will explain The Methods for Performing of Grounding System Design
Calculations.

You can preview the following Articles for more info:

 Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part One

 Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part Two
 Types of Earthing System – Part One
 Types of Earthing System – Part Two
 How to Select the Best Earthing System
 Earthing System Components – Part One
 Earthing System Components – Part Two
 Earthing System Components – Part Three
 Electrical Properties of the Earthing System

Grounding System Design Calculations

Grounding System Design Calculations according to type of the building

The procedures for performing the Grounding System Design Calculations

can differ slightly according to the type of the building as follows:

1. Domestic, commercial and industrial premises,

2. High and medium voltage electricity substations.
 First: Domestic, commercial and industrial premises

We mean by domestic, commercial and industrial premises, all installations

up to 1,000 V ac and 1,500 V dc - between phases, with some minor
exceptions.

1- Standards

Standards used for ground calculations of Domestic, commercial and

industrial premises are:

 BS 7671: Requirements for Electrical Installations. (This is also known

as the IEE Wiring Regulations),
 BS 7430:2011 Code of practice for protective earthing of electrical
installations,
 IEEE 142: Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems,
 NFPA 70: National Electrical Code (NEC), Article 250.

2- What do we need to calculate?

There are many parameters to be calculated when designing grounding

systems for Domestic, commercial and industrial premises as follows:

1. Earth/grounding electrode resistance,

 2. Grounding conductor resistance,
3. Grounding electrode conductor size,
4. Equipment ground conductor (EGC) size.

Notes:

 Step and touch voltage are not an issue in low voltage installations,
since the maximum phase to earth voltage is 230 V. But you must
note that some industrial installations have high fault current levels
and hence, the step and touch voltages need to be calculated.

 For Domestic, commercial and industrial premises, Grounding

electrodes are usually sufficient to meet the basic requirements of a
well-designed grounding system. But for High and medium voltage
electricity substations, a common design is to lay a mesh of grid with
vertical and horizontal conductors.

3- Methods of Grounding Design Calculations

There are many methods can be used for performing Grounding System
Design Calculations But the common methods are:

1. Equations Method,
2. Nomographs Method,
3. Excel Spreadsheets Method,
4. Tables Method,
5. Online Earthing Calculators Method,
6. Software Programs Method.
 First: Equations Method

1- Prerequisites

The following information is required / desirable before starting the

calculation:

 A layout of the site,

 Maximum earth fault current into the earthing grid,
 Maximum fault clearing time,
 Ambient (or soil) temperature at the site,
 Soil resistivity measurements at the site (for touch and step only),
 Resistivity of any surface layers intended to be laid (for touch and
step only).

2- Earth/grounding electrode resistance Calculations

Sometimes it called “Resistance to Earth calculations” and can be obtained

either by using BS or IEEE standards rules as it will be explained in below.

First: Using IEEE 142 Standard

By using IEEE 142: Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and

Commercial Power Systems, The resistance to earth can be calculated by
the formulas presented in Table-1.
Table-1
 Second: Using BS 7430 Standard

The most common types of electrodes included in BS 7430 are as follows:

 Vertical Rods,
 horizontal strip electrode (circular or rectangular section),
 Plates electrodes,
 reinforced concrete foundation footings,
 electrode surronded by an infill of materials,
 Three rods at the vertices of an equilateral triangle,
 Two strips set at right angles to each other meeting at one corner,
 Three strips set at 120° meeting at the star point all of equal length,
 Four strips set in a cruciform.

2.1 Vertical Rods

The resistance to earth of a vertical rod electrode is given by the following

equations:

a- In Metric Units:

Where:

R is the resistance to earth in ohms,

ρ is the resistivity of the soil, in Ω-m,
L is the length of electrode, in meters,
D is the diameter of the rod in meters.
b- in English Units:

Where:

R is the resistance to earth in ohms,

ρ is the resistivity of the soil, in Ω-m,
L is the length of electrode, in feets,
D is the diameter of the rod in inches.

Example#1:

For a vertical rod electrode having 20mm diameter and 3 m length,

calculate the resistance to earth noting that soil resistivity is 50 Ω-m.

Solution:

The resistance to earth of a vertical rod electrode is given by the following

equation:

R= ρ * { loge (8L / d) -1 } / 2ΠL = 50 * { loge (8*3 / 0.02) -1 } /2*3.14*3 =

16.1 ohm

Example#2:

For a vertical rod electrode having 25mm diameter and 2 m length,

calculate the resistance to earth noting that soil resistivity is 30 Ω-m.

Solution:

The resistance to earth of a vertical rod electrode (R) in ohms is given by

the following equation:
 R= ρ * { loge (8L / d) -1 } / 2ΠL = 30 * { loge (8*2 / 0.025) -1 } /2*3.14*2 =
13.0 ohm

2.2 Parallel connection of aligned rods

Multiple electrodes in parallel yield lower resistance to ground than a single

electrode. Multiple rods are commonly used to provide the low grounding resistance
required by high-capacity installations. Adding a second rod does not, however,
provide a total resistance of half that of a single rod, unless the two are several rod
lengths apart.

a- From BS 7430:

The resistance Rt in ohms (Ω) of n vertically driven rods set s metres apart may be
calculated from:

where:

ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (Ωm);

L is the length of the electrode, in metres (m);
n is the number of rods;
s is the spacing between the rods, in metres (m).

b- as per IEEE 142:

A useful rule is that grounding systems of 2–24 rods placed one rod length apart in a
line, hollow triangle, circle, or square will provide a grounding resistance divided by
the number of rods and multiplied by the factor F taken from Table-2.

Table-2

Notes:

 Additional considerations with respect to step and touch potentials would be

addressed by the geometry.

 Placing additional rods within the periphery of a square, circle, or other shape
will not appreciably reduce the grounding.

2.3 For horizontal strip electrode (circular or rectangular section)

The resistance Rta in ohms (Ω) of a strip or round conductor may be

calculated from:
Where:
Rta = Resistance in ohms,
ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (Ωm);
L is the length of the strip or conductor, in metres (m);
h is the depth of the electrode, in metres (m);
d is the diameter of the round conductor or diameter of the equivalent cross
sectional area of the strip, in metres (m).

Note:

 This equation is for a straight run of conductor only.

Paralleling of Strips

When two or more strips in straight lengths, each of length L in metres (m)
and a separation distance s metres are laid parallel to each other and
connected together at one end only the combined resistance may be
calculated from the following equation:

Rn = FR1
Where:

Rn is the resistance of n conductors in parallel, in ohms (Ω)

R1 is the resistance of a single strip of length L, calculated from the
preceding Rta equation, in ohms (Ω).

F has the following value:

  For two lengths, F = 0.5 + [0.078(s/L)]−0.307

 For three lengths, F = 0.33 + [0.071(s/L)]−0.408

 For four lengths, F = 0.25 + [0.067(s/L)]−0.451

 Provided that 0.02 < (s/L) < 0.3.

2.4 For Plates electrodes

The resistance to earth of a plate electrode is given by the following

equation:

Where:

R = Resistance in ohms,
ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
A = The Area of one face of the plate, in m2.

Notes:

 Plates, if used, should be installed as small units of not greater than

 1.2 m × 1.2 m connected in parallel vertically and at least 2 m apart.

 The minimum ground cover should not be less than 600 mm and
ideally the surrounding soil should be damp.

 Connections to the plate should be by copper conductor, welded,

riveted or otherwise attached with material that will not cause
corrosion at the joint.

 The finished joint should be covered with a heavy coat of bitumen.

 The connecting strip to the above ground disconnection point should

be fully insulated to avoid electrolytic action.

 Where the plate is placed in a cut out slot, e.g. in a chalk bed near
the surface, the slot should be big enough to allow at least 300 mm
thickness of soil or other conducting low resistivity medium cover
around the whole plate. This requires careful assembly during
installation to ensure that the bottom of the plate is resting in the
medium used and not on the chalk or high resistivity substrata.

2.5 For structure steelwork

Foundation metalwork in concrete may be used as a ready made and effective earth
electrode. The total electrode area formed by the underground metalwork of large
structure may often be used to provide an earth resistance lower then that obtainable
by other methods; overall values well below 1 Ω are obtainable.

The resistance to earth of a reinforced concrete foundation can be estimated by

assuming the following:

 Only the vertical reinforcing rods are bonded to the building structure or to the
earthing system and the effect of other reinforcement is neglected.
  The reinforced rods are equally spaced in symmetrical pattern.

So, the resistance to earth of a reinforced concrete foundation will be given by the
following equation:

Where:

R = Resistance in ohms,
ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
ρc = Concrete resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
L = Length of reinforcing rod below ground level in metres,
δ= thickness of concrete between rods and soil in meters,
Z = geometric mean distance of rod cluster in meters from Table-3,
 Table-3

The combined effect of all similar footings Rtot in ohms (Ω), assumed to be arranged
in an approximately rectangular plan, may be determined from the following:
Where:

R1 is the resistance of one footing, in ohms (Ω);

λ is the factor from Table 4;
ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (Ωm);
s is the spacing of footings, in metres (m);
n is the number of footings used as electrodes (see the note to Table 4).

Note:

 This equation is based on the assumption that the spacing between adjacent
electrodes is such that the ratio ρ/2πR1s is less than approximately 0.2.

Table 4

Notes:
 It is important that consideration is given to the possibility of corrosion of the
metalwork reinforcement; It might be necessary to consider the need for
cathodic protection.

 Wherever significant continuous earth leakage current is expected, it is

recommended that a main electrode of the types of earth electrodes be
provided to which the foundation electrodes can be bonded to provide auxiliary
electrodes, thus giving assistance to high fault currents.

 Corrosion of concrete encased steelwork, subject to a.c. fault currents within

its carrying capability, may be assumed to be negligible.

 The resistance to earth of concrete encased steelwork or of concrete

reinforcing bars varies according to the type of soil, its moisture content, and
the design of the foundation. Concrete is hygroscopic and, except in dry
locations, when buried in soil, it may be expected to have a resistivity of about
30 Ωm to 90 Ωm, at normal temperatures; this is lower than some types of soil.

 It is essential to measure the resistance to earth of any metalwork it is

intended to use as an electrode, and to monitor its value at regular intervals
afterwards, in order to confirm that it continues to provide an adequate
connection to earth.

 The large proportion of the resistance is due to the concrete to earth is

immediately around the metalwork and is dependent on its moisture content.
After construction and with the passage of time this moisture content will
approach equilibrium with that of the soil, and will usually be dryer than when
first laid.

 Allowance should be made for the consequent increase in electrode resistance

due to changes in moisture content when using measurements made during the
installation of a structure.

 It is important to ensure electrical continuity between all metalwork

considered to be part of the electrode. In the case of contacts between
metalwork within concrete or below ground, such as reinforcing bars, this may
best be effected by welding; above ground and at anchor bolts it may generally
done by attaching a bond conductor to bypass each structural joint. This
applies particularly to surfaces which might have been primed before assembly.
 2-6 resistance of an electrode surrounded by an infill of materials (such
as bentonite or concrete)

In this case, The following equation will be used:

Where:

ρ Is the resistivity of soil in ohm metres (Ω-m),

ρc Is the resistivity of infill material in ohm metres (Ω-m),
d is the diammeter of electrode in meter,
L is the driven length of electrode in meter.

Note:

 Generally the above equation will be used when the electrode is

encased in low resistivity material

2.7 Three rods at the vertices of an equilateral triangle

The resistance Re in ohms (Ω) of three interconnected rods set out at the vertices of
an equilateral triangle [see Figure 1-a ] of side s metres length may be calculated
from:
 Figure 1

The resistance of various constructions of horizontally placed simple earthing

electrodes can be calculated using the following equation:

Where:

ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (Ωm);

L is the length of rod, in metres (m);
d is the diameter of rod, in metres (m);
s is the length of one side of the equilateral triangle, in metres (m).
 2.8 Two strips set at right angles to each other meeting at one corner

The resistance RL in ohms (Ω) of two strips of equal length set at 90° with
one corner touching [see Figure 1-b ] may be calculated from:

Where:

ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (Ωm);

L is the total length of strip in metres (m);
h is the depth of burial in metres (m);
d is the diameter of the round conductor or diameter of the equivalent cross
sectional area of the strip in metres (m)

2.9 Three strips set at 120° meeting at the star point all of equal length

The resistance RS in ohms (Ω) of a star arranged strip [see Figure 1-c ] may
be calculated from:
Where:

ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (Ωm);

L is the total length of strip in metres (m);
h is the depth of burial in metres (m);
d is the diameter of the round conductor or diameter of the equivalent cross
sectional area of the strip in metres (m).

2.10 Four strips set in a cruciform

The resistance Rcr in ohms (Ω) of four strips set out in a cruciform [see
Figure 1-d] may be calculated from:

Where:
 ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (Ωm);
L is the total length of strip in metres (m);
h is the depth of burial in metres (m);
d is the diameter of the round conductor or diameter of the equivalent cross
sectional area of the strip in metres (m).

Now, We finish the first method of grounding design calculations: Equations

Method, the other methods of grounding design calculations are summarized in the
below table.

Methods of Grounding Design Calculations

There are many methods can be used for performing Grounding System
Design Calculations But the common methods are:

1. Equations Method,
2. Nomographs Method,
3. Excel Spreadsheets Method,
4. Tables Method,
5. Online Earthing Calculators Method,
6. Software Programs Method.

In the next Article, I will explain Other Methods of Grounding Design Calculations.
Please, keep following.

Back To Course EE-5: Grounding System Design Calculations

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Earthing Systems Design steps – Part Two

In Article " Earthing Systems Design steps – Part One ", I indicated the following
points:

Earthing Systems Design Steps

A grounding system design process has (3) main steps:

1. Data Collection,
2. Data Analysis,
3. Grounding Design Calculations.

And I explained the first step: Data Collection which includes the following points:

First Step: Data Collection

Once a need for grounding system design is established, data collection

must begin. These needed data provide the basis for all grounding design
 and will be obtained from:

1. Facility official data,

2. Facility characteristics,
3. Nearby area data,
4. Electric Utility Data,
5. Engineering data,
6. Geographical data of the area,
7. Geological surveys.

Also, in that Article, I explained all the above points except How to perform Soil
Resistivity Survey.

Today I will explain this point in detail as follows.

You can preview the following Articles for more info:

 Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part One

 Introduction to Grounding System Design – Part Two
 Types of Earthing System – Part One
 Types of Earthing System – Part Two
 How to Select the Best Earthing System
 Earthing System Components – Part One
 Earthing System Components – Part Two
 Earthing System Components – Part Three
 Electrical Properties of the Earthing System

How to perform Soil resistivity Survey

 Resistivity Definition

 Electrical Resistivity is the measurement of the specific resistance of

a given material. It is expressed in ohm-meters and represents the
resistance measured between two plates covering opposite sides of a
1 m cube.

 Soil Resistivity is the key factor that determines the resistance or

performance of an electrical grounding system. It is the starting point
of any electrical grounding design.

Factors Affecting Soil Resistivity

There are many factors that affect on the value of the soil resistivity and
the earth resistivity depends significantly on these factors which are:

1. Physical Composition,
2. Moisture,
3. Chemical Composition,
4. Temperature.

These Factors were explained in detail in Article " Electrical Properties of

the Earthing System ". Please, review their effects on the soil resistivity in
the referred article.
 Methods for Getting Soil Resistivity Value

In Earthing System Design, the Soil resistivity Value must be known by one of
the two following methods:

1. Estimation from soil resistivity tables according to the soil nature.

2. Calculation from soil resistivity Testing.

In case that soil resistivity will be estimated from tables there is no need to
perform the Geological Surveys.

First Method: Estimation From Soil Resistivity Tables According To The

Soil Nature

Table 1
Effect of soil type on resistivity
Typical
Soil type resistivity ohm-
m
Marshy Ground 2 - 2.7
Loam and clay 4 - 150
Chalk 600 - 400
Sand 90 - 8000
Peat 200 upwards
Sandy Gravel 300 - 500
Rock 1000 upwards

Note:

Where no information is available about the value of ρ it is usually assumed

ρ = 100 Ωm.
 Second Method: Calculation From Soil Resistivity Testing

What Is The Soil Resistivity Testing?

 Soil resistivity testing is the process of measuring a volume of soil to

determine the conductivity of the soil. The resulting soil resistivity is
expressed in ohm-meter or ohm-centimeter.

 Soil resistivity testing is the single most critical factor in electrical

grounding design. This is true when discussing simple electrical
design, to dedicated low-resistance grounding systems, or to the far
more complex issues involved in Ground Potential Rise Studies (GPR).
Good soil models are the basis of all grounding designs and they are
developed from accurate soil resistivity testing.

 This soil resistivity test is commonly performed at raw land sites,

during the design and planning of grounding systems specific to the
tested site.

Note:

it is not acceptable to make soil resistivity test for disturbed (backfilled)

land sites.

Methods Of Soil Resistivity Testing

There are mony methods used for soil resistivity testing which are:

1. The Wenner 4-Point Method,

2. General Method,
3. Schlumberger Method.

 The Wenner 4-point Method is by far the most used test method to
measure the resistivity of soil. Other methods such as the General
and Schlumberger methods which are infrequently used for grounding
design applications and vary only slightly in how the probes are
spaced when compared to the Wenner Method.

 Proper soil resistivity testing using the Wenner 4-point method is

recommended because of its accuracy.

Criteria For Soil Resistivity Test By Using Four (4) Probes Method
 The soil resistivity test spaces four (4) probes out at equal distances to
approximate the depth of the soil to be tested. This means that if the probes
spaced at 5’ distance across the earth, they will read 5’ in depth. The same is
true if you space the probes 40’ across the earth, you get a weighted average
soil resistance from 0’ down to 40’ in depth, and all points in between.

 Typical spacings will be 1’, 1.5’, 2’, 3’, 4.5’, 7’, 10’, etc., with each spacing
increasing from the preceding one by a factor of approximately 1.5 up to the
maximum spacing vale.

 The maximum spacing Value equal to (1 to 3) times the maximum diagonal

dimension of the grounding system being designed, resulting in a maximum
 distance between the outer current electrodes of (3 to 9) times the maximum
diagonal dimension of the future grounding system.

 A current is passed through the outer two probes, and the potential voltage is
then measured between the two inner probes. A simple Ohm’s Law equation
determines the resistance.

 This set of measurements is typically repeated, albeit with shorter maximum

spacings, several times around the location at right angles and diagonally to
each other to ensure accurate readings.

 These readings are usually processed with computer software to determine the
actual resistivity of the soil as a function of depth.

Conducting a Wenner 4-point (or four-pin) Soil Resistivity Test

The following describes how to take one “traverse” or set of measurements. As the
“4-point” indicates, the test consists of 4 pins that must be inserted into the earth.
1. The outer two pins are called the Current probes, C1 and C2. These are the
probes that inject current into the earth. The inner two probes are the
Potential probes, P1 and P2. These are the probes that take the actual soil
resistance measurement.
2. In the following Wenner 4-Point Test Setup diagram, a probe C1 is driven into
the earth at the corner of the area to be measured. Probes P1, P2, & C2 are
driven at 5’, 10’ & 15’ respectively from rod C1 in a straight line to measure
the soil resistivity from 0’ to 5’ in depth. C1 & C2 are the outer probes and P1
& P2 are the inner probes. At this point, a known current is applied across
probes C1 & C2, while the resulting voltage is measured across P1 & P2. Ohm’s
law can then be applied to calculate the measured apparent resistance.
3. Probes C2, P1 & P2 can then be moved out to 10’, 20’ & 30’ spacing to measure
the resistance of the earth from 0’ to 10’ in depth.
 4. Continue moving the three probes (C2, P1 & P2) away from C1 at equal
intervals to approximate the depth of the soil to be measured.

Note:

the performance of the electrode can be influenced by soil resistivities at depths that
are considerably deeper than the depth of the electrode, particularly for extensive
horizontal electrodes, such as water pipes, building foundations or grounding grids.

Soil Resistance Meters

There are basically two types of soil resistance meters:

1. Low-Frequency models,
2. High-Frequency models.

Both meter types can be used for 4-point & 3-point testing, and can even be
used as standard (2-point) volt meter for measuring common soil resistivity.

Criteria for Selecting the Best Soil Resistance Meters

Care should always be given when selecting a soil resistance meter, as the
electronics involved in signal filtering are highly specialized. Electrically
speaking, the earth can be a noisy place. Overhead power lines, electric
substations, railroad tracks, various signal transmitters and many other
sources contribute to signal noise found in any given location. Harmonics, 60
Hz background noise, and magnetic field coupling can distort the
measurement signal, resulting in apparent soil resistivity readings that are
larger by an order of magnitude, particularly with large spacings. Selecting
equipment with electronic packages capable of discriminating between these
signals is critical.

1- High-Frequency Meters

 High-Frequency soil resistance meters typically use a pulses operating

at 128 pulses per second, or other pulse rates except 60. These High-
Frequency meters typically suffer from the inability to generate
sufficient voltage to handle long traverses and generally should not be
used for probe spacings greater than 100 feet.

 Furthermore, the High-Frequency signal flowing in the current lead

induces a noise voltage in the potential leads, which cannot be
completely filtered out: this noise becomes greater than the measured
signal as the soil resistivity decreases and the pin spacing increases.
High-Frequency meters are less expensive than their Low-Frequency
counterparts, and are by far the most common meter used in soil
resistivity testing.

2- Low-Frequency Meters

 Low-Frequency meters actually generate low frequency pulses (on the

order of 0.5 to 2.0 seconds per pulse), are the preferred equipment for
soil resistivity testing, as they do away with the induction problem
from which the High-Frequency meters suffer. However they can be
very expensive to purchase.

 Depending upon the equipment’s maximum voltage, Low-Frequency

 meters can take readings with extremely large probe spacings and
often many thousands of feet in distance.

 Typically, the electronics filtering packages offered in Low-Frequency

meters are superior to those found in High-Frequency meters.

Proper Measurement of Soil Resistivity

For taking more accurate readings in the soil resistivity testing, the following points
must be considered:

 Take the seasonal variation in soil and its electrical characteristics and
therefore in ground resistance into consideration.

 Define the climatic condition (temperature, humidity, etc.) and soil condition
(moisture, temperature and chemical content) during the test.

 Refer to long term studies that have been done on soil resistivity variations in
the area of concern for adjustment of the measurement results.

 The Variations of measured resistivity when plotted versus probe spacing

indicate that the earth is non-uniform, and a two-layer soil model must be
used. Using a single-layer model in such a situation cause significant errors in
resistivity.

 Calculations based on two-layer soil model usually give correct values for the
ground resistance and for the step and touch potentials on the surface of the
ground. However, when the soil has a multilayer structure and certain
combination of different layers resistivity exist the two-layer model of the soil
may give unreasonable results.

The two layers required for the soil modeling are called:

1. Shallow Depth Readings,

 2. Deep Readings.

1- Shallow Depth Readings

 Shallow depth readings, as little as 6” in depth, are exceedingly important for

most, if not all, grounding designs. As described above, the deeper soil
resistivity readings are actually weighted averages of the soil resistivity from
the earth surface down to depth, and include all the shallow resistance
readings above it. The trick in developing the final soil model is to pull out the
actual resistance of the soil at depth, and that requires “subtracting” the top
layers from the deep readings. The following figure demonstrates how the
 shallowest readings impact deeper ones below it.

 As you can see in the following diagram, if you have a 5’ reading of 50 ohm-
meters and a 10’ reading of 75-ohmmeter soil, the actual soil resistivity from 5’
to 10’ might be 100 ohm-meters (the point here is to illustrate a concept: pre-
computed curves or computer software are needed to properly interpret the
data). The same follows true for larger pin spacings.

 The shallowest readings are used over and over again in determining the
actual resistivity at depth.

 Shallow depth readings of 6-inches, 1-foot, 1.5-feet, 2-feet and 2.5-feet are
important for grounding design, because grounding conductors are typically
buried at 1.5 to 2.5-feet below the surface of the earth. To accurately
calculate how those conductors will perform at these depths shallow soil
readings must be taken.

 These shallow readings become even more important when engineers

calculate Ground Potential Rise, Touch Voltages and Step Voltages.

 It is critical that the measurement probes and current probes be inserted into
the earth to the proper depth for shallow soil resistivity readings. If the probes
are driven too deep, then it can be difficult to resolve the resistivity of the
shallow soil.

 A rule of thumb is that the penetration depth of the potential probes should be
no more than 10% of the pin spacing, whereas the current probes must not be
driven more than 30% of the pin spacing.

2- Deep Readings

 Often, the type of meter used determines the maximum depth or spacing that
can be read. A general guideline is that High-Frequency soil resistivity meters
are good for no more than 100-feet pin spacings, particularly in low resistivity
soils.

 For greater pin spacings, Low-Frequency soil resistivity meters are required.
They can generate the required voltage needed to push the signal through the
soil at deep distances and detect a weak signal, free of induced voltage from
the current injection leads.
In the next Article, I will explain The Second Step for Earthing System Design: Data
Analysis. Please, keep following.

Back To Course EE-5: Grounding System Design Calculations

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Earthing Systems Design Steps – Part Eight

Examples for Grounding System Design Calculations by using the Equations Method
from BS 7430 – issued in 1998.

Some Rules/Equations from BS 7430: 1998 Revision

 1- Parallel Rod Electrodes

The combined resistance of n rod electrodes in parallel can be obtained from the
following equations:

Where:

Rn is the resistance of n rods in parallel, in ohms

R is the resistance of one rod in isolation, in ohms
n is the number of parallel rods
S is the distance between the adjacent rods, in meters
ρ is the resistivity of the soil, ohm-m

λ is the constant factor dependent on geometric arrangement of the electrodes and

can be obtained from:

 Table-1: if the rods are equally spaced in a straight line.

 Table-2: if the rods are equally spaced around a hollow square, e.g. around the
perimeter of a building.

 In case of three rods placed in an equilateral triangle, λ = 1.66.

Table-1
 Table-2

Note to table 2:

Table 2 may also be used for electrodes arranged in a rectangle, where n is given by
( 1 + total number of electrodes/4) provided that the length to width ratio of the
rectangle does not exceed 2, the error will be less than -6%.
Notes to parallel rods equation:

The above equation of parallel rods assumes the following:

 The rod electrodes can be represented approximately by hemispherical

electrodes, having the same earthing resistance, located in the soil surface.

 The spacing between the rods is not less than their length.

Example#1:

For three rods placed in equilateral triangle, calculate the resistance to earth noting
that:

 Length of the copper clad steel rod (L) = 3.0 m

 Diameter of the copper clad steel rod (D) = 16mm=0.016 m
 The resistivity of the soil (ρ) = 20.0 ohm-m
 3 rods will be driven into the ground at a separation distance (S) of 3m.

Solution:

For three rods placed in equilateral triangle, λ = 1.66 (From BS7430:1998)

Step#1: Calculate The Resistance Of One Rod

Therefore: R = 6.70 ohms

Step#2: Calculate The Resistance Of The (3) Parallel Rods

Where, R = 6.70 ohms; λ = 1.66; n = 3

 So, Rn = 2.02 ohms.

2- Horizontal strip or round conductor electrodes

 Horizontal strip or round conductor electrodes have special advantages where

high resistivity soil underlies shallow surface layers of low resistivity.

 They are frequently in the form of untinned copper strip of not less than 25
mm by 3 mm section, but may be of bare copper conductor as used for
overhead lines.

For a strip or round conductor electrode the resistance R, in ohms is given by the
following equation:
Where:

L is the length of the strip or conductor, in metres (m);

h is the depth of electrode, in metres (m);
w is the width of strip or diameter of conductor, in metres (m);
ρ is the resistivity of soil, in ohm metres (7·m);
P and Q are coefficients given in Table-3 for different arrangements of electrode.
Example#2:

For a building, 17m width and 35m length, Calculate the earth resistance by using the
following electrode types:

1. Vertical copper bonded steel rod with length 3.0m, diameter 15mm and
distributed as shown in Fig.1.
2. Copper lattice plate 600 mm x 600 mm and 1.5 mm thickness as shown in Fig.2

Noting that The measured sand soil resistivity ρ = 70.3 Ω.m.

Solution:

Case#1: Design Using Vertical Copper Bonded Steel Rod as in Fig.1

The resistance of one vertical rod calculated as follow:

So,

R= 70.3 * { loge (8*3 / 0.015) -1 } /2*3.14*3 = 23.79 ohm

The combined resistance of rod obtained from the following equation:

Where:

R: Resistance of one rod in isolation in ohm,

S: Distance between adjacent rods, in m
ρ: Resistivity of soil, Ωm,
λ: Factor depend on number of electrode,
n: Number of electrodes = 4
α= 70.3/2 π*23.79*5 = 0.094,
Rn = 23.79 {(1+1*0.094)/2}=7.46 ohm by use 4 pits

Take into account the resistance of cable connecting all rods of cross section area
120mm2 cu:

Where:

R = Resistance in ohms,
ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
L = Length of electrode in metres,
w = Width of strip or diameter of circular electrode in metres,
h = Depth of electrode in metres,
P and Q = Coefficients for different arrangements of electrode which given in table-2

L : Length of cable = 25m,

h : Depth of cable = 0.5m,
w : Diameter of cable 120mm2 cu = 0.017m

The combined earth resistance of the 4 rods and cable will be as follows:

It's recommended to bonding the earth pits to the concrete foundation of building,
and the earth resistance of reinforcing column calculated by the following equation:
Where:

R = Resistance in ohms,
ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
ρc = Concrete resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
L = Length of reinforcing rod below ground level in metres,
δ= thickness of concrete between rods and soil in meters,
Z = geometric mean distance of rod cluster in meters from Table-4,
 Table-4

From Table-4, we find Z equal to:

a: radius of reinforcing rod, s: distance between reinforcing rods (s = 0.03m, a =

0.008m so Z= 0.045m)

so, R= 14.38 ohm

The combination resistance of earth copper rods & cable with reinforcing concrete
electrode: R1= 1.99 Ohm, R2 = 14.38 Ohm

Case#2: Design Using Copper Lattice Plate as in Fig.2

The resistance to earth of a plate electrode is given by the following equation:

Where:

R = Resistance in ohms,
ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm metres (Ω-m),
A = The Area of one face of the plate, in m2.

By using 4 buried plates: R1=R2=R3=R4=36.7 Ohm

The combination resistance of earth copper plats and the resistance of cable
connecting all plates

The combination resistance of earth copper plate & cable and reinforcing concrete
electrode

at the end,for this example, we find that:

Ground Resistance in Case#1: Using Vertical Copper Bonded Steel Rod = 1.74
ohm < Ground Resistance in Case#2: Design Using Copper Lattice Plate = 1.82
ohm.

To download a Solved example for Grounding Design Calculations of small

substation using Equations method from BS 7430-2011 Revision, please click on the
link.
In the next Article, I will explain Other Methods of Grounding Design Calculations.
Please, keep following.