Voltage Sags

1
Contents
⚫ Introduction

⚫ Sources of Voltage Sag

⚫ Estimating voltage sag performance

⚫ Economic losses related with voltage sag

⚫ Solutions

2
Voltage Sag - Introduction
⚫ A voltage sag is an event where the line rms voltage decreases
from the nominal line-voltage for a short period of time.
⚫ Typically 0.5 to 30 cycles
⚫ 0.1-0.9pu in rms

3
Voltage sag magnitude
⚫ Monitor: instantaneous waveform, rms variations

4
Voltage Sag Duration
⚫ Sag duration: the time instants corresponding to the rms
voltage magnitude falling below 0.9 pu (t1) and the
subsequent recovery to above 0.9 pu (t2).

5
Phase angle shift
⚫ Some equipments are sensitive to phase shift.
⚫ Voltage zero-crossing, phase angle signals

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Missing voltage
⚫ The instantaneous difference between the voltage that would
have been present and the actual measured voltage during the
sag condition.

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Voltage Sag- Standard
⚫ IEEE 519-2014
⚫ IEEE 1564-2014 - IEEE Guide for Voltage Sag Indices
⚫ IEEE 1250-2011 - IEEE Guide for Identifying and Improving
Voltage Quality in Power Systems
⚫ IEEE 1668-2017 - IEEE Recommended Practice for Voltage
Sag and Short Interruption Ride-Through Testing for End-Use
Electrical Equipment Rated Less than 1000 V

⚫ IEC 61000-4-11 and IEC 61000-4-34 provide voltage dip

immunity standards.

8
http://www.dbicorporation.com/dipimmun.htm
Equipment sensitivity
⚫ Difficult to identify which voltage sag event are likely to cause
misoperation.
⚫ Voltage sag ride-through capability
⚫ Magnitude – duration plot
⚫ CBEMA (used until 1995)
⚫ ITI Curves
⚫ SEMI F47

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CBEMA and ITI Curve
⚫ Computer equipment
⚫ Acceptable sag/swell amplitude versus event duration
⚫ Computer Business Equipment Manufactures Association (CBEMA
1970s)
⚫ Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC 1990s)

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Voltage Sag- Standard
⚫ SEMI F47, Specification for Semiconductor Processing
Equipment Voltage Sag Immunity.
⚫ Specifies the required voltage sag tolerance for semiconductor
fabrication equipment.

⚫ SEMI F42, Test Method for Semiconductor Processing

Equipment Voltage Sag Immunity.
⚫ Explains the method on how to test compliance with SEMI F47.
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Voltage Sag (Dip) immunity
standards
⚫ Magnitude-duration plot

CBEMA SEMI F47

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Comparison

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Contents
⚫ Introduction

⚫ Sources of Voltage Sag

⚫ Overcurrent Protection

⚫ Estimating voltage sag performance

⚫ Economic losses related with voltage sag

⚫ Solutions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6VgD_nsXvP0&t=33s
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Short-circuit Fault

The lower the impedance of a transformer of a given kVA rating, the

higher the amount of short-circuit current it can deliver.

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Protection system
⚫ The protection system must be:
⚫ fast enough to clear the fault with minimum
operating time
⚫ operating correctly (reliable)
⚫ disconnecting the minimum section of the
network necessary to isolate the fault (selectivity)
⚫ ensuring coordination at low cost
⚫ Protection has its limits because the fault
must occur before the protection system
can react.
⚫ Protection cannot prevent disturbances,
it can only limit their effects and their
duration. 16
Overcurrent Protection
⚫ Short-circuit conditions are inevitable.
⚫ Overcurrent protection – interrupt the short-circuit current.
⚫ Overcurrent protective devices:
⚫ Fuses
⚫ Line reclosers
⚫ Sectionalizers
⚫ an automatic circuit opening device
⚫ Feeder circuit breakers
⚫ An automatic interrupting device which is capable of breaking and reclosing
a circuit under all possible conditions
⚫ Time coordinated – only one device clears the fault.

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 Current-based coordination
⚫ The principle is that within a distribution system, as the fault is far from the
source the fault current is less.
⚫ The threshold is set at a value lower than the minimum short-circuit current caused by a
fault downstream.

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Circuit Breakers
⚫ A circuit breaker is an electrical switch designed to
protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by
overcurrent/overload or short circuit.
⚫ Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after
protective relays detect a fault.

19
https://www.eaton.com/us/en-us/products/electrical-circuit-protection/circuit-breakers/circuit-breakers-
fundamentals.html#:~:text=A%20circuit%20breaker%20is%20an,View%20all%20Eaton%20circuit%20breakers
 Fuse
⚫ Fuse: basic and least expensive
⚫ fusible element
⚫ Need to be replaced
⚫ Expulsion fuse
⚫ fusible element, melt under high current conditions
⚫ Current limiting fuse
⚫ Reduce the magnitude of the fault current
⚫ Fusible element surrounded by silicon sand and encased in a
cylindrical container.

20
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQ6fZrrP0H4
 Automatic circuit recloser
⚫ Most faults are temporary and clear themselves
⚫ Recloser with build in relay and control circuits
⚫ A sequence of predetermined opening and reclosing
operations
⚫ 2kA to 16kA (short circuit rating)
⚫ Fault dissipate
⚫ Automatic restore
⚫ Permanent fault
⚫ Open circuit , lock itself

21
http://home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/mhl/html/switch/U_Series.htm
 Example

22

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PwkP1V8okjE

http://www.sycxdq.com/cn/product_view.asp?id=14
Sags caused by fault - Sources
⚫ Fault on the same feeder
⚫ Sag (5~6cycles) – Interruption (12 cy ~ 5s)
⚫ Fault on the other feeders from the substation
⚫ Sag
Events that cause
equipment misoperation for
one industry customer

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Waveforms of a fault phase
⚫ Monitor at the circuit breaker 1
⚫ Short-circuit: a low impedance path to ground

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Two type of faults
⚫ Transient or temporary faults
⚫ 50 -90%: Tree, animal contact
⚫ Do not damage system insulation
⚫ Voltage restore as soon as fault arc is extinguished.
⚫ Downstream experience one or more momentary interruptions.
⚫ Permanent fault
⚫ Physical damage to an element of the insulation system
⚫ Recloser to lock out or fuse to blow
⚫ Downstream experience sustained interruption
⚫ Most faults on underground cable circuits are permanent

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Reclosers
⚫ 4-shot reclosers

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Example – Downline from the fault
- Sources

Two fast recloser operations

Recloser work in about 2.5 cycles

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The fault was cleared in the second operation.
Equivalent Circuit

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Example 1 – Sources of sags

A C

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 Sags caused by motor starting
- Sources
⚫ Motors draw several times their full load current while starting.
⚫ Cause voltage sag, contactors to drop out.
⚫ Starting displacement factor – 15 ~30%

⚫ Excessive sag may prevent motor from

starting successfully.
⚫ Motor starting sag can persist

for many seconds

⚫ Motor starting methods:

⚫ Autotransformer starters
▪ Reduce voltage
⚫ Resistance and reactance starters
▪ Reduce current
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Example
⚫ 277V line-to-neutral voltage, R=0.02Ω, L=100uH
⚫ Motor 1000A, energize at t=0.1s

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Motor starting sag following fault

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Unbalanced Fault

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Contents
⚫ Introduction

⚫ Sources of Voltage Sag

⚫ Estimating voltage sag performance

⚫ Economic losses related with voltage sag

⚫ Solutions
Review of Voltage Sag

34
 Macao News

傳新澳門協會籌委會昨日下午二時假會址舉行記
者招待會。林宇滔表示，二○一一年，澳電投資
近二點四億元，將澳門鴨涌河變電站與路氹城蓮
花變電站之間的一百一十千伏電網主幹，更換升
級至兩組二百二十千伏電纜，並於二○一二年六
月正式投入運作，該組電纜預期正常壽命為三十
年。然而在二○一四年二至三月，該主幹電纜先
後出現三次短路，令全澳大部分地區出現電壓波
動。能源業發展辦公室當時亦指出，電纜運作不
足兩年、負載輕，排除是老化破損，故障點附近
亦沒有工程掘路、白蟻和沉降跡象，故障情況非
常罕見。

35
http://www.macaodaily.com/html/2017-02/06/content_1155740.htm
Distribution of Sags

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Area of vulnerability
⚫ Voltage sag ride-through capability – minimum voltage
magnitude a piece of equipment can withstand or tolerate
without misoperation or failure.
⚫ Area of vulnerability –
evaluate the likelihood
of sensitive equipment
being subjected to
voltage lower than its
minimum voltage sag
ride-through capability.

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Voltage sag analysis
⚫ Area of vulnerability - total circuit of miles of exposure to faults that can
cause voltage magnitudes at an end-user facility to drop below the
equipment minimum voltage sag
⚫ Loads are subject to faults on both the transmission system and the distribution
system.
⚫ Voltage sag (dip) analysis determines the number (and severity) of voltage
sags that affect end-use equipment.
⚫ Area of vulnerability
⚫ Fault performance for this portion of the power system.
⚫ Voltage sag analysis is useful to electric utilities for predicting power
quality levels at new industrial/commercial sites being constructed
⚫ Voltage sag analysis is useful to large industries and commercial customers
to evaluate investments in power quality solutions.
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 Example of voltage sag analysis
⚫ Electric utility fault performance (faults per 100 miles per year) of
various classes (voltage levels) of network.
⚫ Exposure – area of vulnerability
⚫ Fault performance – history data

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www.electrotek.com/voltsag.htm
 Voltage sag performance at a given
point
⚫ A complete system short circuit analysis is done to determine the voltage
sag resulting from faults across the network.
⚫ A computerized analysis determines the annual profile of voltage sags at a
given utilization point – taking into consideration various transformations
and equipment connections

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www.electrotek.com/voltsag.htm
Contents
⚫ Introduction

⚫ Sources of Voltage Sag

⚫ Estimating voltage sag performance

⚫ Economic losses related with voltage sag

⚫ Solutions

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 The Damages to appliances
- Detrimental effects of Sag
Facilities Influence of Voltage Sag
Chip Testers When the voltage is lower than 85％ of its rated value，the
testers stop work. The chips & main broad might be damaged
PLC When the operating voltage is lower than 90%, PLC can work
for about 15 cycles. PLC will stop work when the voltage is
lower than 50~60%
Machine For high precision cutting machines using robot, when
Tools the voltage is lower than 90%, it lasts for 2~3 cycles, then
will be turned off
DC Motor The DC Motor will turn off when the voltage is lower than 80%
of its rated value
Motor When the voltage is lower than 50% of its rated value, it
Contactor lasts for 1 cycle, the contactor will be triggered. In some
researches, it may stop work when voltage is lower than 70%
Computer When the voltage is lower than 60% of its rated value, it can
last for 12 cycles, the operation of computer will be
affected and the data will be lost
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Example- Detrimental effects of Sag
⚫ Magnitude and duration characteristics for power quality events at a
plastics manufacturing facility.
⚫ Ride-through levels set by the standard for semiconductor
manufacturing equipment, SEMI F47.

Circled data points:

events that resulted in a
process interruption.

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http://ecmweb.com/mag/electric_economics_voltage_sag/index.html
Cost of momentary interruption

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http://ecmweb.com/mag/electric_economics_voltage_sag/index.html
 Cost of Sag

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283026081_Voltage_sags_cost_estimation_for_Malaysi
an_industries/figures?lo=1
Contents
⚫ Introduction
⚫ Sources of Voltage Sag
⚫ Estimating voltage sag performance
⚫ Economic losses related with voltage sag
⚫ Solutions
⚫ Overview
⚫ Equipment ride-through
⚫ Compensators
⚫ Evaluating the economics of different ride-through
alternatives
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Voltage sag solution and their costs

⚫ Less costly at its lower level –close to load

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Equipment procurement specifications

⚫ Manufacturers should provide voltage sag ride-through

capability curves.
⚫ Users: rate the importance of the equipment.
▪ Adequate ride-through capabilities for critical load
⚫ Bottom-line: Equipment should ride through a minimum
voltage of 70 percent (ITI curve)
▪ Probability of experiencing a voltage sag to 70% or less is much less
than experiencing a sag to 90 percent or less.
▪ 50 percent ride-through is better.

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Equipment sensitivity

49
Low voltage ride-through capability
for Distributed Generators

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Contents
⚫ Introduction
⚫ Sources of Voltage Sag
⚫ Estimating voltage sag performance
⚫ Economic losses related with voltage sag
⚫ Solutions
⚫ Overview
⚫ Equipment ride-through
⚫ Compensators
⚫ Evaluating the economics of different ride-through alternatives

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Voltage Sag compensators-solutions
⚫ Constant-voltage transformers
⚫ Uninterruptible power supply
⚫ Dynamic voltage restorer
http://www.sigmaelectricals.com/cvt.htm

⚫ Static transfer switches

⚫ Fast transfer switches 52
Solutions at the End-User Level
⚫ Classification
⚫ Small loads: < 5KVA, usually single-phase
⚫ Individual equipment or groups of equipment up to
about 300 kVA
⚫ Power conditioning techniques within the facility
⚫ Large group of loads or whole facilities at low-voltage
level
⚫ Protect at service entrance
⚫ Protection at the medium-voltage level or on the supply
system.

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Ferroresonant transformers
⚫ Also called constant-voltage transformers (CVTs)
⚫ Attractive for constant, low-power, single-phase loads
⚫ Basiclly 1:1 transformers, excited high on their saturation curves.

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Performance of 120-VA Ferroresonant Transformer
 Loading effect of Ferroresonant
transformers
⚫ Ferroresonant transformers should be sized significantly
larger than the load.
⚫ 25% loading, allow voltage sag 30% of nominal
⚫ 150% loading, voltage collapse to zero

55

http://www.solahd.com/products/powerconditioning/Index.htm
 Magnetic synthesizers
⚫ Similar operating principle to CVTs
⚫ Three-phase devices for three-phase loads
⚫ Applicable from about 15 to 200 kVA.
⚫ Power conditioning is accomplished using only
magnetic components and capacitors
⚫ Ideally Suited For:
⚫ Data centers
⚫ Medical imaging equipment
⚫ Industrial process equipment
⚫ Laboratories

56
http://www.liebert.com/product_pages/Product.aspx?id=81
Active series compensators
⚫ Provide voltage sag ride-through support to critical loads.
⚫ Power Electronics, other new technologies
⚫ Ranges from 1 ~5 kVA to medium-voltage systems (2MVA and
larger)

+
-

+
-
Single-phase ASC
57
Dynamic Voltage Restorer
⚫ The DVR is series connected in distribution line.
⚫ Maintain the voltage applied to the load during sags and swells

General specification of a DVR

58
Estimate the costs for the voltage sag
events
⚫ Cost vary from nearly zero to several million dollars
per event.
⚫ Industry types, individual facilities, market conditions.
⚫ Not all costs are easily quantified or truly reflect the urgency of
avoiding a voltage sag event
⚫ Cost of a PQ disturbances
⚫ Product-related losses
⚫ Labor-related losses
⚫ Ancillary costs – damage equipment, delay penalties..
⚫ Refer to IEEE 1346-1998.

59
Estimate the costs for the voltage sag
events
⚫ Costs vary with the magnitude and duration of the PQ
disturbance
⚫ Use momentary interruption as the base
⚫ Weighting factors: impact of other disturbances as a portion of
the momentary interruption
⚫ E.g. Weighting factors =0.8: voltage sag of 40% causes 80% of
the economic impact of a momentary interruption.

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Example
⚫ Total annual cost associated with voltage sags and
interruptions determined by weighting factor and
expected performance.
⚫ Single interruption cost: $40,000
⚫ Total cost: $676,000

61
Characterize the cost and effectiveness for
solution alternatives
⚫ Costs:
⚫ Initial procurement, installation expenses, operating and maintenance
expenses, any disposal and/pr salvage value considerations.
⚫ Real estate, space related-expenses, tax considerations.
⚫ Effectiveness: (Quantified)
⚫ Performance improvement：% sags avoided

62
Example Costs

63
http://www.we-energies.com/powerquality/voltagesags.pdf
Perform comparative economic analysis

⚫ Process:
⚫ Determine the total annual cost for each solutions
⚫ The costs associated with voltage sags (which are not
completely removed)
⚫ The annualized costs of the solutions
▪ Initial procurement and installation costs are annualized using an
appropriate interest rate and assumed life time or evaluation
period.
⚫ Compare among different solutions
⚫ Do-nothing solution is included and used as the base.
⚫ Prefer lower costs

64
 Example
⚫ Industry facility. Total 5MW.
⚫ 2MW need to be protected to avoid production disruptions.
⚫ 15-year life and 10% interest are used in calculation.

65
Charge from the utility for providing a connection to the backup feeder for the fast switch is not considered.
DVR in UM Power Lab

66
 Dynamic Voltage Restorer
(DVR)
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)
-Mainly compensate voltage
sags, swells and voltage
harmonics in the system

-Restore terminal load

Sensitive
Load voltage to be balanced,
sinusoidal and at nominal
AC source
value (Protect sensitive
loads)

DVR -Insert a voltage of desired

mag. and freq.
UDC
67
 Review of DVR
⚫ The World first’s DVR was installed Transformer-coupled
in North Carolina {1996} Sensitive
Load

AC source

⚫ DVR Researches since 1996

⚫ Control strategies {85%} [Performance, DVR

Energy Optimization and Efficiency]

UDC
⚫ Stability {5%}
⚫ Structure {10%}

⚫ Transformerless-coupled DVR structure

{2002}
⚫ No Transformer Phase Shift Transformerless-coupled
⚫ Better Frequency Response Sensitive
Load
⚫ Lower Cost
AC source
⚫ Lower Size
⚫ Lower Loss DVR
68

UDC
 Unidirectional Power Flow
Control
Source-side Transformerless- Load-side
system voltage coupled output voltage
vdvr
vSa vLa
a v vdvr a
Cf vLb
b vSb vdvr vLc
b
c Sc Cf c
VL-L Y/Δ-Y Cf
Y V/(N/2)V-(N/2)V
Lf Lf Lf
V/(N/2)V-(N/2)V

Diode-bridge DC-link
Inverter
Δ Y rectifier
Y/Δ-Y

Y
+
Source-side

V/(N/2)V-(N/2)V

Load-side
Idc,a

DC storage Capacitor
Vdc,a Cdc
Δ Y -
Y/Δ-Y

Y (N/2)VL-L
+
Idc,b
(N/2)VL-L
Vdc,b Cdc
Δ Y -
+
Idc,c

Vdc,c Cdc
-
N
69
 Transformerless-Coupled DVR
System

A diode-bridge rectifier supported

with transformerless-coupled DVR
experimental prototype.
⚫ Controller => DSP-TMS320C32
- Fast instruction period: 50ns.
- Support 32 bit Floating-point and
24 bit integer multiplier
70
Standard Voltage Waveform
400

300

200

100

-100

-200

-300

-400
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07

⚫ Frequency 50Hz
⚫ Three-phase balance
⚫ Zero-axis component is zero
The source voltage must keep stable. Any
kind of variation should be avoided.
71
Voltage Variation Compensation

Two phase voltage decrease to 170V

After compensation voltages remain at 220V 72

Dynamic Voltage Sag Compensation

Voltage Sag
Decrease to 65%
Last 18 durations

After
Compensation
Remain 220V

73
Voltage Fluctuation Compensation

74
The End!

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