Energy 263 (2023) 125911

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Investigation on the electrical performance of a curved PV roof integrated

with CIGS cells for traditional Chinese houses
Xinyi Tian, Jun Wang, Shuang Yuan, Jie Ji *, Wei Ke, Chuyao Wang
Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Inspired by traditional Chinese architecture, a curved PV roof integrated with copper indium gallium selenide
Curved PV (CIGS) cells is designed, which not only manifests Chinese aesthetic elements but also could generate electricity.
Photovoltaic roof tiles Considering solar radiation distribution on curved PV cells different from that on traditional flat cells, this paper
Traditional Chinese houses
builds a radiation distribution model to calculate the radiation on the curved surface and an electrical model
Experimental validation
Performance evaluation
based on 5-parameter model to predict the power output of PV cells with different connections (independent
output; in parallel; in series). An experimental rig was built, and the theoretical model was validated. Results
showed that the CIGS cells on the west side of the curved surface performed better in electricity generation than
the CIGS cells on the east side did; the CIGS cells in parallel generated more power than the cells in series did.
The annual performance prediction shows that CIGS cells on the west side generate 155.18 kWh, which is
21.49% more than on the east side; CIGS cells in parallel generate 275.96 kWh, which is 12.56% more than the
cells in series; The electrical generation of the curved PV roof is 7.41% less than the flat roof does. Parametric
analysis is also conducted.

1. Introduction
As a cornerstone of social promotion, energy plays a significant role
in economic growth. The covid-19 pandemic has caused an enormous
impact on human manufacture and life, which is likely to alter the future
global energy markets. Traditional energy demands dropped dramati­
cally in 2020, while solar energy has the most significant yearly increase
ever [1]. Renewable energy, especially solar energy, will be one of the
fastest-growing energy sources over the next 30 years. Photovoltaic (PV)
technology converts solar energy into electrical energy using PV cells.
China claimed to achieve carbon neutrality in the middle of the century
and has released a series of policies to control carbon emissions [2].
Benefiting from reduced costs and the government’s support, China’s PV
industry has been thriving recently [3].
Building energy consumption accounts for about 40% of the global
energy consumption [4], which means lowering building energy con­
sumption will alleviate the energy crisis to some extent.
Building-integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) combines the building exte­
riors with PV cells. On the premise of preserving buildings’ essential
functions, BIPV technology is applied to façades [5], blinds [6], win­
dows [7], rooftops [8], etc. Those BIPV systems supply electricity to the
buildings, and some of them have the ability to improve the indoor
environment. According to IRENA (2019b) [9], global PV electrical
power generation is likely to reach 8519 GWp in 2050, among which
roof-top PV systems will contribute about 40%. Zhong et al. [10] esti­
mated the rooftop solar PV potential in Nanjing, China, based on deep
learning. The result was that the city’s total rooftop area extracted was
330.0 km2 while the annual solar PV potential was about 311853 GWh,
showing the vast potential of PV panels on rooftop areas at an urban
scale.
The flat-type PV modules are widespread in the application for the
BIPV combination with the building’s rooftop. Numerous studies have
concerned the application of flat PV modules on the rooftop. Poulek
et al. [11] proposed a new simplified model to analyze the influence of
the increasing temperature on the electricity generation of a PV roof.
Results showed that compared with independent PV panels, BIPV roofs
reduce energy production by 3.5% in Prague. Shukla et al. [12] inves­
tigated the thermal effects of the rooftop PV panels on the underlying
roof shingles exposed to hot desert conditions during summer in Albu­
querque. According to the experimental results, the daily peak temper­
ature of the rooftop PV panels covered by the rooftop PV panels was
13 ◦ C lower than the exposed shingles, showing the cooling effects by
the rooftop PV systems. Alim et al. [13] experimented with

* Corresponding author.Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230022, PR China
E-mail address: jijie@ustc.edu.cn (J. Ji).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125911
Received 2 April 2022; Received in revised form 25 September 2022; Accepted 26 October 2022
Available online 29 October 2022
0360-5442/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

Nomenclature gnd ground

mpp maximum power point
E power generated by the PV cells (W) oc open circuit
Eg energy band gap (eV) r ground reflected radiation
G solar radiation (W/m2) ref at standard test condition
Impp current at MPP (A) s solar
Io the diode reverse saturation current (A) sc short circuit
Iph the photocurrent (A) sim simulated results
Isc short circuit current (A)
k Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10− 23 J/K) Greek letters
n diode ideal factor α altitude angle (◦ )
Pmpp power at MPP (W) β tilted angle (◦ )
q electron charge (C) γ azimuth angle (◦ )
Rs series resistance (Ω) η angle between surface’s normal vector and bottom plate’s
Rsh parallel resistance (Ω) normal vector (◦ )
spacech space between two adjacent channels (m) θ incident angle (◦ )
Vmpp voltage at MPP (V) ρ albedo
Voc open circuit voltage (V) φ latitude (◦ )
ω hour angle (◦ )
Subscripts
b bottom plate Abbreviations
bm beam radiation BIPV Building-integrated photovoltaic
ch channel CIGS copper indium gallium selenide
d diffuse radiation MPPT maximum power point track
exp experimental results STC standard test condition

incorporating phase change materials (PCM) with PV roof tiles. The architecture while realizing the reconstruction. For the combination of
results showed that the electrical energy generated by the new PV roof the BIPV technology with the curved pitched rooftop, it is not appro­
tiles was 4.1% higher than that of the counterpart without PCM on priate to install standard flat-type PV modules directly on the rooftop
winter days. Saoud et al. [14] used building-information modeling because the PV modules would be against the building’s design ele­
(BIM) software to indicate the solar insolation distribution of a metro ments. To combine the PV technology with the traditional architectural
station’s rooftop composed of several different oriented flat plates and design styles, our team proposed a curved roof integrated with CIGS cells
used a genetic algorithm to search for the optimal connection method of to maintain the aesthetic demand for the curved pitched roof. The
the PV modules. structure retains the design elements of Hui-style architecture and can
Additionally, the rooftops of buildings are not restricted to flat types. generate electricity and bring economic profits.
Considering the demands for diverse architectural designs such as The previous work on PV rooftops focused on the application of flat
curved shapes, standard crystalline silicon PV cells are not applicable in PV cells, while the curved types of PV cells were rarely mentioned. This
certain situations. In contrast, flexible thin-film cells can be bent into article aims to study the electrical performance of CIGS cells on curved
specified shapes to meet the requirements. Thin-film cells include surfaces and lay a foundation for future studies on the application of
amorphous silicon (a-Si), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and BIPV to buildings with curved design elements. The article’s frame is as
cadmium telluride (CdTe), etc. As one of the best thin-film absorbing follows: in Section 2, the system is described in detail, and the test rig is
materials, CIGS solar cells can reach light-to-power conversion effi­ established; in Section 3, the simulation model for the radiation distri­
ciencies exceeding 20% at lab environment [15]. CIGS cells are also bution on the curved surface and the electrical performance by the
ideal for rooftop applications due to their lightweight. It can be installed curved PV cells is built; in Section 4, the experimental data is presented,
on a roof that cannot bear much weight or on the nonplanar surfaces of
buildings [16]. Profited from their flexibility and lightweight, CIGS cells
can easily be applied to the buildings’ external surfaces to make PV
shingles, tiles, etc. [17]. To completely stick to the complex curved
surfaces of the buildings, the electrical performance of the CIGS-BIPV
systems might be influenced by the shape of the building’s envelope,
bringing partial shading and uneven solar radiation to the PV cells.
Walker et al. [18] conducted a novel workflow to study the arrangement
of CIGS modules on a special-shaped rooftop, including parametric
design by BIM and CIGS modules’ configuration. The results showed that
reasonable arrangement and selection of appropriate parameters would
optimize curved PV cells’ electrical performance.
Curved surfaces are widely used in traditional Chinese architecture,
reflecting local characteristics and oriental flavor. Among all kinds of
Chinese regional architecture, Hui-style architecture is known for its
black pitched roof covered with curved roof tiles. As shown in Fig. 1,
which was shot in a village in the south of Anhui Province, every Hui-
style house in the village has a characteristic curved tiled roof, illus­
trating that it is vital to maintain the overall appearance of the regional
Fig. 1. Photo of traditional Hui-style houses.

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X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

and the theoretical model is validated by the experimental results of the

curved PV cells with different connection methods; in Section 5, several
parameters related to the system design is discussed, and the annual
performance of the system is analyzed based on the weather data of
Hefei in Typical Meteorological Year (TMY).

2. System description and test rig establishment

In this section, a curved photovoltaic roof system combined with

CIGS cells is proposed, and the establishment of the test rig is presented.

2.1. Description of the system

As shown in Fig. 2, the curved PV roof integrated with CIGS cells

consists of a flat aluminum bottom plate, insulation layer, curved
aluminum plates, and several pieces of flexible CIGS cells whose sub­
strate is stainless steel. The system is set to face due south. The bottom
and curved plates are painted in black and welded together by laser
welding technology. The bottom plate has a tilted angle of 31◦ . The
central angle of the curved plates is 120◦ . The top view of the schematic
diagram of the whole roof and the size of the single piece of CIGS cells
are depicted in Fig. 3. Each curved plate is integrated with twelve pieces
of CIGS cells, where six pieces are pasted on the west side of the curved
surface, and six pieces are pasted on the east side of the curved surface.
2.2. Test rig establishment
The test rig of the curved PV roof integrated with CIGS cells is
installed on a rooftop of a building in Hefei, Anhui, China (117.27◦ E,
31.86◦ N), as shown in Fig. 4(a). The manually welded CIGS cells are
pasted on the curved plates using the thermal adhesive silicon. Global
solar radiation and diffuse solar radiation are recorded by the pyran­
ometers TBQ-2 and TBD-1. An I–V curve tracer records the system’s
output voltage and current to help track the Maximum power point
(MPP). To measure the cells’ temperature, several T-type thermocouples
have adhered beneath the middle of the curved plates. All the pyran­
ometers and thermocouples are linked with the data logger HIOKI LR
8402-21 to collect the data every 30 s. The measuring instruments are
shown in Fig. 4(b). The parameters of the measuring instruments are
shown in Table 1. Table 2 shows the parameters of the CIGS cells used
during the experimental period.
For the curved PV roof covered with CIGS cells, the PV cells’
connection methods would influence the PV cells’ electrical output and
Fig. 3. Geometrical sizes of the curved PV roof and the single piece of the
CIGS cell.
then influence the overall performance of the whole curved PV roof. In
the experiments, three kinds of electrical interconnection of PV cells are
designed to study the electrical performance of the curved PV cells and
look for a type of arrangement that improves the energy output. The
schematic diagram is represented in Fig. 5. The yellow cells represent
the cells on the west side of the curved surfaces, and the green cells
represent the cells on the east side of the curved surfaces. The connec­
tion method of the three groups of PV cells are as follows:
•Group A: 12 cells close to the east are serially connected to strings
connected in series; 12 cells close to the west are serially connected
to strings connected in series. Two strings have their output
separately.
•Group B: 12 cells close to the east are serially connected to strings
connected in series; 12 cells close to the west are serially connected
to strings connected in series. Then strings close to the east and
strings close to the west are connected in parallel.

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the curved PV roof integrated with CIGS cells.

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X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

Table 1
Parameters of the measuring instruments.
Apparatus Type Accuracy

Thermocouple T ±0.2 ◦ C
Pyranometer TBQ-2 for global radiation ±2%
TBD-1 for diffuse radiation ±2%
I–V curve tracer HT Italia /
Data logger HIOKI LR8402-21 0.01%

Table 2
Manufacture data for the single piece of the CIGS cell.
Parameters value unit

Isc 1.4 A
Voc 4 V
Vmpp 3.2 V
Impp 1.2 A
Pmpp 3.84 W
Temperature coefficient for power − 0.43 %/◦ C

coming from all directions is not considered in the simulation

[19];
(2) Physical properties keep constant during the simulation process;
(3) Shadow cast by the surrounding infrastructure is not considered.

3.1. Radiation distribution of the PV curved surface

Due to the shape of the system being different from traditional flat PV
cells, the calculation of the radiation distribution and shadow on curved
surfaces becomes essential. To calculate the curved surface’s radiation,
it is reasonable to divide the curved surface into a set of flat microfacets
shown in Fig. 6. We create a coordinate system shown in Fig. 6(a), in
which the x axis points to the south, the y axis points to the east, and the
z axis goes straight up.
Let a microfacet i’s unit normal vector be →
ni = (xi ,yi ,zi ). According to
the geometric relationship,
⎧
Fig. 4. (a) Configuration of the curved PV roof integrated with CIGS cells; (b) ⎪ 2 2 2
⎨ xi + yi + zi = 1
⎪
measuring instruments used in the experiment. xi sin βb + zi sin βb = cos ηi (1)
⎪
⎪
⎩ xi /zi = tan β
b
•Group C: 12 cells close to the east are serially connected to strings
connected in series; 12 cells close to the west are serially connected The result of the equation set is,
to strings connected in series. Two strings are connected in series. ⎧
⎨ xi = sin βb cos ηi
y = − sin ηi (2)
3. Simulation model ⎩ i
zi = cos βb cos ηi
In this section, the simulation model is built to describe the curved
where ηi is the angle between microfacet i’s unit normal vector → ηi and
PV roof and predict the system’s electrical performance theoretically,
including the calculation of the radiation distribution on the curved the bottom plate’s normal vector →
nb ; βi and βb are the angle between the
surface and the electrical power generated by the cells on the curved microfacet i and horizontal direction and the tilted angle of the bottom
surface. For the model establishment, in order to simplify the mathe­ plate respectively.
matical model, several assumptions are made as follows: Then
cos βi = cos βb cos ηi (3)
(1) For the possible shadow cast by the adjacent curved plates, the
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
shading would block the beam radiation in a straight path; the
cos γi (sin βb cos ηi )2 + (sin ηi )2 = sin βb cos ηi (4)
influence of the adjacent curved plates on the rest of the radiation
where γi is microfacet i’s azimuth angle.

cos θi = sin δ (sin φ cos βi − cos φ sin βi cos γ i ) + cos δ cos ω (cos φ cos βi + sin φ sin βi cos γ i )
(5)
+cos δ sin βi sin γi sin ω

4
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

Fig. 5. Different electrical interconnection methods of CIGS cells. (a) Group A (b) Group B (c) Group C.

For microfacet i, the incident angle θi is [20], ⎧ ′

⎨ y′ 2 + (z + r/2)2 = r2
(11)
′

where φ is the local latitude; δ is the declination; ω is the hour angle. − l <x <0
⎩ ′ ch
z >0
Solar radiation consists of beam radiation, diffuse radiation and
ground reflected radiation. The beam radiation is calculated according
Similarly, its right-hand channel’s formula in ox’y’z’ is,
to Ref. [21].
⎧( ( ) )2 ( )2
(6) ⎪ ′ ′
Gbm,i = Gbm,h rbm,i ⎪
⎪ y − 2r sin θtotal 2 − spacech + z + r 2 = r2
/ /
⎪
⎨
(12)
rbm,i = max[0, cos θi / sin αs ] (7) ⎪
⎪
′
− lch < x < 0
⎪
⎪
⎩ ′

where Gbm,h is the horizontal beam solar radiation; rbm,i is the ratio of z >0
beam radiation on microfacet i to that on a horizontal surface; αs is the A point on the curved channel can be defined as p0 = (0, y, z). Then
solar altitude angle. sunlight direction of beam radiation across p0 is (sx′ t, y +sy′ t, z +sz′ t) (*).
For the curved PV roof design, the parallel curved plates might in­ We combine (*) with the right-hand channel’s formula,
fluence each other and block the beam solar radiation. The phenomenon ( )2
mostly happens near sunrise and sunset [22]. θtotal
→ (sx′ t)2 + y + sy′ t − 2r sin − spacech + (z + sz′ t + r/2)2 = r2 (13)
Let S be the unit vector in parallel with solar beam radiation. In the 2
→
coordinate system oxyz, S can be represented as [20], Discriminant Δ of Eq. (13) is,
→ ⎧
S = (cos αs cos γs , cos αs sin γs , sin αs ) (8) ⎪ Δ = b2 − 4ac
⎪
⎪
⎪
To make the calculation more convenient, we rotate the primary axes ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ a = s2x′ + s2y′ + s2z′
⎪
oxyz along y axis in βb degrees to create a new coordinate system ox’y’z’ ⎪
⎨ ( )
shown in Fig. 6(a). The two coordinate systems follow the rules of co­ b = 2s ′ y − 2r sin
θtotal
− space + 2sz′ (z + r/2) (14)
⎪
⎪ y
2
ch
ordinate axis transformation [23]: ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ( )2
⎧ ′ ⎪
⎪ θtotal
⎨ x = x cos βb − z sin βb ⎪
⎩ c = y − 2r sin − spacech + (z + r/2)2 − r2
2
(9)
′
y =y
⎩ ′
z = x sin βb + z cos βb
If Δ < 0, the right-hand channel casts no beam shadow. On the contrary,
→ →′
In the new axes ox’y’z’, S turns into S = (sx′ , sy′ , sz′ ) [24]: if Δ ≥ 0, the right-hand channel casts beam shadow on the channel and
the channel will be partially shaded. We definite a symbol marki to
⎧
⎨ sx′ = cos αs cos γ s cos βb − sin αs sin βb distinguish the two conditions above.
s ′ = cos αs sin γs (10) {
⎩ y′ marki = 1 Δ < 0
sz = cos αs cos γs sin βb + sin αs cos βb (15)
marki = 0 Δ ≥ 0
For a curved channel, its formula in ox’y’z’ is [25], Considering the beam shadow conditions Gbm,i turns into:

Gbm,i = Gbm,h rbm,i marki (16)

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X. Tian et al.
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of (a) coordinate systems of the curved surface; (b)
the microfacet and the related angles.
For the partial beam shadow cast by the left-hand channel, the
method proposed above could also be used to determine whether the
microfacet is under the beam shadow or not.
With the change of the ambient environment, the ground albedo ρgnd
changes accordingly in the interval [0,1] [26]. The value of the ground
albedo in this study is considered to be a constant of 0.2. The ground
reflected radiation could be represented as,
( )2
β is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10− 23 J/K); T is the cell temperature
Gr,i = ρgnd Gtotal,gnd sin i (17)
2 (K); q is the electron charge (1.6 × 10− 19 C).
where Gtotal,gnd is the total solar radiation on the horizontal surface.
Among all the models of diffuse radiation calculation, Perez’s model
takes account of isotropic diffuse from the sky dome, diffuse from the
horizon, and circumsolar diffuse, which leads to higher accuracy. From
the above calculation, Gbm,i , βi and θi are known. Referring to the article
related to the Perez’ model establishment [27], Gd,i can be calculated
which is the diffuse radiation on microfacet i.
Based on the calculation above, total solar radiation on microfacet i
is given in Eq. (18),
Gtotal,i = Gbm,i + Gd,i + Gr,i
Energy 263 (2023) 125911
The curved surface is divided into a set of microfacets, and the total
solar radiation on the curved surface Gtotal could be regarded as the sum
of all microfacets’ solar radiation:
∑
m
Gtotal = Gtotal,i (19)
i=1
3.2. Electrical performance for the curved CIGS cells
Considering that the PV roof investigated in this study is not a
common flat type roof combined with basic flat PV modules, CIGS cells
under inhomogeneous solar radiation or being partially shaded are
inevitable. To look for the inhomogeneous solar radiation’s effect on the
electrical performance of the CIGS cell, an experiment was conducted to
study the relations between cells’ maximum output power and unshaded
areas. The photos of the solar simulator (94043A, Newport Stratford Inc)
and a single piece of CIGS cell are shown in Fig. 7. The schematic dia­
gram of the experiment is presented in Fig. 8. Here are the steps of the
experiment:
•
Put a single CIGS cell under the solar simulator and control the lab
environment at standard test conditions (STC, 1000 W/m2 solar
irradiance, 25 ◦ C PV cell temperature). Record the cell’s I–V data.
•
Along the length, use a piece of thin black paper to cover the cell’s
25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% area, and record the cell’s I–V data
separately.
•
Along the width, use a piece of thin black paper to cover the cell’s
25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% area, and record the cell’s I–V data
separately.
The fitting line of the electrical power output by the single piece of
the CIGS cell is shown in Fig. 9, indicating that when the single cell is
partially shaded, the electrical power generated by the single cell is
proportionate to its unshaded area. Under this premise, it is reasonable
to identify irradiation on a partially shaded surface with uniform irra­
diation on the same surface.
Based on the conclusion above, it is essential to find a proper accu­
rate and simple model to describe PV modules with inhomogeneous
solar radiation distribution. The 5-parameter model is generally applied
in electricity generation simulation. The equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig. 10. The single diode mathematical PV cell model based on the
Shockley diode equation is presented in Eq. (20) [28]:
[ ( ) ]
V + IRs V + IRs
I = Iph − Id − Ish = Iph − Io exp − 1 − (20)
a Rsh
a = nkT/q
where Iph is the photocurrent (A); Id is the current through the diode (A);
Ish is the current through the shunt resistance (A); Io is the diode reverse
saturation current (A); Rs is the series resistance (Ω); Rsh is the shunt
resistance (Ω); a is the modified ideal factor; n is the diode ideal factor; k
To use the 5-parameter model, it is necessary to calculate five pa­
rameters in Eq. (20) which are: Iph , Io , Rs , Rsh , and a. The calculation
equation of the five parameters mentioned above in standard test con­
ditions (STC, 1000 W/m2 solar irradiance, 25 ◦ C PV cell temperature) is
shown in Eq. (21) to Eq. (25) [28].
Iph = Isc (1 + Rs / Rsh ) (21)
( / )/
Io = Iph − Voc Rsh [exp(Voc / a) − 1] (22)
(18)
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X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

Fig. 7. (a) Photo of the solar simulator; (b) the small piece of CIGS cell.

Fig. 8. (a) Shade the single cell along the length; (b) Shade the single cell along the width.

Fig. 9. Maximum power output by the PV cell under the different shaded area.

⎧ ( )[ ] ⎫
⎪
⎪ dV dV dV ( ) ⎪ where Isc is the short circuit current(A); Voc is the open circuit voltage
⎪
⎪ Vmpp | − | | Isc − Impp + Vmpp − ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ dI I=0 dI V=0 dI V=0 ⎬ (V); dV
dI |I=0 is the slope of the I–V curve at the open circuit point at STC;
Rs = ( )( ) dV
⎪
⎪
⎪ dV dV dV ⎪
⎪
⎪ is the slope of the I–V curve at the short circuit point at STC. Vmpp
dI |V=0
⎪ |I=0 | Impp + Vmpp | Isc + Voc ⎪
⎩ dt dI V=0 dI V=0 ⎭ and Impp are the voltage and current at maximum power point (MPP) at
⎧ ( )[ ] ⎫ (23) STC. These parameters above are generally accessible from PV cell
/⎪
⎪ ( )
⎪ Impp dV |I=0 − dV |V=0 dV |V=0 Isc − Impp + Vmpp + ⎪
⎪
⎪ manufacturers.
⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
dI dI dI The above calculation related to the five parameters is under STC.
( )( )
⎪ dV
⎪ dV ⎪
⎪ For the actual working conditions, the five parameters should be con­
⎪ ⎪
⎩ dI |V=0 Impp + Vmpp
⎪ | Isc + Voc
dl V=0
⎪
⎭ verted from the value under STC to the value under actual working
conditions. The conversion formulas are from Eq. (26) to Eq. (30) as
dV follows [29]:
Rsh = − Rs − | (24)
dI V=0 G
Iph = Iph,STC [1 + KI (T − TSTC )] (26)
( )( )/( ) GSTC
dV dV dV dV
a= |I=0 + Rs |V=0 Isc + Voc |I=0 − |V=0 (25)
dI dI dI dI

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X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

Fig. 10. Equivalent circuit for a solar cell.

( )3 [ ( )]
T q Eg Eg
Io = Io,STC exp |STC − |T (27)
TSTC nk T T
( )[ ( )]
T G
Rs = Rs,STC 1 − В ln (28)
TSTC GSTC

GSTC
Rsh = Rsh,STC (29)
G

T
a = aSTC (30)
TSTC

where B = 0.217; KI is the temperature coefficient of the short circuit

current, KI = 0.0003/◦ C ; Eg is the band gap, Eg = Eg,ref (1 −
0.0002677(T − TSTC )); G and T are the PV module’s solar radiation and
temperature at working conditions; GSTC and TSTC are the PV module’s
solar radiation and temperature at STC.
The Eq. (20) illustrates that the circuit’s current and voltage are
coupled together in the general mathematical model of PV cells. To
simply conduct the calculation process, the lambert W function is uti­
Fig. 11. Flow chart of the simulation models.
lized to turn the coupled equation into an explicit one [30] as:
( )
V = Rsh Iph + Io − I − IRs − aW(X) (31) 4. Experimental results and model validation

where To figure out the PV cells’ electrical performance with different

( (
Rsh Iph + Io − I
)) orientation and different connection methods, an experiment was con­
Io Rsh
X= exp (32) ducted from 10:00 to 15:00 on October 23rd, 2021. To compare the
a a
simulated results with the experimental data, root mean square devia­
The lambert W function could also turn the coupled equation into an tion (RMSD) is employed to evaluate the deviation between the simu­
explicit equation about I as follows: lated results and experimental results and is defined as:
( ) √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Rsh Iph + Io − V a ∑( )2
I= − W(Y) (33) xsim − xexp
Rs + Rsh Rs RMSD = (37)
n
where
xsim and xexp represent the simulated and experimental data, respec­
( ( ))
Io Rsh Rs Rsh Rs Iph + Rs Io + V tively. According to the “ASHRAE Guideline 14”, when the numerical
Y= exp (34)
a(Rs + Rsh ) a(Rs + Rsh ) value of RMSD is less than 30%, the theoretical model could be regarded
as being validated by the experimental data [31].
3.3. Solving method Fig. 12 shows the horizontal global radiation, the horizontal diffuse
radiation, and the ambient temperature. It could be observed that
To study the electrical performance of a curved PV roof integrated throughout the experimental time, the solar radiation was relatively
with CIGS cells, with the input of the dimensions of the system, a radi­ stable in the morning and fluctuated a little in the afternoon. The
ation distribution model of the PV curved surface has been built to ambient temperature was relatively steady, varying between 20 ◦ C and
calculate the received radiation on the curved surface; based on the 5- 27 ◦ C.
parameter method, an electrical model of the CIGS cells on the curved Fig. 13 shows the experimental results of electrical power generated
surface has been built to simulate the electrical performance of the PV by Group A’s west side, Group A’s east side, Group B, and Group C.
cells. The central angle for each microfacet is chosen as 1◦ . The flow­ During the experimental period, the power generated by Group A’s east
chart of the solving procedure is shown in Fig. 11. The simulation is side decreased while the power generated by Group A’s west side kept
programmed based on MATLAB R2020b. increasing. This is because when the sun moved from east to west, the
solar radiation received by the east side decreased, and the solar radi­
ation received by the west side rose. Group B and Group C generated the
most power at 12:10. Around midday, Group B and Group C’s electrical
performance were similar because at that time, the solar radiation

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X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

the radiation distribution map signifies that in the afternoon, micro­

facets near the east side could not get much solar radiation while the
solar radiation reaching the west side was relatively higher. For the
lower right corner of the map, the relatively low radiation value means
that when the experiments just started, the solar radiation reaching the
microfacets close to the west direction was not as much as the radiation
reaching the microfacets close to the east direction.
Fig. 16 illustrates the real-time average solar radiation on the east
side and the west side of the curved surface. The value of the solar ra­
diation on the east side kept decreasing while the solar radiation on the
west side peaked in the afternoon. At 12:06, the difference between the
solar radiation on the west and the east side was 1.65 W/m2, signifying
the similar electrical performance of the east/west side of Group A as
well as the similar electrical performance of Group B and Group C at
noon. In the morning and afternoon, the difference in the average solar
radiation was relatively higher than at noon. Hence, the difference in the
electrical power output by the PV cells on the east side and the west side
was more significant in the morning and the afternoon.

Fig. 12. Ambient conditions on October 23rd, 2021.

5. Performance prediction and discussion

In the section, based on the theoretical model validated by the

experimental data, the electrical yield of the curved PV roof could be
predicted based on the electrical parameters of the CIGS cells utilized in
the study. Weather data of Hefei imported from EnergyPlus database is
used to finish the prediction. To investigate the influence of geometrical
parameters on the electrical output, the tilted angle of the bottom plate,
the central angle of the curved plate, and the space between the adjacent
curved plates are considered. The annual electrical yield by the PV roof
with cells in different connection methods is predicted, and a compari­
son of the flat and the curved PV roof is conducted.

5.1. Parametric analysis

In this section, meteorological data on July 22nd of TMY in Hefei is

used to conduct the parametric analysis on a daily basis, which is sig­
nificant for future systems’ geometrical design and performance
improvement. The horizontal global solar radiation, horizontal diffuse
radiation, and the ambient temperature are shown in Fig. 17.

5.1.1. The influence of the bottom plate’s tilted angle

For the construction of the curved roof, the curved plates are welded
Fig. 13. Experimental results of electrical power output by Group A, B, and C. on a whole flat bottom plate, and the tilted angle of the bottom plate
would influence the radiation intensity arriving the curved structure and
then influence the electrical performance of the PV system. To study
reaching the east/west side was similar, which led to the similar internal
how the tilted angle of the flat bottom roof affects the electrical per­
resistance and electrical performance of the east and the west side. From
formance, we simulate the electrical power generated by the PV cells on
10:00 to 15:00, Group A’s east side generated 63.24 Wh; Group A’s west
the east side and west side of the curved roof, as well as the tilted flat
side generated 82.87 Wh; Group A generated 146.11 Wh in total; Group
roof while the tilted angle changes from 10◦ to 90◦ at steps of 10◦ .
B generated 142.06 Wh, and Group C generated 123.70 Wh. Group A’s
The simulation result is shown in Fig. 18. With the increase of the
total power generation is close to Group B’s power generation. Group C
bottom flat plate’s tilted angle, the curved roof’s daily electrical yield
performed worst among all kinds of connection methods.
decreases, and the ratio of daily power output by the curved roof to that
Fig. 14 presents the comparison of electrical power generated by
by the tilted flat roof keeps improving. Clearly, from Fig. 18(b), the ratio
each Group among simulated and experimental data during the whole
changes from 0.90 to 1.33. When the angle is over 70◦ , the ratio is more
experimental period. The RMSD of the power generated by the PV cells
than 1. On this occasion, the curved surfaces generate more power all
on Group A’s west side is 9.97%; the RMSD of the power generated by
day than the flat surfaces do. When the tilted angle increases from 10◦ to
the PV cells on Group A’s east side is 18.79%; the RMSD of the power
90◦ , power generated by the flat roof drops from 1538.02 Wh to 329.07
generated by the PV cells of Group B is 11.31%; the RMSD of the power
Wh, which falls by 78.60%, while power generated by the curved surface
generated by the PV cells of Group C is 9.36%. The result shows that the
drops from 1389.69 Wh to 437.97 Wh, which falls by 68.48%. The angle
mathematical model built in the article could predict the electrical
of the bottom plate has less impact on the curved surface than on the flat
performance of curved PV cells well.
surface. Hence, by the investigation of the tilted angle of the flat bottom
The radiation distribution map in Fig. 15 could illustrate the
plate, the curved PV structure would have better performance than the
instantaneous radiation change on the curved surface more obviously.
flat PV structure when the tilted angle is relatively big.
The position angle is the angle between the studied microfacet and the
eastern edge of the curved surface. The bigger the position angle is, the
5.1.2. The influence of the curved roof’s curvature
west direction the studied microfacet is close to. The top left corner of
The curved surface of the roof system is designed as a part of the

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X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

Fig. 14. Simulated and experimental electrical power output by (a) Group A; (b) Group B; (c) Group C.

Fig. 15. Radiation distribution map of the curved surface.

Fig. 16. Average radiation on the east and the west side of the curved surface.

10
X. Tian et al.
Fig. 17. Ambient conditions on July 22nd, TMY in Hefei.
cylindrical surfaces whose central angle is 120◦ . In architectural design
and construction, the curvature of the curved surface is decided by the
actual application scenarios and design requirements. In the premise of
keeping the circular surface area constant, different central angles lead
to a different radius of curvature. In the simulation, the central angles
change from 60◦ to 180◦ at steps of 20◦ . The electrical power generated
by the PV cells on the curved surfaces with different curvatures is shown
in Fig. 19(a). All the curved plates are put on a flat bottom plate whose
tilted angle is 31◦ . When the central angle of the curved plate rises, the
power generated by the curved plates decreases. The smaller the central
angle of the curved plate is, the closer the power generated by the curved
plate is to that of the flat roof. According to Fig. 19(b), when the central
angle increases from 60◦ to 180◦ , power generated by the curved plates
decreases from 1386.97 Wh to 1108.79 Wh, falling by 20.06%. The daily
curved PV roof’s power output divided by the daily flat PV roof’s power
output of different central angles falls from 0.98 to 0.79. In the con­
struction of the curved PV roof, besides the aesthetic demands, the de­
signers should consider the influence of the curvature of the curves on
the electricity generation.
5.1.3. The influence of the space between the adjacent curved plates
To combine the curved PV plates with the flat bottom plate, in the
Fig. 18. (a) Daily electrical power output with different tilted angles; (b) daily curved surface’s power output divided by the daily flat surface’s power output of
different tilted angles.
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Energy 263 (2023) 125911
establishment of the test rig, we used laser-welding technology to weld
the curved aluminum plates on the bottom plates and set the same space
for the neighboring curved plates. The size of the space would influence
the usage area of the pitched rooftop. Moreover, the adjacent curved
plates are set in parallel, which leads to the possibility of an inner beam
shadow.
Take the curved cylindrical surface whose central angle is 120◦ as an
example. The radius of the curved surface is 0.115 m. The bottom plate
has a tilted angle of 31◦ . The space between the adjacent curved plates is
set as 0.05 m, 0.10 m, 0.15 m, and 0.20 m. As shown in Fig. 20, the two
colors on the map represent the real-time situations of the microfacets.
For all spaces, the inner beam shadow phenomenon appears near sunrise
and sunset, and the length of time when the roof has the inner beam
shadow would vary when the space changes. The blue area means at that
time the microfacet is under the beam shadow cast by the adjacent
plates; the red area means the microfacet is not shaded. It could be
observed that with the space change, the blue area changes accordingly.
For the space of 0.05 m, 0.10 m, 0.15 m, and 0.20 m, in the morning, the
beam shadow completely disappears at 7:33, 7:06, 6:54, and 6:45; in the
afternoon, the beam shadow firstly appears at 16:21, 16:51, 17:06, and
17:21. When the space becomes bigger, the adjacent plates have less
influence on each other, when the space increases from 0.05 m to 0.10
m, the length of beam shadow time reduces by 55 min. When the space
increases from 0.15 m to 0.20 m, the length of beam shadow time re­
duces by 24 min. With the space changing from 0.05 m to 0.20 m, the
length of the time that the roof is under the inner beam shadow de­
creases by 132 min. Hence, the space increase would be more effective
when the space is relatively small. For the design and construction of the
curved PV roof, it is vital for the designer to determine the proper space
to balance the beam shadow effect and the usage area of the tilted
rooftop.
5.2. Annual performance prediction
For a roof integrated with PV modules, it is vital to investigate the
electrical performance of the system on a yearly basis. Fig. 21 presents
the TMY weather condition of the Hefei, Anhui Province, China, im­
ported from EnergyPlus database. Throughout the year, the horizontal
solar radiation is more intensive in summer and slightly lower in winter.
The electrical yield by the roof system is collected from 7:00 to 18:00
every day throughout the TMY.
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

Fig. 19. (a) Daily electrical yield by the curved surface and the tilted flat surface with different central angles; (b) daily curved surface’s power output divided by the
daily flat surface’s power output of different central angles.

Fig. 20. Beam shadow distribution on the curved surface from 6: 00 to 18:00. The space of the adjacent channels is (a) 0.05 m; (b) 0.10 m; (c) 0.15 m; (d) 0.20 m.

5.2.1. Performance prediction of PV roof in different connection methods CIGS cells, the east side of the CIGS cells, all the west and the east side of
For the prediction of the whole system, the eight curved plates all the CIGS cells in parallel, and all the east and the west side of the CIGS
would be pasted with flexible PV cells. Fig. 22 presents the simulation cells in series. Throughout the TMY, the west side of the CIGS cells
results of the monthly electrical power generation of the west side of the generate 155.18 kWh; the east side of the CIGS cells generate 121.83

12
X. Tian et al. Energy 263 (2023) 125911

Fig. 23. Monthly electrical power output by the CIGS cells connected in par­
allel on the curved surface and the CIGS cells on the flat surface in Hefei.
Fig. 21. Annual solar radiation and ambient temperature in Hefei.

Table 3
Comparison of the flat PV system and the curved PV system.
Subject Flat PV system Curved PV system

Radiation Usually, the radiation on the
distribution flat PV system is even.
Electrical Flat PV roof performs better in
performance electricity generation.
Application The application of the flat PV
scenario system is widespread but does
not include the combination
with curved surfaces.
Due to the unique shape, the
radiation on the curved surface
is inhomogeneous.
The curved PV system begins to
show priority when the tilted
angle is relatively big.
The curved PV system could be
combined with the architecture
with a strong sense of design.

connected in parallel on the curved plate generate 275.96 kWh, which is

Fig. 22. Monthly electrical power output by the PV cells on the curved surfaces
in Hefei.
kWh; all the east and the west side of the CIGS cells in parallel generate
275.96 kWh; all the east and the west side of the CIGS cells in series
generate 232.66 kWh. For all the connection methods, the best electrical
performance appears in August. From the annual analysis, the west side
of CIGS cells generates 21.49% more electrical power than the east side
of the CIGS cells. The parallel connection method generates 15.69%
more electrical power than the series connection method does.
5.2.2. Comparison of the curved and the flat PV roof
The curved PV roof has a unique design, and it is meaningful to
numerically compare the curved PV roof with the common flat-type PV
roof. In the simulation, the flat PV roof is integrated with CIGS cells
whose area and electrical characteristics are the same as the curved-type
PV roof. The flat PV roof has a tilted angle of 31◦ , facing due South. The
simulated result is shown in Fig. 23. It could be observed that
throughout the year, the flat-type PV roof performs better than the
curved-type roof does in electricity generation every month. The PV
cells on the flat plate generate 298.04 kWh annually, while the PV cells
7.41% less than the PV cells on the flat plate does. Although the curved
PV roof does not show priority in electricity generation, the Ecurved /Eflat is
relatively high in summer, which means in summer, the electrical per­
formance of the curved and the flat PV roof is relatively close to each
other. In winter, the curved PV roof starts to show a larger disadvantage,
but considering at that time the solar irradiance is not as intensive as
that in summer, the influence of the power decrease would be limited.
Table 3 presents a brief comparison of the flat type and the curved type
PV system. Although the curved type PV system is a novel design that
might not be as popular as the flat type PV system is, the unique shape
would have the specified application scenarios.
6. Conclusion
To meet various design requirements and explore novel structures of
the BIPV, in this paper, the electrical performance of a curved roof
covered with flexible CIGS cells is investigated in depth. The radiation
distribution on the curved surface and the electrical output by the
curved cells could be calculated by the theoretical model established in
the article. A test rig was built, and electrical yield by the curved cells in
different connection methods was recorded. Geometrical parameters
related to the curved PV roof design are analyzed. Based on the weather
data of the typical meteorological year (TMY) in Hefei, Anhui Province,
China, the annual electrical performance of the curved/flat PV roof is
predicted. The main conclusions are as follows:
(1) For the CIGS cells pasted on the curved surface, the PV cells on
the west side of the curved surfaces perform better in power

13
X. Tian et al.
generation than the PV cells on the east side do; the PV cells
connected in parallel generate more electricity than the PV cells
connected in series do;
(2) The tilted angle of the bottom flat plate influences the radiation
received by the curved surface, causing a change in the electrical
performance. On the July 22nd of TMY in Hefei, according to the
simulation results, for the curved surface whose central angle is
120◦ , when the tilted angle is more than 70◦ , the curved surface
receives the same radiation as the tilted flat surface does. Further,
when the tilted angle gets bigger, the curved PV roof generates
more electricity than the flat PV roof does;
(3) The curvature of the curved surface plays a role in electrical
performance. A set of curved surfaces is considered with different
central angles. The result shows that the bigger the central angle
is, the worse the electrical performance is; the daily curved sur­
face’s power output divided by the daily flat surface’s power
output of different tilted angles falls from 0.98 to 0.79 with the
central angle changing from 60◦ to 180◦ ;
(4) The impact of the beam shadow cast by the adjacent curved
surfaces is discussed. When the space between curved surfaces
increases, the impact becomes weaker. Four situations of beam
shadow distribution are simulated (different spaces of 0.05 m,
0.10 m, 0.15 m, and 0.20 m). When the space increases from 0.05
m to 0.20 m, the length of the time that the roof is under inner
beam shadow decreases by 132 min;
(5) Throughout the TMY, in Hefei, for the whole curved PV roof, the
west side of the CIGS cells generates 155.18 kWh; the east side of
the CIGS cells generate 121.83 kWh; all the east and the west side
of the CIGS cells in parallel generate 275.96 kWh; all the east and
the west side of the CIGS cells in series generate 232.66 kWh
while the flat PV roof generates 298.04 kWh.
This system combines the BIPV technology and the design elements
of China’s regional architecture— Hui-style architecture. With the
application of CIGS thin-film cells, the PV roof can be designed in any
shape that matches users’ demands. Electrical performance and the
method of parametric optimization are discussed in this paper, laying a
foundation for future study and application of the curved PV roof.
Credit author statement
Xinyi Tian: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Soft­
ware, Writing – original draft; Jun Wang: Conceptualization, Investi­
gation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – review & editing;
Shuang Yuan: Investigation, Formal analysis; Jie Ji: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition; Wei Ke:
Investigation, Formal analysis; Chuyao Wang: Writing – review &
editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
This research is supported by the National Natural Science
14
Energy 263 (2023) 125911
Foundation of China (No.52238004) and Anhui Provincial Major Sci­
ence and Technology Project (202203a07020021).
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