Section 3: Work, Energy and Power Section 2: Waves

1. Work and Power 101 1. Progressive Wave.~ 186

2. Kine-lie Energy and 2. Frequency, Speed and Intensity 190
Gravitational Po1ential Energy 105 J. Electromagnetic Waves 194
3. Conservation of Energy 107 4. Polarisation 196
Exam-style Questions 112 5. Reflection and Refraction 199
Introduction Module 2 6. Refractive Index and
Section 4: Materials T00tl lncernal Reflection 202
1--low 10 use this book Foundations of Physics 1. J-looke's law 1 13 7. Superposition and lntederence 207
I. Quantities and Units 30 2. elastic and Plastic Defonnation 1 18 8. Diffraction 211
2. Making Estimates 34 3. Stress and Slrain 122 9. Two-Source Interference 213
3. Errors and Uncertainties 36 4. lhe Young Modulus 124 10. Young's Doublc..'-Slil Experiment 216

How Science Wor1<s II 4. Graphical Representations of Unccnainties

5. Scalars and Vectoo;
Ex.tm-style Questioos
39
41
47
5. Stress-Strain Graphs
Exam-style Questions
127
133
11. Diffraction Gratings
12. Stationary Waves
Exam-style Questions
220
223
229
The Scieniific Process
Section 5: Newton' s Laws of Motion
and Momentum Section 3: Quantum Physics
1. Newton's Laws of Motion 135 1. The Photon Model 232
2. Momentum 138 2. The Planck ConstanL 234
Module3 J. Impulse and Vehicle Safety 142 J. The Photoelectric Effect 237
Module 1 4. Wave-IMide Duality 24 1
Exam.style Questioos 147
Section 1: Motion Exam-style Questions 246
Development of Pracllcal Skllls t. Consrant Acceleration 48
I. Planning an Expcrimen1 5
2. Acceleration Due To Gravity 50
2. Rl!Cording and Processing Da1a 9 3. Projectile Mocion 53
3. Presenting Results 11
4. Displacemem-lime Graphs 55 Module4
4. Analysing Results 13 5. Velocity-lime Graphs 60 Module 5
5. Evaluating and
6. ln\!estigating MOfion 66 Section 1: Electrlclly
Drawing Conclusions 16
7. Slopping Dislances 70 1. Circuit Diagrams 149 Section 1: Thermal Physics
Exam-style Questions 22
Exam-style Questioos 73 2. Current 150 1. rhases of Matter and Temperature 248
3. Potential Difference 153 2. Thermal Propenies of Ma1crials 252
Section 2 : Forces In Action 4. Resistance and Resistivil'y 155 3. The Gas Laws 257
I .•vtass, \.Vcight and Force Basics 76 5. Types of Conductor 159 4. The Ideal Gas equation 262
- 2. Not forces 79 6. 1-V Characteristics 162 5. The Pressure of an Ideal Gas 264
Practical Skills 6. lntornal Cnorgy of an Ideal Gas
3. Equilibrium 82 7. Power and Eleclrical Energy 165 267
Practical Skllls for the 4. Momenls and Torques 85 8. Domcslic EJecuicity 168 Exam.style Questions 271
Practical Endorsement 5. Drag and Terminal Velocity 90 9. E.mJ. and Internal Resistance 170
I. General Practical Skills 23 6. Density, Pressure and Upthrust 94 10. Consecvation or Energy
2. fUo.'Cping Scientific Records Exam..tyle Questions 98 and Charge in C:ircuirs 175
26
11. The Potential Dfvider 179
3. Practical Activity Groups 28
Exam-style Questions 183
Section 2: Circular Motion and Section 2: Electrlc Fields Maths Skills
Osclllatlons 1. Cloclric llclds 368
I. Orcul.ilr Motion 273 2. Unifonn Clooric n.,lds 372 I Cllculations 471
2. Cmoripcul Fon:e and M:ook>rnoion 276 3. El«lric 1"4Mllal 374 2. Afgd>ra 476
J. Simple! f larmonic Motion 280 4. ComP"ring I i<'ct1ic 3.Graphs 478
4. C:.1lculations \Vith SMM 284 and Cr:wl1a1ional riclds 377 4. 1xponcntiaf and log Graphs 483
5. lnvt_'SliJ;.11ing 5HM 287 Exam-slyle Qu.,lions 379 5. Gl'OOlClry and Trigonomcory 485
6. Jrro and l"Orccd Oscillations 290
fxam.. tyle Questions 295 Section 3: Electromagnetlsm
I. MagllC'llC I IC'lds 381
section 3: Gravitational Fields 2. Magnc<lc 1lux Densily 384
1. Gr:Ml3llonal FK!kls 297 3. r«a>s on Ch.vJ:<'d r.uticlcs 389 Exam Help
2. Gravil31JOnal Ficld Sm!ngth JOO 4. M:tgn<lic I lux •nd Flux linkage 394
rlClm Structure and Technique! 489
3. Gr:av1l3l100.1l PIJlmtial and Cnorgy 303 5. Farad:!)"$ I aw •nd lmz's law 398
4. Molion ol Masses in Gravi1a1ional ll<'lds l08 6. Uses ol I i«:tromagnctic Induction 403
fxam.. tyle Questions 313 fxam-slyle Qu.. tions 409

section 4: Astrophysics Section 4: Nuclear and Particle Reference

and Cosmology Physics
I . 1l1C' Sola1 System 315 I. Alomic Structure 411 492
2. l\Slronomical Distances 317 2. 100 Nuclros 415 """"""
Glossary 550
3. Slcll3t Cvo1ution 320 3. r.uticl<s •nd An11p;111idcs 419 Ad<nowlcdgcmmts 562
4. Srcllar 1Qdia1ion and Luminosity 324 4. Quatlcs and Anli.quor1cs 424 lnd<>x 564
5. Stellar Spcclra 328 5. Radiooctlvt! °"°Y 427 0313 T:iblcs 572
6. 1l1C' Big llong Thco<y 333 6. Nucl<'31 J)J>ciy Cqualions 431
7. lhc• I voluoion of 1he Universe 338 7. Cxpoll<'llllal i aw of Decay 433
fxam.. tyle Questions 343 8. Malf-llr~ ond RJd1oactiV4> Oaling 437
9. i!indlng I ""'BY 442
10. Nuc~ar I ission and rusion 445
11. llsslon R~""'°" 449
Wm-style Que<lions 4SJ
Module&
Section s: Medical Imaging
Section 1: Capacitors I. X-rny imag1111 456
I. C:>pacilO<S 346 2. Mcdicil ll«'S or Nuclca1 Radiation 460
2. C:1pacitors in CircuilS 351 3. Mcdic-'ll USC" or Ultrasound 463
J. ln\<t_'Slii;.11ing Charging and Exam-style Qu.,lions 469
l)isc.hnrging Capacitors 356
4. Chorging and Discharging C.lculaolons 360
wm..tyle Questions 366
 ., 'mu nood 10 know abou1 t low Sclonco
Works. There's a sedi<>n on it at the
fronl of the book.
l
How Science Works is also (@HOW
Learning Objectives COV<!ft!d throughout lhc ~~
These tell )'W ClOldly whal you """'110
learn, or be obk> 10 do, lor tho clQm. :.!- this ' °""""""'
bookS)mboi. )'W """ ~-
5-;
llll're's a spccifoc;itoon R'fe<rocc "' 11><>
bollom Iha! links IO the OClt A lpC'Ciflci1lon. ----
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Annoyingly, the c...mi,..,,. CXpccl you 10
Tips and Exam Tips be able IO apply }'JU' knowlcq;c 10 new

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1hore ""'lips lhroughoul siluations - lhcsc qu<'51ions •re heft' 10
the boolc 10 help with •II ~... )'W plcnly ol pr.IC1IC<! •I doing this.
SOr1S ol thor.is. including
exam 11ps so do '""h
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boolc (including any calcula1lon woric.mgs~
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Maths Skllls
There's. ransc o( maths skills you could bc
cxpceled 10 •pply in your exams. txampk>s
thal show these malhs skills in aetion ::i~
marlced up like this. There's also a ma1hs
skills scelion a11hc back ol 1h<• boolc.
_..._.__
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
.....:-:.:;-...:.=--- - ..- llll'rc art! a IOI of facts you need 10
' learn - lhcsc questions arc he~
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·-----...__
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___..___""""__,..., along with a m.ioic schm1c 10 show you how
you got lhc m.>rks. -------.......--....- ·-
Practical Activity Groups
'°1'11 nood 10 show you've - 0 0

·-
some key practical skills in your Practical Exam Help
fnclors<menL lnfonnatlon on the ski11s
Thr<\''s. SC'Clion"' lh<> bxlc ol 1he boolc ...._....,..____
--~

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yw nood and opponunilies to apply
-··
-~ 1hroo are maolced 14' 1hroughoul the book. stuff<'d lull ol 1hlngs to help wi1h your exams. •

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~ -·-' ~

IM
Published by CGI'
Editors:
Keith Blackhall, Ellen Burton, Eleanor Crabtree, Mary Falkner, Emily Forsberg. Rob Hayman,
Sharon Keeley-Holden, Camilla Sheridan and George Wright
Contributors:
Tony Aldridge, Jane Canwright, Peter Cecil, Mark Edwards, Barbara Mascetti, John Myers, Zoe Nye, The Scientific Process
Moira Steven and Andy Williams.
Science rries to explain how and why ihings happen. /i's all abour gaining
kno~vledge about Lhe lvorld. Scienrists do this by asking quest.ions, suggesting
annvers and I.hen doing tests to see if rhe(re correct - lhc scienlific process.

Developing and testing theories

A theory is a possible explanation for something. Theories usually come
aboul when scientists observe something a nd wonder why or how il happens.
Tip: A theory is only
Scientists also sometimes form a model too - a simplified picture or scientific if il can be
representation of a real physical situation. Scientific theories and models are tested.
developed and tested in the follow·ing way:
Ask a question - make an observation and ask why or how wbatcvcr
you've observed happens.
Tip: The results of one
SuggesLan anS\ver, or par1 of an anS\ver, by forming a theory or a model. tesl can't~ that a
Make a prediction o r hypothesis - a specific Lestable statemenL, based theory is true - they
on the theory, about what will happen in a test situation. can only~ that il's
Carry out Lests - to provide evidence thal \1\'ill support the hypothesis or true. They can however
refute it (help to disprove it). disprove a thoory-
show that it's wrong.
Example
Question: What slops beta radiation?
Theory: Beta radiation will be stopped by a S mm thick sheet of aluminium.
Hypothesis: If bela radiation is stopped by a S mm thick sheet of aluminium
a Geiger-MUiier tube and counlcr will not detect radiation from a beta
source if the aluminium sheel is placed between the source and I.he mbe.
Test: Measure the background radiation count rate using the Geiger-MUiier
Lube and counter without a source present. Then, place a beLa-emiHing
source in front of the tube. Record 1he ne\v count ra1e. Then, place a S mm f' Hl l.QIO'f ,llf'l.
Lhick sheet of aluminium between the source and the tube and once more TI\ /\ N S /\ C: TI 0 N $•
record the counl rate. If Lhc count rate has dropped to a level similar ........ 101111 1

to the background count rate, then Lhe beta radiation emitted by the A CC OMP 1
source has been absorbed by the aluminium sheet, and this evidence
supports the hypothesis.
..................
•• ' • I 't.11 t II'
~

With thanks to Emma Clayton and Sarah Williams for the proofreading. 0, f Ill

With thanks to Jan Greenway for the copyright research. .......

t N OE N I OUS

PRAT872 - 062 1 -22807 Communicating results

'

WORLD-
"' ...
• O~HOI IAILll ' " " r1

The res.ulLS oi tes!ing a scientific theory are published - scientis-ls need to

Clipart from Core!•

let others kno\v about their work. ScienLists publish their results in scientific
journals. These arc just like normal magazines, only they contain sciemific
'"
F. ,,_ .......~ .....

reports (called papers) that use scientific terminology, instead of the latest
Text, design, layout and original illustrations e Coordination Group l'ublications Ltd. (CGl'l 2020 celebrity gossip.
Rgure 1: 11te first
All rights reserved. Scienlific rcporis are similar to Lhc lab write-ups you do in school. British sdcntific journal,
And just as a lab wrilc-up is reviewed {marked} by your teacher, repons in 'Philosophical Transactions
scientific journals undergo peer review before they're published. The repon is of rile Royal Society;
sent out to peers - other scientists who are t'..xpens in the same area. publi51H!d in 1665.
08001712 712 • WWW.C!J>boolcs.co.uk

How Science Works


Tip: Scientific rcsea.rdl
is often funded by
c:ompanic.-s wflo have
a: vested interest in iis
OUIComes. Scicmists
are ethically obliged 10
1113f<e sure that this doos
~s their rcsuhs.
I scrutinised by other scientists helps to reduce the effect of personal bias (either
The other scienlists go through it bit by bit, examining lhe methods
and data, and checking i~s all clear and logical. Thorough evaluation allows
decisions to be made aboul what makes a good methodology or experimental
technique. Individual scientists may have their own elhical codes (basc.->d
on their humanistic, moral and religious beliefs), bul having their work
delibera te or accidental) on the conclusions drawn from the results.
When the report is approved, it's pub lished. This makc'S sure that
work pub lished in scientific journals is or a good standard. But peer review
can't guara ntee the science is correct - other scientists still need to reproduce
it. Sometimes mistakes are made a nd bad work is published. Peer review
isn't perfect but itS probably lhe besl \Vay (or scientists lo self-regulate their
work and 10 pub lish quality reporlS.
Example ------------~
The structure of the al·o m
It took years and years for the c urrent model of the a tom to be developed
a nd accepted.
Dalton's theory in lhc early 1800s, that aloms were solid spheres, was
d isputed by the results of Thomson's experiments a t the e nd of that century.
As a result. Thomson developed the 'plum pudding' model of the atom,
Tip: See p.41 I for
on the clcwlopmem ol
moj
which was later proven wrong by Rutherford's alpha-scattering experiments the model of the a tom.
in the early 1900s. Rutherford's 'nuclear model' has since been developed
a nd modified further to create the c urrently accepted model of the atom we
use today - but scientists are still searching (or n1ore accurate models.

Validating theories Collecting evidence

Tip: Once an
e:xperimcmal method
is found 10 give good
evidence i1 beromes a
p,aj!llgll - an accepted
nwthod to 1es1 that
panicular thing th.a1all
scicmists can use.
Tip: Sometimes data
from one experimem
can be Lhe staning
poinl for developing a
ncwthoory.
Other scien1ists read Lhe pub lished theories and results, and try lo test the
theory themselves in order to validate it (back it up). This involves:
Repeating the exact same experiments.
Using the theory to make new predictions and then resting them with neo.v
experiments.
Examples
In 1989, two scientists claimed that they'd produced 'cold fusion' (the
energy source of the Sun but \vithout the high temperatures). If iL was
true, it would have meant cheap energy for the world forever. However,
other scientists juSl couldn't reproduce the resullS, so the theory of 'cold
fusion' couldn't be validated.
In the 1960s it was proposed that panicles like protons were made up
of smaller panicles called quarlcs - the quarlc model (p.424). After
this, many experiments were conducted Lhat supported this idea, and so
validated the quark model.
How do theories evolve?
If multiple cxperimenLS show a theory to be incorrect then scien1ists eilher
have co modify the 1hcory or develop a ne\v one, and start the testing again.
If all the experiments in all the world provide good evidence to back a theory
up, the theory is thought of as scientific 'fact' (for now) - sec Figure 2.
But it will never become totally indisputable fact. Scientific breakthroughs
or advances could provide new ways to question and test lhe theory,
which could lead to new evide nce that connicts with the c urrent evidence.
The n the testing s1ans all over again ... And this, my friend, is the tentative
nalure of scientific knowledge - it's always changing a nd evolving.
Communica1e _ . , Validate the rr;::;;-J
the results theory 1-E~v;den~.
-ce+!~
supports
;r
Evidence di.'ipf<M':S it
Rgure 2: Flow diagram summarising the sciemific proces.s.
1. Evidence from lab experiments
Results from controlled experimenls in laboratories are great. A lab is the Tip: Pages 23-29 aro
easiest place to contro l variables so thal they're all kept constant (except all about carrying out
for lhe one you're inves1igating). This means you can draw meaningful practicals..
conclusions.
Example
The pressure of a gas
I( you're investigating how the volume of a gas affects its pressure, you
need to keep all other factors constant. This means controlling things like
[ the temperature or the gas. O therwise there's no way of knowing that the
volume change is what is causing the pressure to change.
2. Investigations outside the lab
There a re things you can't study in a la b. And outside the lab, controlling the
variables is tricky, if not impossible.
Example
Does living near power lines increase the risk of
developing certain cancers?
You could c.'Ompare the number of cancer cases in a group of people who
live near power Jines to a group of people who don'l. But there are a hvays
d ifferences be1ween groups of people. The best you can do is 10 have a
well-designed study using matdled groups - choose two groups of people
(those who live near power lines and those who don'I.) that arc as similar as
possible (same mix or ages, same mix of diets etc.). But yoo still can'I rule Rgure 3: Studies are
oul every possibility. ongoing to determine ii there
is a link bef\.\1?en proximity
to power lines and the risk of
cancer.
Science and decision making
Scientific knowledge is used by society (that's you, me and everyone else}
Lo make decisions - about I.he way we live, whaLwe eal, what we drive,
etc. All sections of society use scientific evidence 10 ma ke decisions, e.g.
politicians use il 10 devise policies and individuals use science to make
decisions about lheir own lives.

•E"•I How Science Works How Scie nce Works A

 Tip: llon'1 gco mixed up
- it's not lhc scicmiscs
who make the dedsions,.
il's society. SciemiS1S
just produce evidence
to help society make Lhc
decisions.
Tip: Poople's percoptioo
of risk also affects how
they make decisions.
For example, people
may underestimate Lhc
risk o f things with
long-1erm harmful
effocis that aren't
immediately seen.
Tip: economic factoo
just mean anything 10
do with money, and
social raaors ju~1 mean
anything 10 do with
people.
Rgure 4: ~Vind farms arc
'°
often built at sea reduce
rite impact on people.
+ .+ HowScienceWorks
Example - - - - - - - - -- - - -
X-rays a re used in dentist!)' to see images of lhe Leeth inside the human
body. They're used 10 monilor denial heallh, including s<!eing when adulL
Module 1
leeth or wisdom teeth are coming lhrough.
However, science has found a link between exposure to X-rays and
increased risk of cancer. To minimise this risk, there are restrictions on
when X-ray images of a patient's mouth can be taken (e.g. not during
1. Planning an Experiment Leaming Objectives:
• Know l\O\v lO
pregnancy}, a nd how often. As a result, patients don't tend to have X-ray You have ro do practical 1.vork in class as pan of your course. You~IJ be asked design expe:rimcms,
images laken as part of their standard check-ups, unless there is a strong ;:ibouc it in exams too, so you nec."Cl to knavv how to plan lhe perfect experiment. includ ing how to
medical reason to do so. solve problems set in
Designing an experiment
Before you srart planning an experimen~ you need
l~11] @""".
- @
a practical con1ruct.
• Be ablo 10 identify
variables Lhat must
Lo be clear about what you're 1rying to find out. You mighL be asked be controlled, where
Factors affecting decision making Lo design a physics experiment to investigate something or answer appropria1e.
The scientific evidence we have can be overshadowed by other influences a question. h could be a lab experimenl that you've seen be{ore, or
• Be able to select
sudl as personal bias and beliefs, public opinion, and the media. somelhing applied, like deeiding which building material is bes! for a appropriate units for
particular job. Either way, you'll be able 10 use the physics you know measurements.
Economic factors from your course and the skills in this topic to figure out the best way to • Know how 10 use
Society has to consider the cost of implementing dlanges based on scientific in11CS1iga1e the problem. a wide range of
conclusions. Sometimes it decides the cost outweighs the benefilS. practical apparatus
and techniques
Example
Building new po\ver plants thal use renewable energy resources helps
Planning experiments correctly.
Planning an experiment properly helps to make your resullS valid, • Be able to evaluate
o reduce our contribu1ion to global warming but it costs money. whethf'..r an
accurale and precise (see p.18}. There's plenty o{ info on the next few
Sometimes the c~ of building a new plant is just too much for the experimental method
pages, but here's a summary of how you go about it...
[ government to justify it, especially when government money could be Make a prediction Of hypothesis - you need to come up with an
is appropriate to
put to more immediate use in, for example, the NHS Of schools. meet 1heexpcaoo
idea (or quescion) based on a 1heory. This is what you'll be trying OUIC0111ClS.
to prove (or aoS\ver) wilh an experiment. Specification
Social factors Think about the aims of the experime nt and identify the References 1.1.1
Decisions affect people's lives - sometimes people don't want to {ollow independent, dependenl and control variables (see below). and 1.1.2
advice, or a re slrongly against some recommendations.
Select appropriate equipme nl (see page 7) that
Examples will give you accurate and precise result.Ii.
Exposure 10 UV radiation from tanning beds can lead to cancer. Tip: There's loo more
Do a risk assessment and plan any safely precautions (sec pages 8, 24
Scientists recommend that people don't use tanning beds, but shouldn't and 25). aboul how hypoohescs
are created and the
we be able to choose whether we \Vant to use them or not? Decide whal data 10 collect and how you'll do ii (p.9). scientific process in
People may no1 want new wind farms to be buih in certain locations, Write out a dear and detailed melhod - it should be clear enough How Science \"larks on
as they believe that the turbines spoil the view. that anyone could follow it a nd repeat your experiment exactly. pages1-4.
Carry out tests - to provide evidence that will
Environmental factors suppon the prediction or refute il .
Some scientific research and breakthroughs might affect the environment.
Not everyone thinks the benefits are wonh Lhe possible environmental damage. Variables
Example - - You probably know this all off by heart but il's easy 10 gel mixed up
Hydroelectricity requires the building of a danl. This often destroys the sometimes. So here's a quick recap.
habitats of p lants and animals, so many think that other renewable e nergy A variable is a quantity that has the potential to change, e.g. mass.
resources should be used instead. There are two types or variable commonly referred to in experime nts:
Tip: Time is alwavs an
indcpcndem variable.
Independent variable - the thing lhat you change in an experinlcnL
Dependent variable - the thing that you measure in an experiment.
Module 1 Development of Practical Skills

Tip: For more on
potemiometers see
page 180.
J supplied ro the filament
Figure 2: The filament in a
bulb is designed "'lleiit up,
so it should be alkM1ed to
cool in between repeats to
m.ake the experiment a fair
lP.St.
MW Module 1 Development of Practical Skills
Example - - - - - - - - - - - Think about the range you plan on taking measuremenlS over too
- e.g. if you're measuring the effect of increasing the force on a spring. you
You could investigate the effect of var)'ing the po1ential difference across a need to know whe ther you should increase the rorce in steps of 1 newton,
filame nt lamp on the c urrent nowing through it using the circuit shown in 10 newtons or 100 newtons. Sometimes, you'll be able to estimate what
Figure 1 below:
effect changing your independent variable will have, or some times a pilot
futen1iometer - to altei experiment migh1 help. In a pil<>' experiment. the apparatus is set up as ii will
Po.vet supply. be used in the actual experimcnl. and lhe independenl variable is varied 10
the potential diFTClence
lamp fr00> O V"' the
source voltage, V.-
see (roughly) how much the dependent variable changes.
Example - - - - - -
Voltmeter - to measure Tip: There's more on
A student is investigating the extension of a tesLwire using the apparatus
the potential differCfftCe. in Figure 3. She \Viii add weights to the wire and measure ilS extension using this apparatus on
page t24.
Rgure 1: Grcuil diagram for measuring the current flowing J.hrough a filament lamp. using 1he ma rker and the ruler.
The independent variable will be the potential difference supplied to Tip: The ex1ension
the lamp. being measured here
is very small, so you
The dependent variable will be the current flowing through the lamp. need a long piece al
wire for the change to
be noticeable. The wire
Apart from the independent a nd dependent variables, all other is too long to suspend
variables should stay the same during your experiment These a re knovv"n as vcnically from a clamp,
V.'t.>ig/JLo; which is why the pulley
control variables. If control variables a re not kepi the same, you can't tell
whe1her or not lhe independent variable is responsible for any changes in Rgure J: Experimental set-up for invesligating the exmnsion of a test wire. is more suitable her<!.
your dependent variable, so your results won't be valid (page 18). Control
variables that a re likely to c hange during your experiment should be measured She decides to do a pilot experime nl 10 decide on the incremenls in which
she should add wcighlS to the tesl wire. She is aiming to find out how Tip: Measuring a
to ched: that they are conslant throughout the e xperiment. distance Lhat is small
much weighL needs lo be added to cause the ma rker on the wire to move a
measurnble distance along 1he ruler that can be clearly recorded, bul 11~m't compared to the
Example cont. bring the wire close to Lhc po inl al which it will snap. resolulion of your
So for the circuil experiment above, the con1ro l variables include the length equipment will lead to a
high percentage error in
o f the connecling leads the filament bulb used and the lemperature of
1
your measurements -
the circuil wires. To keep lhe lemperature coostanL, you might use small Considering your measure ments before you start will also help you see page 1&.
[ potential d ifferences (and currents} to stop the circuit \Vires healing up choose Lhe most appropriate a pparatus and lt.'Chniques for the experiment
during the experiment, a nd allo\v lhe fila me nt to cool between repeats. You want 10 pick the a pparatus that will give )'OU the best resullS. Make sure
you know how to use all the instrunlents and equipment you've come across
in class and can carry oul all the lochn iques too.
Examples
Apparatus and techniques If you're measuring the length of a spring that you're app lying a force
Before you stan, make sure you're measuring things using a ppropria te to, you mighl need a ruler. If you're measuring the d iameter of a \Vire, Tip: Rcmember -
units. To choose the correct units, you need to Lhink aboul what scale your you'd be beucr off with some t:;illiper.;. pan o/ choosing your
measurements of 1he independent and depende nt variables are likely to be apparaLus and planning
If you're measuring a time inlerval, you could use a stopw.ndl. If fhe your technique will
on (e.g. millimetres or metres, milliseconds or hours) and how you're going to time is really short (for example if you're investigating accelera1ion due involve thinking about
analyse the results later. to gravity of an object as it fa lls to the Roor), you might need something safety precautions. This
n1ore sensitive, like light gates (see page 66). should all be covered in
Example your risk a:sscssmcru (see
If you're measuring time, ii might be beuer 10 use seconds rather than pages 8, 24 and 251.
minu1es - when you come to processing your results, i1'1l be easier 10 Make sure you perform al I techniques carefully and that any
work with a result of 73 seconds than a result of 1.217 minutes. a pparatus is set up correctly - this will help lo minimise e rrors whidl \vould
affect your results. E.g. if you're measuring a lenglh, make sure your eye is
level with lhe ruler when you take the measurement.
Module 1 Development of Practical Skills

Rgure 4: Goggles should
be used in most experiments
lo protea the C)f!S from JJJY
ma.ting oo;eru, snapping
wires, dremiC.Jls and olhet
dangeN.
Exam Tip
Examiners Jove
getting you to su~est
improvements to
me1hods - o.g. how
a method could bo
improved to make the
resuhs more precise, so
make sure you know
how to design a good
experiment
Tip: The light g;i10
is a suitable piece of
apparatus 10 use in
1his experiment as
it can measure the
instantaneous velocity
o hhc trollQy as it is
accelerating. This i:s
not possible w ith a
stopwatch.
M :M Module 1 Developmenl of Praclical Skills
Identifying risks
You'll be expecled 10 show that you can ide ntify a ny risks and
~ 2. Recording and Processing Data Learning Objectives:
hazards in a n experiment You'll need to take appropriate safely ~ Time lo find out haw lo record your dala correctl't and h<MI 10 do n1.1ths-y
• Be abl11 to record and
present observations
measures depending on the experiment. For example, for anything things wirh your data like calculating means. The fun doesn't end... a nd data in an
involving lasers you'll probably need 10 wear special laser goggles. appropria1e format.
Tables of data • Understand 1he terms
'qualitative results'
Evaluating experiment designs @--~~ You need to make a table to wr ite your res.ullS in. You should include:
Space for your independent variable and your dependenl variable. and ' quantitalive
If you need 10 evalualc an experin1en1design, whether it's your own ~ resullS'.
or someone else's, ~·ou need to think a bout the follo\ving things: You should specify the units in lhe headers, not within the rable itself.
• Beable: tousc
Does the experiment a<.iually 1-est what it sets out to test? Space to repea1 each measuremenl a1 least three 1imes to reduce random significant figures
error and make sure your final resuhs a re more precise (see p. 17), and lO appropriately.
Is the me(hod clear enough for someone else to follow? spot anomalous resuhs (p.1OJ.
• Be ablQ to process
Apart from the independenl and dependent variables, experimemal results.
Space for a ny results from daia processing you need to do, e.g. calculating
is everything else going to be properly controlled? the mean from repeats (see lhe next page), or calculating speed from • Be able: to USC
Are the apparatus a nd techniques appropria te for wha1's measure ments o f distance and time. {Your table shouldn't include your appropriaie
being measured? Will lhey be used correctly? workings, jus1 the results from your calculations.) mathematical skills to
Will the method give precise results? E.g. are repeat measure ments going Your table should have the independent variable in the firsi column, process quan1itative
data.
to be taken in order to calculate a mean value (see page 17)? a nd the dependent variable in the columns next to that. Any results from data
processing should be in the furthest right-hand column(s). Figure 1 is the sort • Be able to identify
ls lhe experiment going to be conduc1ed safely? aoomaJies in
o f table you mighl end up wilh when you invcstiga1e Lhe effect of potential
experimental
difference (p.d.) on current. mcas.u.rements.
Current I A Current / A Current / A Mean current Specification
Q 1 A studenl is investigaling how lhe angle o f a ramp, 8, affects lhe final l'.d./V Run 1 I A (to 3 s.f.J References 1.1.2
Run 2 Run 3 1.1.3and 1.1.4
velocity of a trolley as it Lravels 1 m down I.he ramp. He measures
0.0 0.000 0 .000 0.000 0.000
1he velocity at the bouom of the ramp using a Jighl gate. The s<udent
assumes the friction ading on the trolley is negligible. He se ts up the 1.0 0.104 0.105 0.102 0. 104
following apparatus: 2.0 0.150 0.15 1 0.149 0.150 Tip: You should
give all o f your dala
3 .0 0.188 0.187 0.1 87 0. 187
to the number o f
4.0 0.219 0 .220 0.1 93 0.220 decimal places that
you measured 10
Figure 1: Table of results showing the effect ofp.d. on curront through a resiswr.
- e.g. o.ooo A. no1
Most of the time, you' ll be recording numerical values, known as just OA
quanlitath»e data. Occasionally, you may have to deal with data that can
be observed but not measured with a nume rical value. This is known as
qualitative d,1ta (see Figure 2). It's still best to record lhis kind of dara in a
table to keep your results organised, bul the layout may be a liule different.
a) Name Lhe independent and dependent variables in this
investigation. Rounding to significant figures
b) Name o ne variable in this investigation that the student should When using your data in fu rther calculations you need 10 consider significant
keep lhe same. figures. The first significanLfigure of a number is the first d igit 1hat isn't a zero.
The second, third a nd fourth significant figures follo\v on immediately after the Figure 1: Measuring
first (even if they're zeros). how the diffracUon of
I frtNH3:1.-llt~fJU.l.Q iMl:t:i!P.111 water waves varies with
Q l Why is it important to ma ke sure the conlrol variables don't c hange
Exan1ple -i.•.tji$ "1fhd gap width will in'o'O/Ve
0 .6074976 rounds to 0.61 to 2 s.f. and 10 0.607 to 3 s.f. recording qualitative data.
during an experime nt?
Q2 State what is mcan1 by a pilot experiment, and exp lain why
lhey are used. When you're doing calculations using measurements given to a
certain number of significant figures, you should gfve your anS\ver to the
QJ Give Lhrce things that must be considered whe n evaluating an lowest number o f significa nl figures that was used in the calculation.
experimental me thod.
The lov..•est number of signffica nl figures in the calculalion is used
because the fewer digits a measurement has, the less accurate it is. Your answer
can only be as accurate as the least accurate measuremenl in Lhe calculation.
Module 1 Development of Practical Skills * ·M
 Exam Tip
You shouldn't give
your answer to too few
significant figures. So
if 1hc kM·es1number
of significant figures
in a calculation is 3,
then )'OU shooldn't give
your allSIA•er to I ex 2
significant figures. You
could lose a mark in 1hc
exam if you do this.
Tip: Just bocausc )'00
ignore anomalous results
in your calculations, you
shouldn't ignore them
in your write-up. Try
to find an explanation
for what wem wrong so
that it can be avoided in
future experimems.
'®"4:1.-lll:Q;t.},pQ.fffll@tjiftjjj
Tip: There's more on
this spring experiment
on page 116.
!18 Module 1 Development of Practical Skills
Example -f 1t§!$ 1 §1N 3. Presenting Results Leaming Objective:
Forthe calculation: 1.2 ~ 1.85 = 0.648648648... • Be able 10 plot
When ymlre planning an experiment, you nt.>ed to think about the bes.t way lo suilab1e graphs from
1.2 is given to 2 sJ. and 1.85 is given to 3 s.f., so the answer should be
present your results. It all depends on ~vhat son of daLa you've gor... experimental results,
given to 2 s.f.: 1.2 ~ 1.85 = 0.65 (to 2 s.f.)
induding selecting
Types of data and labelling ax<?S wilh
appropria1c scales,
Calculating a mean 1. Discrete data quantities and units.
For many experiments, you'll need to calculate the Yoo gel discrete data by counting. E.g. the number of weights added 10 che Specification
arilhmetic mean (average) or some repeated measurements: end of a sp<ing would he discrece (see Figure 1). You can't have 1.25 weights. Reference 1.1.3
That'd be dafc. Shoe size is anolher good example of a discrete variable -
arilhmelic mean (average) sum or your repeated measuremenss only certain values are allowed.
of a measurement number of measuremenls taken There are lots of ways to present discrete data, depending on what
other data sets you've recorded. Scalier graphs (p.1 2) and bar charts are often
Walch out for anomalous results. These are ones that don't fit in
used.
wich the other values and are likely 10 be wrong. They're usually due 10
~ ~~
experimental errors, such as making a mistake when measuring (see page 36).
You should ignore anomalous results when you calculale averages.
2. Continuous data
A continuous variable can have any value on a scale. For example.
Example -f1
t@S1fl1!j Lhe extension of a spring or the current through a circuit. You can
never measure the e.xacl value or a continuous variable.
Look al lhe cable in Figure 1 again - lhe currenl al 4 .0V in Run 3 looks
Iike it mighl be an anomalous result. It's much lower Lhan the values in The best way to display t\vo sets of continuous data is a line graph or a
scalier graph (see page 12). I
the other lwo runs. II could have been caused by the filament lamp being
hotter at the end oi Run 3 than it was al the end of the first two runs. I
The anomalous res.uh should be ignored to calculale lhe average:
3. Categoric data ~I
A categoric variable has values thal can be sorted into categories.
With anomalous result (0.2 19 + 0.220 + 0.193) ~ J = 0.2 11 (lo 3 s.f.) For example, types or malerial might be brass, wood, glass or steel. :n
Wi1hou1 anomalous result (0.2 19 + 0.220) ~ 2 = 0.220 (lo 3 s.f.) 'I I
If one of your data sets is categoric, a pie chart or a bar chart is often
So chc average currenl al 4.0 V should be 0.220 A (ra1her1han 0211 A). used 10 present 1he dara - see Figure 2 . Rgure 1: 111e number of
l"l'eights added to a spring ;s
discre1e data. The spring"s
wind etM'Jb'Y 3% cxten.sion is conHnuous data.
othE-~r 2%
Ql Calculate lhe following, giving your answer 10 the correct number o r
significanl figures:
a) 4.53 x3.142 b) 0.315~0.02 5 />timing c:oal
Q2 A scienlist carries out an investiga1ion to find lhe force constant of 45%
a spring. She adds differen1 masses to the spring, then records the
Number (If p:mides
weight of the masses and the spring's extension. Her results are burning natural (oon-li11e.:u J<'Ale)
shown in che table below. Complele the cable by calculating lhe ga.~·25%
mean extension or the spring for each weight.
Exrension I cm
Weight IN
Trial 1 Trial Z Trial 3 Mean
Rgure 2: caiegoric data of diffe1ent types of e1'/lefgy
z.o Z.9 .J.2 .J. I p1<xiucrion in a particular couniry p!e5P.11ted on a pie cha1L
4.0 5.8 8.6 5.9
6.0 8.4 8.4 8.5 4. Ordered (ordinal) data
Scauenng "'Jfea on p.lflkks
O rdered data is similar to C'..ategoric, bul 1hc categories can be pul in order. aimed al gold Jheel
For example, if you classify frequencies of light as 'low', 'fairly high' and
Fig ure 3: Ordered daw of
'very high' you'd have ordered data. particle scattt.ving efifxts
Ql Whal is meant by quantitative daca? A bar chart is orLen used if one of your data sets is ordered - see Figure 3. presented on a ba1 chart.
Q2 Whal is an anomalous resuh?
Module 1 Development of Practical Skills Ml
 Tip: Axes incremems Scatter graphs 4. Analysing Results Learning Objectives:
should go up in sensibla You can p lot d iscrete or continuous data on a scalier graph. These are • Be abl11 to analyse and
amounts thal arc easy useful for spotting any correlation between lwo variables (see the next page). Now you've got your data, you can use your results lO describe what happened in1erpret qualitative
plot, like ls, 2s, 0.1s, Usually, the independent variable goes on the x-axis an<l the dependent in the experiment You can also use your results to calculate n10rc quanriLies. and quamhativc
etc. You shouldn't e\'er variable goes on lhe y-axis. Both axes should be labelled dearly, with the experimcmaJ results.
use awkward increments
like 3s or ls as any
quantity and unilS. The scales used should be sensible (i.e. they should go Qualitative data • Be abl11 to use
imcrmediate points up in sensible steps, a nd should spr~.ad the data out over the full gra ph rather Analysing qualitative dala is a bit more wordy than analysing quanlitative appropriate
between those labels than bunching it up in a corner). If you need to use your graph to measure data. You need to be able to lalk about what your resullS a re showing. mathematical skills
would be very tricky 10 something, select units for your axes that will let you do this easily (e.g. by for analysis o f
plot or read. measuring lhc gradienl or the intercept, see pages 14 an d 15). Example - - - - - - - - -- - quantitative data.
Plot your points using a sharp pencil, to make sure they're as accurate An experimenl is carried out to see the diffraction patterns produced • Be able to interpret
as possible. You need to draw a line of best fit for your resuhs. Around half by shining a laser through a slit in a p iece of card. The size of the slit suitable graphs
is varied to see the effect on the diffraction pattern. from experimental
Tip: Yoo should mak• the data points should be above the line, and half should be below it (you results, indudjng by
sure the scale is labelled should ignore anomalous resuhs). Depending on the data, Lhe line of best fi t A ske tch of the results a re shown below.
taking measurements
with numbers regularly, might be straight or curved. Slit = 0 .02 mm Slit = 0.04 mm Slit = 0.06 mm of gradients and
e.g. at least every three intercepts.
Example --1$§!$ "$1 1
large squares.
An experimenl is carried out to see how the acceleration of a trolley is
dependent on the force- acting on iL The results a re sho\vn in the graph.
I I II II 1111 I Ill Specification
Reference 1.1.3
From these results you can see thal as the slit gets wider, the paltem
The force is lhe geL'i na rrower - there are more fringes in a given area.
independent variable
and so is on the x-axis.
The acceleration is the
dependent variable and Scatter graphs and correlation
so is on the y-axis. Correla.tion describes the relationship bct\vecn two variables
- usually the independent one and the dependent one. Data can show
The line of best fit is
positive correlation, negative correlation or no correlation (see Figure 2).
a straight line, wilh Figure 1: The diffraction
fo1t:e I N 2 points above the line Positive correlation Negative correlation No correlalton pattern p1rxfuced when a
and 2 points below iL As one variable As o ne variable There is no laser is shone through a slh.
increases, the other increases, the other relationship between rhe.re~ mote on diffraction
Exan1ple -l8§!!j1§i8 also increases. decreases. the variables. pauerns on p.212.
In the graph on the
right, the points show
that the velocity
f' ... . .. Tip: You have to be very
careful wflen drawing
conclusions from data

~
is increasing at an like this because a
increasing rale over lime. correlation becwcen two
So a c urved line or variables doesn'Lalways
Rgure 2: Sc.met g1aphs sha.ving positM!, negative and no correlation.
besl fit is drawn. lime I s
mean that a dlange in
ona variable ea uses a
change in the other.
Practice Question - Application Linear graphs lnere's more on this on
If you plol two variables thal have a linear relationship, you'll get a pagc20.
Ql A car is accelerating along a road. A computer connected to the car straighl line or beSl fit. The equation of a straight Iine is y =nix + c, where
measures the velocity oi the car every 2.S s. The results are shown in m =gradient (slope of the line) a nd c = y-interccp l. This means you can use
the table below. Plot a suitable graph for the data. your graph lo work out certain values, and the relationship between your
Time/s 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 variables.
Ve/ociLy I mph 0.0 12.8 21.4 29.0 33.3 35.8 37.0 Proportionality
If you plot l\vo variables against eadl other and get a straight line Lhal
goes through the origin, lhe two variables are directly proportional. The
Practice Questions - Fact Recall y-intercepl, c, is o. so the equation of the straight line is y = mx where m is a
Ql Give one way that categoric dala can be presented in resulls. constant The con:S!anl of proportionality, m, is the gradienl or the graph.
Q2 Which varia ble usually goes on the x-axis o f a scatter graph? You can show 1wo variables as being diredly proportional using the
symbol a. For example K tx y means tha1 x is directly proporlional Loy.

•llf~-· Module 1 Development of Practical Skills Module 1 Development of Practical Skills • eA

 Example -f1t§!$1§1N
Current and potential difference are directly proportional for ohmic
conductors. You can sec Lhi,s by using the circuit in Figure 3. Use the
variable resistor to decrease (or increase) the resistance in small equal steps.
This changes the amounl oi c urrent flo\ving through the ohmic conductor.
Take readings of c urrent through it and potential d ifference across it a t each
step. Once you have all the da ta, plot a graph of I against V (Figure 4). The
graph you'll get is a straight line going through the origin - so c urrent a nd
potential d ifference are directly proponional.
Example -i?,§1$1$15
The solid line in the graph in Figure 6 shows how the maximum kinelic
e nergy of the photoelectrons from a metal surface varies with the frequency
o f the light shining on it. You can use a graph like this lo find the value of Tip: H:>r more on \W>rlc I
the work function of the metal (,P) by extending the graph back lo the y-axis. functions, see page ~
Rearra nging the equa1ion hf = ,P + KE-gives KE_= hf - ,P. Since
hand 4' are constants, KEnw = hf - ~ is just the equation of a straight line
Tip: Hare, y =Kc_
(in the form: y = mx + c ). You can just read <fi from the graph - it's the m = h, x = frequency

J
inlercept on the venical axis. You'll just need 10 continue the line back to and c = - <,\.

~~ ~
the y-axis 10 find the intercepl, then the value of the y-intercepl will he -</J.
Kf.-1}
Tip: f-o rmoreon
this experiment v.

J
Tip: If you were to
seepage 162. calculate the gradicm,
you shoukl ger h,
Planck's constant.
0
{} Pott:~11rial differem:e IV Rgure 6: You can extend lhc line on a graph to find the Y·intetccpt~
Figure 3: Circufr lot s/ia.vjng the y
proportional telationship between Figure 4: An /.V graph fol an
I and V for an ohmic conductor. ohmjc conductor.
Non-linear relationships
Linear graphs are really easy to work with, but some variables won't produce
x
a straight line if you plot them agains1 each other. You can sometimes change
\Vha t you plot on the axes so that you get one though.
Finding the gradient and y-intercept For example, say hvo variables are inversely proportional, then y = !.,
If you've plotted a linear graph, you can read the gradienl and y-inlercept \Vhere k is a constant. If you plot y against x, you'll get a curved graph x Figure 7: An inverse
Sfraighl off it This means you can work out <.-enain quanlities from your which shoots off to infinity (Flgure 7}. It's not very easy to work out the value proportiana6iy re/Jlionship
graph. You can find the gradient of the straight-line graph using: t
of k from this graph, but if you plot y against you'll gel a lovely straight line b€twoon xand y.
{Figure 8) with a constant gradieni of k that goes through the origin. y
Gradient = Change in Y This is bec.ause the graph planed is y = k(f). whim is just the equation of a
Change inx
slr aight line in form y = mx + c, where m = k and x = ~ (and c = 0).
If you want to find the gradient of a point on a c urvl-'CI line of best fit,
You should draw a triangle to help )''OU find the gradient of a line. you can draw a tangent to the curve al 1ha1 point and then find the gradient of
Make it as big as possible - it should take up more than half of the line, and the tangent {see p.480).
use values you can easily read from the graph.

Exan1ple --f4§i ti1fl1d

Tip: To find R, jUSI
ea lculatc the inverse of
i: round from rho graph.
Returning to 1he example oi the ohmic
conductor above, you can use the 1-V graph to c:'
calculate the resistance of the componen t:
I and Vare dimcdy proportional,
so I= k~ where k is a constant
•Prt3.c3:1,11c:t1t1.1.o.mm.c.1.1 Rgure 8: II y = k., plouing y
Q1 A studcnl wanlS to find the in1cmal against 1 givesaxsuajghtlinc
~ ~ resistance of a cell. He sets up a series mr&igh !he origin.
C-.rac,1ent
. = liX 1
= 7{'
circuit containing the ccJI and a variable
~
a
resi5'or. He varies the rcsi5'ance of the
variable resistor and records the c urrent
through and the potential differe nce

Tip: The gradiem of an

1-V graph like this is g
equal to ~ if lh<! graph
is a straight line through
lh<! origin (which is only
true for ohmic conductors
- seopage 159).
V
You know from = IR that I=
I= ~Vis the equation of a straight line
k
wherey=/, x = V, m= and c = 0.
i
You can work out irom the
graph - it's the gradient.
kV.
Potential ,Jiffi'?fflnc:e IV
Rgure S: Using an /.V graph
to v.rork ow tl~ resBtance
ofan ohmic cooductor.
(p.d.) acre<s the cell. A graph of his
resulls is shovm on the righL 10 20
Tip: This experiment is
shown on pa0'<l 173.
curnmt I J\
a) State what type o f correlation the graph shows.
_J
The graph illustrates Lhe relation V = ~; - l r.
b) Determine <, the e.m.f. of the cell.
C".) Calculate r, the internal resistance of the cell.

•ll,C•• Module 1 Development of Practical Skills Module 1 Development of Practical Skills MF A

 U...mlng Objoctivos; 5. Evaluating and Reducing uncertainty
• UndMl3nd p<<dsion There are a few different w:1ys you can reduce the uncertainty in your results:
and accur:ocy "'
mcascx~and
Drawing Conclusions Repeating and averaging
. - . inc:Nd'"ll You need to be able to evaluate your resulls ;me/ draw condusions irom One of the easiest things you can do is repeat each measurement """"21 Tlp; l'rt'dsion and
nwgins 0( l'ITCW, them. You also need to be able 10 evaluate ;md draw condJsions from other times. The more repeats you do, and the more similar the results of each mon arc COr't'fOO on
P"'ct'lll3&" """" people's daJiJ - which is 1""'11 you ff> bl<JYy to be iJSked ID do in the ex;ims. repeat are, the more precise the <Iota. P"!,'<5 18 .00 36.
and uttrn3intK5 in
:app3r.ttUS. By taking an :M'f:IS" '""'an) ol your repeated measurements
• Undc>rSland how to Uncertainty (see p.10), you will reduce the random error in your result. The more
cvatua1r results.. When you're evaluating your results, n's oftt.'n a good idea 10 talk abou1 the measurements you avcrngc over, the less random error you're likely to have.
uncertainty in your data in 01hcr words, the amount of e rror there might tx-. Repeating also allows you to chcctc your data for any anomalous results
• ~ 3blr t0 r~fi~
The results you get from a n experiment won't be completely perfoct there'll (see p.10).
Cxp<'rl~nt:'ll tll.'Signs
by sum~("Sli"1; always be a degree of unccnain1y in your readings or measurements due 10
imprtWt"mt'f'ltS to limits in I.he scnsi1ivi1y of the npp:irah.JS you're using. Say you measure the Using appropriate equipment
1hc proccdur~ and Lempera1ure o( a beaker of w:ucr wi1h :'In analogue thermomeLer. You might You can also cut dmvn 1hc unccr1ain1y in your measuremenLs by using
apparatus. think you've measured i1s 1cmpcr:uurc a.s 21 <'(, but al best you've probably the mosc appropriate cquipmcn1. The smalles1 possible uncertainty in a
• II<' able 10 ldt'nttly measured ii lo be 21 ± 0.5 °C. And 1ha1'.s wi1hout taking into account any measurement is usually taken to be :t half the smallest interval that the
tho limllatl<tns other errors that migh1 be in your mea.suremenL measuring instrument can measure. A micrometer scale has smaller interv.:.ls
in <'xp<'rirnrnt:al If you measure a length ol something with a ruler, you actually take than a millimetre ruler, so by mc~suring a; wire's diameter with a micrometer
proooduA'S instead ol a ruler, you instantly cut down the random error in your
two measurements, one at each end o( the object you're measuring.
• 11<'-IO.-:OW There is an uncenainty in each of these measurements. E.g. a length of experiment.
ainctusions.
17.0 an measured using a mm ruler will h;t.., an uocmainty of Computers and data lq;gc<s can often be used to measure smaller l'lple 1: A micronJelet is
Spoc111catlon intervals than you can me:>SUn! by h:tnd <U1d reduce random errors, e.g. timing ""l' prcasc, it gj>'f!S ma<fngs
0.05 + 0.05 = ± 0.1 cm tpagc 371. io within 0.01 mm+
Ro-c.1.1.4 an object's fall using a light g;itc ,.tJic,r th:tn a stopwatch. You also g<>< rid of
The± bit gives you the '"OS" on whodl the true value (the one you'd
really like to know) probably lies. For the length above, 17 ± 0.1 cm tells any human erm< th:tt might ~ in while taking the measurements. Tlp; A ~ logger
you the true length is very likely to lie in the range of 16.9to17.1 cm. The
maximum difference berwccn your v:afue and the true value {here 0.1 cm) is
There's a limit to how much you can redoce the random unceruinties
in your measurements, as nll measuring cquipnient has a resolution 1hc
tcw data """"'*"'
is an
elccuonic device tl1at
sometimes called the margin o( error. smallest change in what's being measured that can be dclectcd by the an record daa ll\'l!I
equipment The rcsolu1ion of 1hc equipment is an example o( a limitation of time using a sensor.
The smaller the unccrt.1in1y in a resuh or measurement, the smaller

J
an experiment (see the next p:igc). They can sometimes
the range of possible values the result could have and the more precise your be connected 10 a
dala can be. There arc l\vo mcnsurcs or uncertainty you need to know about: computer.

Figure I: lltls lh<YrrtOmf'«Y
rTJNSU(('$ IO ~ l>Cdlefl -C.
My IMliU'MIOO< )OU
talrusingh hiHhift~.111
unavu/nty of • 0.S 'C.
Ttp: lhoo>'s "'°"'
about difi<f('t11 'YP<S
ol """'' •nd how tO
do calculations whh
uncl'ftalnty on P>b'<'S lb
and 37.
Absolute uncertainty the IOG31 uncertainty for a measurement. Significant figures and uncertainty
You always have to assumC' 1hc larg~1 amount of uncenainty in da1a.
\l\lhether you're looking 01 experimental results or just doing a
calculation question in an exam, you must round your results to 1he same
~tag<' enor the unc:t'lbmty g~ as a number ol significant fogu~ as the given data value with the fewest signifont
~tlgc ol the measuremenL figures. Otherwise you'd be! saying there is less uncenainty in your result th•n
in lhe data used 10 calcul:uc i1.
11 no uncertainty is gi'"'" for a value. the number o( signif1Cant figu~
Exarnple -l$M1 1j~ zjlj a value has gives you an csUm."H<' of lhe uncertainty. The assumed uncenaimy
is half the incremenl of the last signifiG1nt figure that the value is given 10.
The resistance of a filamMt lamp is gi,·en as 5.0 ± 0.4 ll. Give the
absolute uncertainty .1nd IM percentage error for this measurement. Example --i$§i#i§iij
The absolute uncertainly is 0.4 U. 2 N only has 1 signifir.:in1figur~. so without any other information
To get the percenlage error, just conven this to a percentage you know this value must be 2 :t O.S N if the value was less th<ln
o f the lamp's resistance: 10.4 + S.0) • 100 = 8% 1.5 N it would haV<> been round<'CI 10 1 N (to 1 s.I.), if it was 2.S Nor
greater it would haV<> been round<'CI 10 3 N (to 1 s.f.).

•II'*• ModUle 1 Development of Practical Skills Module 1 OevelOpment ot Pracbcal Skills


Rgure J: Newton's famous
experiment to show rltat
white Jighl is made up of a
spectra of colours has been
reproduced by scientists and
students all OYfY the lVOrld.
The tesults are now JCcepied.
Tip: ll's pos.srble for
resuhs to be precise
b ut not accurate, e.g.
a balance 1.hat \veighs
10 1f1000th or a gram
will give precise results,
but if i1's 001 calibrated
prope~y 1he resuhs
v.·tm't be accurate.
Module 1 Development of Practical Skills
Evaluations
Before you can make any conclusions, you'll need 10 evaluate
@-~
Other limitations include uncontrollable external variables that
contribute to the data.
Exam~e ~~~~~~~~~~
your results to sec how convincing they a re. You need Lo be careful
about whal words you use - precise, valid and accurale may all sound A student sets up the apparatus
similar, but they all say different things about your resulL'i. as shcnvn to see how varying the data light
1. Prec ise results a ngle of the ramp (0) affects the logger
The smaller the amount of spread of your data from the mean, the more precise acceleration of the trolley on the
ramp. The acceleration of the trolley
I
ii is. Precision depends on the amount of random e rror (p.36) in your readings.
A precise result is one that is repeatable and reproducible.
rs due to gravity, and the student
therefore assumes it is constant
Repeatable results - Results are repeatable if you can repeat an
The main limitation in this experimenl is the friction acting on the trolley Tip: H:>r more on 1.he
experiment multiple times and get the same results.
due to the ramp and the air. The friction will increase as the speed of the dependence of friaion
Reproducible results - Results a re reproducible ir someone else can trolley increases,. which means the acceleration of the trolley on the ramp
recreate your cxpcrimenl using different equipment or methods, and gee on speed S<!Cpage90.
will not be constant You can reduce the amounl or friction acting on the
lhe same results you do. trolley by using a smooth ramp and making the trolley more streamlined,
2. Valid results but it is not possible to remove the effects of friction completely.
A valid resuh answers the original ques.lion using precise data. If you don't
keep all vari.ables apart from lhe ones you're testing constant, you haven't only
tested the variable you're investigating - the results a ren't valid. Drawing conclusions ~
3. Accurate results A conclusion explains \vhat the data shOW'S. You can only dra\v a ~
An accura1e «..-suit is really close to the lrue answer. conclusion if your data supports it. Your conclusion should be limited
to the circumstances you've tested it under - if you've been investigating how Tip: \'\'hoover funds
You can only comment on how accurate a rcsuh is ir you know the true value the rcseardl (e.g. an
of the result. So you can't assess the accuracy of a resull if your measuring the currenl flowing through a resi~or changes with the potential difference engi"""ring oompany)
across it, and have only used pmential differences between 0 a nd 6 V, you
something that's unknown or has never been measured before. for an invesligation may
can't claim 10 know what would happen if you used a potenlial difference of have some influence on
100 V. or if you used a different resistor. whaL wnclusions are
drawn from lhe rcsulls,
Evaluating methods You also need to think abou1 how much you can believe your
bui scient is.ls have a
When you evaluate your method, you need to think about conclusion, by evaluating the quality of your results (see previous page).
lr you can't believe your results, you can11 form a strong conclusion. responsibility to make
how you could improve your experiment if you did i1 again. sure 1hat the conclusions
Here a re some things to L'onsidcr: Exam~e they draw are supponoo
J
Is there anything you could have done to make your The suess of a material X was by Ille data.
results more precise or accurate? Could you do anything measured at strains of 0.002,
to prevent random or systematic e rrors (p.36)?
.
0.004, 0 .006, 0.008 and 0.010.
Were the results valid? If not, could you fix this, Each strain reading had an e"or Tip: R>r more on
interpreting strcss-suain
e.g. by changing the data you're collecting? of 0.001. All other variables were
Were there any limitations in your method (see below)? kept constant. and the results are 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
'
1.0
graphs see
127-130.
P"b""
shown on lhc right Suain (xlll')
Did you take enough measurements to be confidenl in spouing a ny
anomalies? Should you have taken measurements more frequently? A science magazine concluded from this data that material X's yield point
Tip: Taking more
Could you have reduced the unceftainty in your results, is at a strain of 0.005. This could be true - but the dala doesn't support
readings in an
e.g. by using more sensitive apparatus or equipment? this. Because strain increases of 0.002 al a time were used a nd the stress at experimen1 can allow
in-bel\veen strains wasn't measured, you can't tell where the yield poinl is you to make stronger
Experimental limitations
from the dala. All you know is that the yield point i.s somewhere between conclusions. If a
An experiment will alw.lys have limi1atioos - this is anyLhing that will affect 0.004 and 0 .006, as the stress drops belWeen these values. me.asuremcm had been
the overall results. You need to be able 10 identify the limitations for a ny Also, the graph only gives information aboot this particular taken al a slrain of 0.005
expcrimenl (e.g. the resolution of the equipmenl used. see p.17j. experiment. You can't conclude that the yield point would be in this range here, you'd have been
Example - - - - - - -- ror all experiments - only this one. And you can't say ror sure thal doing able to say more about
the experiment a1, sa)~ a dirferent constant lemperature, wouldn't give a where the yield poim
A student needs to measure the length or a piece of \Vire to use in an was. ll's also good 10 do
e.xpcrimenl. She docs this using a ruler that can measure to the nearest different yield point. a pilot experiment (p.7)
millimetre. She measures it to be 9.8 cm. The length or the wire could You must also consider the e rror in the strain readings. 1he error in to get an idea ol roughly
actually be 9.8127563 cm. But 1hc measurement is limited by the each reading is 0.001, which gives a percentage uncertainty oi SOo/o for the where the yield point is
resolution of the ruler. lowest strain reading. This means the results mighl not be accurate. before you stan.
Module 1 Development of Practical Skills M pM

Your dala may show a <.'Orrcla1ion belwecn hvo variables, but the change
in one may nOI be causing lhe cha nge in the other. Both changes mighl be
f'.aused by a third variable.
Tip: Remember - ir
you don't know the
uncertainty of the
apparatus used to
m<:asure a value, yw
can use the number of
significant figures of lhc
value 10 ·wor1c oul iis
uncenajnty.
.:.w Module 1 Development of Practical Skills
Correlation and cause
Ex ample ~----------~
Some stud ies have fou nd a correlation betv"een exposure to the
eleclromagnelic fields c reated by power lines and certain ill heahh
effects. So some people argue thal lhts means \Ve shouldn'l live dose
lo po\ver lines, or build power lines close 10 homes. Bul it's hard lo
control all the variables belwecn people who Jive near power lines and
people who don't. Ill health in people living near power lines could be
affected by many li festyle factors or even gcne1ics. Also, people living
close 10 power lines may be more likely 10 believe 1ha1any ill health
lhey suffer is due lo the EM fields from the power lines if they are aware
of the studies.
Practice Questions -Application
Q l a) What is I.he uncertainty oi a mass balance thal measures masses to
1he nearest 0.2 g?
b) What is the percentage error of a measurement of 50 g made with
the mass balance in part a)?
Q 2 A student is invesligating the potenlial difference across a lamp. He
measures the potenlial difference across the lamp 5 times whilst the
curre nt is 5.2 A. His results are shown in the table.
Repeal 1 Repeal 2 Repeal 3 Repeal 4 Repeal 5
3.4 v 3.6 v 4.0V 3.9 v 3.6 v these values represenl in an experiment
a) Whal is the uncertainly of lhe value foe c urrent?
b) Calculate !he mean polcntial difference.
QJ A stude nt is carrying out an e.xperimcn1to find the resistivity of a wire
by measuring its resistance at differe nt lengths. She measures the
resistance or lhe wire every 1O c m, from 1O cm to 60 c m. She uses a
millimetre ruler to measure the length and diameter of the wire. She
stops her experiment halfway through, and continues with it later lhe
same day when the temperalure of the room has dropped. She then
plots a graph of wire length against resistance and uses the gradienl lo
find the wire's resislivity.
a) Comment on the validi1y of her experiment
b) Give two ways she could improve her experimenL
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
C) l Whal is lhe percentage error of a measurement?
Q2 Give l\vo ways of reducing uncertainly in an experiment.
()3 What is the meaning or the terms precision and accurncy?
Section Summary ·
Make sure you know...
Ho\V to design experiments in order lo inves1igate something or anS\ver a question.
Ho\v to solve problems in a practical conte xt by starting with a prediction or hypolhesis.
How to iden1ify the differcnl types of variables in an cxpcrimenl, including independenl, dependent
and control variables.
Thal conlrol variables musl stay the same throughout an experimenL
Ho'v to select 1he units that data should be recorded in.
Ho\V and vfflen lo use different practical apparatus and lechniques.
How to evaluate an experimental melhod, including \vhelher the experimenl will a nswer the original
question and whether the experiment will be valid.
Ho\v to correctly record data in tables.
Thal all the measurements of one variable should be recorded to the same number of decimal places.
Whal is meant by quantitative data and what is meant by qualitative data.
What significant figures a re and ho\Y many significant figu res a value should be given 10.
How to c-.alculale the arithmetic mean of the results oi repeated measurements.
What an anomaly is a nd how to identify one in a sel of resulls.
How to choose the correct way to present data depending o n what the data is.
How to plol scatter gra phs, including choosing the right scales and units for lhe axes.
How to draw a line of best fit on a scatter graph.
Ho\v to analyse the results oi data that is either qualitative or quantitative.
That the equation of a linear graph is y = mx + c#\Vhere m is the gradient and c is the y-inlercepL
How to calculate 1he gradient and y-imerccp1 of a scatter graph of results, and how 10 work ou1 what
How to find the uncenainty in a measurement from the resolulion of the apparatus used.
Whal the terms margin of error, absolute uncertainty and percentage error mean.
Thal taking more repeats in an experiment or using more appropriate apparatus can reduce the
uncertainty oi lhe resuhs.
Ho\v to find the uncenainty of a value based on the number of significanl figures it has been given lo.
The terms precision, repeatable, reproducible, valid and accura te and whal they mean.
How to evalua1e an experiment a nd be able to commen1on how a n expcrimenl could be improved if
il was repealed.
How to idc.nti(y limitations in a n expcrimen1al method.
Ho\V to draw· concJusions from an experimcnl based on lhc evidence available.
Thal a correla tion between lwo variables doesn'l necessarily mean the re is a causal relation
between them.
11
Module 1 Development of Practical Skills MJ
 Exam-style Questions - -lO®l_J•1•11· i 11¥111·tli11i111"8
. . .. .
..11·.1!iil11
· .li,lfllli'. . . . .• .
What is the Practical Endorsement?
The eQUation that relates final velocity (v). initial veloctty (u). acceleration (a) and The rractical Endorsement is asse;sed slightly differently to the rest of your
displacement {s) is v' = u• + 2as. course. Unlike the exams~ you don't get a mark for the Practical Endorsemenl
A graph is plotted for an object moving with a constant acceleration, with v' on the y-axis - you just have to gel a pass grade. The Practical Endorsemenl is split
and s on tile x-axis. Which of the following is eQual to the acceleration of the object? into l\Velve calegories, called Practical Activity Groups (PAGs). Each PAG Tip: Throughoul Lhis
covers a variety or practical techniques, for example, using an oscilloscope book, experiments and
A The square root of the y~ntercept of the graph. or constructing circ uits. All the PAGs a re listed on pabie 28 and the praclical skills tha1you could
lechniques are lis-led on page 29. In order to pass the Practical Endorseme nt, use for your Practical
B They-intercept of the graph. [ndorsement are marked
you'll have to carry out at leasl twelve experiments, a nd demonstrate that you
C The gradient of tile graph multiplied by 2. with a big PAG stamp,
c.an carry out each of the required techniques. You' l I do the experimenls in lik~ this one:
O The gradient of tile graph divided by 2. class, and your tcadler will assess you as you're doing them.
( 1 mark) You'll need lo keep a record of all the assessed practical activilies
lhat you carry ouL for your Practical EndorsemenL

2 A student wants to find how the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature.
They set up tile circuit shown in Fig. 2.1. 1. General Practical Skills
The \.Yay you do an experiment is imponant. You nJay be
given a method, or you may have lo plan it yourself.
( ~1
l="
ilJ
It's important lhat you follow all the steps in a method - this ensures
1h.1t you \.York safely, and .1Jso makes your results more likely lo be precise. Tip: Experiments
Fig. 2.1 are often used LO test
The thermistor is then placed in a beaker of hot water that contains a thermometer.
Solving problems in a practical context S{!il!ntific tlltlofies to
The thermometer has 1 •c graduations. The student then records the current Practical experime nts a re used to solve problems or tesl wheLher a theoretical see if thcy an~ 1.rue in a
through the thermistor for each 20 •c temperature drop of the water. She will model lvorks in a pracLical setting. If you're given a method Lo follow for an practical context.
use her results and the potential difference of the power supply to calculate the experiment, you should carry out each step, as described, in the correct order.
resistance of the thermistor. She repeats the experiment 6 times. Her results are It's possible you'll be given a problem and asked to solve it using
your own knowledge. There's loads of information about ho\¥ to p lan and Tip: Variables include
shown in Fig. 2.2. things like tempcramre,
carry out experiments corre<:t.Jy on pages 5-8. Here's a quick round-up of time, mass and volume.
Temperature Current I A some of the things you'll need to think about when you plan an experiment
/ "C Run I Run2 RunJ Run4 Runs Run6 Mean Rrst, identify the aim of your experiment.
Work out how to achieve the aim - you'll often need to idenlify the Tip: Precise results are
90 5.3 5.5 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.3
independent and dependent variables for the investigation. resullS Lhat don't vary
70 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.0 3. 1 2.9 3.1 much from the: mean.
Identify all the cootrol variabk>s (and how to control them). Accurate resuhs are
50 1.9 1.8 2.8 2.0 2.0 2. 1
Think aboul how to make your data as precise and accurate as possible. dose to 1hc lrue value.
Fig. 2.2
a) Calculate the percentage uncertainty for the temperature reading ol 90 ' C.
Implementing experiments Tip: Any reeo<ded
(2 marks) rcsulls lhat don't fit in
Once your experiment is planned, you can carry it out, working carefully
b) Calculate the mean value for tile current when the water's temperature was 50 •c. to make sure your results are precise. Relevant practical techniques will wilh the> rest cM the data
Include the uncertainty of this value in your answer. be covered in this book as they come up during the course. All of these are called anomatous
techniques should be carried out safely (see pages 24-25) and correctly. rcs.uhs. If you can
(3 marks)
work out 1.h.at they
c)' Evaluate the studenfs experiment. In your answer, you should include suggestions Recording and analysing data were due 10 a mislake
for how the student could improve her experiment. As you carry out your experiment. you should record your resullS in a well
when carrying out your
(6 marks) experiment, you can
laid-oul table, leaving space for a ny data analysis you mighl \'\'3nl to do lalcr. leave them out or your
• The quality of your response will 00 assessed in this question. Your table should have a heading for each column, where any units should dal2 analysis.
be included. See pages 9-10 for more on recording a nd analysing data.

•ll'~-· Module 1 Development of Practical Skills Practical Skills for the Practical Endorsement
Tip: A correlation
belween 1wo variables
can be positf\'Q (as one
variable increases,
the other increa:ses),
ncgaLive (a:s one variable
increases, the 01.her
decreases), or there
may be no correlation
present.
Tip: Tako a I - back
~u pages 13-I 5 for more
information about how
to draw and interpret
graphs.
Tip: When evaluating
your experiment, you
could comment on
1he uncenaimy of
your measurements
and work out the
absolute uncartainty
or percentage error.
The smaller these values
arc, the more precise
your results will be.
Look back at pages
1~ 1 7 for how to work
them out.
Tip: A llalalll is
anything thac has the
potential to cause
harm or damage. The
.1is.k associated with
that ha1.ard is the
probabili1y of someone
(or something) being
harmed if they arc
exposed co che hazard.
Figure 1: Safety warning
on a piece oi elecuical
aquipmenL
Practical Skills for the Practical Endorsement
Presenting data Always set up your equipment carefully, following all the instructions
you've been given. And pay at1en1ion to any safety \Yarnings on 1he
Presenting your data can make it easier for you to understand your resulls a nd
equipment itself - see Figure 1 on the previous page for an example.
spot any trends. How you present your da ta will depend on the type of data Tip: Some capacitors
and what you want to find oul You'll have covered all this on pages 11-12, Be very careful when working with capaci1ors. Even when not connected
can catc:fl fire Of cxplock?
but you'll mostly want 10 presenl your resuhs on a scatter graph. to a circuit, they can store enough charge to give a shock. Make sure you if connected the wrong
conncCL them the right \vay round in the circuit too, or you could damage
Drawing a scaner graph lets you sho\Y how two variables are related way round.
the capacitor:
(or correlated). You can draw a line (or curve) of best fit on the scatter graph
Lo help sho\Ythe trend in your results. The trend is called the correlation.
You may even be able to use sofl\va.re to proces-s your data and generate
lasers
graphs for you, especially if you've used a data Jogger in your experiment. Lasers can be very dangerous because laser light is focused into a very direct,
powerful beam of monochromatic light which can easity damage someone's
eyesight.
Conclusions and evaluations \i\fhen carrying out a ny experiments involving lasers, it's especially
CAU1K>N
When you've collected and analysed your data, it's time to wrap up your importanl to wear special laser goggles. To make sure you don't cause
experiment with some conclusions and an evaluation. Conclusions explain damage while using lasers, make sure you:
Rgure 2: l.as<!f
what your results showed. They need to be supported by the data you Never shine the laser to\vards a person. warning signs should
collected, and shouldn't make sweeping generalisations. If you've found a be used to alert
Remember Lo tum it off when it's not in use.
correlation bet\veen t\VO variables, you should be cautious about claiming lhal people of the dangor
Wear laser safety goggles.
the change in one has caused the change in the other - there may be another of laser beams.
factor that is causing both variables to change. Avoid shining the laser beam at a reflective surface.
An evaluation is a chance for you Lo look at \vhat you did and think Have a warning sign on display {see Figure 2) .
about how you could have improved your method to improve the validity,
accuracy and precision o f your results. You should consider how well your
Radioactive materials
results address the original aim of your experiment, how you could reduce Ionising radiation (e.g. alpha, beta or gamma radiation) can damage living
errors in your results,. and whether you need to repeal your experiment further cells. If a cell's DNA is damaged,. there's a risk iL may become cancerous.
to sho\v )''OUr results can be reproduced.
So when )'OU're <'.arrying out experimenls involving radiative materials,
remember how dangerous they can be and follow these precau1ioos:
Minimising risks Radioactive sources should be kept in a lead-lined box
Many physics experiments have risks associated with them. These can include v.ihen they're not being used. Rgure 3: Hazard
risks associated with the equipment you're using, as well as risks associated Al\vays wear gloves when working wi1h radioactive materials. symbol to indicate lhe
wilh, say, using radioactive materials. presence of radioa<."tive
Radioactive materials should onty be picked up using long-handled tongs subsranees.
When you're planning an experiment, you need to identify all the or forceps.
hazards and what the risk is from each hazard - this is a risk assessmenL
You must take C'.are nol to point them al anyone, a nd always keep a safe Tip: Your teacher
A risk assessment includes \vorking oul how likely it is thal something could d istance from them.
go wrong. and how serious it l\!'Ould be if it did go wrong. You 1.hen need 10 should closely supervise
any use of radioactive
think of ways Lo reduce th<.~ risks.
Glassware sources.
One precaulion that's worth raking in most experiments is to wear
goggles. These will protect Lhe eyes from moving objcclS, snapping wires, Many pieces of equipment that you may use during your course are made
chemicals and 01her dangers. of glass. Broken glass can cause serious injury, so you should take care to
transport glass items safely and check them for crad<s and flaws before you
O lher precaulions you need to take might depend on specific risk use them. Any broken pieces of glass should be moved away from the work
factors associated with particular experime nlS or ma terials. a rea immediately and disposed of in an a ppropriate container (not the normal Tip: Tue O.EllPSs4i'
wcbsire has student
Electricity waste bin).
safety shecis, and
Some of the experiments that you are expected to do during your course your school or coll~
involve eleclrical circuits. When working with elcciricity, always Lake the may have ClfAPSS
follo\ving Sleps to avoid shocks, overheating or damage to equipnlent: Hazcards* you can use.
Make sure you turn the power supply off while you're adjusting your
Appropriate clothing Those are all good
sources of information
equipment, a nd then only tum the power on vvhen you're ready to Whe:n working in the lab, you should make sure that you arc wearing sensible if you're writing a ris.k
actually carry out the experiment clothing to reduce the risk of injury, e.g. open shoes or sandals \\'On't protecl assessment.
your feet against things that have been accidentally dropped. You should also
Never get electrical equipme nt \\'et. Wet electrical equipmenl can lead Lo wear a lab coat to prole<:·t your skin and clothing. It's all about using your
short circuils, creating a risk of fire or electric shock. common sense really.
Practical Skills for the Practical Endorsement Wf A

Tip: Try 10 keep all your
lab repons in Lhe same
place - write them in
1he same book, or koop
Lhem in the same folder
on your compuler. That
way you'll know where
everything is.
Tip: A dear and
detailt.'CI method is
imponan1, as it could
Ix! used by anochor
sciemist who is trying m
reproduce )'OUr results.
Tip: There's loads more
detail about making
observations, recording
data and analysing your
resullS in i\iodulc 1.
2. Keeping Scientific Records
When you carry ow experimencs, it's important 10 keep records of everything
you do. The records should be de/ailed and clear enough Iha! a complc1e
suanger 'Would be able lo read lhem and understand n•hat you did.
Records of scientific experiments
Throughout your A-level Physics course, you should keep a record of all the
experiments you carry out, the results you ob1ain and 1he solutions to any data
analysis you do. This could be done in a physical lab book, or kept in folders
on a computer. However you choose to keep your records, the information
for each experiment should include:
The aim of the experiment
A detailed me thod for how you carried oul the experiment, including a ny
safety precautions you h.ad to take.
The results of your experime nt, clearly set out in a table. The results may
be hand-written, or a print-out of data collected by a data logger.
Any other important observations you made whilst carrying out your
experiment, for example, anything that wenl wrong or a nything you d id
slightly differently from how ii was described in the method.
The solutions to any analysis you d id on your results, or any graphs drawn
using your resul!S. These should be clearly labelled to show what a nalysis
has been done or what gra ph has been drawn.
Cirations of a ny references you used.
Sources of information
ltS possible you'll have to do some research to find out
informa tion beiore you get started \vilh an expcrimenL
Useful sources of iniormation include:
Websites
Using the lnLcrnet for research is really convenient, but you have 10 be slightly
wary as not all the informa tion you find wil I be true. It's hard to know whe re
Textbooks
Your school or public library is likely lo have lextbooks covering specific areas
of physics in a 101of detail.
Scientific papers
You can find papers in online ca1alogues (e.g. arxiv.org), as well as in journals
Tip: Scientific papers
thal are often available in public libraries. are checked by other
The source you do your research from needs lo give the righLlevel scientists who are
of information. h's no good trawling through a scientific paper if you're jusl experts in the subject of
looking for the speed of light - you'll probably end up wading through lots of the paper. This is called
complicated information thal you don't need to understand. Equally, if you're peer review (soo p•gc 1).
researching the theory behind an experiment, you \vant a source that giV<."S
e nough detail. A GCSE textbook will probably be too simplistic - you're
better off find ing a book that d eals specifically with the subject in a library
instead.
Using references and making citations
It sounds obvious, but when you're using the information
that you've found during your research, you can't just copy it l
(~
~ 12
l
down word for word. Any data you're looking up should be
copied accurately, but you should re\vrite everything else in your own w<>«ls.
When you've used information from a source, you need H> cite the
reference properly. Citations allO\v someone else to go back and find the
source of your informa tion. This n1eans they can check your information and
sec you're not ma king things up out of thin air. Cilations also mean you've
properly credited other people's data that you've used in your work.
Citations are included in the main text of a report and are usually
written in brackets after the relevant piece of information. They can eithe r
include the entire reference or link the information to a list of references at
the end of the report (e.g. using a number - see Figure 1). References for
each piece of informalion may include the title of the book, paper or website Tip: There are lots of
·where )'UU found the information, the author and/or the pub lisher of the slightly different ways of
documen1and the date the document was published. referencing sources, but
...-~~~~~~..,,.-~~~~~~~---.

the imponam lhing is

Referencing a website: ~ that il's dear where you
information comes from on forums, biogs and websites that can be edited by include the author(s), The mass of an electron is a pproximately found the information.
the general public, so you should avoid using these. Websites of universities year, title lonlincl, 31
9.11 x 10 kg (2, p.28)...
or other respected institutions (e.g. the lnstirute of Physics), provide lots of
da1e accessed, URL
information based on reliable scientific sources. To decide whe1her a websile References Tip: You shoold inclllde
gives reliable informa tion, think about the following things: Referencing a book: 1. McNaught, A.D. and Wilkinson, A. (1997). page numbers with your
Who has wriuen the information - was it a scientist, a teacher, o r just a include the author(s), IUPAC Compendium of Chemical citation if you quote
publication year, Te<minology, 2nd ed. (tlie •cold Book•) directly from the text or
member of 1he public? copy a diagram.
book title, edition, lonlinel, Accessed 16 March 2017:
Whether or not a nyone will have checked the source - articles on
Tip: If you're unsure publisher's location https://goldbool<.iupac.orJ¥E02008.h1ml
whether the informa1ion
websites for scientific organisations wil I have people reading through the
a nd publisher. 2. Young, H and Freedman, R (200b).
on a W'ebsite is true infomiation an d diecking all the facts. Information on forums or biogs is Tip: Scientific papers
or not~ try and find likely to have been written by a n individual, and won't necessarily have Referencing a paper: Universily Physics with modern physics, are oflen wriucn by
the same piece CJ( been thoro ughly checked. include the au1hor(s), 12th Edition, 13-0ston, Addison Wesley talj,'<? groups ol people.
information in a different What the purpose of the web<ite is - ii it's a website all about physics, publication year, ti1le or 3. Stunm, S, Kohler, F. et al (2014), References oft<!n include
place. The more sources the paper, the journal 'High·precision measurement of
the name of just a small
then i1's likely \vhoever has written it will know quite a lot. If it's a number of these authors,
you can find for the it \Vas published in, 1he the atomic mass of 1.he electron;
information, the more website where you can also find out how to make a laser gun from followed by 'et al'.
objects you'd find in a typical garden shed, then the depth a nd quality of volume number and Naiure vol. 506: p. 467-470 which means 'and
likeJy i1 is to be correct.
the information may noLbe enough. page numbers. Figure 1: fxample of a citarion in the main rext or others'.
a report and the corresfX»ldi11g refcre11CeS document

•EJJW• Practical Skills for the Practical Endorsement Practical Skills for (he Practical Endorsement Wj
 3. Practical Activity Groups Practical techniques
As pan of each PAG you'll be expected to show that you can carry out certain
This secuon tells you all the Practical Acuvity Groups you'll be expected to lechniques, such as:
have carried out for A-Level Physics, as well as the techniques included in them. use oi appropriate analogue apparatus to record a range of mea.suremcnls
They'll be covered in more de1ai/ as they crop up throughout the book. (to include length/distance, temperature, pressure, force, angles and
volume) and to inlerp<>late between scale markings
PAGs use of appropria1e digital instruments, including elecuical muhimcters,
There a re 12 Practical Activity Groups (PAGs) tha t you should have covered to obtain a range of measurements (lo include time, currenl, voltage,
by the e nd of your A-level cour.;e. These are shown in the table below, along resistance and mass)
with an example of the type of activity you could carry out for each one. use of methods to increase accuracy of measurements, such as timing
over multiple oscillations, or use of fiducia l markers, set square or plumb
line
use of a stopwatch or light gates for liming
Determining the acceleration of free fall use of calipers and micrometers ior small distances, using d igi1al or
lnvesiiga1ing motion
t•ee pages 51-52). vernier scales
correctly constructjng circuits from circuit d iagrams using d.c. power
Investigating properties Determining Young's Modulus
2 for a metal (see pages 124-125). supplies, cells, and a range of circuit components including those where
of ma1erials 1

polarity is important
lnv~igating electrical Determining the resistivity/conductivity designing, constructing and checking circuits using d.c. power supplies,
3 of a metal (see pages 156-157). cells, and a range of circuit components
properties
use of a signal generator and oscilloscope including volts/division and
1

lnvestigaling electrical Investigation of potenlial drvider circuits time-base

4 (see page 180).
circuits generating and measuring waves, using microphone and loudspeaker, or
ripple tank or vibration transducer.. or microW"ave/radio wave source
1

5
6 using LEDs (see pages 234-235).
7
8 Investigating gases
9 Investigating capacitors conlaining a capacitor varies as the capacilor
Tip: PAG11 and PAG12
arc more general than
Lhe others - lhcrc
10
arc lots of areas in the
course where lhesc
might be covered.
11
Tip: Research skills
include being able to cite
12
sources of informa1ion.
There's more about
cil·ations on p.27.
Investigating waves Detcnnination of the wavelength of light with use of a laser or lighl source to investigate characteristics of ligh1,
a diffraction grating (see page 328). including imerference and diffraction
use of ICT such as computer modelling, or data logger with a variety of Tip: Each individual
Investigating quantum Determination oi Planck's conslant sensors to collect data, or use of software to process data PAG won't cover every
effects use of ionising radiation, including detectors single one of these
techniques, but you
applying investigative approaches and methods to practical work should have covered all
lnvestigaling ionising Absorption of u or ~ or 1 radiation
radiation (see pages 429-430). using online and offline research skills the loctmiques you need
to know by the end of
correctly ci1ing sources of information your course.
Determining an estimate of absolute zero
using variation of gas temperature with All of these techniques should be covered across a ll of the PAGs.
pressure (see pages 259-260).
Detennining how the current through a circuit
charges (see page 356).
Investigating the fadors affecting the
Investigating simple
period of a simple harmonic oscillator
harmonic motion (sec pages 287-289).
Apply investigative a pproaches and methods
Investigation
to your practical worl< (see page 23).
Researching online for furlhcr information
Research skills on a topic (e.g. see page 26).

Practical Skills for the Practical Endorsement Practical Skills for the Practical Endorsement @ .., M
 All 5.1. derived unilS can he expressed purely in lcrms of 5.1. base units. But
Module 2 Foundations of Physics some S.I derived units have 1heir own names and symbols. Here are some of
examples of 1hese S.L derived units that you'll come acros.i; quite oflen:
,.,., SJ.derived _...., 11.tittm111S./.
"-'u'IHlbty unit 5, ......,.,. base umts

learning Objectives: 1. Quantities and Units Cnetgy, work, hoa1 joulo kgm's'
• Know lha1 physical Resistance o/rm n tgmisJA 1
quami1ies ha\•e a For absolutely everylhing in Physics, you rKX-><i ro make sure your w1Jues are
lbtemial difference,
numerical value and in the correct units. The next fav pages show you the correct units for lhe
em.f
VO/I v tgmis 'A r
a unit ntost common quantities, as vvell as how to use prefixes ivith lhem.
• Know LI1'1 Sys10mc
Olarge coulomb c As
lmcrnatjonalc (S.L} S.I. units Force, wcigllr newton N kgms'
base quantities A physical quantity is something that you can measure. Every physical Poww wau w kgm2s 1
and their units - quanlily has a numerical value and a unit Each time you measure something,
mass (kg), lenglh (m),
Pressure, sucss pasGJI Pa kgm-'s 1
Lime (s), current W ,
or do a calculation, you need to give the correct unils of the quantily. Frequrocy hetu Hz ,. Figure 2: Alessandro \.6/ta,
the man after whom the
Lcmperamm (I(), You might need to convert quanlilies inlo the right unils before using
Rgure 3: Qwnu·ues and their 5.1. derived u11iis. 'volt' was named. All of I.he
amoum ol substance a formula. The SyslCme International (S.I.) includes a set of base units from
(moQ. which lots of others are derived. There are seven base unilli in this system, but You can also use lhe homogeneity of units to help you to check your derived S.I. units in ngure .1,
and some of 1/te base unirs
• Know derived units of you only net.'CI to knmv these six: \Vorking if you have to combine or rearrange equalions.
in figure I,, are named alter
5.1. base units.
• Be able 10 check Quanuty S.L base umt Symbol Examples-i{@lji§1j famous physidsis.

Lhe homogenc~ity of Le11gth m~re m Rearrange P = PR for /, Checl< the homogeneity of your answer.
physical equations
using S.I. base uniis.
Mm
11me
kilogram
second
kg Rearrange I'= PR 10 get: I= ./'i,. Tip: \Ou don't need
to remember all of the
• Understand uniLS To ched< lhe unilS are the same o n both sides, substitute the unils for each combinations oC uni is
listed in this book. lUrrem anlf"l'l' A
quanlity into the equation, then cancel down: in 1hc last column of
• Know prefixes and Tempetature kelvin K Figure 3. IC yoo need
I is current in amperes, P is power in wansr or kgm' s 3, 1hem, you're better
lllcir symbols and Amount of.i substance mole mo/ and R is resistance in ohms, or kgm2s-lA 1 •
be able to use lhem working them out using
the fom1ulas you know.
LO indicate d<?cimal
submultip1cs or
multiples of units -
Figure 1; Quantities and their S.I. base units.
A= j k&
kgrt1 Y'A '
= j-h
A
= / A1=A

pico Cpl, nano (11), There are only amperes lefl on both sides of lhe equation,
micro (µ), milli (m), Homogeneity of units so the equation is homogeneous.
cen1i (c), dcci (d),
kilo (k), mega (M),
The units in any equation mus1 always be equivalenl (in terms of SJ. base For an object moving with uniform acceleration,
giga (G), 1cra m. unilS) on both sides. This is called homogeneity of units. You can use lhis rule
lo work oul S.1. deri\-ecl units - other units derived from the S.I. base units. v = u +at and s = ~(u + v)t.
Specification
For example, density is fou nd using p = l{t . The unit of mass, m, is Combine these equations to get an equation for s in tenns of u, v and a.
Reference 2 .1.2
kilograms, kg. The unil of volume, V, is lhe unil of lenglh (ml cul><.>d, m'. Check the homogeneity or your answer.
So density, p, is in 'kilograms per metre-cubed', kgm ..... Rearrange v = u + at to get: 1 = v ~ u

Example --1$ tjilj1fll8 Then substitute lhis into s =~(u + v)t => s =~(u + v)(v au)
Show that the S.I. derived unit for speed is m.-1 •
You know that speed = disiancc-:-- time
Then simplify the equa1ion: s = f. (v' - u')
Distance is a length, so its S.I. base unit is lhe metre, m. Again, substi1ute the units for each quantity imo the equation and cancel
The base unit of time is lhe second, s. down (you can ignore any numbers, e.g. the 2):
To find lhe unil for speed, just put I.he unils for d istance s is a length in n1etres, v and u are velocities in ms-1
and time into the equation for speed; m -:-- s = ms 1 • and a is acceleration in ms -'.
m = =1:-,ccms ' )' - (ms')'} = ::::b,Crn",Y' - m"Vl = m
The 5.1. derived unilS you need 10 know will he covered throughout ms P'l>"' ·

the book. There are only metres lef1 on both sides of the equation,
so 1he equation is homogeneous.

Module 2 Foundations of Physics Module 2 Foundations of Physics Mi


Tip: The S.I. base unit
kilogram, kg. is the
only one that already
llas a prefix. Most of
the time you'll need 10
convcn into kg to do a
calculation, not g.
• nano (ni
/ ..n. -=
a1=2=
I ccnli (c)
figure S: II oou/ombmeter
measuring in nC. Often,
me.uurcd values will
already have J prefix,
defined by the apf"'ratus,
so make sure you check
lx.>fore recording wything.
Tip: II yuu get confuscd
with convening between
prefixes, ii might be
easier to first con\'ert to
the unit withoul a. prcfrx
and then convert to the
new prefix. So for this
example, you'd multiply
0.247 by 1 x l(l' ""' 10
change the quanti1y imo
W. Then you'd divide by
I x 1Ol to conven the
quamity into k:W.
Tip: When oonvening,
you should check your
answer is ~ns ible. A
centimetre i:s smaller
than a mcue, so them
are more of thc-!fll in
a given value. So if
you're oonvening from
m 10 cm (or ml to cml)
the number should get
bigger.
•Elf~-· Module 2 Foundations of Physics
Prefixes You need to have a rough idea of the size of each S.I. base unit and
S.I. derived unit in this book, as well as prefixes, so that you can eslimale
Physical quanti1ies come in a huge range of sizes. Prefixes are scaling factors
quantities using them. There's more about estimating quanlilies on the nexl
1hat let you write very big or small numbers without having to pot everything
in slandard iorm (p.471). Again, 1he Sys1eme lntemaLional (5.1.l defines some page.
standard prefixes. The S.I. prefixes lhal you need to kno\v a re:
Practice Questions -Application
Prefix Multtple of uniJ Q l A wave has a frequency of 03 THz.
pico (p ) Ix /0 " Stale lhe frequency of 1he wave in Hz.
mk.ro (1,J
Ix JO'
I x /0 '
Q2 The momentum of an object is found using p = mv, where p is the
momentum, m is the object's mass and v is the velocity of the object
Find lhe S.I. derived unil of momentum.
mi/Ii (m} 0.001 (Ix 10 ' i
0.01 (I x 10 'i Practice Questions - Fact Recall I
deci (d) 0. t ( lx 10 'J Ql Whal is 1he 5.1. unit of Lemperaturc?
kilo (k) 1000 11 x 10') Q2 Give two S.I. derived un i ts~
moga IMJ Ix 10' Q3 Give the multiple of the unit for the following prefoces:
giga (G) ----Ill'
Ix a) pico
b) cenli
tcra m / x 1011
cl mega
Figure 4: Common 5./. prefix£?S.
Prefixes can tell you the order of magnitude of a quaniity.
This gives you a rough idea of the quan1i1y's size, \vhich is useful if
you're us ing it to estimale an04hcr value. For example, a length of
1 m is 3 Ofders of magnilude greater than a length of 1 mm.
Example -f8tjilj1flll
Convert 0.247 megawatts into kilowatts.
1 MW = l x l O'Wand 1kW=1 x lO' W
So the scaling factor 10 move between MW a nd kW is:
(1 x l O'H -(1 xl O') = l xlO'
So 0.247 MW= 0.247 x 1 x 10' kW = 247 kW.
If you need to convert between prefixes for area or volume,
be very careful. For example, you could be asked to convert from
m' to cm'. In this case it's not enough to multiply the qua ntity by
1 x 10'. you would need 10 multiply the quanlity by (1 x IO')'.
h's Lhe same for converting between volumes, for example from
'l'
nm' to mm', you would mulliply by (1 x 10 and not just by 1 x 10 '·
Exan1ple -14MHS1fl1i
Convert 0.083 ml into crnl.
1 cm =- 1 x 10 1 m, so the scaling factor bel\vcen m and cm is
1.- (1x10') = 1 x10'.
So to conllt!n from m' 10 cm', multiply by (1 x 1O')' .
0.083 x (1 x l<l ' )' = 83 OOO cm'
Module 2 Foundations of Physics M< A
 learning Objective:
• Be able 10 make
estimates of physical
quanti1ies listed in
lhis book.
Specification
Reference 2.1.1
Tip: lots or everyday
speeds are given in
miles per hour (mph)
instead of metres par
second, which can malce
estimates diffiOJIL
To (roughly) change
1 Mass ofa ca1
from mph to ms ,
divide the value by two.
E.g. a car (ravelling
at 60 mph travels aL
roughly JO ms 1•
figure Z: Common objt'CIS
1ha1 have a mass of I kg
arc a large bag of sug.ir
a11d a Jiuc boule of water.
Tip: There arc a few
ways }'OU could estimate
111<> cyclist's speed. If
you think you have a
good ide-a, you can just
use that as an estimate,
bu1 iryou'rc struggling,
you could uy comparing
cycling to wa Iking, or
driving at JO mph.
Tip: It will depend on
the q~tion, b ut most
estimates should be
rounded 10 1 significant
figure.
Module 2 Foundations of Physics
2. Making Estimates Making predictions
You may also be asked to use estimales to make predictions aboul how the
Eslimales lJte a just infonned guesses. ThL-y;re a good way to check your outcome of a n experiment would change, \Vere one of the variables to change.
calc11/Jr.ions and to make sure your experiments are correct loo.
Examples- - - - - - - -- -
Estimating values
Estimating values can be tric~ especially for random situations yoo're not
likely to <.'Orne across in real life. The easiest Lhing 10 do is to compare I.he
situation with one you are more familiar \Vith. Figure 1 shows some typical
The equipment used in Figure 3 is used
lo measure the speed of sound, v.
The tuning fo rk creates a sound wave at
a set frequency, f.
plaslic tube Tip : There's more about
this experiment on
page 226.
J
The distance bel,..,en the fork and the
values for things you con-1e across in everyday life.
water is increased until the wave
reaches its first point of resonance.
Al this point the distance is equal
Mass ofa person lOkg lo one quarter of the wavelength.
/SOO kg An error is made whilst measuring thls
Heighiofa man 1.8 m distance. The actual distance is smaller figure 3: Ser-up used for
than the value that has been recorded. finding the speed of sound.
1s ms
Walking spee_<1_ _._ _ 1
Discuss how this error will affect the result of the experiment.
Figure 1: Common values for everyday situations. This error will mean lhal the actual value of I.he wavelength of lhe sound
wave \Viii be smaller than the result of the experiment As v = f>.., this will
Exan1ple -li\tj!lj1flhi also mean that the actual value of the speed of sound will be smaller than
thal calculated.
A cyclist goes for a ride. EstimJte the kinetic energy of a cyclist as he
travels al a constant, typical speed. The resistivity of a wire is investigated. The diameter of the wire is
Tip : Resistivity is
measured and its cross-sectional area calculated. Its resistance for given
The equation for kinetic energy is ft= ~mY. covered in more detail
lengths is recorded, and a graph of resistance against length is produced. on page 155.
Et is kinetic energy, m is mass and vis velocity. An error is made whilst recording the diameter of the wire.
So you need to make a n cslimate of lhe cyclist's tolal mass and veloci1y. The dianleter recorded is smaller than the actual value.
Using information from Figure 1, the mass of a person is 70 kg Discuss how this will affect the results of the experiment.
and walking speed is aboul 1.5 ms 1•
= =7r(~}'
Cross-sectional area' A wi' 2
The mass of a road bike is roughly 1O kg.
So if lhe actual value o f the diameter is Larger than the recorded value,
A cycliSI probably travels at around 10 mph, o< 5 ms 1•
Lhe actual c ross-sectional area is larger Loo.
Substi1u1e these estima1es into the equation:
E, = ~m"' = ~ x (70 + 10) x 5' = ~ x 80 x 25 = 1000 J
J¥.
Resistivi1y, µ, is equal 10 So if the aclual value of A is larger than that
c.alculated from the resuhs: the actual resisaivity of the wire is higher than
the value 1hat IVill be calculated.
So the kinetic energy of the cyclist is aboul 1OOO J.
You can also use estimates to quickly check that you've not made mistakes
during a c.alcula1ion. Ql Estimate:
Tip: If you're struggling
Exan1ple --ff,tjilj1fllj a) The height of a IWo-storey house. with Q1a) think about
b) The gravitalional potential e nergy of a child 3 m above the ground how high a room is,
A handbag costs £5.22 to make. It is sold for £29.99. in a tree. (Gravitational potential energy -= mass of objecLx g x compared to the heighl
Calculate the profit made if 8 handbags are sold. heighl of object above ground, where g = 9.81 ms'.) ola person.
Profit for one= £29.99 - £5.22 = £24.77 Q2 The force acting o n a ball as it is kicked is investigated. The ball's
Total profit= !24.77 x 8 = £198.16 mass, its change in velocity and the time take n to cha nge velocity a re
Using estimates, you can quickly check if this number is roughly correct measured. This is used to calculate the force acting on the ball. The
Profit for one is roughly £30 - £5 = £25, change in the ball's velocity is incorrectly measured. The actual value
is larger lhan the one recorded. Describe how this would affect I.he
Total profit is roughly £25 x 8 = £200
calculated value of the force acting on the ball.
The two answers are very close, so £198.16 is probably correct. (Acceleration -= change in velocity~ time; Force-= mass x acceleralion)
Module 2 Foundalions of Physics W tA
 Leaming Obj ectives: 3. Errors and Uncertainties Example - continued - - -- - -- -
• Understand systcma1ic Look bade at lhe investigation of the force constant on the previous page
errors (including Scientists al\vays have lo include lhe uncenainty of a result, so you can (see Figure 1). If the ruler is not correctly lined up to the lop of the piece of
zero errors) and see the range the actual value probably lies wilhin. Dealing with error and rubber, all the extension measuremenLS woold be shifted by the same amount.
random errors in uncertainty is an in1ponan1 skill - you na->d to make sure lhar you kno\v .111d This would introduce a systematic error due to your expef"imcntal method.
measuremems.
try to minimise the uncertainty of your experimental resulLS.
• Know how errors You can calibrate your apparatus by measuring a known value. If
Tip: To calibrate a set o(
affect precision and
accuracy.
Types of error 1here's a d ifference between the measured and known value, you can use this scales you could weigh
Every measurement you take has a n experimenlal uncertainty (see page 16), Lo correct the inaccuracy of the apparalus, and so reduce your systematic error. a 10.0 g mass and chedc
• Be able Lo f'.aused by two types of error: Calibration can also reduce zero errors (caused by the a pparatus that it reads 10.0 g. If
calculate absolute failing to read zero when it should do, e.g. when no current is no,ving th rough these scales are precise
and pcrceruage Random errors to the nearc~t 0.1 g. then
uncenaimics \1.:hen Random e rrors cause readings lo be spread aboul the lrue value due lo the a n ammeter) \vhich is a type of systematic error.
you can only calibrate
data are rombined by results varying in an unprcdicrnble way. They affect precision (sec page 18). to wiLhin 0.05 g. Arry
addition, sub113c1ion, They can just be down lo noise, or because you're measuring a measurements taken
multfplica1ion, random process such as nuclear radiation emission. You can get random will have an uncenain1y
division and raising to
powers.
errors in any measurement and you can't completely prevent them, no mauer Combining uncertainties
When you do calculations involving values lhat have an uncertainty, you have
°' %0.05 g.
how hard you ll)I.
• Be able Lo calculate to combine the uncertainties to gel the overall uncertainty for your result.
percentage difference. If you measured the length of a \Vire 20 times, lhe chances are
Specification
you'd gel a slightly different value each time, e.g. due 10 your head being in
a slightly different position when reading the scale. It could be 1ha1 you just Adding or subtracting
Reference 2.2.1
can't keep conlrolted variables exacily the same throughout the experiment. When you're adding or subtracting data you add the absolute uncertainties
Or it could just be the wind \ WS blo\ving in the \Vroog direction al the time. (p.16).

Example Example -i8§ilji§ij

Tip: All sons of
things are affected by
1cmpcrature, from Lile
propenies of a material
to lhC! a.irrcm flowing in
a circuit.
You could invesLigale the force consta nt
(see page 113) of a panicular rubber band
using lhe apparatus in Rgure 1.
The force constan1 of the rubber
band increases with temperature.
If the surrounding lemperature
changes, il could introduce a
random error.
Rubber .,..,.._Clamp
band ~ sr.nd
Figure 1: An experiment to find the
lotce consram ofa rubbCY band.
llp: Be very careful.
A wire is stretched from 0.3 ± 0.1 cm to 0.5 ± 0.1 cm. Even if you subtract
Calculate the extension of the wire. the data, you add the
First subtract the lengths wilhoul the uncertainty values: uncertainties (combining
unccrlainties should
0.5 - 0.3 = 0 .2 c m always make 1he
Then find the total uncertainty by adding the individual absolute uncertainties:
uncertainty increase).
0.1 + 0.1=0.2 cm
So, the wire has been stretched 0.2 :t 0.2 cm.

Using more sensilive apparatus can reduce the size of random errors, Multiplying or dividing
which makes your results more prt..'Cise. Repeating your experiment and When you're multiplying or dividing data, you add the
takjng an average (mean) of your repealed measurements {sec page 10) will percentage uncertainties, p.16.
also reduce the effect of ra ndom error. The more measurements you average
over, the less effect random error is likely to have in your final result Exan1ple --fj§il4fllfl
A force of 15 ± 3% N is applied to a stationary object which has a mass
Systematic errors of 6.0 ± 0.3 kg. Calculate !he acceleration of the object and stlte lhe llp: Don't forget
Systematic errors usually cause each reading to be d ifferent to the true value to convert all the
percentage uncertainty in thjs value. unccnainties to
Tip: A nc?\VlOn meter by lhe same amount i.e. they shift all of your measurements. They afit.'Ct the
I.hat aJways measures Firsl calcula te lhe acceleration \Vithoul uncertainty: percentages before you
accuracy of your results (see page 18).
values 1 N greater than a = F ~ m = 15 ~ 6.0 = 2.5 ms ' combine by multiplying
You usually get systematic Cffors because of the environment, the or dividing - see
1hey should b<l will Next, calculate the percentage uncertainly in lhe mass:
shifl all your rcsuhs up apparatus you're using or your experimental method, e.g. using an inaccurale page 1C> for how.
by I N - this would clock, repeated identical mistakes in measurements, etc. % uncenainty in m = ~:~ x 100 = 5%
imroducc a systematic The problem is often thal you don't know systemalic e rrors arc Add the percentage uncef1ainlies in the force and
error doo to the there. You've got to spol them first to have a ny chance of correcting for them. mass values to find 1he 1otal uncertainty in the .acceleration:
apparatus used. They're annoying, but there are things you can do to reduce them if you Total uncertainly = 3% + 5% = 8o/o
manage to spot them (see next page).
So, the acceleration= 2.S ± 8o/o ms-'
If you suspect a systematic e rror, you should repeat the experiment
wi1h a differenl technique or apparatus and compare lhe resulcs.

,_ Module 2 Foundations of Physics Module 2 Foundations of Physics Mi

 Tip: Ybu're given 1.hc
Raising to a power
When you're raising data to a power, you multiply the percentage
4. Graphical Representations of Learning Objectives:
area o( a d rcle as $r1 in • Understand and
uncertainty by the power.
the data and formulae
Uncertainties use graphical
booklet.
Exan1ple --f$§1$ ...fll5 Lreatmem of errors
You can shaw the uncettainties in your datiJ on any graphs lhal you ploL and uncenaimies,
The radius of a circle is r = 40:: 2.5% cm. What will the These graphs can be used to see both the uncertainl)' in each measurement, including absolute
percentage uncert..t inty be in the area of this circle, i.e. 1fr2? as well as to calculate the uncertainly in your Jina/ result. and percentage
The radius \Viii be raised to 1he power of 2 to calculate the area. uncertainties.
• Recall the c:onvnmions
So, the percentage un<.-eria inty will be 2.5o/I) x 2 = So/o Error bars used for labelling
Most of the time, you work out the uncertainty in your final result using the graph axes and table
uncertainty in each measurement you make. When )'OU're plouing a graph, columns.
Tip: Be careful to
Percentage difference you show the uncertainty in each measurement by using error bars to show • Be able to draw lil'IQS
noLconfuse 1his ·with If you knmv 1he Lrue value of what you're investigating you can measure the the range 1he point is likely to lie in. You can have error bars for both the o f best fit and ·worsL
percentage uncenaimy. accuracy of your result using percentage difference~ This is I.he difference dependent and the independent variable. lines.
bet'veen your experimenlal value a nd the accepted value, expressed as a Specification
percentage of the accepted value. Exan1ple -i$@1jf §1j References
2.1.2 and 2.2.1
The error in measuring Lhe extension of material X can be
Tip: 'Accq>1e<l' d'fl ex~rimental value accepted value
means Lhat the value is percemage 1 ere nce = accepted value x 100 found using the error bars in lhe graph below.
currently believed to ~ 700
be true by the sc:iemific
community as it has loo Example -f$®$1flifi
'~ {,()(/
of evidence supponing Ji
it II is sometimes called The speed of light in a vacuum is 299 792 458 ms-' . .S<X>
the troo value. In an experiment, it is measured to be 299 790 OOO ms-1.
What is the percentage difference of these results?
Gi\'e your answer to 2 significant figures.
perceniage d ifference= experimental valu~- a~-epted value x 100 The mor oors extend 2 sqvatCJS to
accept · va ue the right and to the JeR for each Lmg11u5%
Trial
measurernent, which is equivalent Im
= 299790000 299792458 x 100 ro 2 mm. SO, the unron.aimy in
299792458 1 0.80
Tip: The sign ol tho each moosuremem-is ± 2 mm.
= - 0.000008199 ... x 100 = -0.00082% (to 2 s.L) 2 0.81
percentage difference 25 JD 3 .' i
shows you ir the exlP.nsion I m1n 3 0.80
experimemal value was Figure 1: A graph offotce against extension for material X.
100 big or 100 small. Practice Questions -Application Figure 2: If /he uncenainry
is lhe same for .1!1 values
Q1 The s~. v, of a sound wave is found using v = F'A. Whenever you're drawing a graph, make sure you follow the in a rable, itts somelimcs
In an experiment, the frequency, f, is measured to be 125 ± lo/o Hz. conventions covered on page 12. Make sure thal the axes of graphs are \vtilten in the table heading
The wavelengih, >., is measured to be 2.72 ± 1.5% m. Calculate lhe written in the form .,quanlity I unit". The same is also true for table headings ins1ead of by each value.
speed of the sound wave a nd the percentage uncertainly in this value. - see Figure 2. Look 0<11 for lhis when
Q2 The length, L, of each side of a <:ube is 4.0 ± 0.05 cm. Calculate the drawing graphs or using
volume o f the cube and the percentage uncertainty in this value. da1a from a 1able.

Practice Questions - Fact Recall Measuring uncertainty of final results

Q1 Give one way to reduce:
a) random errors
b) systematic e rrors
Q2 Describe how lo find lhe uncertainty in the result of adding two
pie<.-es of data lhal both have a n uncertain1y.
Q3 Slate the equation you would use to calcula te the percentage
differe nce. Explain what percentage difference sho\vs.
Normally when you draw a graph you'll want to find the gradient or iniercept
You can find I.he unccr1ain1y in that value by using worst lines. Tip: Your line of bes1 fit
Draw a line of best fil for your data and use this 10 calculate your (page 12) should always
result Then, draw lines of best fiLwhich have the maximum and minimum go through all of the
possible slopes for the data a nd stil I go through all of the error bars. These are error bars.
1he wors1 lines for your data.

•E\J:W. Module 2 Founda tions of Physics Module 2 Foundalions of Physics * "M

 For example, you can calculale k, the force cons.Lant of the obj ecL
being stretched, from the gradient or the gra ph in Figure 3 - here it's about 5. Scalars and Vectors Learning Objectives:
20 OOO Nm 1. The the pink and blue lines in Figure 3 are the \VOrs1 lines for • Understand 1.he
Vec1ors .1re quanlities \Vith both a size and a dircclion. You need to be able difference between
your data. to add I.hem 10 find a resuflant vec1or or split I.hem in10 components. scalar and vector
~ 700· quantities.
llp: ll<! careful -
sometimes error bars
'"~ The difference between scalars and vectors • Be able 10 add and
.>? 600 subLract vectors .
are calculated using A scalar quantity has no direction - it's just a n amount of something,
a set percentage of coold be;u • Be able to use a veaor
like the mass of a sack of potatoes. uiangftt to deLcrmine
uncertainty for each .'i{XJ high as Ille
measurement, and so blue line or A vector quantity has magnitude (size} and direction - e.g. the velocity lhc resultani of any
will change depending as low as the of a car is its speed and direction. 1wo coplanar vec1ors.
on 1.hc measurement. 400 pink fine. You need to know some examples of scalar a nd vector quantities - like the • Be able to resolve
ones given in the table below'. a vector into 1wo
When1he 300
perpendirular
force isO N 1 Scalars Vectors
components;
F, = FcosO;
lhc extension
200 F.,-= Fsin O.
isOmm
- U1is is a
• displacemem, velocity, Specification
length/distance, speed, mass,
: force {including weight), Reference 2.3.1
ll'le<!StJfemC?IU llKI tempera1ure, time, e nergy acceleration, momentum
with no
unccnaimy.
llp: If a poim <loosn'1 a 5 /() l .S 20 2S .JC/ 35
extension I mm
have an error bar (like
Figure 3: The maximum and minimum slopes possible through the error OOts.
Finding the resultant vector
the origin in Rgure J)
you should treat i1 as Adding or sublrading hvo or more vectors is called finding the resultant
you would a normal Calculate the wors-L gradient- the gradient or the slope that is vector. There arc lwo ways of doing this you need to know abouL
point whilst drawing fu rthest from the gradient of the line of best fit. In Figure 3, the gradient of For both methods, you should start by drawing a diagram. Draw the
a line of best fit. The the blue line is aboul 21 OOO Nm-• and the gradient or the pink line is about vectors 'tip to tail'. If you're doing a vector subtraction, draw the vector you're
wors1 lines you draw 19 OOO Nm 1, so you can use either. subLracling with Lhe same magnitude but pointing in Lhe opposite direction.
should go through "' The uncertainly in the gradient is given by the d ifference between
near to iL the best gradient {or the line or besl fil) and the worst gradient - here it's
1OOO Nm 1• So this is the uncertainty in the value of the force constant. Finding resultant vectors using scale diagrams
For this object, the force constant is 20 OOO± 1OOO Nm ' You can find the resultant vector of any two vectors by drawing a scale
(or 20 OOO Nm 1 ± 5%). drawing of them 'tip-to-Lail' and then measuring the length and angle of the
Similarly, the uncertainty in they-intercept is just 1he d ifference resuhanl vector on the diagram.
between the besLand worst intercepls (allhoogh there's no uncertainty in Example -f$tj!!ij §1d
Figure 3 since the best and \vorst lines both go through the origin}. Tip: A bearing is a three
A man walks 3.0 m on a bearing of 055° then 4.0 m east. Find the
djgit angle measured
I Aftg.tq:l,Jlt:?1"·'·A !1fflttfi·'·'·' 1
magnitude and direction (lo the nearest degree) of his displacemen~ s.
Start by drawing a scale d iagram for how fa r the
clockwise from north in
degreos.
Ql The table below shows the temperature of a beaker of water as it is man walked using a ruler and a protractor:
heated over time.
4 c:m Tip: You could also
Time/ s Temperature/ "C
calculate this using the
() 21±1 sine and cosine rules -
I en, = Im
30 28± 1 drawn tlJ sc:alc see page 488.
60 35 ± 1
90 43 ± 1 Tip: The man has
Then just measure the missing side -.v ith a ruler .and the missing angle walked 7 m in 1otal, bu1
120 50± 1 = =
with a protractor: s 6.7 cm a nd O 75" {to the nearest degree). his d isplacement is less
than 7 m. Displacement
a) Draw a temperature-time graph ror the water. So, using lhe scale from the drawing. the man's gives the position
b) Calculate the gradie<lt of the graph. displacement is 6.7 m, on a bearing or 075". ~ 10 the stan point
State the uncertainty in your a nswer. <see page 48).

fi.i1M Module 2 Foundations of Physics Module 2 Foundations of Physics Mi


Tip: Primed vectors
arc normally bold (a).
When they're
h.anctwrittcn, you
normally write them
underli ned~ or wilh an
arrow abo\'e them (ii).
Tip: Thfs is rrom
Pythagoras' thoofem.
You might remember
this from GCSE maths.
Tip: a and bare the
si7.cs of vcc1ors d and b
respcclively.
Figure 3: Boats won't jus1
uavel in a suaight line if they
t1y ro sail suaight across a
river - there ;s a fOfce on
the boot from the river. So
it will experience a resultant
force that makes il uavef on
a loogl!f palh.
Tip: \bu may be given
angles in degrees or
radians. Make sure )'OU
knCM• how 10 change
your calculator between
lhetWO•
••• Module 2 Foundations of Physics
Finding resultant vectors using trigonometry Resolving vectors into components
If l\'-'O vectors are perpendicular 10 each other, like in Figure 1, you can Resolving vectors is the opposite of finding the resultant - you starl from the Tip : The components
calculate the size and angle oi the resultant vector using trigonometry, by resultant ve<:tor and split it into two components a1 right angles 10 each other. are nonnally horizontal
drawing a vec1or triangle.
You're basically wori<ing backwards from the examples on pages 41 and 42. andvcnical. lf you're
working with an object
Resolving is dead useful because t\VO perpendicular components
of a vector don'Laffect each other. This means you can deal with the two on an inclined plane,
it migh1be easier m
d irections completely separately. When you have to add another vector Lh.at use components that
affects only one of the compooenlS, you can just ignore the other. are parallel and at rtght
angles 10 1hc plane
Resolving a vector into horizontal and vertical components (sec nex1 page).
Figure 1: A right.angled uiang/c representing two The components of a vector are perpendicular to each other, so they form a
vectors 'a' and 'b; and the resultant voctor 'R~ right-angled triangle with 1he vector.
You can c.a lculate the size of the resultant vector R using the formula:
Ve<ti<:a/Y+
L ZJi;_ .
R= ~ C<HTIJKNlefll !F,
•• x
You can ea lculate lhe size of lhe angle 0 in degrees using the formula: lmriLontal component
Figure 4: The veaor Fand its horizontal
component F, and vertical component f,.
You just need to use a bit of trigonometry to find the components of the vector
in each direction:
For any right-angled triangle where you know t\vo sides, you can work out the Tip : This uses SOH CAH
size of an angle wilh one of the fom1ulas below. A handy way to reme mber
You get the horizontal ...a nd the vertical TOA as well (p.42).
1hcm is SOH CAH TOA (see page 487). componenl f . like this: component F like this:
1
cosO = f sinO =~
Tip: In lhese formulae,
0 is measured from lhe
d( F. = FcosO F, = f sinO
sinO= ~ cosO=~ tan O= opp
acq horizontal.
Example _f$ffittJ1§ld
Rgure 2: SOI-I C/tH TOA lot a righ1-ang/ed triangle. Ahot air balloon is travelling al a velocity or s.o ms-' at an angle or 60.o•
up from the horiz ontal. Find the vertical and horizonta l components of
its velocity.
Example -l$tj!lj1§15 First, sketch a d iagram:
A remote-controlled aeroplane flies with a driving force of 63 N east
while being pushed north by the wind by a 36 N force.
Whal is the resultant force on the aeroplane?
Start by ske1ching a diagra n m
,...··:
R, .
,~' :u,N
....0
6.l N
Then find R: The horizonlal component v1 is: Exam Tip
R = ./63' t- 36' = 72.5603 .. = 73 N (lo 2 s.f.) v. = vcosO = S.Ocos60.0111 = 2.5 ms 1 cosW0 = sin30° = 0.5.
Remembering this may
Then find II: save time in lhe exam.
The vertical component v1 is:
O = tan ' ~~ = 29.744. . = 30° (to 2 s.f.) v = vsin O = S.Osin60.o• = 4.3301 ... = 4.3 ms ' (10 2 s.f.)
1
So lhe resultant force R is a 73 N force, JO<> a nticlockw ise from ea~ .
Module 2 Foundations of Physics Wk A
 Tip: Turning 1hc papc•
Resolving a vector on a slope 1Qrf4,C3:i•lil:?1.t.J,pgr.j t,i l1!1l,1'!l 1!tfi"!11."!1J:t,:;:1;,,;--------
10 an angle can help
You should always resolve vectors in lhc directions that make the most sense
for the silua tion you're dealing with. If you've got an object on a slope, 0 1 Withoul drawing a scale diagram, find the magnitude and direction
you see wha(s going
choose your directions along the slope and at right angles to ii. of a paper plane's resultant velocily v, from its horizontal and vertical
on tx:uer in veaor
problems on a slope. compone nls, shown below.
Example -f$®1j1fllj
: Z.O m:s'
An apple with a weight of 1.5 N is at rest on
Exam Tip
Examiners like 1.0 call a
a slope inclined at 29° to the horizontal, .. : < J:c;::__j ;/:75ms'
as shown in Figure S. Find the component /his angle is
slope an 'inclined plane'. fJiagram not to scale
of its weight that acts along the slope. also29°.
This time, instead of resolving the vector into Q2 Withoul drawing a scale diagram, find the horizontal and vertical
Tip: \<\'eight always acts vertical a nd horizon1al components, you're compone nts of this force.
vertically downwards resolving il into <.'Omponents parallel and 12 N :
HN
"""'~"
{sec page 7&). perpend icular to lhe slope (W1 and W,). WP.ighr
To find W,, use opp= sin Ox hyp Rgure S: An apple with a weight o ;a8ram no< "'·"'"le
Tip: Angle rules were of 1.5 N ai rest on a slope.
=> W, = sin 29° x 1.5 = 0.7272 QJ Use a scale diagram lo find magnitude and direction of the re;ullam
used to work ou11ha11.hc = 0.73 N (10 2 s.i.)
angle lx!(\veerl W and force produced by a 2.9 N force north a nd a 4.1 N force easl.
w2 was 30"' too. Q4 A brick with a weight of 20.0 N is on a slope al 25q to the horizontal Tip: The normal
Resolving vectors to find the resultant a) Find Lhe componenl of the brick's weight that acts down the slope. contact force due to
Resolving vt>clors also gives you a nother way 10 find the resultanl vec1or an object's weight acts
o r f\vo vectors Lhat aren't at righl angles to each other. Resolve the vectors
b) Find 1he size of the normal contact force exerted on 1he brick by
the slope.
perpendicular '° the
Tip: Yoo'll need IO surface. It is equal in
into their horizontal and vertical componenls, and add up the vertical a nd
resol\'e forces when Q5 Two children are polling on a 1oy. The forces exerted on the toy are size 10 the componcn1
horizontal components separately. Then you jus:t need to combine 1he l\VO to ol the weight applied to
ii comes 10 projectile shown belmv. Calculate lhc resultant force, includ ing the angle at
get the resultant veclor. It can be a lot less fiddly than drawing accurate scale which it acts to the horizontal, on the toy. the surfaoo, but aas in
11101ion on page 53. diagrams. the opposite direction.
21N
Exan1ple -1$§if4"rflll
Two forces, A and 8, are pulling on a. blodc,
shown to the right. A has a magnitude of _kA """'~ I);~~~~-~"'""~ Tip: R:>r qliCStion 5,
it's easiest to choose

Tip: 0, 9 and l> aro all

Greek tetters that can
be usad 10 represent
different angles..
Tip: 8" careful if yoor
forces are acting in
opposite dircaions
- when you find the
resull'ant components
you'll end up iaking
away ins1ead of adding.
In 1hese cases, it's
always good 10 marlc the
dirnction you've chosen
as positive on any
diagrams you use.
15 N and acts at 30° to the horizontal.
B has a magnitude of 1O N and acts at 60°
to the horizontal. Calculate the resultant
force on the blodc to 2 significant figures,
CJ \a· //I N
~as the positi\'e
vcnical djrcc1ion and SQ
~to be 1he positive
horizontal direction.
For force A: For force 8:
A =A cosO = 15cos30° B, = BLv;,P = 1Ocos60" IMH§:g.. tli:f1,(.],g tffll:i4ffiiil i
A; -= Asin O= 15sinJ01> 81 = Bsin .P= 10sin6o• Q l What's the d ifference between a scila r and a vector?
The resultant horizonlal con1ponent (F1 ) is: Q2 Whal name is given Lo a vector formed by adding vectors together?
F, =A,+ B, = 15cos3o• + 10cos60° =17.990... N
And the resultant vcnical component {F~is:
F1 = A, + 81 = 15sin30° + 10sin 60° = 16.160... N
Then using Pythagoras' theorem (page 42),
the size of the resultant veclO(, R, is:
R: /FTIF! = /17.990 ...', 16.160.. .' = 24.1827... N
The angle between Rand lhc horizonlal is:
'Ii>= tan 1 (fi)
f,
=Ian(16.160 ... ) = 41.93•
1
17.990...
So the resultant force on 1hc block is 24 N (Lo 2 s.f.J
acting al 42° (to 2 s.f.) to the horizontal.

• ·t- Module 2 Foundations of Physics Module 2 Foundations of Physics MC A

 Section Summary
Make sure you know...
Exam-style Questions I
That all physical quantities have a numerical value and a unit
The Sysceme International base quanti1ies and I.heir units.
The unilS derived fro m S. I. base unils, including any units covered in this book. An 1-Vgraph for a resistor is shown below.
How to check the homogenei1y or equations using S.I. base unils.
The prefixes for units and their meanings.
How to estima1e the sizes of physical quantities covered in this book.
How to make predictions or ho\v c hanges in, or incorrect recordings or, a variable \Viii affect the
results or an experiment
The meaning uf the terms random error, systematic error and zero error.
How the effect of errors on an experiment can be reduced.
How errors affect 1he precision and accuracy of results.
0.0 0., 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Ho\v to calculate and plot the absolute a nd percentage uncertainties in a result.
potential difference I V
That when adding or subttacting data that has uncenainties, the uncertainty of the result is found by
adding together the absolute uncertainlies of the data. What is the percentage uncertainty in the measurement of 0.4 V?
That when multiplying or dividing data that has uncertainties, the uncertainty of the resuh is found by A 0.05%
adding together the percentage uncertainties of lhe data. B 0.1%
That when raising da ta thal has an uncertainty 10 a po\ver, lhe uncertainty of the resull is found by
mulliplying the percentage uncertainty by the po\ver.
c 5%
That the percentage difference is a way of measuring the accuracy of a result. D 12.5%
How to calcula te the percentage d ifference or a result. (1 mark)
How Lo use error bars Lo represent the uncertainty in a measure me nt
That axes of graphs a nd headings o f tables should be written in the form 'quantity I unit'.
2 A box of books is sliding down a frictionless slope inctined at 30.0' to the horizontal.
The meaning of the term '\vorsl line'. The weight of the box of books is 15 ± 0.5 N.
How to use worst lines to calculale the uncertainty in a result
(a) calculate the size of the component of the box's weight that acts down the slope.
The difference between scalar and vector quantities. Calculate the percentage uncertainty in this value.
Examples of both scalar and vector quantilies. (3marks)
How lo add and subtract vectors using a scale drawing. (b) More books are added to tile box. A 23 N force is then applied to the box. This
How to use trigonometry to find a resultanl vector of l\vo perpendicular veciors. force acts parallel to tile horizontal. It produces a 3.0 N resultant force up the slope.
How to resolve a vcctOf into l\VO components a t right angles to each other. Calculate the new weight of the box.
(3marks)

3 A student investigates the force constant of a spring, by measuring

the extension of the spring for different stretching forces.
(a) The student realises that the mass balance he has been using has caused a zero
error. State whether this is a type of random or systematic error, and describe the
difference between systematic and random errors.
(2 marks)
(b) The spring was extended linearly by 3.0 ± 0.05 cm when a force ol 60 ± 5 N was
applied to it. Calculate tile force constant of the spring and the uncertainty in this
value. Use the equation: force =force constant x extension.
(4 marks)

+ .!# Module 2 Foundations of Physics Module 2 Foundations of Physics

 You can derive the fourth equation from equations 1 a nd 2:
Module 3 Section 1: Motion Use equation 1 in the form: a = (v - u)
t
Multiply both sides by s, where: s - Y,(u ; v)t
This gives: as = (v ~ u) X X(u t- v)t
learning Objectives: 1. Constant Acceleration The t's on lhe right can<.-el, so: 2as = (v - u){v ; u)
• Understand wha1 = Y - uv + uv u'
is meanL by the There's a ser of fa1nous equalions lhal you can use ro \\'Ork our an objea's
lerms displacement, displacement, acccleralion and starting and finishing velocity. These equations so: v' = u' I 2as ©
i nstama neous work for an object in uniform acceleration, and are really useful in physics.
speed, average
speed, velocity and Example -f3§15hffihi
acccler.nion. Displacement, velocity and acceleration A mouse runs 1O mas it accelerates uniformly from 1.5 ms-• to 3.S ms-•.
• Be able 10 use You won't get fa r in physics wilhoul coming a<:ross speed, displacement., C.alculate the mouse's acceleration.
Lhe equations of velocity and accelera.tion. Displacement, velocily a nd acceleration are all
veclor quantities (page 41 }, so the direction matters. First of all., wri1e oul vAlat you know:
mo1ion for constant
acceleration in a Speed - How fast something is moving, regardless of direction. s =lO m
straight line: u =l.Sms' Choose the equation with only one unkno\vn quaniity.
V= U + a.t
Displacement - How far an object's travelled from its star1ing point v =3.Sms 1
s = i!(u + v)t in a given d irection. a =? So you need to use: .-' = u' t- 2as
S = Ut+ Xa.r' Velocity - The rate of change of an object's displacement Substitute the values into the equation, then rearrange to find acceleration.
I"= u' + 2as (its speed in a given direction).
Specification Acceleration - The rate of change of an objoo's velocity.
3.5 1 = 1.5' + (2 x a x 10) => a = 12 2
· ~0 2 ·25 = 0.5 ms'
References
3.1.1and3.1.2 During a journey, the average speed is just lhe toia.1 d istance covered divided
by the total time elapsed. The speed of an objecl at a ny given point in time is Examples -f$$Hd4§1d
kno\YO as its instantaneous speed. A car accelerates steadily from rest at a rate of 4.2 ms-1 for 6.0 seconds.
Tip: Accclermion could Catculale its final speed.
mean a change in speed As always, slart by writing down what you know:
or direction or both - The constant acceleration equations
since vcloci1y is speed in There are fou r main equarions that you use to solve problems involving u = Oms· 1
a giwn direction. uniform (constant) acceleration. You need to be able to use them, bul you a = 4.2 ms 2 lben choose the right equation .. v = u + at Tip: You c.an use either
don't have to know how they're deri\'<!d - i1's juSI shown here 10 help you 1=6.0s v = O + (4.2 x 6.0) = 25.2 = 25 ms 1 (lo 2 s.f.} S= Yi, (u + v)Lor
learn them. The equations use 5 different letters: v =? s = w + Y,a t1 10 find Lhc
distance lravclled, but
Calculate lhe distance !ravelled in 6.0 seconds.
s - displacemen1 (in m) u - initial vcloci1y (in ms 1) it's safer to use
u =O ms- 1 You can use: s = Y, (u + v)t or. s = ul t- .Kai' s = w + Yiat1 txx:ausc
v - final velocity (in ms·1) a - ac<.-elcration (in ms-2} l - time (in s) v = 25.2 ms-1 -0- u it doosn'I rely on
a = 4.2 ms-1 s = Y,(O + 252) x 6.0 s = o+ c,v, x 4.2 x 6.0? previously calculated
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. From this you get: l = 6.0 s valoos.
= 75.6 m = 75.6m
s =?
•- Y so v - u + at (j)
= 76 m (10 2 s.f.) = 76 m (to 2 s.f.)

Displacement = average velocity x lime. IM't3:1• llt!?1 i{.] ·f .·..tm

·. .·. .lf!1
..... J,.,,'"i- - - -- - -
11111...

Q1 A cat runs with uniform accelera tion from rest Lo 10 ms 1 in 20 s.

If acceleration is constant, 1he average velocity is just the average
of the initial and final velocities, so: What's ilS d isplacement after this time?
figure 1: All objects fall Q2 The brakes arc applied to a train travelling at 25 ms 1 a nd illakes 18 s Tip: Deceleration is
lhrough a vacuum wilh to stop wilh uniform deceleration. What is its deceleration? the same as negative
thesame acccleliltion (g}. s = Y,(u ; v)1 acceleration.
QJ An electric lram sets off from r~ and 1.ravcls 103 m in 9.2 seconds.
J'here's m01e on this on
pages 50-51. Calculate its acceleration during this time, assuming it was uniform.
Substitute the expression for v from equation 1 into equation 2 to give:
Tip: These equations
l@rt4.t;~1~11t:t1"·'·4 ..m
...1•••<..:I.,f.,.•1..11______
are somesimes called s = Y, (u + u + at)t = Y, (2ut +at~=> s = ut + Y,af (j) Q l What is a) the velocity of an object? b} the acceleration of an object?
'suvat equations'. Q2 What are the 4 'suval equations' for constant acceleration?

M.j:W Module 3: Section 1 Motion Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion MGM

 Leaming Objectives:
• Know lhat an object
in free fall experiences
an accelcr.nion of g.
• Be able 10 use
Lile equations ot
motion for constant
acceleration in a
straight line for bodies
falling in a uniform
gravitational field
without air resistance.
• Know and be able
LO USC techniques
and procedures
10 dctermin<?1he
acceleration of
free fa ll, such as
using a lrapdOOr
and electromagnet
arrangement (PAG1).
Specification
Reference 3.1.2
Tip: Make sure you
learn these conventions
- rnmcmber lhat
d irection is important
when using vectors.
Tip: Sec pages 48 and
49 for the equal.ions of
moLion.
Figure I : A ball bl!iJring !hat
is falling vf!ltically is assumed
to be in free Fafl. This is
because they are small and
qui1e sueamlinP.d; so any air
resistance acting on them
is assumed 10 be negligible.
This makes tlrem useful lot
free fall experiments (see the
"""' p;igoJ.
Module 3: Section 1 Motion
2. Acceleration Due To Gravity Examples -f$§l$ 1§itj
A tile falls from a roof 25 m high.
ff you drop a ball (or anything else heavier than air) from a height, it Calculate its speed when it hits the ground.
accelerarcs lO\vards Lhe ground due to gravity. ff no other forces act on the As before, stan by writing out wha1 you know:
ball (like air resistance) the ball is said to be in 'free faff'.
s = 25 m Tip: Here, all ollhc
u = O ms· 1 (since lhe tile's sta1ionary lo stan with) values we're interesU·!d
What is free fall? g =9.81 ms-' in ao downwards, so we
Free fall is when there's gravi1y acting o n an object and nothing e lse. v =I can define downwards
ltS defined as the motion of an object undergoing an acceleration of 'If. We want to find v, we knmv s and g, and the life has no initial velocity. as the positive direction,
You need to remember: so aII the vector
So use V" = 2gs: quantities are positive.
Accelera1ion is a veclor quantily - and 'g' acts vertir.ally downwards. ""= 2 x 9.81 x 25
The magnitude of 'g' is usually taken as 9.81 ms ', though it varies slightly
al different poinlS on the Earth's surface.
"" =490.5
=> v = /4905 = 22.1 47 ... = 22 ms 1 (10 2 s.f.)
The only force acting on an object in free fa ll is its weight
Alex throws a stone upwards. She throws it with an initial velocity of
Objects can have an initial velocity in any direciion and still undergo free 4.00 ms-1• What is the maximum height reached by the stone?
fall as long as the force providing the initial velocity is no longer acting.
You knmv u = 4.00 ms 1; v = 0 ms' and a = g = - 9.81 ms"
'g' is also used for gravitational field strength, where g = 9.81 Nkg 1 (p.76). Tip: Ar.celeration due
You need to find s.
If you break dmvn Nkg ' inlo S.I. units, they are actually the same as ms 2, to gravity aas against
so irs lhe same 'g'. Use V" = u' + 2as, s = (Ii' - u') -. 2a the motion of the stone,
so i1's negative here.
s = (O' - 4.00') .. (2 x - 9.81)
= 0.81549 ... m
Free fall and the equations of motion = 0.815 m (to 3 s.f.)
You need to be able to work out speeds_, distances and times for objects
moving vertically in a uniform gravitational field \Vith an acceleration of g.
As g is a constanl acceleration you can use the equations of motion. But
because 8 acts downwards, you need lo be careful about directions. To make
it clear; there's a sign convention: upwards is posilive, downwards is negative.
g is always downwards, so it's usually ncgalive.
Determining g using free fall r= 1J
O ne method you can use to delermine the acceleration due to gravity g Tip: Whether you
l is always positive. using free fall involves dropping a ball bearing onto a trap door using an use this experiment or
electromagnet. You can carry out the experiment by following these steps: another method; be sure
u and v can be either positive or negative. you are working safely.
Se4 up the equipment shown in Figure 2.
s can be eilher positive or negative. Do a risk assessment
before you stan.
l
Case 1: No initial velocity
Thfs means an object is just falling - initial velocity u = 0. . M!.~~!!>ll ....
A<..-celeration a = g = - 9.81 ms 2 • Hence the equations ol m<>lion become:
v = gt
s = ~gt'
"" =2gs
s = l2 vl
swrtd•
1.rapdoot
••:r· h
Figure 2: Grcuit diagram for an experiment
Case 2: An in itial velocity upwards lD determine g using free fall.
This means it's projected up inlo the air. The equa1ions of molion are just as Tip: You could reduce
Measure the height h from the bouom of the ball bearing to lhe trapdoor.
normal, but with a = g = - 9.81 ms-'. the error in your
Flick 1he s\vitch to simultaneously start the timer and disconnect the measurement of h by
J
e lectromagnet, releasing lhe ball bearing. using a set square to
Case 3: An initial velocity downwards
The ball bearing falls, knocking the trapd()()( down and breaking the make sure your eye is
This is like case 2 - the equations of molion are as normal with le\'el wiLh the ruler.
a = g = - 9.81 ms ' · circuit - which slops the timer. Record lhc lime t shown on the timer.
Repeat 1his experiment three times and average the time taken 10 fall.
Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion Wj
 Exam Tip
To calculate 8 from the r<Sulls, rearrnnge the equation h = Xc l' (page 50)
to get g = 2h .,. I', where 1 is the time measured by the timer and h is the 3. Projectile Motion LNming Objactives:
You could atso mc:tSUr~ • llndersland lhe
height that the ball bearing has fallen. Objects soch as a thrown bJll or a bul/cl lmving a gun have proicctile
8 "'~ lig111 g;>l('S. indep<rldenC:ll of the
Drop the b;lll """"""' Repeat this experimen< lor SCllCr.ll different heights. Calculate a value ol g motion. They folloiv a curved p.uh and evperience free fall. The Irey dUng YMictl and horizoroal
two light g>U'S thot • ., ror each height. hete is 10 ueat the horiLontJ/ ;ind """ical parts of motion separately. mooion of • projeaile.
a kno\\11 dislance apon Average the values ol g lor each cl the heights to find )'QUr final value ol g. • llndmland and
1/1), and ""' till' lig111 Projectile motion be ablo IO poriorm
gates to "''""""' ""' Identifying and reducing errors Any object given an initial ,..,Jocjty and then lelt to """"' freely unde< gravity cak:lrlalions invoMng
volod•y •• l'xll G>"' 1ht' rM>-<limcnsional
(U and I'). \bu can mm The mosl significanl source o( random mor in 1his experiment \viii be in the is a projectile. In projectlle motion, the hori1.0ntal and \""1ical componenlS mocion of a proj<>aile
USC lhc cquo1ion measurement of h. Using a ruler, you'll have an uncertainty of abou1 :.t1 mm. ol the object's motion are completely independent. Projectiles follow a wi1h cons.~mt wkx:iry
v> = u' • 2g11 urom '™' Using a small and heavy ball bearing means you can assume air a.Jrved palh because the hori1orU31 velocity remains conslant, \vhile the In one dircaion and
equation on pogo 49) 10 resistance is so small you can ignore ii. vertical velocity is affected by the accelcra1ion due lo gravity, g. constam aCC<!lera1ion
Ondg. In a pc!rpoodicutar
Using this kind o( mC<:hanism 10 au1oma1tc.ally release and lime the Exarnple--f$§i#ifu15 d iroction.
ball bearing's fall means you c:an measure times with a smaller uncertainly 1
A cannon ball is fired horl1.ontally with • velocity ol 120 ms- from 1.5 m Specification
than ii you trit'<l to drop the ball ond time lhe ranusing a stopwatch. above the ground. How long does ii lake lo hit the ground, and whal is ils Reference 3.1.3
Tip: II yuu ne•d 10 buff If you Wt!re 10 do this by hnnd, you'd get a larger uncer1ainty due change in horizontal displacement in this lime? Assume lhe cannon ball
up on yuur pr>clicol to human rea<..'lion times (it will 1akc you n fraction or a second to press the acts as a particle, the ground is horizontal and lhere is no air res.isl.J.nce.
slcills, head
pages 5-22.
°""' IO buttons on the stopwatch). But there may still be a small systematic error if
Stan wi1h the vertical mouon i1's constanl acceleration under gravity:
there is a delay in the swi1ch or aiming mechanism.
You know u = O ~no venial velocity at firstJ, s = 15 m Eumrip
and a = g =-9.81 ms'. Younced1ofindt. ~you're doing AS
or A I m!I Madls,
Practice Qtlestions - Application )<lU'll probably <O\U
EumTlp
Unless )'OUR' gi\m 111<>
v.ituc of g 1n an ~x:1m
Ql A ball is Q-opped from the 1op cl a dill and takes 6.19 s 10 hit the
ground. Assuming thett'> no •ir resisbnce, how tall is the dilfl
T · ~" .
...... ....
~
projmik!s in mochanics.

question, )<lU shOO Id Q2 A spanner is dropped from• height ol 6.83 m. Assuming there·s no
assume ii tw :a valur of
9.81 ms'.
air resistance, how last will it be going when it hilS the ground!
Ql Give two ways errors can be reduced wtw..n c.arrying out an
..
••••• ':1

E.xamTip
..Assume 1hc lobjcal
experiment to determine the volue ol g by measuring the length of
time an obje<:'l takes to fall a c:ct dist:.nce.
Use s = !et' ~ 1 =/ij =/~ =o .5530... s aces as a panick!
nncl 1hc'rc is no air
So the ball hits the ground alter 0.55 s«.'OOds (to 2 s.IJ. rc.-s is1 an~· means you
don't nood 10 'IA-'Orry
Practice Questions - Fact Recall Then do the horizorual motion:
about any rorccs miler
than 100 one caused by
Ql What's the only force pr<Sent in free fall motion? gr:ivi1y (weigl!O.
The horizontal motion isn't affected by gravicy or other (orccs so it moves at
1
Q2 a) Describe an experiment you could do 10 obtain data that you . . ·-•--· displacement
could use IO delermmc the value ol g. a constant speed. ThtS means you c.1n 1us:1 use Vl!KX:lty = ume
bJ Explain how )'QU can use your results to find g. Now v• = 120 ms '. t =O.SS30•.• • and a =0. You need to find ....
Tip: r, is the horizont21
... = v•I = 120 x 0.5530••• =66.36... =66 m (IO 2 s.f.) \'l'lodry and s,. is the
horbon1al displacmlent.

Projectile motion at an angle

II something's projec1ed •t •n angle Uike, say, a javelin) you stan off with both
horizontal and vertical vek>cuy. This can make solving problems trickier.
To solve this kind ol problem, you need to use this method: Tip: Resolving"""°"
Resolve lhc ini1ial velocity in10 horizontal and vertical components. was ccwcrC!d on pages
4 )-44.
Use the vertical component 10 \VOrk ou1how long it's in the air
ancVor how high it goc'S.
Use the horizontal component 10 worlc out how far il goes
in the horizontal din.'<.'1ion while it's in the air.

•E,.~•• ModUle 3 Section 1 Motion Module 3 Sedlon 1 Motion w ...+


Rgure 1: The only thing
carrying a javelin forwa1ds
aftet it"s been thro.vn is the
initial hotizomal velocity
given to h by the lhrower.
Tip: v.. is negative
because the javelin is
1ravelling downwards
when it lands.
1:zrn.ca:1. 11t:ffiJ'·'·€A·mm1rttn
Figure 2: A bullel aas as
a projectile in Free fall after
Jc.wing the gun lif you ignOfe
air 1csistance).
"}W Module 3: Section 1 Motion
Example -f t§!$ 1§1N
1 4. Displacement-Time Graphs Learning Objectives:
A javelin is thrown with a velocity of 2 1 ms-' at an angle of 45• to the • Be ablo 10 plot
ground from a height of 1.8 m . How far does the javelin travel! Disp/acemcnt·lime graphs sho\v an object's position relative lo ilS starting displacement-time
Assume the javelin acts as a particle, the ground is horizontal and there is point over a period of rime. They're useful because I.hey can be used 10 graphs.
no air resistance. describe an object's motion as \veil as find its velocity al a given point.
• Understand graphical
representations
Plotting displacement-time graphs of displacement,
You need to be able to plot displacenlent-time graphs for moving objects. speed, velocity and
The suvat equations from page 48 can be used Lo work out values to p lot acceleration on
displacement-time
Displacement is plotted on the y-axis and time on the x~xis.
graphs.
Example -iSffibiffiiN • Know 1.hat the
.
5 - .I Plol a displacement-time graph for a panther who accelerates constantly
from rest at 2.0 ms-' for S.O seconds.
gradient of an object's
displacement-lime
graph gives the
Start by resolving the velocity into horizonta l an d vertical components: velocity of the object.
You \WOl to fi nd s, a nd you know· that:
Specification
uh= cos45° x 21 = 14.84... ms' a =2.0ms' Reference 3. 1.1
uv = sin45° x 21 = 14.84... ms 1
u ::O ms '
Then find how loog it's in the air for - slarl by finding vv. The javelin starts
from a height of 1.8 m and fi nishes at ground level, so uses = - 1.8 m: Use s = UI + Y,at' to find values or I and s lo plot on the graph.
If you substi1ute in u and a, this s implifies to:
v: = u.' + 2gs. => v. = /14.84 ...' + 2 x (-9.81) x (-1.8) = - 15.99 ... ms 1
s = (0 x t) + (Y, x 2.0t')
Then find lhe time i1 stays in the air:
(u. i vJ => t ~ 2 - 1.8 2 3144
=t'
s,.. = - - 2 - x L -= {u .. + vJ x = 14.84... - l 5.99 ... x = · ··· s Now pick values of l between 0 and 5.0 seconds
Novv you can work oul how far it travels horizonlally in this time: and work out s a t those points w ilh s = i 1: ••• then plot the graph:
Tip: Try IO USC time
s,, = u01 = 14.84 ... x 3.144.. . = 46.68 ... = 47 m (to 2 s.f.) intervals lha1 make
I (s) s(m) Z6.0
plotting the graph easier.
In this example, using
0.0 0.0 intervals ot 1 second
gives you 6 points 10
plot, which is enough
Ql A gun fi res a bullet at 502 ms 1 horizontally. If the gun was 1.0 1.0 g
held 1.61 m above the ground, how far will the bullet trave l? ..... for a neat curve.
Assume there's no air resistance a nd Lhe ground is horizontal.
Q2 A catapu11 hurls a rock from ground level at 25 ms ', 60.0., to the
2.0 4.0 "~
~
12.
10.IJ
.!! 8.0
horizontal. Assuming Lhcre's no air resis1ance and that the ground 3.0 9.0 .g- 6.fJ
is horizontal, calculate: 0
4.0
a) The amount of time the rock stays in the air. 4.0 16.0 2.11
b) How fa r away from the citapuh the rock will land. 0.0
5.0 25.0 II.II
Q3 A golf ball is hit al 12.1 ms 1 al an angle of 31.5° above the horizontal nmc/s
from a podium 4.20 m above the surface of the ground. Calculate
the maximum he ight above the ground reached by the ball. Assume
there's no air resistance and the ground is horizontal. Rgure 1: CPS and
Acceleration on displacement-time graphs displacement-time graphs
can be used to uack a sea
The gradienl of a displacement-time graph shows velociry. Acceleration is 1unle's tno~-erncnt between
Practice Questions - Fact Recall the rate of change of velocity (see page 48), so on a displacement-time graph, mau'ng seasons.
Ql What's free fall motion called when the object is given an initial acceleration is Lhe rate of change of the gradient.
velocity? A graph of d isplacement agains:l time for an accelerating object
Q2 What should you do if you need to use the equa tions of uniform always produces a curve. Ii the object's acccJera1ing at a uniform rate, then
acceleration on an object that has an initial velocity a t an angle to the the rate of change of the gradient will be constant. Acceleration is shown by a
horizonta l, in order to find the horizon1.al distance trave lled? curve with a n increasing gradient (like the one in the example above).
Deceleration is shown by a curve with a decreasing gradient
Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion W}M
 Changing lhe acceleration of the panlher in 1he example on the previous Example -f!,§15;1§1N
page would change the gradient of the displacement-time graph like this:
Tip: You could USC The graph below shows a car's displacement over lime.
spmadshoot m-lling Higgt.' r Ac.'<.-elcralion Smalkr Acc.'t!lcralHm What's the car's velocity between O and 6 seconds?
10 plot Ill<> S·t graph fOf
100 panthet. See P3b"''
481-482 10< mote.
lb

...__ ,
26 lhe curve
"
''
24 I Z4 /{)
I
is Jess tigh1, ...... IJ

e~ (,
22 because lhe I
I

I
I
ZIJ
18
rate of change
orgradiant is I
I '
E 16 I E /6 bwer. I i4
.,,
''
I
'c 14 ' 14 a 2
~
I

"E I' E
12
/()
I

,' ...... /) +------~~-

....§-"" I
I ' ....§-"" ,,8 I '
() 2 4 (1
fimc'! I s
1 10 Tip: Although it
might seem pointk!s.s
0 '4• a 4 I
I
I
To work oul the velocity, find the change in d isplacement and the subuacting zero, 1he
2 I change in time during the period given in the question: sectioo al the graph
/
you're working with
2 .J 4 .s 2 .1 4 5 v = ~y
~x =
10 _- 0 = 6 10 = 1 .666 ... = 1.7 ms_,(to 2 s.f .) won't always si:an at 0 .
6 0
TmH! Is nmels
l>c<.-Ucration

Tip: Note that in I.he 2'1

24 I Velocity and curved displacement-time graphs
case of decclcra1ion, I If the gradienl isn't constant (i.e. if il's a curved tine), il means the objecl
the panther mus1have 22 I
lx!cn already moving 211 I is accelerating and 1he velocity is constantly changing.
a1 t = 0. Otherwise iLS IX I ' An objects instantaneous velocity is just its veloci1y at a particular
E
displacement would be
nega1ive. 'c
16
14
' moment in lime. To find the insrantaneous velociLy at a cenain poinl, you
need 10 draw a tangent to the curve at that point to find its gradient.
1!
~
_,," Example --f.\§1$;1$19
<>.
cS
,,8 100 line has a decreasing
gradient and cu/W5 the The graph below shows the displacement of a ball rolling down a slope
4 other way: over time. Find its velocity at S.S s.
2

Tip: If a seaion of
a. disp1acemem-timc
graph is horizontal
(grndi<>nt = OJ, the
OOjea's velocily is zero
- it's noi moving.
2 3 4 .s t (,
Onx~ Is
'
~4
Figure 1: f11e effect of changing the acceletation on the
gradient ofa displacemrnt-tinrc graph. ~2
5l-
iS {) .j..O:::i-,.:.+-~----- Figure 3: A displacement·
/) 2 • 4 6 /j /{)
time graph of a runner
Time l s during a race can be used to
Finding the velocity Start by drawing a tangent to the curve at 5.5 s (this has been done already). work out their velocity .11 any
When vcloc:i1y is constant (but not zero), lhe displacement-time graph is a point in the race.
You can then draw horizontal and vertical lines from lhe tangent to the axes
diagonal straight line. As you saw on the previous page, the gradien1of a to find values for 6 y and t.x.
displacement-time graph shows velocity. This is because velocity is defined as:
v ~ 6t;.xY = .!L-1
8
= .2 = 1 25 ms-•
44.
• change in displacement
ve1oclly -=- time iaken or:

Tip: A negative gradimt
means Lhe object's
moving in a negative
dimction.
The average velocily is just the tolal change in displacement oi
the object d ivided by the lotal 1ime taken. You can ignore any variations in
On the graph. this is c~nge in y ~y
LG' .1.c.1 hegrad.1en1.
c angc m x acceleration and velocity, you jusl need lhe time and total d isplacement.

Module 3: Section 1 Motion Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion W7

 Example -fct@Miflli I Arf4,t3:1.. 11t:?1.t.l.µ ...,,.1.:.,t:ilf..w.,....11,.,1________
,.:F.f.1,.
.

The graph below shows the displacement of a model railway train along Q l What kind of motion does a curved displacement-time graph show?
a straighl 1rack over time. Calculate the average velocity or the train Q2 Whal kind of mo«ion does a straight line on a displacement-time
d uring the time period sho\vn on the graph.
graph show?
E5. QJ What does the rate of change of gradient on a displacement-time
".
...... 4 (

~J.(
graph represent?
Q4 What value can be calcula ted using 1he tangen1on the diSlance-time
]z. graph below?
.f}1.c
Cl ,,.,.~~~__.,~.,.....~~~~~......
0 2 4 6 II 10 12 14 16 Ill 20
Time~ Is
average velocily = total change in displacemen1-:-- time taken
= S.O -. 20 = 0.25 ms '
Figure S: The displacement~
time graph for a bus is Hke/y
i@HS:l•iit@,f,J,€Q·tifflf!1itm1 w show a non-uniform
acceleration as it makes
Q l Use the data in the table below to plot a displacement-time graph.
frequent staps.
I (I) s(m) Yime/s
2 6 QS Whal is the difference bet\veen average a nd instantaneous velocity?
2.5 7.5 Q6 How would you calculate the average velocity of an object moving
3.5 10.S with non-uniform acceleration using a displacement-time graph?
5 15
7 21
a 24
Q2 The graph below shows the displacement of a cyclist during a
journey. Describe what's happening in parts a), b), c) and d).
•/ b) d)

Figure 4: The graph in Q2

might describe a cyclist"s
displacxment as they go
up and down a hill.
fime Is
Q3 A rod<et accelerates a t a constant rale from rest 10 100.0 ms 1 in 5.0 s~
Tip: Stan by finding the
rocket's acceleration. Plot a d isplacement-time graph for the rocket during this time.
Q4 al Use the data in the table below lo plot a displacement-time
graph.
I (s) s (m)
0.0 0.0
1.0 1.5
2.0 6.0
3.0 13.S
4.0 24.0
5.0 37.S
b) Use your graph 10 find the velocity of the object al 3.0 s?

Module 3: Section 1 Motion Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion W}M

 Leaming Objectives:
• Understand graphical
rcpreser1tations
of displacement,
speed, velocity and
accelcra1ion on
velocily-time graphs.
• Be abk> to plot
velocity-lime graphs.
• Know lllat the gradicm
of an object's velocity-
time graph gives 1.he
acceleration of lhe
object.
• Know that the area
under an object's
velocity-time graph
gives the displacement
of the object.
Specification
Reference 3.1.1
Tip: The equation fa<
a straight line is
r=mX+C. You
can rearrange the
acceleration equation
into the same form,
getting r = u + at
So on a linear r...t graph,
acceleration, .J, is the
gradi<!nt (m) and the
initial speed, u, is the
y-imercept Cc).
Tip: In questions like
this you could use the
equadons of motion to
find tlte objocfs velocity
at various times - in
a similar way to the
displacement-time graph
example on page 55.
M :-•M Module 3: Section 1 Motion
5. Velocity-Time Graphs Finding displacement
A speed-time graph is very similar to a velocity-time graph. The big difference
Velociry-time graphs sho\v, as the name suggeslS, an object's velocity over is that velocity-time graphs can have negalive regions to sho\v someLhing
time. As \virh displacemenl·linte graphs, their shape can be used to 1/nd oul travelling in the opposite d irection.
about Jn objec1~ movement ar different points in U"1e.
Tip: When the ball
slows down and stans
Finding the acceleration falling.. its velocity
The gradienLof a velocity-time graph tells you the acceleration, since: will become negative
but its speed will stan
change in velocity increasing again.
acceleration or.
time taken
Titrn-~ Is
Rgure 2: The velocity-1ime and speed-time
Uniform acceleration is al\vays a s1raight line. The sleeper the gradient, graphs for a ba/I being thrown up into the air. Tip: R>r velocity-time
1he greater the acceleration. graphs, the areas under
The area under a velocity-time graph represents lhc displacemen1 of an object, any negative pans of
as d isplacement, s, of an object with uniform acceleration can be found using: the graph coum as
'negative areas', as they
show the object moving
s -= Jl,,(u + v}r = average velocityx time the opposite: way to
whichever direction you
took as being positive.
You can find lhc total distance travelled by an object using:
distance Lravelled =average speed x time
Tip: The examples
Rgure I : A veJocity-lime graph showing Therefore the area undernealh a speed-time graph is the distance travelled. below sho\¥ the link
the gradients of two diffen.Ylt accelerations. bel\.\'CCn these cqumions
and the area under a
Examples -f~.§.$i§IN
Example -f.tMltjifl1i speed-lim~ or w locity-
lim~ graph.
A lion walks at l .S m> t for 4.0 s and then accelerates uniformly at a rate Average velocity = Y, (u + v)
of 2.5 nls-1 for 4.0 s. Plot this information on a velocity-t ime graph. j
But velocity is constant, so u = v.
Start by finding the lion's velocity at intervals becween O and 8 s - it's Tip: Remember, u is
1.5 ms ' for the first 4 seconds,. then it increases by 2.5 ms 1 every second. : hcish• So average velocity= v} v = v
initial velocily and r is
= final vclocity
t (s) • (m.-') j Area under graph
final velocity.
0.0 - 4.0 1.5 base x hcigh1
5.0 4.0 fimc /.~ Tip: Her(.~ displacement
= final velocity x time is the same as distance
6.0 6.5 Rgure J: 1he displacc.:ment for .i = average velocity x 1ime travelled because lhc
rectangular 1,-elodty+time graph is -= displacement
7.0 9.0 velocity-time graph has
just base x height
no negativc pans.
8.0 11.5
Then just ploL a graph with time on the x-axis and velocity on the y-axis:
v
Average spec'CI = >Hu + v)
11 •.'i --1lJJ., ·············-·········-·-········--·· But u -= 0, so average speed = ~
. 10.0 ! Area under graph -
·~ 8.( : The gradient is constam -= v, x base x height
'·~' (,.( betw'-"Cn 4 and as and = y, x Lin-1e x final speed
has a value or 2.5 ms-'.
.Q
representing 1.he :'/2xtxv
~ 4.0
acceleration ol the lion. = ~ xt
1------~------------------· · Figure 4: lhe distance travelled = average speed x time
().(}
for a uiangu/Jr speed-time grap/J = d islancc Lravclled
1.0 z.o :to 4.o s .o CdJ 1.0 H.o is X x base x height
fimels
Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion Mj

Tip: Rcmcmber,
uniform acceleration
and dca!leraLion arc
shown by straight lines
on a velocity lime or
4
speed-time graph.
Tip: If the v-1 graph is
on a grid, you oould also
Y.'Ork out the area under
the graph by counting
~v many squares make
up 111<! area. Muhiplying
the value of each square
by the number cl
squares will give )UU the
displ.acem<'1flt.
~----•
Figure S: When a ball
bounces, il dtanges lhe
direction in which it ;s
t1avr!lling, so I.he s;gn of its
velod1y changes.
Tip: The maximum
velocity decreases w ith
cadl bounce because
some of 1he ball's kinetic
energy is 1ransferrOO into
olher forms when it hits
the ground. This means
1he height of each
bounce also decreases.
Tip: The s1raigtu,
diagonal lines shov.•
that there is c:ons1an1
dccelcra1ion under
gravity - see page 50.
•• Module 3: Section 1 Motion
Example -if.tjifi1filiN
A racing car a cce lerates uniformly frmn rest to 40.0 ms-1 in 10.0 s. It Q l The graph below shows the velocity of a car over 10 seconds.
nlaintains this speed for a further 20.0 s before coming to rest by Use rhe graph 10 find the disp~acement oi I.he car in this 1imc.
decelerating at a constant rate over the next 15.0 s. Draw a velocity.time Tip: To find lhe area CJ(
11 a non.standard shape,
graph for this journey and use it to calculale the tolal distance !ravelled by
, ..., 1() try spliuing i1 into cwo
the racing car.
~ 8
easier shapes {e.g. a
rectangle and a triangle).
Stan by drawing the graph and then splitting i1 up into sections:
-~ 6
] 4
lV1
~
2
0-1-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
·- 2( 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ID
~
~ I " lune/~·
10 io 3() 4 () s'o Non-uniform acceleration
Time Is If the acceleration is changing, the gradient of the veloci1y.time graph will
also be changing - so you \von't get a straight line. Increasing acceleration
Calculate the area oi each section and add the three results together.
is sho\YO by an increasing gradient - like in curve© below. Decreasing
A: Area = v, x base x heigh I = v, x 10.0 x 40.0 = 200 m
I
~
ao::eleration is shown by a decr<>..asing grad ien1 - like in curve (1) belov,r.
B: Area = base x height = 20.0 x 40.0 = 800 m
C: Arca = v, x base x heighl = v, x 15.0 x 40.0 = 300 m
...
Toial d isiance travelled= 200 + 800 + 300 = 1300 m
Exan1ple -i$tj!# .. $ij
A ball is dropped from table-height so ii bounces vertically.
It bounces twice before someone c,atches it. The ball's
motion while it bounces is shown on the v. f graph below.
Calculate how high the ball rebounds on the fir.;! bounce.
Before you try and calculate anything.
make sure you understand what each
ball t•-!J>unds
lime Is
Figure 7: Non-unifOfm acceleralion
on a velocity-limo graph.
Figure 6: II speed-lime
graph of wind during a
pan of the graph is telling you about For graphs like this, you c.an find the acceleration oi an object at a pa rticular hurricane.
the ball's motion. point by drawing a tangent to 1he curve at that point and find ing its gradient.
1. When the ball is firs• dropped,
the veloci1y of the ball is negative Example --f '·§ilfi4§Jtj
1
- so downvvards is the negalive
Find lhe acceleration shown by the velocity-time graph below at 60 seconds.
direction.
2.5
2 . The points where 1he ball hilS the
floor are shown by the vertical
straight lines on the graph - the - baJI hilS the floor
ball's speed remains roughly
the same, but its d irection (and velocity) changes the ins1ant it hits the
floor.
3. The points where lhe ball's velocity is zero show where the ball
reaches the top or a bounce before starting to iall downwards. O +--~-~~~o-~+'~-
The height oi the first bounce is the area under the graph between the time 0 20 40 60 80 10()
Yimc/s
the ball ti r.;t rebounds from the floor and the lime it reaches the top of the
bounce.
Firsl draw a tangent to the c urve al 60 se<.'Onds.
d isplacement =area und er graph
~ = 1~~~7 = 0.13 ms '
= (3.5 x 0.35) .,. 2 = 0.6125 = 0.61 m (to 2 s.f.) Then find the gradient of the tangent: gradient =
0
Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion M RA
 Exam Tip
The counting the squares
method is uw.ful, bUl it
can be 1ime consuming.
If 111<> graph you're giVl!n
has lots ol small squares,
it might be quicker to
split the are.a up into
1.rapcziums and find the
area ol those instead.
Otherwise, block out
larger squares- e.g.
in 1hc graph below you
know !horearo 100
small squares in a big
square.
II
Tip: If )'00 did this by
counting the squams
(or rectangles in this
case), each rectangle
represents 1 m. There
arc 15.5 rectangles
under Ille graph
bctwl.'Cn Oand J s, so
you get 15.5 m, the
same answer as tho
Lrape:zium method.
+;;.w Module 3: Section 1 Motion
Displacement on non-linear velocity-time graphs
As our velocity-time graph is no longer a simple straight line,
I Arf4,t3:1.. 11t:?1.t.l •PA"·!®"
·~·l'!!!tfill!ll!." •"li;;.1;:,1,- - - - -- -
01 a) A cyclist goes down a h ill wi1h increasing acceleration.
we have to use methods to estimate the area under the curve.
Use the table below to plot a velocity-time graph o f the cycliSl.
If the graph is on squared paper, an easy way to do this is just count
the squares under lhe curve (see p.478). Another way is to split the curve up t (s) •(~')
into trapeziums, calculate the area of each one and then add them all up. 0 0
1 1
Example --f:~tjl$1§ij
2 4
A car decreases its acceleration as it approaches 13 ms-1• Estimate its
3 9
displacen1ent between 0 and 3 seconds from the velocity-time graph.
4 16
b) Use the graph to find the acceleration at 2 seconds.
Q2 The acceleration of a car is being tested on a t~-track~ The graph
below is the velocity-lime graph for the car during the test
~
E
~
.....
i
~
10
0 2 3 4 6
linic Is
Split the area under the curve up into trapeziums and a triangle.
0 -1 s - estimate the area wi1h a triangle. 2 4 6 8 10 u 14 16 18
The height of the triangle is 4.
linlC I s
The base of the triangle is 1.
Estima1e 1he total distance travelled during the lest
A = ~(l x 4) = 2m
1-2 s - es1imate the area using a trapezium. Practice Questions - Fact Recall
Ql Whal does the gradienl of a velocity-time graph tell you?
Area = ~(a ·~ b)h
Q2 How is uniform acceleration shown on a velocity-time graph?
a is the leng1h o f the first side, a= 4 QJ Whal does the area under a velocity-time graph !ell you?
b is the length of the second side, b = 7 Q4 Hmv is non-uniform acceleration shown on a velocity-time graph?
h is the wid1h of each slrip, so h = I
A = i (4 I 7l x 1= 5.5m
2-3 s - trapezium, a= 7, b = 9, h = 1
A = ~(7 ~ 9)X1 = 8m
Now add the areastogether - To1al area= 2 + 5.5 + 8 = 15.5 m
The estimated overall displacement of the car is 15.5 m = 16 m (lo 2 s.f.)
Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion WkM
 learning Objective:
• Know and understand
ledmiques and
procedures to
inves1ig:ue lhc motion
and collisions of
objoos (P/\G I).
Specification
Reference 3.1.2
Rgure 1: The bciJm of
fight in a light gate being
interrupmd by a piece of
card attached to a uollcy.
Tip: Yoo could also
do 1his e>1piCrimem
with an air track and
a glider. The air track
creates a cushion of
air that the glider sits
on (similar 10 the puck
in air hockey), which
reduces the friction in
1.he experiment to al most
nothing.
Tip: Rcmornber, you
need 10 carry out a ri.sk
assessmen 1 before )'OU
stan any exp<-'..riments.
M§W Module 3: Section 1 Motion
6. Investigating Motion
If you lvant to do some experiments involving motion, you need 10 kn()l,v the
ins and outs of the apparatus you' ll be using to make measure1nents. You
need to make sure you kno"¥-v the best ways 10 measure the basic values.
Light gates
A lighl gate sends a beam of light from one side of the ga1e to a detector on
the other side. When something passes lhrough the gate, the beam of light
is interrupted. The lighl gate (along with some computer soft\Yare) measures
how long the beam was interrupted for.
Ligh1 gates are oiten used Lo find the velocity or acceleration of
an object. To find the velocity of a n object, the length of the interrupling
object should be input inlo the software. The soft\vare then uses
velocity=- lenglh of object -7- interruption time 10 calculate the velocity.
To find the acceleralion, the object needs to interrupt the beam twice, for
example by attaching a pie<:e of card in the shape of a 'U' to the top of the
object The software uses the difference in the velocity of the two sections of
the card 10 c.alculate the acceleration (page 48).
Light gates are particularly useful because 1hey give a much lower
uncertainly than other methods of timing, like stopwatches. This is because
the system doesn't rely on human reaction times and judgement
Example - - - -
An experimem you can do using light gates involves
a trolley rolling down a ramp.
For example, you can investiga1e how the distance a trolley has
rolled affects ils speed using the set-up shown in Figure 2.
ramp
< angle oframp
Rgure 1: The experimootal sct·UP for an i11VeSligation into
the motion ofa uo!Jey as it uavels do\WJ a ramp.
Measure the lenglh of the trolley.
Mark a stan line on the ramp to make sure the trolley
always s1arts from the same position.
Measure the distance from the chosen start line to che light gate, d.
Place the trolley on lhe ramp and line it up with the
sfan line. Let go of it so its initial velocity, u, is 0.
The data logger will record the time taken for the trolley
to pass through the light gate and calcula te the velocity
of the tro lley as it passes through the gate.
Change the starting position of the trolley.. sod is varied.
Repeat this experiment for each d istance 3 1imes and average the recorded
velocities to reduce the error in your final result.
Ticker timers
Ticker timers are used to measure the speed of an object. A length of paper
tape (ticker tape) is fed through the ticker timer and anached to the object
whose speed you want 10 measure (sec Figure 3). The licker timer crea1es
dots on the tape- at regular time-intervals (e.g. every tenth of a second}. As the
object movcsl a line of dolS is crea1ed on the ticker tape. The further apan l\VO
consecu1ive dots are, lhe further the object has travelled in a sei time, and the
------- ·-"'
Rgure 3: A ticket time1
faster the object is moving. being used ro measure the
speed of a trolley llilvelffng
You can calculate lhc speed of the objecl at a certain point by clown a rantp.
measuring the distance between two consecutive dots and d ividing it by the
1ime elapsed. You can find I.he acceleration by calculating the change in Tip: H:>r slow speeds,
speed between l\vo pairs of dots and then dividing this by the time elapsed the dols may bo very
between the l\VO pairs of dots. The further apart the pairs of dots, lhe lower close t~her, so you
the percentage error in your calculation (J>age 16). If you know !hat the may wam 10 measure
acceleration isn't cons.tan!, you can use three consecutive dots as your two across e.g. five dots, and
pairs of dots. This will give the acceleration of the object at that poinL then calculate I.he time
elapsed for five dots.
Tid:er timers are gcneralty a bit trickier to get your he.ad around than
light gates. They don't come with handy software that docs the calculations
for you, and it can be difficult to match parts of the ticker tape to specific
sections or the object's joomey.
Video techniques
For a light gale to work, the object you're measuring the motion of has 10
pass completely through the light gate. So, if you want to measure the speed
immedia1ely before and after an event, such as in a collision, lhen light gates
aren't suitable. In 1hese sifualions, you can use video equipmenl to find
speed.
Se1 up a video camera so ii can record the event you're investigating.
Make sure the video camera is filming the object from the side (perpendicular
to the object's motion} and that there is a dis1ance scale of some kind (e.g. a
metre rule) within shot and alongside the path of lhe object.
Once you have filmed the event, you can use computer software to Rgure 4: You should use a
vie\\' your video frame by frame. Pick a point of reference on the metre stick flipod, or a similar suppo1t;
and coun1how many frames ii takes the object to pass that point to keep your video camera
/eveJ and sdll.
Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion MJ

Rgure S: Images like this
one are made by filming an
aclion with a high ftJJTM?-
tale, and then combining the
frames into a s;ngle picture.
Tip: lk!ing able
10 do experiments
involving collisions is
panicularly useful when
ii comes to investigating
conS<ID1a tion of
momcmum(p.138).
Tip: Yoo could
also haV<> a trolley
collid ing with another,
stationary trolley. This
is to inves1igate how
the spc<!d of 1he moving
trolley affects the spe<>d
of both trolleys aflcr 1he
collision.
Module 3: Section 1 Motion
If you know how many frames per second the video is shot at (the
frame rate of the video), you can calculate the time raken (I) for the whole Time taken ior Numher of gaps
the trolley 10 between frames for 1he x 1second
o bject to pass that point. You can then use this time and the length (J) of the Frame rate of camera
object to calculate its velocity using these equa1ions: pass the point trolley to pass the point
1
= 2 xro=0.10s
I second
rrame ram or camera Now calculate the velocity from the length o f the trolley, /,
a nd the time taken, l.
Tip: Remember to
make sure all your
~I = length of object i=15cm=0.15 m, variables arc in the right
velocity= f t = 0.1 0 s units before you stick
- ; . - I = lime "1ken for objea
to pass a point
velocity= f =~ =1.Sms 1
them into an equation.
Thfs method is panicularly useful when investigating collisions, such as how
I.he velocity of an object before a collision affects its velocity after the collision.
ICT and data-loggers
Example --f$§ilj"fll5 A fairly standard piece of kil lhat is used for motion experiments
The s.et-up shown in Figure 6 is used to investigate the velocity of J. trolley in industry is an ultrasound posilion detector. This is a lypc of
before a.nd after it hits a wall. A video camera that records at 20 frames dala-logger that automatically records the distance of an object from the
per second is used to record the experiment. sensor several times a second. lf you attach one of 1hese detectors to a
computer with graph-drav1ing software, you can get real-time
di splacemenl~ime and velocity-lime graphs.
The main advantages or dala-loggers over traditional methods are:
trulky The data is more accurate - you don'I have to allo\v for human
wall statf. /ine J_ reaction 1imcs.
"'~
\ .I
smoolh ramp
Automatic systems have a much higher sampling rate than humans -
ultrasound position detectors can take a reading ten limes every second.
You can see the data d isplayed in real time.
nw.tn?rule Figure 8: Ulvasound
Rgure 6: The experimental set-up for an i~tigalion inro the Practice Question -Application position uacting is used to
motion ofa uolley as il collides with a wall. obtain medical images in
Q1 A studenl is inves-ligating the speed of a ' rolley using a ticker,imer. rea/tiffl(I.
The ticker limer makes 2 docs per second. The student cuts out the
Figure 7 shows three consecutive video frames of
pa11 of the licker tape they are interested in, which is shown belO\Y.
the trolley after it collides with the wall.
Calculate the velocity or the trolley from the results in Figure 7.
0 l cm
Fram e 1 Fram e 2 Frame .3
Calculate the speed o/ the tro lley between points A and B.
I Rri9, tq:l•iil:f1"·' .g 1i+.i
•..,.1.
1 :.t:iil!i #•.•
i11,.,1_ _ _ _ __ __
Figure 7: Three consecutive frames of footage of the uolley moving along Q1 State and explain one advantage of using a light gate, instead of a
after ;, has hit the wall. rhe values on the rriet.re rule are in ccntimeues. stopwatch, 10 make time measuremenL'i.
From Frame 1, you can sec that the total lenb>th or the trolley is 15 cm. Q2 A student wants to know how lhc velocity of a trolley changes after it
hits a wall. Describe an experimenl they could do to investigate this.
To find the speed of 1he trolley, you need to find out how long it takes the Your answer should include a description of hO\V measurements are
trolley to pass a certain point. taken and anatysro.
For these frames, a good reference poinl is 17.5 cm.
It took three frames for the trolley to pass 17.5 cm, so there are 2 gaps
behveen the frames.
Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion @,.,,+
 learning Objective: 7. Stopping Distances 4. How good the lyres are - lyres should have a minimum tread depth of
1.6 mm. In wet conditions, the tread pattern helps 10 stop water getting
•Know and t>eable trapped between the tyres and the road - they provide a channel
10 t'.xplain the 1erms: Stopping dislances are important - awareness of them can make the
through which the water can 'escape'. \tVilh too liule tread, the tyres
reaction Lime, thinking difference between crashing .1nd not. St.opping diswnce is splh into thinking
distance and braking distance, and different faclors affect each.
may lose conlact with the ground, causing the vehicle to slide.
distance, braking
di-stance and stopping 5. How good lhe grip is - as well as the condilion oi the tyres, lhi-s
distance. Stopping distance depends on the \\feather conditions and the road surface. Water,
ice, leaves, fuel spills, mud on the road etc. can greatly increase lhe Rgure 2: A good tyre uood
Specification In an emergency (e.g. a ha1.ard ahead in the road), a drive r may perlorm an depth helps reduce braking
Reference 3.1.2 braking distance. They can result in reduced friction between the lyres
emergency slop. This is where maximum iorce is applied by the brakes in order distilnce.
and the road - so y<>u travel further before stopping and may skid.
to stop the car in the shortest possible distance. The longer it takes to perform
Often you only discover this when y<>u try Lo brake hard.
an emergency 5'op, the higher the risk of crashing into whatcver's in front
The totaJ stopping distance of a vehicle is the distance covered in the
Lime bet\veen the driver first spotting a hazard and the vehicle coming to a Typical stopping distances
complele stop. The total stopping distance is the sum of the thinking dis1.ance The Highway Code contains typical stopping distances for a car travelling
and Lhe braking distan ce. al d ifferent speeds (see Figure 4). As you've seen, lots of factor.; affect slopping
d istance, but this is a good indication of how stopping d istance varies 'vith
stopping distance=- thinking distance+ braking distance speed.

The thinking distance is the distance lhe vehicle travels during the driver's
reaction time {lhe time between seeing a hazard and applying the brakes). (F;;;]
6car
The braking distance is the d istance lhe vehicle travels after the brakes arc 30mph D
lf!nb>fhS Rgure J: fuel spills on roads
applied until it comes to a complete stop, as a result oi the braking force.
can reduce grip and cause
Many factors afft..'Cl your lot.al stopping distance - and you can break ~ iyres to skid,, increasing the
it d own into thinking dislance and braking d istance to look a1 the factors that 5Dmph D J 1.J car
lengths braking distance.
affect each of these.
~~~~~~1l75ml~~~~~~~- ar
71/mplr D 14
Tip: Knowing about
Thinking distance lengths
the stopping dis.lances
You can calculate the thinking distan<..-e using: Rgure 4: Typjcaf stopping distances iakoo from the Hig/nvay Code. al V<!hidcs helps the
aulhoritics to set spood
thinking distance= spc...~ x reaction time limits and give advice to

So lhinking distance is affected by two main factors:

IM.CS.:l•lh!t4h.l.t .·ftiti
..·il..il·iol@tj.,..io1! !,,..J,.,,.i_ _ _ _ __ _
11
drivers tha 1
willhelp @-
Q1 A driver in a car has a thinking d istance of 15 m and a braking kcepthem ~
1. How fast you're going - whatever your reaction time, the faster you're di.stance of 38 m. What's the stopping distance of I.he car? and their ~
going, the further you'll go in that time. passengers safe.
Q2 Dahlia is driving her car a t 25 ms- 1 when she sees a hazard.
2. How quid< lo respond )''OU are, i.e. your reaction time - this can be She travels 14 m before she applies the brakes.
affected by tiredness, il lness, drugs, alcohol and a lack of concenlration. Calculate her reaction time.

figure 1: Titedncss can

Braking distance
Braking d istance depends on I.he braking force, iriction bct\veen lhe lyres and
l:Jt.fA ~ t3:i• lii:i14·l •€ ,.m
•..,.1.;.<._,.,tf•. 11________
.,1..

increase tooction times,,
so sonte roads have signs
reminding motorists to take
regular breaks and lo not
drive whilst tired.
the road, the mass and the speed. h is affected by: Ql Define stopping distance, thinking distance and braking distance.
1. How fast you're going - lhe faster you're going. the fu rther you 1ravel Q2 Other than speed, name three factor.; that affect braking distance.
Q3 Say whelher e.a ch of the following would affect Lhe thinking distance
before you slop.
2. The mass of the car - the larger lhe mass of the car, the smaller the °' the braking distance of a vehicle:
deceleration for a given braking force (p.79), and so the further it will a) Ice on the road b) Alcohol intake of the driver
1ravel before stopping. cJ Tiredness of the driver d) Fuel spills
3. How good your brakes are - all bra kes must be checkt'CI and maintained
regularly. Worn or fa ulty brakes won't be able Lo apply as much force
as well.maint>ined brakes and could le! you down catastrophically just
when you need lhem the mosL, i.e. in an emergency.

•IEI~··· Module 3: Section 1 Motion Module 3: SecUon 1 Motion Mi

 Section Summary
Make sure you know...
Exam-style Questions I
That speed is how fast somelhing is moving. regardless of its direction.
That displacement is how far an object has travelled from its starting point in a given direction.
That velocity is the ra1e or change of displacement and acceleration is the rate of change of veloci1y.
A student is investigating the value of g. She drops a ball bearing so that it falls vertically
That the average speed of an objeci is the total distance travelled by the object divided by the total through a light gate. The initial speed of the ball bearing is o ms-•. Which of the
time taken. following sets of measurements will allow her to calculate g?
That the instantaneous speed of an object is the sp<!'C'd of an object at a given point in time.
A Only the final speed of the ball bearing.
The equations of motion for unifocm acceleration and vvhen to use them.
B Only the time taken for the ball bearing to reach the light gate.
Whal is meant by free fall and that all objects in free fall have the same acceleration due lo gravity, g.
That g is directed vertically downwards and has a magnitude of 9.81 ms-1 . c Only the distance between the ball bearing's starting point and the light gate.
How to use the equations of motion for all objects in free fall. and time taken for the ball bearing to reach the light gate.
How to determine the value of g using a free fall method. D Only the distance between the ball bearing's starting point and the light gate,
and the mass of the ball bearing.
That the vertical and horizonlal components of projectile motion are independent.
How to use the equations of uniform acceleration to solve problems I.hat include projectile motion. (1 mark)
How to plot a displacement-time graph.
2 A man is driving a car at a speed of 18.0 ms-• when he makes an emergency stop.
How to use a displacement-time graph to describe the motion o( an object.
His reaction time during the emergency stop is 0.45 s. The car travels 24.9 m after
Ho\v to calculate velocity from the gradient of a displacement-time graph. he applies the brakes. What is the stopping distance of the vehicle?
How Lo plot a velocity-time graph.
A 8.1 m.
How to use a velocity-time graph to describe the motion of an object
B 16.8 m.
How to calculate acceleration from the gradienl of a velocity-time graph.
Ho\v to calculate displacement from the area under a velocity.time graph. C 24.9 m.
How to es1imate lhe arP.a under a non-linear velocity-lime graph. D 33.0m.
Some techniques you can use to investigate the motion and collisio ns of objects, including the use of ( 1 mark)
light gales, data-loggers, ticker timers and video recordings and analysis.
That the stopping distance of a vehicle is the total distance travelled between a driver seeing a hazard 3 A tennis ball is dropped from a height and is in free fall. The speed of the ball when It
and the vehicle coming to a complete stop. reaches the ground is 3.80 ms-•. What height was the tennis ball dropped from?
That the stopping distance is the sum of the thinking distance and braking distance. A 19.4cm
That I.he reaction time of a driver is the time between the driver seeing a hazard and applying
the brakes. B 73.6cm
That I.he thinking distance is 1he d istance travelled during a driver's reaction time. C 136 m
That the braking distance is the distance travelled after the brakes are applied until the vehicle comes D 147 m
10 a complete stop.
( 1 mark)
Ho\v thinking distance depends upon the speed of the vehicle and the driver's reaction time and how
it is affected by factors such as drug use and tiredness. A student throws a tennis ball at an angle of 6Cl.O' to the horizontal. with an initial velocity
4
How braking distanc-e can be affooed by factors such as the speed and mass of the vehic:le, the of 2.50 ms-•. How far does the ball travel horizontally in 3.00 s? You can assume that
\·vea ther~ road conditions and 1he conditions of the brakes and tyres, and the implications for safely in the ball does not reach the ground during this time and that air resistance is negligible.
an emergency.
A 6.50m
B 1.25 m
c 13.0m
D 3.75 m
( 1 mark)

•Ef~-· Module 3: Section 1 Motion Module 3: Section 1 Motion

 5 A student wears a smart watch as she walks to the bus stop. Later, she uses the 7 Fig. 7.1 shows tile velocity-time graph for the motion of a cyclist during a
information to plot a displacement-time graph of her walk. 20 second time trial. The cyclist travels in a straight line during this time.
The graph is shown in Fig. 5.1 .
Fig. 7.1
Fig. 5.1
25()
/
E 200 I

I
(a) Find the cyclisrs displacement at the end of the 20 seconds shown.
so I (2 marks)
v (b) Find the acceleration of tile cyclist during the last 4 s of the time trial.
()
50 lCKl 150 200
(2 marks)
Tin>e Is
(a) DesClibe the student's motion through the course of her journey. (c) During a later bike ride, the cyclist allows herseff to roll down a hill without pedalling.
(2 marks) She starts at the top of tile hill at rest. The road down the hill is 22.5 m long.
The cyclist undergoes a constant acceleration ol 3.40 ms-' as she travels down the
(b) Calculate the studenfs average velocity for her entire journey. hill. Calculate how last she will be going when she reaches tile bottom of the hill.
(2 marks) Assume air resistance and other resistive forces are negligible.
(2 marks)

6 A student is investigating how the velocity of a trolley at the bottom of a ramp (v) The cyclist throws a water bottle with a velocity ol 6.50 ms·', from a height
changes when it is released from rest at different starting points on the ramp (s). ol 1.31 m and at 29.0° above the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 7.2.
They use the set-up shown in Flg. 6.1. Their results are shown in Fig. 6.2.

Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2 Fig. 7.2

dislance uavelled final velocity

ms.:/' .'j······•'
rrollcy
doi.vn lhc ramp I n1 I ins 1
I 6511
0.20
0 .40
0.60
1.22
1.73
2.1 2
/

'i:;;2........................-~·!'!~<mtal
/ ,, 29.(r'

0 .80 2.45 1.:11 ml ground

1.00 2.74
1.20 3.00
(d) Calculate the vertical component of the velocity of the bottle
(a) Plot a graph of final velocfy squared against distance travelled down the ramp when it hits the ground.
using the results in Fig. 6.2. Draw a line of best fit. (2 marks)
(2 marks)
(b) The student assumes that friction and air resistance on tile trolley are negligible. (e) calculate how long the bottle will take to hit the ground.
The acceleration is therefore constant acceleration due to gravity. (2 marks)
Use your graph to calculate the acceleration of the trolley down the ramp.
(3 marks)

iW Module 3: Section 1 Motion Module 3: Section 1 Motion

--i Module 3 (j) ~ ~ Cenue ofnMss Cenuc ofmass
Cenue ofntass

Learning Objectives: 1. Mass, Weight and Force Basics Rgure J: The centres oftnass of three objects.

• Know what is meam Finding the centre of gravity by exper iment

by lheweigh1 of .an Beiore diving into ho~v forces aff<."Ct an objecl S 1notion, take so1nc time ro
re.fn-sh your memory of lhe basics...
You can find the cenlre of gravity of a na1 object wlrin~ · <lrawn
object.
vertk:a1 ...-
using a simple experiment: dra~ ...-dip "1!.rµcal
• Know lhat the N?Wton ..._.. /me
Hang the objecl freely from a point line
(N) is the unil of force. Mass and weight (e.g. one corner).
• Know and be able 10 The mass or an objec:L is Lhe amount of 'stuff (or mauer) in iL It's measured
use the equation Draw a vertical line d ownwards from the cP.nlre of
Tip: A plumb bob is
W=mg.
in kg. 1he greater an object's mass, the grealcr its resistance to a change poinl of suspension - use a plumb bob gravity
in velocity (called i1s inertia}. The mass of an object doesn't c hange if the jus1 a piece ol string or
• Understand 'Atla1 is lo get your line exactly vertical. Figure 4: ·111e experimental thread with a weight on
strength of the gravitational field changes. the end of it.. thal tta.ngs
~anl by Lhe centre Hang the object from a different point, set-0p fot finding the ccnue
of mass .and cemre of Weight is a force. h's measured in newtons CN), like all forces. and draw another ver1ical line. ofgravi1y of a fla l object. perfectly vertica I.
gravity of an object Weight is the force experienced by a mass due to a gravitational field. The centre of gravity is \vhere the f\vo lines cross.
•Know how to The weight of an object does vary according to the size of the gravilational
experimentally field acting on i1.
determine 1.hc cemre
of gravity of an object.
Weight is given by the equation: Types of forces
m =m.us In addition to weight, ~uu need 10 know some other common types ol forces.
• Know what is meant
W = woig/11 / lin kg) 1. Normal contact force (or reaction force) - if an object exerts
by the terms normal
contact roroo, tension, (inNJ --W:mg a force on a surface, the surface exerts an equal bul opposite force
fric1ion and upthrust. ~ g -= gravitational field on the objt>ct. The force acls normal (perpendicular) to the surface.
• Understand and be suength (in Nkg 1} 2. Tension - if a string is pu lled tight, tension is the force
able to draw frcc--body Figure 1 shows an example of how mass and pulling equally on the objects at either end of the string,
diagrams. weight vary for different values of g.
Specification
3 . Friction - if an object is moving, il usually has a friction
References 3.2.1 force acting on it in the opposite direction 10 motion.
farth Moon
and 3.2.3 Name Quantity
fg =9.81 Nkg 'l fg =1.6 Nkg 'l 4. Uplhrust - if an object is submerged (or partially submerged)
in a fluid, it experiences an upv1."ards force called upthrust (see page 95).
Mass Mass (scalar) 150 kg 150 kg
Examples - - Tip : The normal contaa
Tip: g is usually taken
as - 9.111 Nkg·• beciuse Weight Force (vectOf) 1471.5 N 240 N force always acl:S at right
it acts dowmv:uds.
Normal contacl force: angles 10 lhe surface_.
The man pushes on the wall with a force For example, an object
Rgure t: The mass and weight of an object on tl'te Earth and on tl'te Moon.
of 300 N. The wall 'pushes back' with a on a slope will have
normal conlacl force of 300 N. shing a normal contact
Example -i$Mi$1ifilj 300N force (R) acting o n i1
pcrpen<fiwfar to the
An astronaut has a mass of 85.0 kg. What would his weight be on Mars, slope. Its magnitude is
where the value ol g is 3.75 Nkg-'l Tension: tens.ion force equal to the componem

~~~
A pulling fom' of 80 N is applied of its weight (W) thal
W =mg to each side of the rope. A lension is pcrpendia.ilar to the
= 85.0 x 3.75 = 318.75 = 319 N (to 3 s .i.) force acts at each end of the rope surface.
pulling pulling
to balance lhese forces. force f()(cc
BON BON
Rgure 2: The value ofg Centre of mass Friction:
decreases as you move away The centre of mass (or centre of gravity) o f an object is the single point thal The car is moving at a constant
from a plaoo - which frictk>n driving force
you can consider its whole "'eight to act through (whatever its orientation). speed. The 900 N driving force
is impotlant for sarcllim 900 N @ 900 N
~~it-+
The object will always balance around this poinl, although in some cases lhe is balanced by a friction force
ca/culau·ons. centre of mass falls outside the object. For a uniform regular solid, the centre of900 N.
of mass is at the centre of lhe object.

•IEl~W· Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action Mc

 Upthrust: 2. Net Forces Learning Objectives:
The beach ball is floating in a pool of • Know and be able to
water. The weight of the beach ball ff you have /OlS of forces acling on .1n object, it can be tricky lo see vl'hal use the equation
\Vc.ight effecl lhey will have on 1he objcc1 's molion, esp<>ciaily if lhe forces are acling F = ma {net fore<! =
aces downwards. It is balanced by a
force of uplhrusl from 1he water. at aivhvard angles to each ol.her. Step forward net forces... mass x ac<:elera1ion>.
• Be able to solvt!
Net force and acceleration problems invotving
one- and two--
The net fo rce (or res:ultanl force) on an object is the sum of all of ihe forces dimensional mo1ion
Free-body diagrams ac1jng on the object, accoun1ing for their rela1rve directions. An object can under a ronstam
A free-body diJgram shov.'S a single body on irs own a nd the forces acting on only accelerate (change speed, change d irection, or both - see page 48) if a force.
it. The diagram should include all the forces that act on the body, but not the non-zero net force is acting on it. In 01her words, a nel force is net.'Cfed for an Specification
forces it exerts on lhe resl of the \vorld. object to accelerate. Reference 3.2.1
Rem.ember, forces are vedor quanticies (p.41), so the arrows should The acceleralion of a n object is proportional to the net force
show the d irection of the forces, and be labelled with the size of the force. acting on it This can be wriuen as the well.known equation:
Tip: from 1.his equa1ion,
F =net force - - ~ m =mass (in kg) t N = 1 kg ms-'. This
is the definition cH a
!in NJ F =ma
-,___ a =- acceleration (in ms 1) newton. F = ma is
a special case of
New1on's Second law
The acceleration given by this cqualion is always in the same (see page 135).
d irection as the net force used to calculate it.
w w
Grav;ty pulls lhe satellite Gravity pulls man down, Example -f.'1§1 $;§1§1
downv.-ards towards Canh. air resistance pus~ man up. A 14 kg box is on the floo r. A man pushes the box so that a resulttnt force
drivirtg of 1.2 N is acting on it. Ulculate the initial acceleration of the box.
frk;11~
cm · forc.-e
Rearrange F =ma for acceleration:
Tip: All the forces in Lhc R R J :F.;. m: 1.2 + 14: 0.08571 ... : 0.086ms 1 (to2 s.f.)
diagrams in Figure 5 arc w
coplanar - they're all in Gravity pulls car down. fng;ne ~ishcs car fonvard.
the same plane. You'll Earth pushes car up rr;cuanpulls cat backwards.
only need 10 <k!al with (nonnal cont.Ja force, RJ. Gravity pulls c.1r down. Why do all objects fall at the same rate?
coplanar forces:. Ea11h pushes car up. Consider two balls dropped al the same time, ball 1 being heavy and ball 2
Tip: This only worlcs if
Figure 5: Some free.body diagrams.
being light. Then use the equalion above lo find their accelera1ion:
you ignore air resistanoo.
Exantple --f$!ilti~fiij
mass=m 1 ~ mass=m, {.)
::
Q1 An object has a weight of 7.75 Non Pluto, where g =0.620 Nkg 1• resultant force = F1 'r.·

'
resultant force = F,_
Calculate the mass of the objeci. acceleration= a , w, acceleration-= a, ~v~
•
~
Q2 A coconut with a weight of 11.4 N is falli ng from a tree. By Newton's second law: By Newton's second law:
It expe riences a 4.65 N force of air resistance.
Draw a free-body diagram for the coconut F1 =m,a 1
Ignoring air resistance, the only force
F1 = m1<11
Ignoring air resistance, the only force
_,,,., 11

acting on the ball is weigh~ given by acting on the ball is weight, given by
W1 = m.g (where g = gravilational W 1 -= m,_g (where g = gravit:alional ..,,,.- 11
Q1 Give the equa1ion ior weight. field strength = 9.81 Nkg 1). field strength = 9.81 Nkg 1) .
Q2 What is the centre of mass of a n objeci?
Q3 Where is the centre o f gravity of a uniform, regular solid?
Q4 Give the name of the upwards force experienced by a n objeci which
is submerged (or partially submerged) i n a fluid.
So: F, = m,a, = W, = m 1g
So: m,a,-= m 1g, 1hen m 1 cancels oul
togive a 1 = g
So: F, = m,a, = W, = m,g
So: m,_a, -= m.,g, lhcn m, cancels out
to give J 2 = g
....... ':'

Rgure 1: In a vacuum with

QS What is the name given 10 a diagram showing all of the forces acting no a;r resisiancc, a leather
on an object, bul none of the fOfces it exeru on its surroun dings? In other words, the acceleration is independent of the mass. 1Nill fall at lhe same rate as a
h makes no difference whether the ball is heavy or light. hoovy bal/.

•EIJ:W. Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action Mp M

 Finding the net force Example -f$§i!jjfl1d
For one-dimensional problems, where all the rorccs are acting along the same Tip: You need to use
Tip: II the net IOfce Child A and child B are rolling a second snowball along the ground. Child
line, you can find the net force by simply adding the forces together. A applies a force of 4.7 N eastwards, and child B exerts a force of 3.2 N al the sine and cosine rules
acting on an object aas when the forces aren't

along the line of motion
of th<> object, the object
will keep moving in the
same direction and will
either speed up or slow
down (soo p.135).
•J
a bearing of 052°. You can assume no friction acts on the snowball.
Example -f$tjilj... fl18 Find the net force on the snowball.
perpendicular.
Figure 2 shows the forces acting on a firework rocket shortly after it is Draw the forces as vector arrows, louching tip-to-tail then complete the
fired into the air. Calculate the net force acting on the firework. triangle by drawing a net force arrow, R.
Tip: Remember,
bearing is just the
number of degrees
Nonh clockwise from north .
........... .......
air rc~·istanc.t? (
= 14N 4.7 N
To find the size of R, use the cosine rule:
Tip: When using the
a'= b' + c' 2bcms(A) sine and cosine rules,
Figure 2: The forces acting on a firework rocket.
where a= R, b = 4.7, c = 3.2, andA = 52 + 90 = 142•. So: you need to make sure
LeLup be posi1ive, and down be negative. R = J4.7' + 3.2' - (2 x 4.7 x3.2 xcos(1 42•)) = 7.48554... = 7.5 N (to 2 s.f.) the sides and angles
Add all the forces together to find the net fo rce. of your triangle are
labellt'd correctly. See
Net rorce = 115 N + {- 14 N) + (- 5 N) To find angle C, use the sine rule: page 488 for a full
= 115N - 19N c _ a explanation of how to
=96 N SiiilCT - Siii1AJ do this.

j
So the net fOfce is 96 N upwards. . '(7.48554
C =sm sin (1 42°J ' ) = 15.25 •
... xJ ._

For two-dimensional problems, wilh two forces ac1ing al an angle to To fi nd the angle of R fro m north, subtract C from 90•. Tip: You could also
each other, you can find 1he net force by drawing a vector triangle. Draw the Angle of R from north = 90 - 15 .25 ... work this out by drawing
forces as vector arrows tip-to-tail, then draw in the third side to represent the = 74.74... = 75• (to 2 s.f.) a really accurate scale
net force (as shown on page 41). drawing (s"" p.41).
5<>, the ne1 force is 7.5 Nat an angle of 75 ~ irom nonh.
You can then use trigonomet~ such as Pythagoras' theorem {p.252}
or the sine and cosine rules (p.488), to calculate the net force.
Practice Questions -Application
Exan1ple --f§tjilj1fllfi Q1 Calculate the net iorce acting on a 24. l kg object that has
Two children are making a snowman. They roll a snowball along the an acceleration of 3.5 ms..i.
ground. Child A applies a force of 5.0 N northwards, child B exerts a Q2 A net force of 18 N is acting on a Loy car. ll has an acceleration
Rgure 3: A block force of 2.0 N eastwards. You can assume no friction ads on the snowball. of 29 ms 1• What is the mass of the toy car?
acce/era.Jing down a skJ{x!. Find the net force on the snowball. Q3 Below is the free-body diagram oi a cyclist cycling along a road while
It experiences a force of
lW!ighl directly downwards, Draw the forces as vecLor arrows, touching 2.0N experiencing a cross-wind.
a normal comaa lotce tip-to-tail, then complete the triangle by a) Calculate the nel force on the cyclist. Give the d irection as a
p<Ypendicu/ar to the slope, drawing a net force arrow, R. clocklvise angle from east.
and a force of friction
directed up r/1~ slope. /his
results in an overall nm fotce
By Pythagoras' 1heore:m:
R1 = 5 .02 ~ 2.0', !
/ l
north 20.0 N
6--- N 30.0

oown !he slope. so R = 129 = 5.4 N (to 2 s.fj 5.0 N ;ll 160.0 N
Use the tangent function to find 1hc angle 0. l '
tanO= 2.0 b) The cyclist and bicycle have a tota l mass of 89.0 kg.
5.0 Calculate the n1agnitude of their accelera1ion.
so O= tan41 0.4
= 22• (to 2 s.f.) l'
So the net force is 5.4 N
at an angle of 22<' from nonh. Q1 What is meant by the net force acting on an object?
Q2 Define the variables and their units in the equation F = ma.

M :loW Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action M :i


Leaming Objectives:
• Understand how
an object can Ix! in
equilibrium 'Atlile
under Lhc action of
forces.
• Know I.he conditions
for equilibrium of
Lhree coplanar forces.
•Be able Lo use
lriangk!s of forces
Lo solve problems
involving equilibrium.
Specification
Reference 3.2.3
Tip: An object in
equilibrium (i.e. not
accctcra1ing> is either
at res1 or moving wi1h a
constant velocity (p.135).
Tip: Yoo could do
Lhis for any number of
coplanar forces. As long
as the veaor arrows,
drawn to sea le and
tip-to-i:ail, form a closed
shape, 111<! objeo is in
equilibrium.
Tip: Remember, the
magnitude of a vector
is iLS size (without the
direction), see pat,'lt? 41 .
Figure J: These rocks are in
a staw ofequifibrium - all
I.he forces on them must
cancel out For tltem to be
balana.'Cf. This is uue For all
balanced objects.
Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action
Resolving forces in two perpendicular directions
3. Equilibrium You saw how 10 resolve vectors into perpendicular components on page 43,
Time Lo find out ho1v you can solve force problems for objects 1.hal are in and it's no differen1 for the forces acting on objeclS in equilibrium. If an
equilibrium. Have a quick flick lhlck lo pages 41·45 - lire veccors stuff object is in equilibrium, Lhe sum of the components in each direction must be
will be preuy handy here. equal Lo zero. To find the componenlS oi each force in a direction, just use
trigonometry:
Forces in equilibrium Tip: \!\'hen you're
If an object is in equilibriuin, all the forces acting on it are balanced an d resolving forces,
remember Lhat the force
c.ancel each 01her out. In other words, I.here's no nel force on an object in angles nor drawn
at'f:uralc.~y being resolved is always
equilibrium, so il isn't accelerating.
the hypotenuse.
When only two forces act on an object, the objec:L is in equilibrium
if Lhey're equal and opposite. Ii there a re three forces acling on an object,
Lhere are hvo ways you can go about solving equilibrium problems:
Triangle of forces
Forces acting on an object in equilibrium form a closed loop when you dra\Y
t Venical components --+ Horizontal compooonlS
Tip: Remember, Lhc
direc1ion mauers whh
forces, so forces in Lhe
-sin45° x F1 -cos45° x F,
nega1ive direction Mve
Lhem to scale and tip-to-tail. For the case of three coplanar forces, 1his will
sinW° x F1 - cos600 x F1 a ncgali\!e value. In
form a triangle of forces. this case, the ncga1ive
sinJOO x f 1 cos JOO x r1 djrections arc down and
. . . . ..t~.-::..
to the left.
:z:·
5.7N
Figure 1: Three balanced force vectotS shown
acling from a point and in a Wangle ofForces.
Rgure 4: Three forces acUng at a point, and their
Example -f$$!$
horizontal and vertical components.
i flli
Figure 5 shows all the forces on a particle in equilibrium.
find lhe magnitude o( !he missing force Q.
Exan1ple -14§1$1fllj
Figure 2 shows all the forces acting on a particle. Given that ~6/N
the particle is in equilibrium, find the magnitude of the missing force P.
·····-r~·~·.C:.
4Z.O N
,}=-w'"
Rgure 2: Three balanced
Rgure 5: The /otces acling
on a partick! in cquifibfium.
The missing force Q ac1s vertically downwards. So (or the particle
to be in equilibrium, the magnitude of the force, Q, must equal
Tip: The horizontal
component ol a vcnical
veoor is zero, and vice
versa. Since you're
told the object is in
equilibrium, you don't
need to worry abou1 Lhc
r7
fora~ acting on a particle. the sum of the vertical componcnls of the other two forces.
horizontal componenis.
The particle is in equilibrium, so the
iorces will form a triangle of forces
when dra\vn to scale and tip-to-tail.
211.llNV" Vertical con1ponent of 42.0 N force::: 42.0cos60.0°
Vertical component ol 86.1 N force= 86.1 cos2s.o• Tip: You could also
use the cosine rule to
J
an9Ner this question
This means you can use trigooome1ry to find the magnitude of the force, P. So, Q = 42.0cos60° + 86.1 ros2s.o• (S<lC page 488).
= 21 .0 + 78.033 ..
cos4s.o• = 1¥ = 99.033 ...
= 99.0 N (to 3 s.i.)
P= co~~5° , = 28.2842 ... = 28.3 N (10 3 s.f.)
0
Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action M :kM
 Practice Questions -Application 4. Moments and Torques Leaming ObjqctlVes:
• BeableM>calcubte
Ql Show wi1h a 1tiangle of lo<ees tha1 on object is in equilibrium ii only A mom<'fJI is the wming e/fea of a fon:t! iMOUnd a poinl. Two mommts of lhe moment of• fcxcr
lhesc forces are acting on it: 12 N acting e3S~ 5 N nonh, 13 'h• 23" e<jual site .JCting parallel 10 eich ollKY ;ur called a couple. obo<Jla poinl.
an1iclodcwi<e from west.
• Know die p<inc1plc
Q2 The 1hree forces shown below arc in equilibrium. Moments and turning effects of moments ;md us<'
Vind 1he magni1ude of the unknown force F. A moment is 1he turning effect of a force oround a turning point 1hc moment it 10 solve pmblt-ms
or. rorre depends on l he size or the rorre and how far the for<.-e is applied involving monliCnlS.

. . . ~ ih' . .
~:~_:r·~:
from 1hc turning point (or pivot). II is defined as:

M
•
moment of -
forao 1#1 Nm/
M
, , _ - f = size of Force (in NI
= ~x - x = fXYP""dicu/Jr rutdllC<'
°""""m !he Inc of.icoon of lhe
lo«.e and !he uxning JXWll rin ml
• Know what is mr.::ant
by a couple.
• Be able 10 calcuble
the torque of • """""'.
• UndlnlandhoW
Q3 The d1>gr.im below shows 1he 1""'1'S acting on a box on a slope. an objcCI can be' 111
The principle of moments""""' 1h.11 for a body to be in equihbrium, <qUilillrium \\1ulc
The box is in equilibrium. Calcub1e the si7e of force F.
the sum of 1he clodcwise momenls abou• any point equals lhe sum or undo< die actlon ol
lhe an1iclodcwise momenls about the S>me poinl. 11 the momenls aren'1 torqUCS.
b•lanc-ed, 1he object will tum. Specification
Ref erence 3.2.3
Example -ff,ffliljf §15

t rt
Two children sit on J seesaw as

~ ....
Tip: Th<> pcrpen<licul>r
shown on the righl. An adull d istarnr means l~
~I Jnces the seesaw at one end. distana'! along ii line
find the size and direction
of the l0tte, F, th.it !he «dull
ntt<k 10 apply to do this.
«JON
li ... IWIN
that mab?s a right
angle WOil die lino of
aaion of die """'
QI Wh>I is 1he size of lhe ne1 force oe1ong on an object in equilibrium! O.e. !he shon<5I posolblc
Take moments abotJI !he 1wning poin1. In equilibrium, dislanm lx!M-.m die
Q2 Wh•• is mean1 by 'resolving a fo='I
L anlidodcwise rnom«ils = }:
clockwise moments piYoo and ihc line in
whidl Ille force actS).
400 x 1.5 = t100 x 1.0) + 1.SF

.... .~.),
600 = 300 + 1.5F
f = 6oo1_s300 =200 N downwards ' \:
We know 1he force adS downwards because that's the direclion
required 10 produce a clockwise moment. Tip: The symbol t
means ..the sum or.

Centre of mass and moments

When calculating mornenlS, )'OU m;iy also need to consider any 1umong effects
due 10 1he weigh• of the object 1hol's turning. The line of accion of 1he weigh• Tip: RomcnVer, fcx
"1glllar, symme1rical
is drawn from 1he object's cenire of mass (see page 76). 11 lhe cen1rc or mass objects, the CCfltr~ of
is d1rortly over I.he pivot, there will be no resultant moment in either d1rcction, mass is aL lhc <rntro of
so you c.in ignore the \veight of the objcrt in your moment calculations. the object. So in the
HowcV<'I'.. if 1his isn't the case, then you do need to consider the wcigh1. firs( example on lhis
page i1 can be assu~d
Example-lfttjllj-- fl1d that lhe cc:ntrc ol mass
A rcgubr, symmetrical plank of wood wi1h a weight ol 15 N is in ol the sccsaw is ilbc>Yc
equilibrium, as shown below. Calculacc the mognitude of lhe force, F. ""' pivot, >f1d so tho
) : an1idodcwise moments = Zm>.
""i&I>'
l1lOl1lOl1I of ilS is
0.8m (
Im >: clodcwise moments
l w=15 N 15 x0.8=fx1.8
r -_ 1.8
15x0.8 -_,o.66... = 7 N\10 l s. f).

:I W MOdule 3: Section 2 Forces in AcilOn Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action M .fA


Figure 2: Cranes need a
wide, heavy base to s1op
them 1oppfing.
Rgure J: A wheeJba!raw
;s a 1ype of Jevet used to
reduce the force ne<.~ lO
lift a heavy lood.
Figure 5: Spanners are a
1ype of lever. They have long
handles for Jatger turning
effecrs.
Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action
An object will lopple over if the line of action of its weight falls
outside its base area. This is because a resultant moment occurs, whose
Forces on supports
If a n object is being held up by supports (e.g. chair legs, car tyres, etc.),
turning force causes the object to fall.
the force acting on each support won't always be the same. The closer the
object's centre of mass is to a support, the stronger lhc force on the support.
It's all to do with the principle of moments - the anticlockwise and clockwise
moments must be equal. So a suppon closer to the centre of mass will Exam Tip
experience a larger force. Make sure you
understand why djfferent
w w w Example -iS@ftij§ll amounts of force can ac1
Noresul1am on differen1 suppons,
Net anticloclavi~ Net clockwise moment A plank with a weight of 40 N is resting on two supports 3 m and 1 m
ntomcm. Bus as you migh1 be asked
moment about pivot. about pivot Bus will from the plank's centre or mJ.sS. Find the upwards force provided by about ii in Lilt? exam.
is stable and Bus will rotate to the left rotato to the right and each support.
Stationary. and sit back upright fa//O\fN. Start by treating one of the supports as the pivol a nd find ing how much force
Rgure 1: Mometus acu·ng on a bus at differem angles of tih. is needed to balance the moments provided by the weight of the plank:
~
The higher Lhe centre of mass, and the smaller the base a rea, the less .Jm
4(/NJ-Cs lm
j
stable the object will be. An object will be very stable if it has a low centre or Tip: The balancing
mass a nd a wide base area. IJ force is found by
=>\ ba_fancing force
\
This is used a lot in design - for example, racing cars have a \Vide f'ivot rearranging M = Fx
c:loc.kvdse mcxmmr tOf=M+X.
base a rea and a low centre of mass to prevent them from toppling over on fast
= .lx40 = 120Nm = 120+4 = 30N
corners.
Then do the same, treating the other support as the pivot
Moments in levers
In a lever, an effort force ac1s against a load force by means of a rigid objecl
rotating a round a pivot. Levers are really useful in situa1ions where you 41/Nt (£:
need a larger turning effect Examples include spanners, whcelbarrom and \
balancing force anth1od:wio;e moment
<::Pivot
Tip: This is the force lhc
scissors. They increase the distance from Lhe pivot a force is applied, so = 40•4 = ION = I x4Cl = 40Nm ~uppons l!Xp~ri~ncQ too.
you need less force to gel the same moment. You can use lhe principle of So the support furthest from the centre of mass provides 1o N of force, It's NC\vton's third law
moments to answer lever questions. - see p.136 10< more
while the support closest lo the centre of mass provides 30 N of force.
on this.
Example -13§!#;1§19
Find the size or the force exerted by the biceps in holding a bag or gold
still. The bag of gold weighs 100 N and the forearm weighs 20 N. Couples and torque
A couple is a pair of forces oi equal size which act parallel 10 each other,
bu1 in opposite directions. A couple doesn't cause any resultam linear Tip: Couples aro
coplanar - they act in
force, but does produce a turning effect. This type or 1urning effect is called
the same plane.
a torque. The size of lhis torque depends on lhc size of the forces and the
d istance bet\veen 1hem.
r~~~~~~~~-"""··~x~~~~~~~~~~ F
F+o--~~~~~~'~~~~~~~+
Figure 4: A biceps muscle ptCNiding the ckx:kwiso n1011tenl Figure 6: A couple acting across a pivot
needed to balance t/te anticlockwise moments.
Take moments about A. In equilibrium: You can derWe a formula for lorque from lhe equatjon for moments,
I: amiclockwise moments E clock\vise moments M = Fx (p.85). In Figure 6, you can see that each force of the couple is
(100 x 0.4) + (20 x 0.2) 0.04E providing a moment in the same d irection, equal 10:
40+4 0.04E M:fxQ
2
40 ~~ 4 Torque, T, is the sum or the moments provided by the coople, so:
E= "'1r.ii4" 1100=1000 N (to 1 s.f.)
T: (F x Q) + (Fx Q) =Fd
2 2
Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action M :r
 Tip: Remember, lhc lWO
This gives the equation:
forms in a couple have
the same magnitude as
each other.
Tip: Rcme~r ...
for couples yoo need to
use the perpendicular
distanoo between Lhc
forms, not (he distance
between the one force
and the pivot.
equilibrium, the cloclovise torques have to equal the anticlod<wise torques.
Rgure 8: An oil worker
applying a torque 10 a rap
on an oil pipeline.
M :l:W Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action
Practice Questions -Application _a
__..,- F = size of one
T =- torqoo oi a ~ of the forces (in NJ Ql Find the moment provided by a f0<ce of 73.1 N acung at a
couple (in Nm) - T = Fd perpendicular distance of 0.25 m from a pivoL
..........._ d = pcrpendim/ar disrancc between Q2 The diagram belo\v shoW'S l\VO children on a seesaw. If the child on
I.he lines ofacu·on of the forces (in m) Tip: Remember, for an
the left stays where they a re, how far from the pivot should the child
t·: so.o t
object to be balanced,
on the right sit to balance the seesav{? lhe: 10tal clockwise
Exan1ple --f.i.ffi!S1fl!N UOm l lm
momcms on the object
must be equal LO the
A cyclist turns a sharp right corner by applying equal but opposite total anticlockwise
forces of 25 N to the ends of the handlebars. The length of the
handlebars is 0.60 m. Calculate the torque applied to lhe handlebars. N Pi! • 5()(/0 : ·
moments on the object.
QJ The diagram below shows a loaded trailer of mass 24 OOO kg.
sylf I
0.60m
15N
i i - f-w.-.1.-.s-m--'
1.;;;;•:1-.o-m
i -supp<>rl
Figure 7: Turning form being appficd across bicycle handfebdrs. a) Calculate the moment or the trailer's \veight about the supporL
T= Fxd b) Calculate the upward force X acting on the right-hand wheel.
25 x 0.60 = 15 Nm Q4 An airtight chamber is kept shul by a release wheel \Nith a diameter
of 0.35 m. The release wheel won't open unless a lorque of al least
SO.O Nm is applied across it. What's the minimum force tha t when
Like with the principle of moments, for an object to be in 1
applied to both sides of the wheel, will open the chamber door?
Exan1ple -f1 :·•ti!j1fllj
A torque of 120 Nm is applied to turn a revolving door. Two people apply 1Qrf4H§:l•iil:?1d.i.p i@lsi:Ifiil
.t couple to the door to stop it moving. They are each stood 1.2 m from Ql Whal is a moment?
the pivot. Calculate the size of the force, F, applied by each person.
Q2 Whal name is given to a pair of forces of equaf size which act parallel
to each olher in opposite directions?
-.-120Nm 1
In order for the door lo not be moving, it must be in equil ibrium.
So the anticlockwise torque supplied by the people must equal the
clockwise lorque. So, anticlockwise torque = 120 Nm.
The distance between the two forces of the <.-ouple -= 1.2 + 1.2 = 2.4 m
Rearrange the torque equa1ion ior force:
f =I-
d
ill
2.4
= SON
Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action M :UM
 Leaming Objoctivos; 5. Drag and Terminal Velocity Motion graphs for terminal velocity
You need 10 be able 10 recosnisc >nd sketch the graphs for velociry againsr
• Knowv.1u1 is~"'
by friction. When an objeo moves, ir kcls a INistive force c.V/ed friction (or drag!"' time and acceleration against 1imc for the 1erminaf velociry si1ua1ion .
a fluid) thal opposes its motion. ~ the friction fotces equ.V tJJ<: dnvrng

~1~_:t\:-=
• Know ..... drlig is
forces, the oO;ect stops accelcraring md reaches its temiilal velocity. EaamTip
""'frialonal lorcr
exp<tk•l<X'd by •n These gr;iphs migllo
come up St the «?Xam, so
objoatr.wl'thng
•llrougll • fluid

• Know f:loon
'""<hg
affro oho "'"
acting
Friction
Friction is a force that opposes moc1on. There are two main types of fricrion
contact friction and fluid friction.
t _~-.oocay I
lime ttnw•
m;ilce sure you ll"' lots
"'prn;tire with lhem
- uy shutting '"" lloolc
and sketching thorn rrom
on an objro om"Clling Contact friction happens bc4wccn solid surfaces (which is \vhat we memory.
Lhmugh air usually mean when we jusc use the word 'friction'). '
Figure I: l hr volochy tln1'! Jnd accelcration-<ime graphs
• Know what is n~:am
by 1rrmlnol velocity.
'Fluid' is a word th:u mc:ins ci1~r a liquid or a gas - something 1ha1 for an objr!t'I ro1cf1inB ic1mina/ vckx:ity.
can flow. Fluid friction is known :is drag. or nuid resistance or air resistance.
• Undf\r.mmd 11\c!
Three things affccl nuid fric1ion: Terminal velocity of a parachutist
mo1lon or an objl"Ct
falling In a unm>m1 The force depends on the viscosity (thickness) of the nuid. When something stans f:illing 1hrough air in a uniform gravitational ricld, i1s
gravita1lon::al ~din The force incrca.scs as 1hc speed increases. For simpte situations i1's weight causes i1 10 accelerate. The weight of the object is a constant force
thr prt'S<'OCC' "' drag. directly proportional (see p.1gc I 3), but you don't need ID worry abour lhe act.ing dmvnwards. Air rcsis1ancc is a frictional force opposing this mo1ion,
• Know •nd bo ..,.,. IO mathematical relarionship. which increases wirh spc«I. So before a parachutist opens the paradlute,
carry OUI l<'CMtquOS exadly the same thing happens os with the car:
The lorce depends on the size and shape o( the object moving through io.
>nd~IO
dctmninr ~iRll The larger the area pushing ag>imt the fluid. the greater the resislance lom>.
mocioylnfluids There are three rhings you need 10 remembe< about frictional lotces:
(PACll. They always act in the oppos11<' direction to the motion al the object.
Spocil!Qtlon A skydiver leaves a plane •nd
Rolwoncos 3.2.1 They can ne\'t'f speed things up or siart something moving. will accelerate until lhc air
and 3.2.2 They convert kinetic energy into hear. resistance equals his "'cighL

Terminal velocity
Terminal veJocity happens wh<•n frictional forct.-s t'qual the driving force. An
object will reach a terminal velocity at some point if there's a driving fo~cc I le will then be travelling at a terminal velocity.
that stays the same all 1hc time, and n fric1ional or drag force (or collccuon or Bui the terminal velocity of a person in free fall is
forces} that increases with sp<~ . 100 grc.:1110 land safely - so he needs to increase
1hc upwards force of air resistance, to slmv him
There are three main 51.agcs to reaching 1erminal velocity: down 10 a lower speed.
Example

The car accelera1es from rest

using a coostanr driving force.
Rcsoltant Ion"
-+
Exom Tlp
Eventually the car reaches a speed a1
You don't n('('d to know
about turbul(ln~ or why
resisti\•(' fora"S Jncre:isc
in 1.hc c.1Xam.
which the rcsis1ancc forres :ire equal
to the driving force. There is now no """""''" '""•
resultant force and no acccler.uion, so
the car carries on at a const:1n1 speed.
As the speed increases, the resistance
forces increase \because ol rhings
like turbuleoce). This reduces rhe
resultant force on the car and hence
reduces ilS acceleration.
l<f'Su!tant Forr.-e = o droppc_.'CI enough for the air resis1ance
;tg' :'"·
Before reaching 1tw, ground tw, will
open his parachure, which immediately
increases the air rcsista~ so i1 is now
bigger rhan his weight.
Figure 2: t\ parachure
incrroscs dJC drag acting on
J skydiver. so they hit the
This slow.; him down un1il his spc«I has ground <11 a sk.1\.'.TY speed.
10 be c-qual to his weight again. This
new tcnninal veloci1y is small enough to
.;urvivc landing.

..w ModUle 3 Secbon 2 Forces in Action Module 3: Seehon 2 Foroes nAction WiM
 Velocity-time graph for a parachutist Change the shape of lhe thing you are dropping.
The velocity-time graph for Lhis situation is a bit d ifferent, because you have a The drag force will be greater on less streamlined shapes.
new terminal velocily being reached after the parachute is opened: Change the mass of the thing you are dropping, while keeping the size
Tip: If )'00 nood a w!kx.ity " the same (this migh1be a bit tricky). You should find that heavier objects
reminder about vetocity· reach a fas.1er terminal velocity because a greater drag force is needed H>
lerminal velocity befote
time graphs, go to balance the extra weight (Remember, objects with different masses only
parachute opcnecJ
pages 60-&5. fall a t the same rate if drag is ignored - p.79.)
lesminal vc::lociry afrLv
parachule opt.'f'w.d
•Art;.t3:1.-11t:?1ii·'·PA.·ffi..
1"'·· 1______
·· '..1-.1...
11o!\1t!1ilii0 ,..
lin'H~ l
Rgure 3: The velocity·lime graph for a sky<fJVC.r who
releases his parachute alter reaching taminal velodry.
Q l A ball is dropped above a cylinder of water. It falls through the air
and lands in the water after 1.2 seconds. IL then reaches a terminal

/()~.~~-~:
..... j ................................ 1. . . .... 1
velocity after 4.2 seconds. lls motion is shown by the graph belo\Y. Tip: Falling into water
has a similar effoct on
the ball's vcloci1y to
j
Investigating terminal velocity opening a parachute.

Tip: If you do this

experiment, be sure 10
Things falling through a ny fiuid will re<ich a terminal velocity (if it falls for long
enough). You can calculate the terminal velocity of a ball bearing in a viscous
(thid<) liquid (e.g. wallpaper paste) by setting up an experiment like this:
Lhink aboo1 how you'd
do i1 safely - do a lull
risk asscssmenl before
you start, and be cxLra
careful not 10 spill
slippery liquids on the
floor.
Tip: \ou oo
might askoo
10 draw force diagrams
as the batl bearing
falls. Remomber Lh.at
the forces arc balanced
when the ball reaches
terminal w locity.
3.9 ••• ·······-·+·-················
!'
:
!:
I
tl.'O
Put elastic bands a round the tube of viscous l.Z 4.Z 5.1
liquid at fixed distances from the top of the
tube (measured with a ruler). Then drop a ball
al Describe the ball's accelera1ion from when it's dropped to when it
reaches the bouom of the cylinder (al 5.1 seconds).
bearing in10 the tube, a nd use a stopwatch to
record the time a t which it reaches each band. b) Sketch a velocity-Gme graph for the same ball if ii were dropped
straight into the water (without falling through air first). Include
Repeal this a few times to reduce the effect
the ball's terminal velocity in your sketdl.
of random errors on your results, using a strong
magnet to remove the ball bearing from the tube. Q2 Explain how air resistance affects the maximum spc..-'ed or a car.
Calculate the times iaken by the ball bearing 10
travel between consecutive elastic bands and
calculate a n average for each reading. Practice Questions - Fact Recall
Use the average times a nd the d istance Q l Whal is meant by fridion a nd drag?
between bands to calculate the average velocily Q2 In what direction does a fridional force ace?
belween t>..ach pair or elastic bands.
Q3 What can you say about the frictional forces and the driving forces.
You should find that the average velocity acting on an object when it reaches terminal velocity?
increases at first.. then stays constant -
this is the ball bearing's terminal velocity Q4 Which of these graphs shows the velocity-time graph for an objec1

·1c . 1~ ··l_
falling through air and reaching a terminal velocity?
in the viscous liquid used.
Use your average velocily data to plot Figure 4: A possible set-up
a graph of velocity against time. Draw for an invesug.1tion into
a smooth curve and use it to estimate rerminal speed in a viscous
th e terminal velocity. liquid.
l l l
Factors that affect terminal velocity
QS How does a skydiver reduce his or her terminal velocity?
You can change parts of your experiment to see what effect they have on
terminal velocity and 1he time taken to reach terminal velocity. Q6 Sketch and label the equipment a Sludenl could use to investigate the
FOr example you could: terminal velocity of a ball bearing in a viscous fluid.
Rgure S: Crude oil bdng Change the liquid - the term inal velocity will be lower in more viscous
poured into a boaker. Crude (thicker) liquids because the drag is greater. Try mixing water into
oil ltas a /u'g/Je< viscosity than wallpaper paste and see by how much the terminal velocity increases
lvate.r, so an objea falling when the drag is lower.
through it would reach a
lower terminal velocity lhan Change the size of the ball. What happens if the ball is larger?
if;, was faffing through Wolter. Or smaller?

"·M Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action M kA

 Leaming Objectives: 6. Density, Pressure and Upthrust Fluid pressure
• Know what is meant When an object is inside a fl uid, particles of the fluid collide with the object.
by 1he densi1y of a Density is a property rhat aJJ materials have, .1nd different materials have These collisions exert a force on lhc surface of the object, and hence a
material. different densities. The greater lhe densily of a fluid, the greater lhc pressure pressure is exerted on the object by the fl uid. This pressure depends on the
• Be able 10 use the an object \'Viii experience "¥-vhcn ir is subnlerged l'Vithin it density of the fluid, a nd how deep the object is within the fluid.
fonnula p !/J. A denser fluid \viii have more parlicles in a given volume. This
• Know what is meant means Chere are more particles that a re able to collide - which means more
by pressoro and
What is density? collisions and a larger total force exerted. So the pressure exened by the fluid
be able m use Lhc Density is a measure oi the 'compaclness' of a substance. h relates the mass is higher.
of a substance to how much space it takes up. The density of a material is its
equa1ion p ~ lor As depth increases, the number of particles above that point
mass per uni1 volume:
solids, liquids and increases. The weight of these particles adds to the pressure experienced al
gases. - - m = mass in kg thal point, so fluid pressure increases \Vilh deplh.
• Be able to use the ~-- · · k ' _ m . . - v = volume in mJ
P = ut.."11suy m gm ----+ P ~ V The pressure acting on an object due to a fluid can be C'.alculated
equa1ion p = hpg 10 from the depth of the object in the fluid (h), the dens ity of the fluid (1>) and the
calculate pressure. gravitational fie ld strength (g).
• Understand wha1 is If you're given mass in g and volume in cm3, you can work out the
dens ity of an object in gem > (1 gem '= 1000 kgm-'). The density of a n
rnea OI by lho Upthrusl
objcc'l depends on wha1 it1s made or. The density o f a material doesn1t vary
K g = gravitalional (tekf suengih
on an object in a fluid. p = pressure (in PaJ- p = hpg (in Nkg'J
• Know and understand with size or shape. Fig ure 1: Watt.v emerges
Archimedes' principle.
Specification
Exan1ple -f.!§!51?.115
h = depth (in nG \ = density (in kgm-'J out of each spout at different
s,_is. The deeper die
Reference 3.2.4 Aluminium has a density of 2.7 gem-'. spout, tlle faste1 the wauy
Calculate the volume of a 460 g solid object n1ade out of aluminium. Example --f$§!!jifl1d spurts our, due to the greater
Rearrange the formula f> = V
to get V = 7}- An ice cube is partially subn1erged in a glass of water. The botton1 face
flujd ptessure.

Tip: Make sure you
knOIN how to find lhe
area of some basic
shapes (e.g. mc1angles,
1riangles, circles,
etc). You may need to
calculate the area of a
surface 10 caJculate 1.hc
pressure.
Subs1itule m =460 g and p =2.7 gcm·J. into the rearranged equation to find of lhe ice cube is at a depth of 3 cm. The density of water is 1 OOO kgm-'.
the volume of the object. Calculate the pressure acting on the bottom of the ice cube due to the water.
V = ~ = 170.37 .. = 170cm' (to2s.f.) h = 3 cm = 0.03 m
p= 1 000kg m '
g = 9.81 Nkg-'
p = hpg
What is pressure? = 0.03 x 1 OOO x 9.81
Pressure is the a moun1of iorce applied per uni1 area. It is measured in = 294 .3 Pa= 300 ~ (to 1 s.fJ
pasca l s (~}, which are equivalent L
o nei.vtons per square metre (Nm 2}.
You can calcula te the pressure over a n a rea for a solid, liquid or gas using:
- - F = fOfce (in NJ Upthrust
p =pressure (in Pa) - . . p ~ ~-A =•rro (inm'J Upthrus.t is an upwards force that fluids exert on objects lhat are completely
or partially submerged in the flu id. It's caused because the top and bottom of
a submerged object a re at different depths. Consider the cuboid in Figure 2.
Example -f,l.§!$1$15
A triangular-based pyramid stands on a table. It has a mass of 2.5 kg, Since p = hpg, lhe re is a d ifference in Tip: Remember, when
and its base has an area of 62 cm1 • Calculate the pressure (in pascals} pressure, which causes an overall upwards yolf're using tha upLhrus1
force known as uplhrust. equation, you nocd 10
exerted on the table by the pyramid. make sure your uniis are
The force acting on the top of the body
Pressure is give by: p = ~ due to the nuid is F, = pA = h 111gA1
correcL Since you'll be
Firsl, calculate the force exerted by the pyramid. upthrustt usingg=9.81 Nkg •,
where A is the surface a rea of a density needs to be in
The force from the pyramid is equal to its weight So: face of the c ube. kg m 1, distances need to
F = mg= 2 .5 x 9.81 = 24.525 N The force acting on the bouom of the body be in m and areas need
= =
Conven its base area 10 m' : A 62 ~ 10 OOO 6.2 x 1Q.J m2 = =
due to the fl uid is F, pA h,11gA Rgure2: Diagramofan
to be in m1.
So the net force (upthrusl) acting on the object experiencing uprhrusL
So,p = 24 . 5 2 5
~= 3955 .~ ~ = 4()00 ,~
L • ..... .• (t0 2 s .f.) body is:
up1hrust = (h, - h,)11gA

•·<W Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action ML A


Rgure3: Oil 17oatson
1v.i1er because ithas a lower
det1sily. The boulc floats
because the average density
of the bottle and the air
inside it combined is Jcy.,ver
than the density of tbe water.
Rgure 4: A submarine
changes frs weight ;n 01der
lo m<Ne up and down in the
waier.
Tip: The volume of a
sphere is V = j Rt
1
•
Tip: Remember,
l gem~ = 1ClOO kgm-'-
• ·IW Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action
Archimedes' principle says tha t when a body is completely or
partially immersed in a fluid. it experiences an upthrust equal to the weight
of the fluid it has displaced. This is because:
<h, - h,)11gA = V11g =mg = W
The average density of an object determines whether il Ooats or
sinks. An object will float on a fluid if it has a lower density than the fl uid.
This is because the object will only displace a volume of water that weighs as
much as the object does. This volume of water is lower than the volume of
the object (because of the difference in their densities), so the object will only
be partially immersed. Al this point, the uprhrust balances the weight of the
object, a nd it floats.
If an object is more dense than the fluid, the ·water i1 displaces will
always weigh less than the object itself. This means the upthrust will always
be less than the weight of the object, and so the object will sink.
Example
Submarines make use of upthrusl to dive undcrwa1er a nd
return to 1hc surface. To sink, larbie tanks are filled wilh water
to increase the \Veight of the submarine so that it exceeds
the uplhrust. To rise to the surface, lhe tanks are filled with
compressed air 10 reduce lhe weight so that il's less than the upthrust.
Practice Questions -Application
Ql Find the density of an object with a mass of 360 kg and a
volume of 0.45 ml.
Q2 The air pressure inside an innated baske tball is 159000 !>.i. The
1otar force acting on the inner surface of lhe basketball is 26500 N.
Calculalc the inner surface area of the basketball.
Q3 A solid aluminium cylinder has a volume of 9.1 x 1Q-4 ml. Aluminium
has a density of 2700 kgm ~. What is the mass of the cylinder?
Q4 An orange has a mass or 0.15 kg and a radius or 4.0 c m.
Show that it has a density of approximately 560 kg m..J.
QS A uniform cylinder is submerged in water. The radius of the cylinder
is 5.00 cm. The top of the cylinder is at a depth ol 65.0 c m, and the
bottom of the cylinder is at a depth of 76.0 cm. The density of water
is 1.00 gem '· Calculate the upthrust on the cylinder.
i@HH:l•iit@H·hb •..,,;1.:~<•dliM,..•11..I________
.ffl
Ql State the equation lor density. Define any symbols that you use.
Q2 An object is submerged in water, and displaces an amount of water.
What is the upthrust on the object equal to?
Q3 State how the densities of a solid object and fl uid must differ for the
object to float when it is placed in the fl uid.
Section Summary ·
Make sure you know...
Thal weighl is the force experienced by an objecl with mass due lo a gravitational field.
Thal the unit of force i-s the newton, N.
How to use the equation W = mg to make calculations involving weight
Thal the centre or mass (or centre of gravity} of an object is the point 'vhere the weigh1 of a n objec1
can be considered to acl from.
Thal for a uniform regular solid_, its centre oi gravity is at the centre.
Ho\V to perform a n experiment to determine the centre of gravity of a flat object.
Whal is meant by the normal contact force, tension, friction and upthrusL
Thal a free.body diagram shows all lhe forces acting on an object, but none of the forces
it exerts on olher objects.
How to draw free-body diagrams.
That the net force on an object is the sum of all the forces acting on the object.
The equation F =ma and ho·w lo use it in calculations involving nel force and accelera1ion.
How to c-.alculate a net force ac1ing on an object for one- a nd two-dimensional motion.
Thal if all forces acting on a n object cancel each other oUl, the object is in equilibrium.
That if three coplanar forces are acting on an object in e<.1uilibrium, lhe forces can be drawn
as a closed triangle of forces.
How to resolve forces into perpendicular components.
How to calculate lhe n1oment of a force about a poinl using the equation M = Fx.
That the principle of moments states thal for a n objecl to be balanced, the sum of all clockwise
moments acting on the object must equal lhe sum or all anticlockwise moments acting on it
That a <..'Ouple is a pair of equal sized forces lhat applies a turning effec:L to an object
How to calculate the torque of a couple using the equation T = Fd.
That for a n object to be in equilibrium, the torques acting on it must balance.
That drag is a form of friction which acts against the mo1ion of an object moving through a fluid.
Thal an object is travelling at its terminal velocity when the driving rorccs and frictional forces acting
on it are balanced.
How differenl fac1ors affect the air resistance acting on an object, such as its speed, size and shape.
How an object reaches terminal velocity, in terms of Lhe forces acting on iL
Hmv to sketch and interpret velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs ior an object reaching
terminal velocity.
That an objecl falling in a uniform gravitational field in the presence or drag will evenlually reach a
terminal velocity.
Hmv to perform an experiment to delermine the lerminal velocity of a n object in a fl uid.
That density is a measure of the compactness of a substance.
How lo use the equation p = !/j to make calculations involving densily.
Thal pressure is lhe force excned on a surface per unit area.
How to use the equation p = ~ 10 find pressure in problems involving solids, liquids and gases.
Ho\V to use the equation p = h11g to find the pressure exerted on a surface due Lo the fluid it's in.
Ho\v to calculate the upthrust exeried on an object by a fluid.
That Arcnimedcs' principle states that the upthrust on an object that is fully or partially submerged in
a lluid is equal to the weight of the fluid d isplaced by the object.
Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action Mi
 Exam-style Questions
5 A student is investigating the properties of an unknown liquid, X.
(a) The student wants to investigate the terminal velocity of a ball bearing as tt
travels through liquid X. Describe an experiment that the student could perform
An object that weighs 29.43 N on Earth has a weight of 26.61 Non Venus. to investigate this.
What is the gravitational field strength on Venus? (3 marks)
A 9.04 Nkg-• The student then pours 450 cm' of liquid X into a beaker, and weighs ii.
The mass of the full beaker is 862 g. The empty beaker has a mass of 250 g.
B 0.90 Nkg-• (b) Calculate the density of liquid X. Give your answer in gem-°.
C 8.87 Nkg-• (2marks)
D 9.81 Nkg-• (c) The student places an apple into liquid X. The apple floats in the liquid.
The bottom of the apple is at a depth of 4.0 cm below the surface.
(1 mark)
calculate the pressure due to liquid X acting on the bottom of the apple.
(2marks)
2 Which of the following statements about air resistance on a moving object is/are true?
(d) The apple has a mass of 185 g. calculate the upthrust on the apple.
1 Air resistance is independent of the size and shape of the object. (2 marks)
2 Air resistance increases as the velocity of the object increases.
3 Air resistance is smaller for objects with a lower mass.
A Only statement 2 is true.
B Only statements 1 and 2 are true. 6 A dinghy is at rest on water. tt is then pulled through water by two constant forces,
c Only statements 1 and 3 are true. as shown in Fig. 6.1. A resistive force, F. acts against the dinghy's motion.

D All of tile statements are true. Fig. 6.1

?
(1 mark)

3 Which of the following statements regarding equilibrium is true? F

A A body in equilibrium has no forces acting on it. '--~~~-c;~

..,,._,'l>.O"
B A body in equilibrium cannot accelerate. 80.0N
C A body cannot be in equiliblium if tt is under tile action of more than one moment.
(a) After a period of time. the dinghy reaches terminal velocity.
D A body that is changing direction is in equilibrium. Describe how the dinghy reaches terminal veloctty.
(1 mark) (3 marks)
(b) Sketch the velocity-time graph for the dinghy, starting from rest
4 The diagrams below show couples of forces being applied to four identical taps. until it reaches terminal veloctty.
The taps are drawn to scale. Which tap is experiencing the largest torque? (1 mark)
(C) calculate the size of force F when the dinghy is at terminal velocity.

~~+N;JL (2 marks)

rnT A
~
B
•N
c
~
0
(d) Once the dinghy is travelling at terminal velocity, the two 80.0 N forces are removed.
The mass of the dinghy is 83.2 kg. calculate the deceleration of the dinghy
immediately alter the 80.0 N forces are removed.
(2 marks)

(1 mark)

• ·!:W Module3:Section2 Forces inAction Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action

 7 A truck is used to carry rocl<s. The truck has a weight of 21 OOO N and is 4.75 m Module 3
long. When ifs carrying no load the centre of mass is 1.3 m from the centre of the
front wheels and 2 .4 m from the centre of the rear wheels. The truck is shown in
Ftg. 7.1 .
Fig. 7.1
1. Work and Power Learning Objectives:
: ~:
2.4 m l..Jm
• Understand I.he
You'll have mel work and power at GCSE. In physics, !hey have specific concept of work done
meanings,, <ind they can be calcu/arcd lvith a se1 of equations. by a force.
• Know 1.llat lhe 1ransfcr
What is work? of energy is equal to
\Vork is done whenever energy is transfened - they are just Lwo ways of wotlc done.
saying the same thing. Here are some examples of work being done: • Be abltt to define the
uni1 joule.
Aaivity 14.brk done against r.,., mergy kxm • Be able to calculate
2 / IKKIN lifting up a box. Gravity Gravitational potential lh<> work done by
energy a force moving an
(a) Define the moment of a force about a point or pivot. objea, including
Pushing a chai1 across friction Heat when the force is a1an
(1 mark) """'' f/oof. angle 10 I.he dirooion
(b) State and explain which set of wheels. front or back. will exert a greater upwards Pus/ting two magnetic Magnetic Force Magnetic energy of ITIOlion, using
nmh poles togethGt. W = FxcosO.
force on the truck When the truck is carrying no load.
Suc1ching a spring. Stiffness of S{Jfing f/astic po<ential enctgy • Know I.hat power is
(2marks)
the rate ol doing work.
(c) A rock is placed on the very edge of the back of the truck, and the front wheels Rgure 1: A mble shm•;ng examples of worl< oong
done and l/Je final e.neTgy form for each aaivity. • Be abltt to calculate
remain on the ground but no longer feel any force from the truck. Calculate how
much the rock weighs. Usually you need a force to move something because you're having
pa.ver using P-= 1¥.
• Be abltt to define
(2marks) lo overcome another force. The thing being moved has kinetic energy ih<! unit wau.
while it's moving. \Vhidl is transferred to other forms of energy when the • Be able: to derive
8 A student is investigating the centre of gravity of objects. mo vem ent stops.
P= F• and know how
(a) Define the centre of gravity of an object. The word 'work' in physics means the amounl of energy 1ran sferrcd to uscil.
(1 mark) from one form to another when a force causes a movement o f som e sort Specification
It's measured in joules (J). References 3.3.1
Fig. 8.1 shows a fiat toy parrot. and 3.3.3
Fig. 8.1
Calculating work done
When a car tows a caravan, it applies a force to the caravan to move ii to
where it's wanted. The force and the displacement of the caravan are in lhe
same direction. To find out h o\v much work has been done, you need to use
the equa1ion:
F = forcf! causing
____.... motk>tl in N
W= WOfk doiK! - W: Fx~
in I x = displacemeru Figure 2: Wlien you strike a
(b) DesClibe an experiment the student could perform to find the centre of gravtty inm nlatch, l\>'Olk is done against
of the toy parrot. friction to produce heat.
Work is the energy that's been changed from one form to ano1.her -
(3marks) it's not necessarily the total energy. E.g. moving a book from a low shelf
(C) Cranes are tall structures used to move heavy objects on coostruction sites. to a higher one will increase iLs gravitational polential energy, bul il had
DesClibe the features the base of a crane must have and explain why these features some gravitatio nal potenlial energy to start with. Here, the work done Tip: Have a look at
are needed. would be the increase in gravitalional po!ential energy, nol the total page 32 for more on unit
(3marks) gravitational polential energy. prefixes.
Remember the displacement needs lo be measured in metres - if you
have displaccmenl in cm or km, you need lo convert it to metres first.

•111~
1 :1~11 Module 3: Section 2 Forces in Action Module 3: Section 3 Work, Energy and Power
 The force w ill be a fixed value in any calculations, either because it's
constam or because it's the average force.
Power and work
Power means many things in everyday speech, but in physics it has a special
The equation assumes tha1 the d irection of the force is in lh e same meaning. Power is the rare of doing \vorfc - in other words it is the amount
direction and along the same line as the movement of energy transferred from one form to another per second.
The equation gives you the definition of lhc joule (symbol j): You calculate the power from this equation:
rone joule is the work done when a force of 1 ne\vton moves a n objec1
through a distance of 1 metre'. __.. W =work done in I
P =powerinW - p=!1'.'..
Forces at an angle 1
..__t=rime ins
Sometimes the direction of movement of an object is different from Figure 3: A /lco~ legs
Tip: Remember Lhe direction or 1hc force ading on it In this case you need to find the uansfer a small amoum of
force is a vector, so component of the force lhat acts in the direction of the movement The watt {symbol W) is defined as a race of energy transfer equal to 1 joule per
enP.tg)~ bm in a very shott
you can resolve it second Us '). Ma ke sure you learn this definition. time - this makes them •<ery
Because you only need to worry about the componenL of the force in
into components the direction of the motion, you only ever need to resolve it in that direction. powerful.
(soepage43).
In general for a force at an angle to the dire<:tion of motion, you can find the
woric \Vilh this equation: Moving objects
~v = work done W f', ~ 0 = angle .at which the /otce acts
Sometimes, for a moving objec.1, it's easier to use another version of the
it1J · - / ,., fromlhedireaionofmotion power equation. ll's derived like this:

You know P= ~-
f = lotce causing x = di'Splacernent in m
motioninN =
You also know W Fx. which gives P ~x. =
But v = f,which you can substitute into the above equation to give:
Example --i$!ffiij;j§1
5
A girl pulls a sledge with a force of Sl .9 N for 100.0 m . The string s he uses
lo pull the s ledge is al an angle of 19.3° lo the ground. Calculate the work
she does in pulling the sledge o""r this distance. P = poWIYinW - P : FV
~
. / f = force causing
the motion in N

~ v = velocity in ms r
ExamTip
You'll be given this
equa1ion in your gxam
daLa and formulae
J
bool:ICI.
It's easier to use this ii you're given the velocity in the ques!ion.
Learn this equation as a shortcut to link power and speed.
Exan1ple --i4§1t!1$15
A ca r is travelling at a speed of 10.0 m·s-1 and is kept going against the
frictional fo rce by a driv1ng force of 525 N in the direction of motion.
Find the power supplied by the engine lo keep the car running.
To calculate the work done in a situation like the one above, you need Lo
consider the horizontal and vertical <.'Omponcnts of the force. The only Use the shortcut P = Fv, which g·ives:
movement is in the horizonta l direction. This means the vertical component
of the force is not causing any motion (and hence not doing any \\'Ork) - I'= 525 x 1o.o = 5250 W
it's just balancing out some of the weight,. meaning there's a smaller
reaction force. Exam Tip
If lhe force and motion are in different directjoos, you can replace This equ::uion doesn't
The horizontal component of the force is a using the motion, so to calcula1e appear in your data and
the work done, this is lhe only force you need lo consider. So resolving the Fwith FcosO 10 get:
formulae booklet. Make
force to find the horizontal component {f,l we get: sure you know how
F, = 51.9 x cos 19.3° = 48.98... N P= FvcosO - O= angleat which the to find the pow~r of a
force acts from the moving object when
=> W = F, x x = 48.98 ... x I 00.0 = 4898.32 ... = 4900 j(to 3 s.f.) direction ofnK>t.ion the foroo isn'l in lhe
djrection of Lhe object's
motion.
If Lhe force and dis.placemen! are in the same direction, then 0 0, =
=
and cosQ 1. This means W = Fx, which you saw on the previous page.

!1fl Module 3: Section 3 Work. Energy and Power Module 3: Section 3 Work, Energy and Power M!t$A
 I #G, 19:lttili!f!''·'I€ .· ,' ® !"!j'[,:;:!;;rJ;-------
· ' ·111"111$11111
" ..., 1!1
. 2. Kinetic Energy and Learning Objectives:
Q1 Ibra him pushes a desk 2.81 m across a Oat floor. If he pushes with a • Know and be able to
Tip: ll's a good idea to
steady f()(ce of 203 N. how much work does he do? Gravitational Potential Energy derive C. = imv' and
draw a diagram of Lhe Q2 A car opera ting at a powe r of 60.1 kW is travelling al a steady You'tte probably come across kinecic energy and gravitational potential use il to cala.ilate the
S(!t-Up before }(>U star1 34.7 ms-1• How much rorce is being provided by 1he e ngine? kinetic energy of an
energy before, but don;l assume you kno\V it all. This time you could be
calculating - it usually objea.
QJ Koda pulls a desk 1.39 m across the Ooor by pulling a rope auached ;uked lo derive lhe equillions in the exam.
helps to clear things up to it at 13.1" to the horizontal. If he pulls with a steady force of • Know and be able to
a bit dcri"" f = mgh and
371 N, how much woric does he do? Kinetic energy use it to,.ea lru late the
Q4 A child is pulling a cart along by a string a l 1s.2• 10 the horizontal. Kinetic energy is the energy of anything moving. You can calcula le it for a gravitational potential
The child is pulling wilh a conslant force of 83.1 N and lhc cart is
moving horizonlally al 2.99 ms 1. Whal is the power of the child?
QS The diagram below shows a tractor pulling a plough w~h a
moving object using lhis equa1ion:

E, = ki~cenergr---..E.= 1mv1
n--
m-= mass in kg
energy of an object in
a uniform gravitational
field.
constant force. ml 2 - - v=speedinms-' Specification
Reference 3.3.2

Example --f$$1tii§ifi
A ca.r with a mass of 903 kg is travelling al a steady speed of 20.6 ms-' .
How much kinetic energy does it have?
Jusl put the numbers into the equation:
E, = ~mv' = ~ x 903 x 20.6' = 191598.54= 192 kJ (lo 3 s.f.)
h does 980 kj of woric pulling the p lough the length of a fie ld. Tip: A kilojoule (kJ) is
a) If it takes the tractor 22 seconds to pu ll the plough the length of To derive lhis cqualion you need to think aboul an object equal to 1OOO joules OJ.
the lield, what is the tractor's power? undergoing a change in kinelic energy. When lhe kinetic energy of an
b) Calculate the length o f the field. objec• increases, work is done sm the object. Similarly, when the object's
kinetic energy decreases, work is done .b): the object Work done is Tip: Remember \vork:
equal lo energy transferred so the \\'Ork done is equa l to lhe change done, W = Fx (p. I01).
in kinclic energy of lhe object
Practice Questions - Fact Recall -
QI What's transferred when work is done? E. = Fx
Q2 What is the definition of the joule? You a lso know that F = ma (p.79) a nd a = y so:
Q3 Power is the ra te of doing what? f = m( v I u)
Q4 What's the equation for finding the power oi a moving object?
And from page 48, x (displacemenU can be wriuen:
x = (u ~- vl 1 Exam Tip
Make sum you
Substituting these two into lhe Ek equa1ion g ives: understand th is
E. = m X (v - u) X (u + v) X I deriva1ion. It coold bag
I 2 you some easy marks
Cancelling the 'I's and expanding the brackets: in the exam.
E, = ~m (v u)(u + v)
= ~m (v' ~ uv - uv - u'>
= ~m (v2 u'l

= ~mv' imu 7

The kinetic energy of an objec1 is the kinetic e nergy compared to when

the object is at rest, i.e. when u = 0 and the object has no kinetic energy. Tip: You ooly need
the magnitude, not the
Substiluting u = O into the equation above gives you: direction, of v in th is
£,= imv' equation.

•lll~
• }Jll Module 3: Section 3 Work, Energy and Power Module 3: Section 3 Work, Energy and Power M!of A

Tip: Remember, g is
cqual to9.8 1 Nkg 1 oo
Earth, but can be very
different elsewhere,
see p.76. So an object
could have a differem
gravituional po1ential
energy on an01hcr
planet even if i1's at the
same height above the
surface.
Rgure 1: An asuonaut can
jump much higher on !he
moon th.1n tht-W could on
fanh by doing same amount
of work. This is bt:icause g is
lower on the moon (p.761
sofo1aghml , hwil/
be bigge1 (since l,=mghJ.
•lll~
1 IJMI Module 3: Section 3 Work. Energy and Power
Gravitational potential energy 3. Conservation of Energy Learning Objectives:
Gravitational potential energy is the energy something has due lo its position • Be abl11 to recall
in a gravitational field. The grea1er the height of the objec1, the greater its You;/} no doubt have already n1er t/Je idea that energy can be uansferred from Ill<! prin<:ipl• ol
gravitational potential energy. one type lo anolher. Some energy uansfcrs are useful, but olhers aren't conscrv.nion of
You normally want 10 find the change in an object's gravitational potential energy.
energy, £,, \vhich you can work out using the equation: • Understand w hat
The principle of conservation of energy is rooa ni by 1he
l = change h . The principle of conservation of ene.rgy s1a1es that cffi ciency ol a
in i:ravitillional = ~~ge tn mcchanicaJ system
J-- E = mgh - - heigh• mm
'g
po<entia/ <'ilC<BY in and be able to use
I
m = mass m kg
= gravitational (teld
suength in Nklf'
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can
be lransferred from one form to another bu1 the total
a mounL of e nergy in a closed system will not change.
the equation for
efficiency.
• Be able to apply
knowledge or
energy in different
To derive this equation, use the idea that the gravitalional energy gained is Wheneve1 e nergy is converted from one form to another, son1e is always 'lost. forms to transfer
equa l to the work done in moving the object a d istance h upwards: It's still there {i.e. il'S not destroyed) - it's just not in a form you can use. and conservation
E,= W: F x/J problems, including
Example exchanges between
The force that work is done against is the force of gravity, which is equaJ to mg gravitational po1cntial
(see p.76). So: Not all the e nergy input into a motor is converted to useful energy
energy and kinetic
(e.g. kinetic energy) - it's not destroyed, but it is converted lo less energy.
E,= F x h =mgh useful forms of energy.
Specification
This equa1ion only works when g is con~a n l. This is known as a uniform References 3.3 .1.
Vseful ()Utput
field. You can assume g is constant close to the Earth's surface. 3.3.2 and 3.3.3
Example -i~§lftihfllij r----:;-\r::1-.n tota r energy in
~L:.)""~
A man with a mass of 82.5 kg climbs up a cliff and gains 23.5 kl or tOla I CMrgy out
gravitational potential energy. Calculate how high the man climbed.
bwtgy (.'OIJW!rtcd
You can rearrange E, = mgh to get h = ~ to oth<~ forms
Then just pul the numbers in: Rgure 1: 7he input energy is equal to the useful
h= 28500 35..214 . . =35.2m (to3s.f.) energy output -1- enetgy comterted to other forms.
82.5 x 9.81
Mosl often, energy is lost as heat - computers and TVs are al\vays
Practice Questions -Application \Varm when they've been on for a while. No device, excepl possibl)• a healer,
Q 1 A child with a mass of 32.4 kg jumps 0 .285 m in10 the a ir. transfers all ene rgy to useful e nergy - some energy is always lost as heat (You
wan l heaters to give out heat, but in other devices the heat loss isn't usefu l.)
Calculate how· much gravitational potential energy she has gained
Often the heat that is lost is caused by friction.
at the top of her jump. Exam Tip
Energy can be lost in other forms too, such as sound - the important
Q 2 A 770 kg helicopter descends from a he ight of 890 m above the l.uckily you can
thing is the 1051 energy isn't in a useful form a nd you can't get it back. normally assume that
ground 10 a height of 760 m~ Calculate the gravitational p<Mential
energy that the helicopter loses during this descent. You can talk about how well energy is transferred in terms of friction is zero in axam
efficiency. It's a measure of how much of the input energy is tra nsferred questions (unless stated
Q J A bus is travelling " long" road at a spec>d of 16 ms·•. otherwise).
usefully by a mechanical system. The more useful e nergy you get 001 of a
Calculate the mass of the bus if it has 150 kJ of kinetic energy.
machine for what you pu1into it.. the n-1ore efficient ii is. You can use the
following equation to calculate cfficienc.y as a percentage:
Tip: To get efficiency as j
Practice Questions - Fact Recall a decimal, just use the
Q 1 When does an object have kinetic energy? efficiency= useful output energy x 100 firs1 part of the equation
total input e nergy and don'I multiply
Q2 When docs an object gain gravitational potential energy? by 100.
Module 3: Section 3 Work, Energy and Power M(.f

Exam Tip
Some questions will be
kind and give you Ille
useful output coorgy-
othcrs will tell you how
much is wasted. )bu
just have 10 subtract the
wasted energy from Ille
1oial input energy to find
the useful ou1put energy.
Example -f1
tfl!fi1§1N
A me,at grinder has a useful energy output of 725 J when making minced
meal. If its efficiency is 89.1 %, work out the total input energy.
You know that efficiency = useful ~ulput energy x 100
total input energy
Whidl you can rearrange to:
. efficiency
total mpul energy= useful output energy ~ '"""1iiO
Then total input energy= 725 ~ ™ = 813.69... = 814 J (to 3 s.f.)
In real life there a re also frictional forces - in lhe example above, not all
of Dominic's gravitational potential energy would be transferred 10 kinetic
energy. Some would be lost due to frictional forces.
You're usually told to ignore friction in exam questions - this means
that in the examples above you can assume Lhat the sum of the kine1ic and
gravitational potential energy is constant. So for a falling object with no
air resistance, the gain in kinetic energy is equal to the loss in gravitalional
potential energy:
~mv' =mgh

You need to be able lo use lhis rule to solve problems. The classic example
is the simple pendulum. In a simple pendulum, you assume lhal all the mass
is in the bob al the end.
Transfers between kinetic and gravitational
potential energy
The principle of conservalion of energy nearly always comes up when you're
doing questions about changes ben.vcen kinetic and gravitational potential Exan1ple --t;t.§11jf §1d
energy. A simple pendulum has a mass of 700 g and a length of 50 cm
Often when an object moves, energy is being transferred from (both correct lo 2 significant figures).
one type to another. For example, kinetic energy can be transferred to It is pulled out lo an angle of 30.0° from the vertical.
gravi1ational polential energy by doing Vw'Ork, and vice versa. (a) Find the gravitational potential energy stored in the pendulum bob
Examples relative to its lo¥i"e:St point.

You can work out the increase in hcighl, h,

of the end ol the pendulum using trigonometry.
S1an by drawing a diagram:
Tip: 0.50cos30.0° is
the vertical side of the
Figure 1: Rollercoastets triangle formed when
uansfer gravita.tional the pendulum swings,
potential energy to kinetic so Lhe change in height
enetgy and vice 1,t.vsa. is 0.50 {original heighU
- 0.50cos30.0-0 {new
Rgure 3: Some <!Xdmplcs of energy uansfers
00\'\'Eeff kineUc and potential energy.
heigh!).

1. As Becky throws the ball upwards, kinetic energy is converted into

Exam Tip
You could be given
a graph showing 1he
variation ot gravitationaJ
potemial energy (E) and
kinccic energy (f) wi1h
distance or lime for an
object - remember, Lile
sum of C and f>. should
remain &>nsi.ant if there
are no frictional forces.
gravitalional potential energy. When it comes down again, thal
gravitalional potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy.
2. As Dominic goes down the slide, gravitational potenlial e nergy is
converted inlo kinetic energy.
Gravitational potential energy
= mgh Exam Tip
You could be asked 10
= 0.70 x 9.81 x (0.50 - 0.50cos30.0')
apply lhis Sluff IO just
=0.460... abom anything in the
= 0.46 J (to 2 s.f.) exam. Rollercoasters
are an exam favourite.

Module 3: Section 3 Work. Energy and Power Module 3: Section 3 Work, Energy and Power ii•"*

Figure 4: Birds of prey ato
highly sireamlined so that
onty a small amount of
energy is uansfefred to heat
lhrough drag.
•IJ!~!·~ll Module 3: Section 3 Work. Energy and Power
(b) The pendulum is released. Find the maximum speed or the
pendulum bob as it passes through the vertical position.
Section Summary
Make sure you know...
To find the maximum speed, assume no air resistance,
then use mgh = ~mv'.
So 1mv' = 0.460.... Rearrange to find v:
v= /2Xti17i,6 0 ... =1. 1464 ... = 1.1ms 1 (to 2 s.f.)
OR cancel Lhe ms and rearrange to give:
v' = 2gh
= 2 x 9.81 x (0.50 - O.SOcos.l0.0') = 1.3142...
=:> v= /1.3142 ... = 1.1 464 ... = 1.1 ms 1 (to2 s.f.)
Practice Questions -Application
C~lFind I.he useful energy oulput of a 20.0o/o efficient e ngine wilh an
energy input of 2900 J.
Q2 An apple fall.s from a tree and accelerates uniroonly to a velocity or
7 .8 ms 1 before it h its the ground~ Assuming there is no air resi.slance,
calculate the height the apple fell lrom.
Q3 a) How much gravitational potential energy does a falcon wilh a
mass of 650 g la<e when it d ives 103 m?
b) As it dives, 95o/o of its gravitational polentiaJ energy is convened
to kinecic energy. If it started stationary, how fast is it moving
after the dive?
<:) The falcon misses its prey a nd soar.; back up, convening 80.0%
of its kinetic energy to gravitational potenlial energy. How high
will il climb before needing lo Rap its wings?
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
C)l Whal's the principle of conservation of energy?
Q2 Whal is lhe efficiency oi a mechanical sys!em a measure ol?
·
Thal whenever work is done, energy is lransferred.
Some examples of work done and lhe transfers involved.
Thal \vork is measured in joules.
Thal one joule is lhc work done when a force of 1 newton
moves an objecl lhrough a d istance of 1 metre.
Ho\V lo use W = FxcosO to C'.alcula te lhc work done by a force moving an objec1,
and recall tha1 W = Fx when the force is in the direction of mo1ion (0 = 0").
Thal power is lhe rate or doing work, and how to calculate it using P-= !f..
Thal power is measured in \vatts.
Thal one watt is defined as a ra te of energy transfer equal to 1 joule per second.
Hmv to derive a nd use P = Fv for calcula tions involving the force and velocity of moving objects.
The equation Et = ~mv', ho\v to derive it and how to use i1
to calculale the kinetic energy of an object
The equation £,. = mgh, how to derive iL and how to use it to calcula1c the
gravitational polential energy of an objecl in a uniform gravitational field.
Tha t the principle of conservation of energy s.ays that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy
can be transferred from one form 10 a nother but the total amount o{ energy in a closed system will
not change.
Whal is meant by the efficiency of a mechanical sys1em.
How to calculate efficiency using: efficiency-= usefuloutpul energy x 1oo.
to1al mput energy
How energy is commonly wasted.
Thal for a falling object with no air resistance, Lhe gain in kinetic
energy is equal to lhe loss in potential e nergy.
How to apply e nergy conservation to transfer and conservation problems.
Module 3: Section 3 Work, Energy and Power Mil
 Exam-style Questions Module 3

A mobile phone is connected to a power supply to charge. 1. Hooke's Law Leaming Objectives:
Of tile 565 J of energy supplied to the phone. 45.2 J is wasted in the form of heat. • Know the terms
What is the efficiency of this process? Applying a force to a mareri.11 can stretch it When some marcrials are extension and
sue1ched, they follow Hooke's Jaw - but only up to a certain point. compression.
A 8.00%
• KncM• wfla l is
B 12.5% Forces and deformation meant by tensile
and compressive
c 92.0% W hen more than one force is applied to an object, deformation (a dlange in
deformation.
the object's shape or size) will occur. More than one force is needed to cause
D 98.1% • Know 1-loolm's law,
deformalion - without a secondary supportive force, the work done by a
and be able 10 use Lhe
(1 mark) force on an objeci will simply move the object f0<mula F = kx.
There are two general types of deformation. Tensile deformation • Know the meaning of
is caused by applying balanced outward forces, which leads to extension a force oons1-am, k, of
2 A farmer wants to move some farming ectuipment down the road.
(stretching). Compressive deformation is caused by applying balanced inward a spring orwire.
(a) He lifts the equipment into a cart forces, which leads to compression (squashing) of the object. • Be abl<' to interpret
State What the farmer is doing work against as he tilts the equipment. If a light metal wire of original length L is supported at the top and force-extension (or
then has a weight attached to the bonom, it suetches. The weight pulls compression) graphs.
(1 mark)
down wilh force F. Once the wire has stopped stretching, the forces will be • Know techniques
The farmer uses a horse to pull the cart along a straight road. in equilibrium and there will be an equal and opposite reaction force al the and procedures
Ftg 2.1 shows the horse pulling the cart with a constant force. support. used to investigate
forc~iens ion
Support {Ol<X, F ch.araacristics for
arrangements which
may include springs,
rubber bands or
polythene strips
Natural (PAG2).
/c.11g1h,
Specification
L
Referen~ 3.4.1
Fig 2.1
(b) Calculate the amount of wm done by the horse if it pulls the cart 95 m.
(2 marks)
Tip: The mc<al wire is
light - this means you
j
can ignore the force
3 A cyclist pedals along a road. Figure 1: A supported metal wire extending by x when a weight is attached. acting downwards due
to the weigh1 of the
(a) When the cyclist is travelling at 6.5 ms-'. the brakes are applied and the bike wire.
comes to a stop alter 3.0 s. If the cyclist and bike together have a mass of 74.8 kg,
calculate their combined kinetic energy just before the brakes are applied. What is Hooke's law?
Robert Hooke discovered that the extension, x, of some objec&s (e.g. most
(2marks) wires and springs) is proportional to the load or force applied, F.
(b) Calculate the power of the brakes. He wrote this as:
(2marks) ,,..--.k = fOlce constant in Nm r
F= folcein N --+F = Kx..__ x =- extension in m
(c) Later on. the cyclist allows himself lo roll down a hill from rest wrthout pedalling.
The top of the hill is 22.5 m higher than the bottom of the hill.
Calculate how fast he will be going When he reaches the bottom of the hill. k is the force const.mt (or the stiffness of an object). It is the force
Assume air resistance and other resistive forces are negligible. needed to extend an object that obeys Hooke's law by 1 m. It depends on
(2marks) the material that I.he object is made from, as well as its length and shape.

•IJ!~fJll Module 3: Section 3 Work, Energy and Power Module 3: Section 4 Materials
 Example -f.~§!$1§18 In parallel. the combined force constant is jusl the sum of the force
A force of 6.0 N is applied to a metal wire, which extends by 0.040 m.
constants of the individual springs:
Exam Tip
If you're given a Calculate the force constant of the wire.
question like this in
Lhc exam, make sure
=
Rearrange the formula F kx to get k =f. k = k, + k,
the extension is in m Then substitute F = 6.0 N and x = 0.040 m into the rearranged equation lo
before putting iLinto the find the force constant of the wire.
equation.
0 0~0 = l SONm
6 1
k =
Example-f$tjHi\i§ld
Calculate the combined force constant for the springs shown below.
Figure 3: Springs v.-ere
The two springs in para llel al the
used in parallel in old
botlom of the spring have a !fain suspension systems,
combined force constant of:
Hooke's law and springs providing a large combined
Tip: If two 1hings arc A metal spring also changes length when you apply a pair of opposite forces. k..,.. = k1 + k1 = SS + SS = 110 Nm 1 spring constant.
proportional, it means The extension or compression of a spring is proportional to the force a pp lied
Lhat if one increases, the
" N m·•
.,., " N m-•
"" Rearrange 1(
l = k.,.
l 1 1 t o ge1·.
""'--
- so Hooke's law applies.
other i ncreaS<!s by lhc
same proportion. k= l ~(~ + ~) = 1 ~(* + rfo)
=44.594 5 ... =45 Nm 1
(lo 2 s. f.)

The limit of proportionality

There's a limit to the force you can apply for Hooke's law to stay lrue. Exam Tip
Rgure 4 shows force against ~.xtension for a 1ypical metal wire or spring. You may be asked 10
Figur~ 2: M~tJ/ springs will! ll!llSik! and comprC!Ssivl! forros aCJing on 1hoo1. The first part or the graph shows Hooke's law being obeyed - there's give two feitures of J
a linear relationship between force and extension and il goes straight through graph which show 11la1
Hooke's law works just as well for compressive forces as tensile the material under 1cst
the origin. The gradient of the suaight line is the force conslan1, k. obeys Hookg's law. lusl
forces. For a spring. k has the same value whether the forces are tensile or
compressive (lhough thi.s isn't true for all materials). remember, the graph
ol a material which
fon .l! obeys Hooke's law will
start with a straight Une
The strajghr line 1hrough 1he mil:ill·
Springs in series and parallel here shows l-looke's
lr a force is applied 10 more than one spring (or wire), you can <.'Ofllbine law is being obe)<tvl
uptopoim P. Tip: You get a similar
the iorce constants of the individual objects lo find the overall force graph for compression
cons.tan! of the system. You can then lre.at the system as one spring with 100.
force <.'On.stant k. How you combine the force constan lS depends on how
the springs a re arranged.
Tip: There's more on
In series, the reciprocal of the combined force constant is equal to I.he force-extension graphs
sum of the reciprocals of lhe individual force constants: on pages t lB-120.
Rgure 4: The graph of force against extt?nsion lot a typical metal wire.
Tip: The limit of
Tip: Don'1 ge1 lh""'
equations confusai with Metals generally obey Hooke's law up to the limit of proportionality, propon.iornality can also
the series and parallel marked Pon the graph. The limit of proportionality is the point beyond be described as the
poin1 beyond 1\ilich
resistance equations on ·which the force is no longer proportional to extension. Beyond P, the graph
the for<r.~xmnsion
page 176. slarts lo curve. The limir of proportionality is also known as Hooke's law graph is no longer linear
limit. Hookc's law doesn't just apply to metal springs and wires - most ()(her (siraighO.
materials obey il up 10 a point But be careful - lhere are some materials,
like rubber, only obey Hooke's law for really small extensions.

•IJ!~rJll Module 3: Section 4 Materials Module 3: Section 4 Materials M IF A

 Tip: f-<>rCt'~cnsion
graphs arc specific
for the tosted obj<>ct
and dopend on its
dimensions - different
wire lengths and
diametcn of lhc same
metal will produe<!
different forc:e-extension
graphs.
Example -f.t§!f&1§1
N 1Qrf4,C3:i•lil:?1.t.J,pgr.jjt,i l1!1l,1'!l 1!tfi"!11."!tJ:t,:;:1;,,1-------
Below is a. force-extension graph for a. spring.
Calculate the force constant, k, in Nm-• for the spring.
4.IJ k is the gradienl of the graph up
to the limit of proportionality.
2 3.0 For this graph, !his is shortly after
'~ z.011..;-1-,<-1i;--1...,.,.... the point where the load is 3.0 N
and the exlension is 2 .0 mm.
.E
Convert 2.0 mm in10 m, lo gel 0.0020 m.
Then k = f = £ = 1500Nm '·
.1.D 4.0
fxtL-Y1!o·ion I mm
0 1 A melal spring has a spring constant of 1250 Nm 1• When a force is
applied, lhe spring extends proportionally by 1.60 cm. Calculate the
force applied.
Q2 A spring is compressed proportionally 0.80 mm by a forc.e of 20 N
(correct to 2 s.f.}. Calculate the spring constant of the spring in Nm 1• Tip: Remember,
QJ The original length of a metal wire is 20.0 cm. A force of 55.0 N Hooke's law applies ror
compression as well as
is applied and the wire extends to a new lenglh of 22.0 cm.
Assume that the limit of proportionality has n04 been reached.
tension. f-lu7.zah.
a) Calculate the extension or the wire in metres.
b) Calculate lhe spring constant of the length of wire.
Q4 Calculate I.he combined force constanl for I.he springs shmvn in the
system below.

80Nnf' BO Nm""'
Investigating extension
Figure S shows the experimental set-up you could use in the
lab to investigale how the exLension of an object varies with
the force applied to it.
-
~· 2
60Nnf'

Clamp and
Tip: Do a risk
damp staml
assessment before you
start When carrying
om Lhis (!)Cperimem, Q I Write down lhe formula for Hool<e's law,
make sure you're stoOcf defining all 1he symbols you use, Exam Tip
up so you can move You'll be given the
ou1 of Lhe way quicldy
Q2 Whal is meant by the limit of proportionality for a material? formula for Hooke's
if 1.he weights fall, and QJ A spring suspended from a clamp stretches when a \Veighl is law in your data and
use goggles in case the attached to the bottom. Describe the measurements you would need formulae bookie..,
spring snaps. to take and the calculations you would have to perform to find the so you don't need to
know it by heart.
Figure S: An experimenral extension of the spring.
set up used to investigate bow
4

extension varies 1-.r;th force.

Tip: Yoo may \.\'3.n.t
10 conduct a pik>L
experiment beforehand
10 help yoo '"'°' out tho
si7.es of masses to use.
Tip: If yoo have
unknown masses,
rather than known
·wcighis, th~ object can
oo suspended by a
Nl'wtlVI mm"' 1his
will let you calculate Lhc
additional force being
applit'CI eadl time a
mass is added.
Measure the natural length of the spring (when no load is applied)
with a millimetre ruler clamped to lhe sland. Make sure you rake the
reading at eye level and add a marker (e.g. a lhin strip of lapel to the
bottom of the spring to make the reading more accurale.
Add a weight to the spring and allow it lo come to rest. Record the
weight and measure the new length of the spring. The extension is
the change in length.
Repeal this process until you have enough measurements (no fewer
than 6).
Plot a force-extension graph of your results. Where you can draw a
straight line of beSl lit, the object obey's Hooke's law, and lhe gradient
is equal to k (from F= kx). If you've loaded the object beyond its limit
of proportionality, the graph will start to curve.
You could try measuring and comparing the spring <..'OnstanlS and force-
cxlension characteristics of differenl materials, such as springs, rubber
bands and polythene strips.

u:w Module 3: Section 4 Materials Module 3: Section 4 Materials MIf

 Leaming ObjectJve.s;
• Apply knowlrogc
•nd undrolanding ol
for<X!'-<?Xtcnsion (or
comprossion) gr•phs.
• Know v.'hat is mc'.lnl
by elastic •nd pl.utic
dcfonn;nioos of
materials.
• Knor.v I.hat for a
for~ICRSion (Of
compr"5Sion! gr.iph.
work done is ""' "'""
W1dcr ""'graph.
• Be oblo ., alcul.3"'
obsaic poocnml
mcrgy "'irll
r = Y,fx.OO
l=Yh1•
SpocifiQtion
Rsforence 3.4.2
Rgure 2: Cuil.dt strings
dofotm claslica/ly aftrr being
pluckt'1.
figure 3: Bulbs""""'
from 11JC'1a/s ofCJ """"'"
plilsdGllly andfK"'1l'lll"lltly
dOOm> on impilcL
Module 3: Secbon 4 Materials
2. Elastic and Plastic Deformation
/1 won#t surpriq: you to hear 1hat different objeclS behave in different
~vJys wht'IJ u force is applied 10 them. Force-ectcnsion graphs are a useful
way of s/IO\ving 1hcsc behaviours.
for16 -r-maledal
l'rork u(1(rc
dcfnfTuing
Tip:Rem<mll<Y,
Yi'Ol'lc done • «MYSY
() lxlcr 1$iot1
uonslcrrl'd 11"'&" 10 I>.
The elastic limit figure 4: Ille arro undo< a ac""""'1Siln graph a a stte<ched
Figure I shoWI • grnph ol lorcc agaim< extension lor a iypical metal wire oc matotlal Is <qua/ to tJJt> work done sul!tChing h.
sp<ing. Al the limi1 ol proponionalily, the graph starts IO cu,,,.,. The poinl
marked l on 1he graph is called the elastic limit. II you increase the force Example -1C!~·l·!!·!i:?I · ~------:;:---
~ 1he cl;)Slic limo~ the mo1crial will be permanently slrecched This means
when oll 1he lorcc is ~ the material will be longer lhan at the start.
Shown lo lhe right is • force..,xtension
groph for a m<ttl Sf"ing. Find the
"" ExamTip
~~mirMn"'lll
,,,,..,. work done strelching the spring to
~n extension of 0.3 m.
•ocqit. Wiil" ol
answm for qu<'SI"""
To find 1he work done, you need to like this, as it~ tricky
find the area under the graph shown ., get ""' are• undlY •
highlighted below: CWVC Ma<lly r4:f'» 8ue
that doosn't meon you
.f( can bo >i<lpdosll WtlC'n
btensKan l m working ~e~ OUl
You can approximate the area using sllll do it arcfully.
triangles and rectangles:
Area 1: y, x 30 N x 0.2 m = 3 j
Area 2: 30 N x 0.1 m = 3 j
figure 1: 11><' graph of forep aga;nst cxtrosion for a typical metal wire. Arca 3: y, x 8 N x 0.1 m = 0.4 j
To!al worlc done • 3 J + 3 ) + 0.4 J
= 6.4 J
Types of deformation You r.:an ah:o approximate 1hc area using the squares on the grid: Tip: You oould also
coun1 lhc number ()(
Elastic deformation There ore (approximMely) 6.5 big squares, each worth: 1O N x 0.1 m = 1 J small squaros. ()h joy.
Up 10 1hcir C'l:is1ic limi1, ma1cri:ils behave elastically. This means the malcrial So 1h" tol31work done is • 6.5 x 1 J = 6.5 J.
returns 10 i1s originnl shape once the forces arc removed. Elastic materials arc
nblc 10 be ~t rctchcd or compressed withou1 permanently deforming.
Calculating energy stored
Plastic deformation Provided n m:ucri:il obeys Hooke's law, the potential energy stored inside it
A ma1crinl scrctchcd p:ist its elastic limit shows plastic defonnation. The can be cnlcul:ucd quite e.1sily using a formula. This formula can be derived
material docs not return to iis original shape when the forces on it arc using a rorro-extcnsion graph and ..von: done.
removed. Pbs1ic nt.iterials arc permanently dclormed by forces. When we The energy stored by lhe stretched material is equal to the work done
say p lastic here, we just mean a matcrial that undergoes plastic dclocmation. on 1hc m.'ltcrial in stretching i1.
It has nothing 10 do wilh the materials called 'plastic', that lhings like water
boctles .,., mode or. Work done is equal 10 force x displacement (see page 101). But
on• lore»extension gr.iph, the lorce acting on the material is not constant.
Therefore you need to work out lhc a""'3ge lorce acting on the mate<ial, from
Work done In deformations zero 10 F, which is v,f:
When• motcrial is strc<ched or compressed, work has to be done to
delonn the materiol. force.extension gr.iphs are a useful way o{ showing
how much energy has been "°""' by the detormed material.
On the graph, this is just 1he area undcrnealh the straight line from Top: ThlS is juSC lhl'
Force-extension graphs the origin to 1hc extension !>1. So the area under the grnph represents lhe saml' as v.uklllg out I~
On • lom!-c11tension gr.iph, the work done is gi\om by the area under .ire01 of a 1~ngk!:
work done or lhc energy stored. And so the elastic potential energy, f, is:
the grnph. lldore lhc cbstic limi~ all the W<lfk done in deforming a (Y1 x b>SC? x Mghll.__J
rm1cnal 1s stoccd ••potential energy in 1he material. This Slored energy is f = 'hfr
called elastic potential .,,.,rgy.
Module 3: SectJon 4 Materials MI PM
Exam tip
Because Hooke's law is being obeyed, F = kx, which means F can be
replaced in the t.-qua1ion 10 give:
1Qrf4,C3:i•lil:?1.t.J,pgr.jjti,il1!1l,1'!l 1!tfi"!11."!,J:[,:;:1;,,1-------
Ln 1.hc exam, they migh1 01 Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in a spring when a
ask you 10 explain how Tip: \Vatch ou1 for
the formula C= V1Fx can
force of 30 N has produced a n elastic extension of 1.2 cm. You may
assume that the limit of proportionality has not been reached. the unitS in Q1 - to
be derived using a force-
calculate the e lastic
e:xtension graph. Q2 A student hangs weighL< from the e nd of a sp<ing and records its potential energy,
Work done to pennanently deform an object cxlension. Her results are shown in the graph below. Calculate the force has t0 be
If the material is stretched beyond lhc elastic limit, some work is done the lotal work done in stretching the spring during this experiment. in neiA'tons and the
permanently derorming lhe malerial. This will nol be stored as elastic extension has to be in
potential e nergy. 15 metres.
R>rce-ex1ension graphs can show when work has been done to
permanently deform an object. For example, you can plot a force-extension
graph of what happens when force has been added and then removed from
an object. If the unloading line and the loading line don't start and end at the
same points, the material has deformed plastically a nd work has been done
extending the object permanently.
Figure 5 is a force-extension graph for a metal wire that has been .lO
Tip: Remember 1lu1 up stretched beyond its elastic limit (£). £xten.fion I mm
10 poin1 P, Lhe gradient Q3 Ske1ch and label a lypical force-exlension graph for a metal wire as a
or the graph gives the pl;l!Uc defonmJtion iorce is applied to ~retch the wire up lo and beyond its elastic limit,,
force constam of the then gradually removed.
wire. elastk: Below is a force.extension graph for an investigation into how
extension varies with force for a rubber band. The band was loaded
Tip: II you apply a big wi1h weights, shown by curve A. The band was then unloaded,
enough force m frnc1ure shown by curve B.
100 object you aro
investigating. you can't
draw the unloading line.
The loading line should
just stop at I.he poim the
fraciure occurred
{so<? pages 128 and 130).
fxten!o'ion

Rgure S: A force-ex.tension graph for a meca/ wire.

\.Vhen the load is removed, the extension decreases. The unloading
line is parallel lo the loading line because the force constant k is still the same.
Because the wire was stretched beyond its elastic limil {l:) a nd deformed
plastically,, il has been permanently S-lretched. This means the unloading line
doesn't go through lhe origin. The area between the t\vo lines is lhe work
done lo permanently deform lhe wire.
Is the rubber band e la~ic or plas1ic? Explain your ansvver.
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
Ql Whal is meant by lhe eJastic limit of a material?
Q2 Whal docs it mean if a material is deforming elastically?
QJ What does it mean if a ma terial is deforming plastically?
Q4 What is shown by the area between 1he loading and unloading
lines on a force-extension graph of a material undergoing plastic
deforma1ion?

Module 3: Section 4 Materials Module 3: Section 4 Materials I FJ

 learning Objective:
• Be able to define
stress, strain and
ultimate tensile
strength.
Specificatio n
Reference 3.4.2
Rgure 2: A material having
its tensile stress tested by a
machiM.
Tip: The s1rcss-suain
graphs for briule
matc.Yials don;t look like
this - see page 128.
l'.lgo 130 has more on
how to imerprc1
suess-strain graphs
like this one.
Tip: If an object has an
uneven cross-section,
the stress and strain will
be different in different
pans or the objoci -
but ii ·will aJways be
somcwfmre on the
suess-strain graph.
•llf~"~'I Module 3: Section 4 Malerials
3. Stress and Strain The effect of the stress is lo start to pull atoms in the malerial apart
from one another. Eventually the stress becomes so great that atoms separate
Two samples of rhe same ma1erial \\tilh differenl dimeJJsions will stretch comple1ely, a nd the material breaks. This is shown by point B on the graph
different antounrs under lhe same force. Suess and suain are measurements in Figure 3. The stress an object experiences when this occurs is called the
that take into account the size of the sample, so a suess-srrain graph is rhe breaking stress.
same for any s.1mplc of a particular marcrial. The point marked UTS on the graph in Figure 3 is c.allcd lhe
ultimate tensile strength. This is the maximum stress that lhe material can
withstand before it will break. O nce you go past the UTS, the material
Tensile stress and tensile strain \Viii break no mailer what you do. Engineers have lo consider the UTS and
A material subjected to a pair or opposite forces may deform, i.e. change shape. breaking Slress of ma terials when designing a structure.
Tensile stress, a ; is de-fined as
the force applied, F, d ivided by the
area, A
Example-f$!ffil\iffiil Rgure 4: Copp<lf deforms
cross-sectional area, A: A rope has a cross-sectional area o f 8.0 >< 10"'3- m2 • A tensile fo rce is plastically /Jefotc brOilking
applied to the rope and slowly increased. The rope breaks after a force under sufficient suess.
of 1.3 • 10' N is a pplied. Calculate the UTS of the material.
origimJl
length, u = f. = 1.8><1 0' = 2 25 X 10'
L A 8.0 x lO' .
The units or stress are Nm z or pascals, Pa. = 2.3 x1 0' Pa(or Nm ?(lo2s.f.)
A stress causes a strain. Tensile
strain~ c, is defined as the change in
You could also write 2.3 • 10 7 Pa as 23 Ml~. Tip: I MP.l is the same
f!Xrt.'fJSion, as 1x10'1'.l.
leng1h; i.e. the extension, divided by the x
original length of the material:
F
•=f Rgure 1: A pair of opposiw tensile Q1 A force of 50.0 N is applied 10 wire \Vith a cross-seclional a rea of
3.1 x 1O4 m1• Calculate the stress on lhe \Vire.
lotces acting on an object.
Q2 A rope has an original Jenglh of 12 .0 cm. After a force is applied,
Strain has no uni1s because it's a r.uio - it's usually jusl wrillen as a number. i1s length becomes 12.3 cm. Calculate the s1rain on the rope.
h doesn't matter whether the forces producing the stress and strain QJ A wire with a c ross-sectional area of 1.2 x 10 1 m1 has an ultimate
are tensile or compressive - the same equations apply. The only difference tensile stress of 3.8 x 108 Pa. Calculate the ma ximum rorce you
is that you tend to think or tensile forces as positive, and compressive forces could a pply to the wire before it breaks.
as ncga1ive.
Practice Questions - Fact Recall •
Ultimate tensile strength Q1 What is meanl by:
a) tensile stress,
As a greater a nd grea1er tensile rorce is applied to a material, the stress on
it increases. b) tensile strain,
C'.) breaking stress,
ur.s ,,.,,.- Uldmate tensile st1eng1h
..--- - a d) ultimate 1ensile strength?
\ /Jreaking stress
O- f - - - - - - - - ---,Stra
_ in_ ..
D
Figure J : A suess-suain graph showing lhe ultimate
1ensUe suenglh and breaking suess of a mawial.
Module 3: Seclion 4 Materials I Ff A
 Then if you increase the \veighl, lhe wire slrelches and the marker moves.
Leaming Objectives: 4. The Young Modulus Increase the weight in sleps (e.g. 1 N intervals), recording the marker
Tip: If you unload
the wire, you can
• Know that
The Young modulus is a measure of how stiff a mareria/ is. It is really reading each time - lhe extension is the difference belween thts reading re-measure the
Young modulus=
1cnsil~ stress and useful for comparing lhe sriffness of different marerials, for example if and the staning position of the marker. Use a mass fftete r or a set of extension for cacti
1cnsile strain' youJ-e uying to find out the best malerial for making a panicular product. digital scales to accurately find the weight )'OU add at each step. weigh1 to make sure )'OU
be able to use I.he You can use your results from this experiment to calculate the stres-s and haven't gone past the
cqualion £ = 7.. wi re~ elastic limit.
strain of the wire and plot a stress-strain curve.
• Be able 10 describe Calculating the Young modulus
HKtiniques and When you apply a load to S4retch a ma1crial, it experiences a 1ensile
procedures used to
determine Lhe Young
stress and a 1ensile strain (see page 122). Up to a point called the limil of Finding the Young modulus using a graph Tip: You can also
proportionali1y, the stress and strain of a material are proportional lo each
modulus for a metal
other. So below· this limit, for a particular material, stress divided by strain is You can plot a graph of stress against strain from your results - measure the Young
(PAG2). see Figure 3. The gradient of the graph gives the Young modulus, f . modulus in 1he lab using
a constant. This c.-onstant ts called the Young modulus, E. Scartc's appara1us. This
Specification
Reference 3.4.2 is a bit mom accurate,
E= str~s = gradient bu1 it's harder 10 do and
Young modulus tensile stress stram the equipment's more
tensile strain complicated.
Tip: The Young modulus
is used by engineers
Lo make sure thcir Example --f$§!!jifl15
Where F = force in N, A = cross--scctional area in m1, I.= initial
materials can withstand length in m and x = extension in m. The units of the Young modulus are the The stress-strain graph below is for a thin metal wire.
suflicicn1 forces. same as stress (Nm 1 or I~}, since strain has no units. Find the Young modulus of the wire from the graph. Tip: Remember, when
using the gradient to
t() work OUI I.he 'rbung
Tip: Do Lhis experiment Sln.-ss
standing up so you
can get out ot the way
quickly if Lhc weights
The Young modulus experiment
Figure 1 shows an expcrimem you <.'Ould use to find out
the Young modulus of a metal:
(= 2J / lO"Nm- 2
II
E =-stress -:-- strain= gradient
Gradient = astress
listrain
modulus, you can only
use it up to the limi1 of
proportionality (p.115).
Arter 1hen, the suess
fall. And wear safOly _ 10x108
gosgles in case Lile wire - 25x 1 0 J and strain are no long«
snaps. You should also wire fixed al math-J 4 proportional.
= 4x 10 90 Nm-?
do a full risk assessment on wire
before stan..ing work. 2

Tip: Yoo should do 5 10 15 20 25

a pilot experiment in
which you plot a forcc-
extension graph for an
identical piece of t(!St
wire 10 find its limit o(
proportionality. That
way you can make sure
you ge1 !10\Vhcrc near it
in this experiment
Tip: To reduce random
errors you shoo Id use a
Strdin/ J(,-3
Up to the elastic limit, the area under the graph gives the elastic
Figure 1: 1:·xperiment.al sec.up for determining the Young modulus of a test metal.
potenlial energy sU>red per unit volume, i.e. the energy siored per 1 m1 of w'ire.
The test wire should be thin, and as long as possible. The longer
and thinner the \vire, the more it extends for the same force Stress ;
- this reduces Lhe uncertainty in your measurements. / Nm ' !!
Firs• you need 10 find the cross-sectional a rea of the \Vire. Use a
micrometer to measure the diameter of 1hc wire in several places and take ~
an average of your measurements. By assuming that the cross-section is ~

lhin ~rkcr on the wire.
Tip: Extensions can
oo ""')'small, so you
could use a trav<!lling
microscope 10 measure
them more precisely
1han with a ruler.
~! energystored
circular, you can use the formula for the area of a circle: Area =1t x radius'.
Clamp the wire to lhe bench (see Figure 1 above) so you can hang Area under graph =
per
weights off one end of it. S1art with the smallest weighl necessary to
straighten the \Vire. (Don't include this '"eight in your final calculations.) l unit volume Figure 2: Steel has a high
Young modulus, whk:h
Record the starting position of the marker. Measure the dis.lance ;
means undet huge stJcss
bet\veen the fixed end of the wire and the marker - this is your Strain there~ only a small strain.
unstretched length. Make sure you posilion yourself so that the marker
This makes it a useful
and ruler are at eye level when measuring lhe position of lhe marker. Rgure J: A suess-suain graph showing haw w calculate
building ma1eri.1I f0< things
the gradient and energy stoted per unU volume.
like bridges.

Module 3: Section 4 Materials Module 3: Seclion 4 Materials I ff A

 The s:tress~sfrai n graph is a s-lraighl line provided tha1 Hooke's law is
obeyed, so up lo 1he lin1il of proportionality you can also calculate 5. Stress-Strain Graphs Leamin g Objec tive:
lhe elastic potential energy per unit volume as: Because ma(erials ha\'e differcnc properties, their stress·strain graphs • Be able: to interpret
look different IDO - you need 10 know the graphs for ductile, brittle sLress--strain graphs
energy per uni1 volume = 1/.iat: for cypical ductile,
and polymeric. materials.
brittle and polymeric
materials.
Example ---1$§1
$ 1§15 Ductile materials Specification
The diagram shows a stress-strain graph for a typical ductile material, such Reference 3.4.2
A 1.2 metre long wire with a diameter of2.0 cm stores 5.2 J when
it is s tretched. If the stress on the wire is S.9 x 101 Nm4 , calculate as copper. You can change the sha pe of ductile materials by dra\ving them
the strain on the wire. Assume the wire has not been stretched pa.sl into wires or rnher shapes. The important thing is lhat they keep their streng1h
its limit of proportionality. when they're defonned like this. Tip: Remember, these
are different to force.
First calculate 1he energy per unit volume: extension graphs.
e nergy per unit volume = i .2 x"'" x ~6~020 --:- 2)> = 1.3793 ... x 10 4 Jm 1 Force-ex1cnsion graphs
are spl'C.ific to the tested
Rearranging lhe formula above:
2 x e nergy per unit volume
a
= 0.0004675 ... =
2 x J 3793 x J o~
S.9xl07
4.7 x 1 ~ (to 2 s.f.)
- object and are affected
by iis dimensions.
Sucss-s1rain graphs
describe the general
behaviour of a material,
because stress and strain
are independent of the
dimensions.

rT
Tip: Don't IOfSOI to
convcn any lcng1hs Q l a) A copper wire has an original length of 1 .0 m and a diameter of
to m and areas to m' 1.1 mm. What is the c ross-sectional area of the wire? Tip: You can plot
·when wo.rlcingout the b) A force of 23 N is applied to the wire and ii extends by 0.20 mm. graphs like Lhis from
Young modulus. experiments like the. one?
Find the Young modulus oi ropper.
'-.._ Area underf!fap,h = on p. 124. "'"'" 1hesc
Q2 A nylon wire wilh a cross-sectional area of 8.0 x 10 1 m2 has a Young graphs you can see if
gy per unit :rne
modulus of 3.5 x 1o• ~- A force of 100 N is applied 10 the wire. a material is behaving
a) Calculate the stress on the wire. elastically or plastically.
b) Calcula1e lhe strain on the wire.
Q3 A block with an ini1ial length of 254 cm is compressed by 0.1 1 c m. Strain

The stress on the block is 4 200 OOO m '· Assuming the b lock has not
been deformed past its limit of proportionality, calculate the energy
stored per unil volume by the block
1m;.t3:it1i1!:61h·hf ffll:t:f4hii
Ql What are the units of the Young modulus?
C)2 Name four things you would need to measure when carrying out an
experiment to find the Young modulus of a wire.
()3 Give one safety precaution you should take when carrying oul an
experiment to find the Young modulus of a wire.
Q4 Whal is the gradienl of the linear pan of a s1ress-strain graph equal to?
Rgure 1: A suess-srrain graph for a lypical ductile maw.rUJI.
Tip: Plastic deformation
Before point P, the graph is a straight line through the origin. This is useful if you don't
shows 1ha1 the material is obeying Hooke's law {page 113). The gradient of wam a material to return
the line is cons1am - i(s the Young modulus (see pages 124-125). to its original shape.
Po int P is the limit of proportionality - aher 1his, the graph starts to
e.g. drawing copper into
wires or goJd into foil
bend. Al this point, lhe material stops obeying Hooke's law, but would slill <soo Figure 2).
re turn to ils Ofiginal size and shape if the stress was removed.
Po in1E is the elastic limit - at this point 1he ma1erial starts to
behave plastically. From point E onwards, the material would no longer
return lo its 0<iginal size and shape once the stress was removed.
Point Y is the yield point - here the material suddenly starts to
stretch without a ny extra load. The yield point (or yield stress) is the stress al
·which a large a mounl of plastic deformatio n rakes place with a constant or
reduct'CI load.
The shaded a rea under the graph gives the e nergy stored in lhe
ma1erial per unit volume (see page 125) up to the elastic limit.
Rgure 2: RD/ls ofgold foil
being made at a faaory.

f{fl Module 3: Section 4 Materials Module 3: Seclion 4 Materials I fi


Rgure 3: Ceramics are
brittle materials.
Tip: No1ice how the
slraight line just stops.
Very dramatic.
Tip: It's not only briulc
materials that fracture.
Some malcrials will
delorm plastically up 10
a point, then fracture if
1.he force is 100 great (see
page 130).
Tip: )'bu mighl also see
polythene referred 10
as polycthyk!ne.
fl' Module 3: Section 4 Materials
Figure 6 shows the stress-slrain graph for polythene.
Brittle materials
BrittJe malerial.s don't deform plas1ically, bul break when the stress on
them reaches a cenain point. Glass, ceramics and polystyrene are all brittle
materials.
Below is a stress-strain gra ph typical of a brittle material. The
suess-strain graph for a brinle material doesn't curve.
Rgure 5: Po/ydK1ne is
often U3ed to make bottles
and containers as it"'s more
res.istant to breakage than
St1ain brittle alternalives like glass.
Figure 6: A lyp;ca1 suess-suain graph for polyrhene.
The graphs stans with a suaighl line through the origin, as polythene
initially obeys Hooke's Law. When the load is increased past its elastic limit,
the polythene begins Lo deform plastically. The graph doesn't return 10 the
origin so the polythene is perma ncn1ly de£ormed into a new shape.
Rubber
Rubber is another polymeric material but i1 behaves differen1ly to polythene.
Figure 8 shows a typical stress-strain graph for rubber.
Sttain
Rgure 4: A typical sttess sttain graph for a brittle material.
4
The graph starts wi1h a straight line through the origin. So briule
materials also obey Hooke's law. However, when the stress reaches a
certain poin1, the material snaps - i1 docsn'1deform plastically.
Brittle materials can be qui1e \veak if they have cracks. When
stress is applied to a brittle material any 1iny cracks at the material's
surface get bigger and bigger until the material breaks completely.
This is called brittle fracture.
Rgure 7: Rubbcf is used
in the manufaoure of
lyres. Sonie of tlle ooergy
transferred to the tyres
Polymeric materials by bumps in me road is
The molecules lhat make up polymeric (or polymer) materials a re arranged Sttain uansferred to thermal energy,
in long chains. They have a range or properties, so different polymers have Rgure 8: A typical suess-suain graph for rubber. making lhe ride Jess bouncy.
different S-Lres~strain graphs.
Rubber returns to ics original length when the load is removed - it behaves
elastically.
Polythene The loading and unloading curves for rubber are different. The
Polythene is a common plastic, and is generally used in packaging. II is a energy released when the rubber is unloaded is less than 1he \V<Hi< done to Tip: Try repeatedly
duc1ile material that behaves plastic.ally - applying a stress to it suetches i1 stretch the rubber. This is because some or lhe elastic potential energy stored suet<:hing and releasing
into a new shape. a rubber band. You
in the stretched rubber is converted to heal
should feel ii get hotter.
The amount of energy converted to heat per unil volume is given by
the area between the loading and unloading curves.
Module 3: Section 4 Materials If-' M
 Material properties
It's useful to be able to describe how materials behave under
@ 1Qrf4,C3:i•lil:?1.t.J,pgr.jjti,il1!1l,1'!l 1!tfi"!11."!tJ:t,:;:1;,,1-------
01 The diagram belo\v shows a stress-strain graph for a material with
stress so that materials with different properties can be easily s
three importanl points marl<ed on it
Exam Tip compared in a reas such as construction and manufacturing. For example,
You migllt be asked a material that can withstand high stress before deforming may be desirable 250
abouc why a gi\'P..n when building 1he fou ndations for a house, but you wouldn't use it for
material is appropriate, stuffing sort furnishings.
or inappropriate. ror You've already seen that if the stress on a material becomes too greal. the 200
a specific purpose.
Think carefully about material can break (p.122). 1he strength of a material is a measure of i1s
lhe propenies of the ability 10 withstand stress without breaking. The stronger the material,
material and l'KM• it the higher its ultimate lensile strength. Materials with a very low ul1imate
mighi behave under the tensile strength arc described as being weak.
forms required. Stiffness is a measure of how much a material can resiS1 deformation
in response to stress. Stiff materials are diificult to stretch or compress, so
they have a large Young's modulus. For a given stress, a stiri material will
have a lower strain (i.e. a smaller extension} than a less 5'iff material. 50
A stiff material doesn't have to be s1rong {and vK:e versa). Some stiff
materials, such as polyslyrene, break under a low stress, and some strong
malerials aren't very stiff. O.IXJS 0.01
Figure 9 shows I.he stress-strain curves for materials of different strengths )train
and stiffncsscs. a) After point B the material starts to deform plastically.
Give the name or point B.
b) Whal law docs the material obey bct\Vt.-en the origin and point A?
cJ Which point on the graph marl<s the yield point of the material?
d) Find the Young modulus of the material.
e) Calculate the elastic potential energy stored per uniL volume
in lhe material up to the limit of proportionality.
Exam Tip Q2 The graph to the right is a Tip: Think abou1 lh41
When a line on a suess-- stress-strain graph for t\vo ~~ features of both lines.
Slrain graph just stops, different materials. ......
you can assume the
matC!f'iaJ has reached
iis breaking stress and
Which line, A or B,
shows a brittle ma1crial?
1
fracmmd (unless lhe Explain your anS\ver.
question says otherwise).

Sfrain

u Sr.rain
Figure 9: Suess.strain curves for different maierials~
Practice Questions - Fact Recall ~
Q1 Whal is the yield point of a material?
Q2 Give one example of a polymeric material.
Stiff malerials have a steep gradienl on a stress-strain
graph, as they show very liule strain under stress, while less stiff Q3 Do brinlc materials obey Hooke's law? Explain your answer.
materials have a shallo\vcr gradienL Stress-strain curves for
snong materials end at a higher stress than weak materials.

fl•I Module 3: Section 4 Materials Module 3: Section 4 Materials I fi

 Section Summary
Make sure you know...
Exam-style Questions I
\!\/hat is meanl by the lerms extension and compression.
What is meanl by the 1erms tcnsile deformation and compressive deformation.
That Hooke's la\v slalcs Lhat the extension of an object is proportional to the load or force applied to it
The diagram below shows a force-extension graph for a rubber cord.
How to use the formula ior Hooke's law, F = k:x, where k is the iorce constam of an object. Curve A shows loading and curve B shows unloading of the cord.
That the force constant, k. is the force needed Lo extend an object that obeys Hooke's Law by 1 m,
and i1 has units of Nm 1• 40
Ho\v to combine the fOfce constants of ind iv idual objects in series or parallel to find the overall force
constam of the system.
That the limil of proportionality of an object is lhe maximum force lhal can be applied to a n object .10
before it no longer obeys Hookc's Law.
Ho\v to investigate 1hc force-extension characteristics for objects (or arrangements of objects), which
may include springs, rubber bands a nd polythene strips.
How to plot and imerprcl force-extension (or compression) graphs for springs and wires.
That the elastic limil of an object is the maximum force that c.an be applied to an object befOfe it 10
permanently changes shape.
That if a material deforms elastically, it will return to its original shape when the fmce applied to it is
removed, but if it deforms plas1ically, ii will permanenlly change shape.
0. 10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
That the area under a force-extension (or compression) graph is equal to the work done. ExLcnskmlm
That all I.he work done stretching a material elastically is stored as elastic potential energy.
How to calculate el a~ic potential energy using E= Y1 Fx and E= Y1ki1'. The rubber cord has a cross-sectional area of 5.0 x 1<r' m" and had an
initial length of 0.80 m.
That the tensile stress of a material, <T, is measured in Nm 1 or Pa and is defined as the force applied
lo the material, f, divided by its cr~s-sa1ional area, A. What is the Young modulus for the material at an extension of 0.080 m?
Assume that curve A is linear for small loads.
That the tensile strain of a m,aterial, £,has no uni1s and is defined as the extension of the material, x,
d ivided by its original length, L. A 1.2x1 0' Pa
That breaking stress is the stress experienced by a material at the point it breaks. B 2.0• 10' Pa
That the uhimate tensile strength of a material is the maximum stress a material can experience c 1.2 x 10' Pa
before it will break.
D 2.0 x 10' Pa
That the Young modulus of a material is the ratio of stress to strain, and is characceris:tic of I.hat
material. (1 mark)
How 10 carry out an investigation to find 1he Young modulus of a material.
How to calcula te the Young modulus for malertals from their stress-strain graphs.
That, up to the elastic limit, the area under a stress-strain graph is equal to the malerial's elastic 2 A spring is used in a pen as part of the mechanism Which opens and closes n.
potential energy per unit volume. The spring is compressed elastically by 5.0 mm when a user pushes it down with a
force of 1.1 N. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored by the spring When it is
That the energy per unit volume for a deformed object can be calculated up to it'> limit o f
compressed by 18 mm.
proponionality using the formula: energy per unit volume = •h ac
A 0.036J
That a ductile material is a material which maintains its strength \Vhen it is defomicd, and how 10
imerpret the slress-strain graph of a lypical ductile material. B 7.1 J
That a brittle material is a material which breaks before it can undergo plastic deforma1ion, and how c 36J
to interpret the stress-strain graph of a typical brittle material.
D 0.071 J
Hovi to interpret typical stress-strain graphs of polymeric materials such as polythene and rubber.
(1 mark)
That the strenglh oi a material is a measure of how large a stress it c.an \vilhstand before breaking.
That the stiffness of a malerial is a measure of ho\v resistant it is to deformation while under stress.
J

•llE~flll Module 3: Section 4 Materials Module 3: Section 4 Materials

 3 A piano manufacturer wants to find the Young modulus of a sample of piano wire.
(a)' Describe an experimental method that the piano manufacturer could use to find the
Young modulus of the piano wire.
Your answer should include:
a labelled diagram
1. Newton's Laws of Motion Leaming Objectives:
• Know Newton's Lhree
a discussion of ways to reduce the effect of errors on the results Newt.on's la\VS of molion describe the relationship between lhe forces acting laws ot motion.
(6marl<s)
on an object .1nd ils motion. You might have .1lready mel lhese ideas at GCSE
• Know 1.hat net force
- they're really imporranl in mechanics, so they crop up a /ot in physics.
(b) Flg. 3.1 shows the stress and strain on the piano wire as it was stretched. is equal to the raLc ol
change of momentum,
Newton's 1st law of motion F -~-
Newton's lst law of motion sta tes that
Specification
Reference 3.5.1
"The .-elocity of an object will not change
unless a resultant force acts on it.11

This means a body will stay still or move in a straight line a t a coostanl speed,
unless there's a resultant force acting on it. If 1he forces acting on a body
a ren't balanced, the overall resultant force will make the body accelerate.
This could be a change in d irection, speed, or both (see Ne..vton's 2nd law
below).

Exampk>
An apple sitting on a table won't go anywhere because the forces on it
are balanced.
/.() z.o 3.0 4.0 .s.o
Slr.Jin I ur'
Fig. 3.1 reaction (R} weight (mi;)
(force of table (force of gravity Rgure 1: Sir l.saac Nc.-..vton,
Use the graph to calculate the Young modulus of the wire. pushing apple up) pulling apple down) the Briti'sh physidst who
Give your answer in an appropriate unit. devised the three laws of
motion still used in
(2 marlcs) modem mechanics.
(c) If the wire has an inftial length of 1.6 m and a cross-sectional area of
1.0 • 10-' m', calculate how much elastic potential energy is stored by the
wire at a stress of 3.0 • 10' Pa. Newton's 2nd law of motion
(3 marlcs) Newton's 2nd law of motion says that the rale of change of momentum of an
objecl is equal to Lhe net force which acts on the object. Tip: There's more on
4 A chandelier is used as part of the scenery for a stage show. This can be wrillen as the equation:
(a) The chandelier is suspended from the ceiling above the stage by a 2.0 m steel cable. this equation on p.142.
The tension in the cable will be 2.0 kN and It must not extend more
than 0.20 mm. The Young modulus for steel is 2.10 x 10" Pa. f = netfotce (in NJ - - - . . t;.p ~ = r.Jteofcha11geof
6 Exam Tip
Calculate the minimum cross-sectional area the cable should have, in m2. F- 15i' - momentum
(in kgnts rJ This equation crops up
(2 marlcs) all over Lile place in
Try to remember: physics,. so make sure
(b) As part of the show, the chandelier falls to the floor and shatters. you know how 10 use it
The chandelier is made from a brittle material that will break under a low stress. The net force is the vcctOf sum of all Lhe forces (page 79).
The Young modulus for the material is 6.0 • 10" Nm-', and It has a breaking stress of The net force is always measured in new1ons.
3.0 • 10' Nm-'. Draw the stress-strain graph for this material. The mass is always measured in kilograms. Tip: Momentum Cp>is I
(3 marlcs) covcrcd oo page 1~
The change in nlomentum is always in the same direction as the net force
• The quality of your response will be assessed in this question. and is measured in kgms- '.

•llf~!Jll Module 3: Section 4 Materials Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum

Tip: Momentum
depends on mass and
velocily (p.138). As
long as v isn't close to
th<1 speed ol ligh~ an
objco's mass is constam
so momentum only_ I (in ms 1)
~ds on velocity:......J
Tip: The ball reverses
d ireclion, so you need 10
give one of the velocities
a negative value.
Choose whichever
makes the malhs easier.
Rgure 2: A swimmer mOVP.S
fonv.uds because the water
puslles back aga;nst them, as
they push against the water.
•llf~IJMI Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum
In the special case where mass is consfant, Newton's 2nd Law can be wrincn Example- - - - - - - - - - -
as the well-known equation:
,,,...,--- m =mass ~pulls Both forces are acting on Lhe book, an d Tip: In this P.xample,
moo~
they're not of the same 1ype. These are two the resultant force
F = net /0<ce (in N)- - ,I (in kg! is zero and the
separate interactions. The forces a re equal
f =m x a acceleration is zero,
a nd opposite, resulting in zero acceleration, which is an example of
..._______ a = acceleration
Jah/e pushes
so this is an example of Newton's First l.aw. Newton's Second l.aw.
upwards on book
Thfs equation says that the nlore force you have ading on a certain mass, the
mo re acceleration you gel. h also says that for a given force,, the more mass
you have, the less acceleration you gel
But, if the mass of the objecl is changing, such as if iL is accelerating Practice Questions -Application
at cl0<e to the speed o f light, then you can't use F =ma. (You don't need
to know why the mass changes in this case.) New1on's 2nd law still applies, Q1 Draw a diagram showing \vhat forces are acting on a ball whe n it's al
itS just that the 'rate of change of momentum' b it refers to a cha nge in rest on the ground.
mass a nd velocity. Q2 A rocket burns through its fuel stores to accelerate upwards.
Explain why you cannol use f =ma to calculate Lhe net force
Exan1ple -ffiMilj1flll on the rod:et in this case.
Zola is playing hockey. The ball is coming towards her ot a speed of QJ Why does a bird lift into !he air when it flaps its wings?
4.6 ms-1• She hits it so that it travels in the opposite direction at a speed Q4 A car is pulling a caravan behind it at a cons.lant speed.
of 10.2 ms-1 • Her stick is in contact with the ball for 0.34 seconds. The addi1ional resislive force acting on the system d ue to the caravan
The ball has • m.iss of 161 g. at !his speed is 780 N. The link between the car and !he caravan
Calculate the average force exerted on the ball during this time. breaks and they separate. The car immediately begins to accelerate al
0.41 ms :i.. Calcu~a te the mass of the car.
You'll need to use F = ma, so first calculate a:
, _ ~ _ 10.2 ( 4.6) 14.8 _ m~' Q5 Two ice skaters of mass 55.0 kg and 60.0 kg push against each olhcr. Exam Tip
• - D.1 - 0.84 li.84 - 17.619... > The heavier ice skater accelerates away a t 2.3 ms-'. Whal will the
Using ice skaters is a
magni1ude of the lighter ice skater's acceleraLion be? common way of saying
m = 161g=0.161 kg, so:
1h~r~'s no fric1ion
F = 0 .1 61 x 17.619 ... = 2.836 ... = 2 .84 N (to 3 s.f.) involved - the only
Practice Question - Fact Recall force is from where they
push against each mher.
Q l State Newton's three laws of motion, and brieny explain
Newton's 3rd law of motion what they mean.
The re are a few d ifferent ways of staling Newton"s J rd law, bu1the clearesl
way is:
Hff object A exerts• force on object B, then object B
exerts an equal but opposite force on object A.n
You'll also hear the law as Mevery action has a n equal and opposite
reacl'ion#". But lhis can wrongly sound like the forces a rc both a pplied lo the
same object. (If that were the case, you'd get a resultanl force of zero a nd
nothing would ever move anywhere.)
The t\vo fora."S actually represent the same interaction, just seen from
l\VO different perspectives:
If you push against a wall. the wall will push back against you, juSI as
hard. As soon as you slop pushing, so does the wall.
If you pull a cart, whatever force you exert on the rope, the rope exerts the
exact opposite pull on you.
When you go swimming. you push back against the water with your arms
and legs, a nd the water pushes you forwards wilh a n equal-sized force.
Newton's Jrd law applies in all si1ua1ions and to all types of force. But Lhe
pairs of forces are always the same type, e.g. both gravitational or
both eleclrical. Somelimcs il looks like Newton's 3rd law is being a pp lied,
but it's not
Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum I Ff
 Leam ing Obj ectives:
• Be able 10 caJculate
linear momcn1um;
p =mv.
• Understand lht? vector
nature of momenium.
• Know 1he principle
of conservation of
momentum.
• Be able 10 solve
collision problems in
one dimension and in
two dimensions.
• Undcrs•and the
meaning al a perfectly
elastic collision and
an inelastic collision.
Specification
Referencas
3.5.1 and 3.5.2
Tip: The other kind of
mornemum is 'angular
momentum', but you
don't need to know
a.bout that for now.
Tip: Sec page 94 for
more on densi1y.
Tip: In 1he example the
positive direc1ion ·was
taken lO be the direction
in \\'hich the balloon
was thrown. If you 1ook
Lile opposite direction as
100 positive, the balloon
would have a negative
lllOITKITTtUm.
Rgure 1: linear momentum
is conse.rvcd in a Newron"s
cradle. When the first bafl
suikes and stops, the last
ball nt0ves off will'I an equal
momentum.
Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momenlum
2. Momentum The same principle can be applied in situations that don't involve a collision,
like explosions. For example, i( you fire an air rifle, 1he forward momentum
gained by the pellet is equal in magnitude to the backward momentum of the
Momentun1 is how much 'oomph' an object has, and the direction in ~vhich
rifle, and you feel the rifle recoiling into your shoulder.
the 'oomph' acts. When objecl5 collide, I.heir overall ntomentum is conserved.
Example --f$tjH\jj§iij
What is momentum? A bullet of mass 0.0050 kg is shot from a riOe at a speed of 220 ms.,. The
The linear momentum of an object depends on two things - its mass and rifle has a mass of 4.0 kg. C.alculale the velocity at y..flich the rifle recoils.
velocity. The produc' of these t\VO values is the momentum of lhc objecL
p = linP.ar nt0mcmum - - - . . . p = m x v . . - v -= velocity in ms ' 11 e1I! _ __:4.0 kg x v 0.0050 kg x 120 ms 1
Tip: There was no
momentum before the
inkgms' ""- explosion, so after the
m =massinkg Rgure 3: The rifle and bullet after Ille explosion. explosion both the riOe
and the bullet must have
The word ' linear' means that 1he momentum acts in a straight line. Momentum before explosion = Momentum after explosion
the same magniludc:i
You'll often see it just called momentun1. Momentum a nd velocity are O = (0.0050 x 220) + (4.0 x v) of momentum, bu1 in
vectors (see page 41), so you need to remember to think about direction
O = 1.1 + 4.0v opposi1e dircaions. The
when doing calculations. v = - 0.275 = - 0 .28 ms '{to 2 s.I.) rifle ha:s a much smaller
final velocity than the
Example --f.tHlijhfl 1 d bullet because it's got a
A water balloon of volume 4.2 x 1 o-3 m3 is thrown at a speed of 8.S ms-•. mudl greater mass.
In reality, collisions and explosions usually happen in more than one
tr water has density 1.0 x 103 kgm-' and the rubber balloon itself has mass d imension. In hvo-dimensional collisions, momen1um is conserved in bolh
12 g, calculate the balloon's tolal nlomentum. dimensions. You can solve two-dimensional collision problems by resolving
Before you can calculate the balloon's tocal momentum, vectors (see page 43).
you need to wori< out 1he mass of the water.
Exarnple --1$§1$.. $15
Rearranging p- '{j-:
Ball A collides with stltionary ball B, as shown in figure 4.
m = pV = 1.0 x 1O' x 4.2 x 1O ' = 4.2 kg After the collision, the two balls move off in different directions.
Exam Tip
Linear momen1um = mass x velocity Ball A has a mass of 40 g. Calculate the mass, m, of ball B.
Two-<Umensional
= (mass of water+ mass of balloon) x velocity problcms like this will
= (4.2 + 0.012) x 8.5 = 35.802 = 36 kg ms ' (to 2 s.f.) only be in your exam
et"'
The principle of conservation of 5
6
msfu•
!1'
Bail 8
6.57 ms'
if you're taking the
fu ll AMlevel course.
J
momentum Bal/A
Assuming no external forces acl, linear momcnlum is always conserved. This -1N<-.-,o-sca-le~I
means the Lotal linear momenlum of hvo objects before they collide equals
the total linear momentum after the collision. This can be used ID work out BEFORE AFfER
the velocity of objects afler a collision. Rgure 4: /Jails A and 8 before and after the collision.
Example -f$§i$ 1fll8 You can work 1his out using conseivation of momentum
A skater of mass 75 kg and velocity 4.0 ms-' collides with a stationary in just the horizontal direction (or just the vertical). Tip: The horizontal
skater of mass SS kg. The two skaters join together and move off in the Start by picking the positive direction - let's say right is positive. component ol the
momentum of ball A
same direction. Calculale their velocity v after impact.
J
horizontal momentum before the collision is negative aflcr 1he
.Pt~
=horizontal momentum after the collision collision - it's to the
Momentum before= Momentum after left
(75 x 4.0) + (55 x OJ= 130v (0.04 x 10sin36.9") + (m x O)
= - (0.04 x 5sin36.9•) + (m x 6.57sin 66.0°)
300= 130v
75 kg 5.'i kg 130 kg
Tip: You could check
(Jf.f ()Rf Af ([R So v = 2.307 .. So' m= 0.04 x{1 0sin36.9. + 5sin36.9•) = 0.0600 kg
6 .5 7 Stn 66.0 .. your answer by doing
Figure 2: fhc skaters,
= 2.3 ms ' (to 2 s.f.) the same calculadon for
= 60 g {to 2 s.f.)
before and alter the collision. the vertiC:ll direction.
Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum I fc M

Tip: Elastic collisions
are somctiOX!s called
'perfealy e lastic'.
Tip: Co llisions bcc\veen
gas paniclcs arc elastic,
01herwise air would gel
colder and colder umil
there \VJS no mo1ion left.
Exam Tip
Before you stafl a
momentum calculation,
atv.•ays draw a quick
skctch of the! relevant
objects, before and aflcr
the m llision - then it's
much easier to figure 001
what's going on.
Rgure 6: A dropped
ball loses energy to heat
and sound when it
colfides inelaslically with
rile floor. and rebounds
to a lower /JeighL
Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum
Elastic and inelastic collisions Example -f.t,§IMh§Jlj
An elastic collision is one where momen1um is con.served and kinetic energy A toy lorry (mass 2.00 kg) travelling al 3.00 ms- 1 crashes into a toy car
(mass 0.800 kg), travelling in the same direction at 2.00 ms-1• The velocity
is conserved - i.e . no e nergy is dissipaled as heat, sound, e tc. Kinetic energy
is the e nergy lhat an object has due to its motion. You saw on page 105 that of the lorry after the collision is 2.60 ms- 1 in the same direction.
Calculate the new velocity of the car and the total kinetic energy before
the equation for kinetic e nergy is:
and after the collision.
~---- ~-
- - V: velocity in t1lS I
F, =- kineric _ _ _ __~ EK= ~m\
v' 2.<JO kg 11.nook8
l .60m!l"1 v =- ?
.l.fXJ ms-' 2.(Jl)mr-'
"'""8Y in I
IJlrORC
m =mass in kg
Figure 8: Tha toy lorry and car, before and airer the col/ision.
Rgure 7: In lfw real wotld,
Momentum is conserved, so: mosl collisions are at least
Momentum before collision = Momentum a iter collision
Example -f.~!iltji@1N slightly inelastic. These
(2.00 x 3.00) + {0.800 x 2.00) = (2.00 x 2.60) + (0.800 x v) billiard balls will Jose energy
A bowling ball of mass 5.00 kg is travelling al a velocity of 5.00 ms-' when a.s sound 1.vh<.?11 they col/Kie.
it collides w ith a stationary bowling ball of mass 3.00 kg. The velocity of 7.60 = 5.20 + 0.800•
the lighter ball after the collision is 6.25 ms-' in the same direction as the 2.40 = 0.800v
heavier ball before the collision. Show that the collision is elastic.
v = 2.40.,. 0.800 = 3.00 ms 1
llUOJ.ll AH~R Kinetic energy before= f 1 of lorry + f, of car
= V2mv' (lorry) + •h mv' (car)
0-
.r;.ookg
5.00ms •
5.(KJ
vm<
"P 3.CKI /q;
6.25 ms·'
= V2(2.00 x 3.00') + 'h(0.800 x 2.00')
= 10.6 J
Kinetic energy after = V2(2.00 x 2.6o') + •/,(0.800 x 3.00'l
= 1 0.36 = 1 0.4) (to3 s.f.)
The di({crence in lhe L\VO values is lhe amo unl of kinetic energy dissipated as
Figure S: The balls,. before and af1e.r the collision. heal,. sound, or in damaging lhe vehicles - so lhis is an inelastic collision.
Momentum is conserved, so momentum beiore = momentum after.
(5.00 x 5.00) + (3.00 x 0) = (5.00 x v) + (3.00 x 6.25) •Rrta.tq:1.11t:?1Jt.1.4g.fttiiff!iit.1.1
25: 5v + 18.75 Q l A man sitting in a stationary boat throws a 1 .0 kg rod< horizontally
v = 1 .25 ms- 1 out of lhe boat a t 1 O ms '. If lhe tOlal mass of the man and boat is
125 kg, ho \v fasLwill the boaLmove in the o pposile d irection Lo
Check to see if kinelic energy is conserved: the rock?
Kinetic energy before =(~ x 5.00 x 5.00') + (~ x 3.00 x O') = 62.5) Q2 An ice hockey puck of mass 165 g has a velocity 2.25 ms 1 (in lhe
Kinetic energy after =(~ x 5.00 x 1.252) " <ix 3.00 x 6.252) = 62.5 ) positive direcLion) ..vhen iL collides w ith an identical puck moving at
4.75 ms 1 in the opposite (negative) directioo. If the first puc:k has a
fina l velocity of - 4.25 ms ', calculate the final velocity of the second
J
So total kinetic energy is conserved in the collisio n - therefore this is an
elastic collision. puck. Is this an elastic or inelastic collision?
Q3 The nozzle oi a lire hose has cross-sectional area 5.6 x 1O_, m1 a nd
shoots \vater a l a rate or 8.4 x1Q....l m1s 1• Find the momentum of the Tip : If you're struggling
with QJ, firs.1 find the
water leaving the ho<e, if water has a density of 1 OOO kgm '(to 2 s.f.). mass ohva1cr Lhat lca\'es
I( acollision ts inelastic, i1 means that some of the kinetic energy is converted the hose every second,
I µ;tg.tq:&.-!11!?1,J.l,p
into other forms d uring the collision. Linear mome ntum is always conserved then find how fast lhc
in ine lastic collisions though. tm.,
...1.e.<:ii!ii.f:.,.iiiJo1.i_ _ _ _ __ water leaves the nozzle.
1 1
Q l Whal is the equa1ion used to calculate linear mome ntum?
Q2 Whal is the principle of conseivation of momenlum?
Q3 Whal is 1he differe nce between a perfectly e lastic and an ine lastic
collis ion?
Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum MB
 Leaming Objectives: 3. Impulse and Vehicle Safety Impact forces
• Know what is meant Since force is equal lo rate o f change of momenlum - remember F -= ~­
by 1he impulse al a Impulse is just a ·w ord for Lhe change in momentum o( a body. You can 1,vork it
the force of an impact c.an be reduced by increasing the time of Lhc l
force and 00 able 10 out if you knO\v Lhe av<.vage force acu·ng on a body and Lhe time ir acts over.
impact. Similarly, lhe force can be increased by reducing the impact time.
calculate it using:
impulse=- Fllt. Calculating impulse Examples---------- -
• Know I.hat impulse NC\vton's Second Law can be rearranged to give: The less time your ioo1 is in contact with a football when kid<ing
is equal to lhe area Tip: The same is uue in
Fllt = llp it, the more iorce you will kick it wilh (assuming the dtange in
under a fort:e-time many other spons - for
momentum is the same). example, the shoncr the
graph. The impulse of a force is defined as the product oi average force and time:
Specification l'ackaging for fragile objects is designed 10 reduce the magnitude of impact 1imc between a
Reference 3.5.1 any impact forces during lra nsport or slorage. The pad:aging 1akes bat and ball, 111e grealer
impulse = Fllt the force.
longer 10 deJonm on impact, and so ab<orbs !he shock and protects
the packaged object.
So, the impulse on a body is equa l 10 the change in momentum of lhal body.
Tip: Impulse is only
talking about I.he . . llp = chango in
change of lmftlentum F6t-=- 1mpulsemNs ~ fl1L= 61'.....-momeatuminkgms-'
of one of 1hc objects,
whilst conservation ot Exan1ple -lf,Milj1flll Rgure 1: Egg boxes are designed to reduce the impact on the eggs if
momentum applies to they're dropped. /he packaging cwmples, incre.uing die impact lime.
Lile whole system. So A stationary golf ball of mass 4 5 g is hit wilh a dub, The club provides an
the i ~lse oi an objecL average force of 1200 N on the ball, c.ausing the ball lo lra""I al a speed
can change although of 25 ms- 1• Calculate the time the club was in contact with the ball (or.
momentum is conserved. Firs.I calculate the change in momentum oi Lhe ball: Vehicle design ~ Tip: Understanding
llp = il(mvJ = mll.v = 0.045><(25 - 0) = 1.125 kgms-' When a car crashes, Lhere is a big cha nge in speed - possibly from ~ the foroos involved
Rearranging f ll.r = llp: 70 mph (about 11O km h ' ) to zero. This means !here is a big change in road collisions has
in momentum, and potential!)' large forces, which can injure passengers. saved many liV(.IS - it's
ill = T~ --11200
.1 25_
- 0 .0009375 -- 0.94 ms (10 2 s ..
[)
Modern vehicle safety features arc designed using the face that lhe eslimatcd lhat the 1hree-
iorce of an impacl can be reduced by increasing lhe time of the impact. point seat belt alone
has saved over a million
Impulse is lhe area under a force~ ime graph - 1his is really handy (or solving livc:s worldwide in the
problems where the iorce changes. Examples
last 50 )'ears.
Tip: fbr improved Crumple zones
accuracy, yoo could Example -f4®1ji§!5 These are areas at the front and rear oi a c.ar that a re designed to
use a spreadsheet to The graph shows the resultant force acting on a toy car.
plOl your F-1graph crumple on impact. They absorb some or 1he car's kinetic energy when
If the car is initially al res1, calculate lhe impulse given to the car lhey deform, which \vould oLherwise be transferred to the passengers
and cakulate the area
underncath it. over the first 3 seconds. and whatever the car had collided w ith. They also increase the time

t777-20~
taken ior the car lo slow down, which reduces lhe iorces acting on
passengers and whalever the car has hit
!!! '
"5 ~ Seal bells '·
~"
&.!? 1()
Seat belts are designed to stretch slightly. They protect wearers in a Figure J: Cars have speci•lly
crash in a number or ways. They hold Lhe wearer in place in lhe car, designed 'crumple z.ones'
stopping Lhem from being thrown from Lheir seats. They a lso absorb that extend the tirnc of a
OO I 2 :1
some of the wearer's kinetic energy by stretc:hing and increase the time collision. fhis reduces rhe
Tim<~ Is
that the wearer comes to a stop over, Ar {again, by stretching}. force experienced by the car
Rgure 1: Graph ofresult.ant force againsi dme. and occupants.
Air bags
Impulse is the area under the graph, so you need to find the area under
the graph between 0 and 3 s.
j
Area under graph = x J x 20 = 30 Ns
Air bags are 'cushions' in the dashboard and elsewhere that inflate very
quickly on collision. They protect the passengers by making passengers
Tip: There's more
material deformation
abouj
slow down more gradually (increasing All and by stopping passengers °""'on page 118.
from hitting lhe dashboard, steering wheel, elc. during a crash.
For more complicaled iorce-time graphs, you might need to es1ima1e Lhe area
under the graph by counting squares or approximating curves as straight lines
(see page 478).

•lltCf~ll Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum Me5A

Rgure 4: Crash msr
dummies are used ;n
simuk11ions 10 model
the e.rrecrs of a collision
on a human body.
Rgure S: A young girl using
a booster sear to rc-xtucc lhc
risks posed by her scotbc/1.
•llt~*Jll Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momenlum
Example -f,~fflllj1§!8 Practice Questions -Application a
~:::l
Jian's car bumps into the back of a stationary bus. The car was travelling Ql The figure on the right
at 2 nls-1 and comes to a stop in 0.20 s. Jian was wearing his seatbelt and
t·akes 0.80 s to stop. Jian's mass is 75 kg.
shows a graph of force
against time for a tennis +A
~100~
ball during contact with
a) Calculate the average force acting on Jian during the accident
a rackeL Calculate the
F = f!H!. So, for Jian: F = <75 x 2b_8){ 5 x O) 187.5 magnitude of the impulse
0
Cl.I = 190 N (to 2 s.f.) aaing on the ball. o s 10
Tiute I ins
b) Calculate the .,..,rage force that would ha>'e acted on Jian if he
had stopped as quickly as the car. Q2 Until the 1950s, cars were manufactured to be uniformly rigid
as it was generally thought that this was safer. Explain why this
Tip: Rigid materials
are stiff and difficult
J
Again, F =!ff, =
but ti.1 0.20 s. So: F
(75 x 2) - (75 x 0)
0.20 is incorrect. to deform.
= 750 N QJ A crash test is <.'Onducted on a nei.v car model lo test the effectiveness
of ils safety features. A crash test dunlmy is placed in the driver's seat
Early cars djdn't have many safely features in the event of a crash. and the car is driven into a concrete wall.
Sul as cars became faster and the number of cars on the roads increased, car a) A seat belt was fastened over the dummy before the test.
manufaclUrers slarted to think about how to make cars safer. This led 10 the Explain ho\v the scat be-It reduces the forces acting on lhe dummy
development of the three-point seat belt, crumple zones a nd air bags bad< in during the crash.
the 1 950s. b) Explain why airbags can be dangerous for passengers when used
At the same time, engineers were developing better ways of without a seal belt
understanding the forces acting on passengers in a collision. They developed Q4 A landing aeroplane of mass 18 OOO kg touches down on a runway Tip: The mass before
increasingly sophistica1cd crash les1 dummies that could measure all the forces ala velocity of 125 km h 1• The brakes are applied and a resultant and after is the same, so
that different passengers experience in differenl kinds of collisions. Crash horizontal force of 62 OOO N aclS on the aeroplane. Find the time iL the velocily is the only
tests also allO\ved car manufaclUrers to test the effectiveness of certain safely takes for the aeroplane to come to a stop. thing that changes.
features, so they could see how much they reduced the likelihood of injury.
Wearing a seat bell is now mandalOI)' (evcl)'One has !o do iO, and
features such as crumple zones and air bags have become standard ft>..atures of Practice Questions - Fact Recall
modern cars {along with many more sophisticated safety features). Ql What is impulse?
Q2 Describe how airbags protect passengers in the even1 of a crash.
QJ Describe the risks associated with seat belts.
The risks of car safety features Q4 Explain how crumple zones work
Seat bells c.an cause bruising during a crash. They can also be dangerous for
small cflildren - if the top parl of the belt lies across the child's neck this can
cause injury in a crash, a nd if the dlild is too small for a seat belt it may not
secure I.hem properly. In the UK, children must use boosler sealS or cushions
to reduce these risks.
Air bags are designed for use wi1h seal belts and can be dangerous if
you're not wearing one. Air bags inflale very rapidly, wilh a 101 of force. If a
passenger scat belt isn't secured properly then the passenger can keep moving
forwards quickly as the car slows down. They could hit the air bag as it is
inflating with a force big enough to cause injury.
Air bags are also dangerous when using rear-facing child sealS - the
air bag innates behind lhe child a nd can th row th e child seal 1owards the car
seal with some force. It is now illegal to use a rear-facing child seat in the UK
in a seat fined with an air bag.
Mosl of these risks a re caused by not using a car's safety fea tures
properly. If you use a seat belt and air bags as you are meant to, you are far
safer in a car than you would be without them.
Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum M'f A
 Section Summary
Make sure you know...
Exam-style Questions I
That the vclocily of an object will not change unless a res.uhanl force acLS on it (Newton's First Law).
That nel force is equal to the rate of change of momentum (Newton's Second l..aw).
How to calculate nel force, F, from change in momentum, llp, and change in Lime, Ar. using F -= ~.
A ball is shot from a cannon. The ball has a much smaller mass than tile cannon.
That F = ma is a special case of Ncv>10n's Second Law, and can only be applied when the body's Which combination of the following statements is true?
mass is constant.
That if object A exeris a force on object B, then object B exeris an equal but opposite force 1. Kinetic energy is conserved when tile ball is launched.
on object A (Newton's Third Law). 2. The momentum of the cannon is equal in magnitude to that of tile ball.
That the forces excried by objects A and 8 in Newton's Third Law are always of the same type. 3. The cannon moves backwards at the same speed that the ball moves forwards.
That linear momentum is the product or mass and velocity.
That momentum is a vcclor quantity and so has a magnitude and direction. A All three statements are true.
That momenlum is always conserved. B Only 1 and 2 are true.
How to use the principle of conservation of momentum to solve one-dimensional and C Only 2 is true.
""'<M.iimensional collision problems. D Only 1 and 3 are true.
That kinetic energy is conserved in elastic coll isions but not inelastic collisions. ( 1 mark)
That the impulse of a force is defined as Lhe product of average force and lime.
2 Which pair of forces below are an example of Newton's Third Law?
That impulse is equal to the area under a force-time graph.
A When the end of a spling is pulled downwards, the spling extends downwards.
How to estimate the area under non-linear force-time graphs.
B When a car is being towed by a lorry, the lorry pulls forwards on the car and
\l\lhat crumple zones are, and how they reduce the forces acting on passengers in a collision.
friction pulls backwards on the car.
Hovi seal bells prolect \vearcrs and the risks associated with them.
C When a cat jumps, tile earth pulls down on the cat and the cat pulls up on the earth.
How airbags protect passengers and the risks associated with them. D When a child moves down a slide. the earth's gravity pulls tile child down and the
That the introduction of mandatory safety ieatures in cars resulted from researdl into reducing slide pushes up on the child.
the forces involved in collisions, and therefore reducing the risk of injury.
( 1 mark)

3 A ball of mass 0.25 kg is travelling with velocity 1.2 ms-'. It collides with a second ball
that is travelling towards it at 0.3 ms-•. The mass of the second ball is half that of the first
ball. Alter the collision, the two balls move together with the same veloctty.
How fast are they moving?
A 0.45 ms-'
B 0.70 ms-'
C 0.75 ms-'
D 0.90 ms-'
(1 mark)

4 A 1.00 • 1Q-l kg car is participating in a race. During a long stretch of straight track, it
applies a force of 1.70 • 10' N to accelerate from 26.5 ms-' to 31.0 ms-• in 2.50 s.
(a) State Newton's Second Law.
(1 mark)
(b) During the race. tile back bumper, with mass 50.0 kg, falls off the car. When tt
reaches the straight stretch of track again, the same force again applied again over
2.50 s to increase its speed from 26.5 ms-'. Calculate tile speed the car reaches.
(2marks)

•ll,~!JMI Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum Module 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum
 5 At a fairground, a dodgem car of total mass 325 kg travelling at 2.40 ms-' collides Module 4
loudly with the wall of the dodgem arena, and comes to a complete stop. The wall is
fixed and does not move.
(a) Is this an elastic or inelastic collision? Explain your answer. 1. Circuit Diagrams Leaming Objectives:
(2marks) • Understand circuil
(b) Calculate the magnttude of tile impulse that acts on the dodgem. Module 4: Seel.ion 1 is ;iJ/ about electricity. Before ~ve start going into all the symlx~s.
detail, il;s irnportant that you can understand circuit diagrams. • Be ablQ to draw circuit
(2marks)
diagrams using circui1
(c) Calculate what the impulse would have been ~tile dodgem had been travelling
at double the speed. Circuit symbols symbols.
Specification
(1 mark) In physics, we use circuil symbols to represent different elecLrical Reference 4.2.1
components. Here are some of the basic ones you should recognise ...
(d) Two dodgems of equal mass collide in tile arena. Fig. 5.1a and Fig. 5.1b
show the dodgems before and after tile collision respectively.

: 80
·42• I
I.,,m~s· BcJ
r is9•
·•
:
•
-ir- -i1·· lr- __,/<>--
switch open
-"""-..-
r
n>.S·• cell baltef)I switch close~

A
.1.

AV --®- --@- -0- Rgure 1: A simple

Fig 5.1a Fig 5.1b circuit diagram.
power supply filament tamp ammeter ~<oluneter

Calculate the velocity of dodgem B after the collision.

(2 marks}
~ I=:!
6 A force is applied to a stationary trolley to push it across a horizontal ftoor. resiswr variable resistor fuse thermistor
Fig. 6.1 shows the force applieel to tne trolley against time.
.10

,.
... -
...~

-
....
>

...
~

.
,_
diode 'l'
UD
~
LDR
Figure 2: An c/ecuonic:
circuit Tiie red dome-
sllapt'<I components to the
right of lhe picture a.re LEDs.

Drawing circuits
The lines between components in a circuil diagram represcm wires and show Exam Tip
()
...... - .... --
~;
~

1 ()
-·-
15
how lhe componenls are connected together. You can connect components
in series (see Figure 3) or in parallel (Figure 4).
You could be asked 10
draw a circuit diagram
in the exam - so make
lime (s) sure you gei loads oi
Fig 6.1 praaice a1 ii before lllen.
(a) Calculate the magnitude of tile impulse that acts on the trolley.
(2 marks) Tip: A circuit needs to
(b) The trolley reaches a velocity of 2.2 ms-' after the force is applied. be CO"lJlete ror a current
Assuming friction is negligible, calculate the mass of the trolley. to flow Lhrough it.
Figure J: /\ simple Rgure 4: /\simple
(2marks) sCYies drcuiL parallel circuit
(c) Explain Why the trolley continues to move at a constant velocity after the force Tip: Series and parallel
has been removed.
(1 mark)
..·...· ®l ir·li '·[·.}•'L'-------
IQft9.t3:1.-111!i1.1.1.g ..·!¥1 circuits will be CO\lcrcd
in more de1-ail on p. t 72
Ql Draw lhe circuit symbols for a diode~ a fuse and an ammeter. and p.176.
Q2 Draw a circuit diagram showing a bauery, resistor and LOR in series.

•llt~!J
. 11 Moelule 3: Section 5 Newton's Laws of Motion and Momentum Module 4: Section 1 Electricity I (d M
 Leaming Objoctivos;
• Know oho tlollnillon of
ek.Qric rum'.'nt as rate!
"' flow "' d13'&<'
• II<! >l>lo 10 <2lw~
llln'.'lll using ' • ~.
• Know '""coulomb as
'"" unll of dl3rg!'.
• Undo,,.and
mnvmtlonal currmt
and ri.,aron flow.
• Know 1h.1t 1h<'
clol'O(ln1ary ctL.1rge e
equals 1.W x 10 "C.
• Know 1h:at the ~t
char~~ on a panlck! or
an obj<'CI Is qu>ntised
and a multlpk> of o.
• UndM!and CUITC'lll
as tht> ITIO\-'t'm<n o(
em.mns in nieals
and
in~
"'°"""""'
of ions
• UndMundthl>
distinalon - " " "
Clll10JaoB,
scmicondUoors .ind
insuJatQIS In ttmlS
oln.
• Know Yt'h:u is meant
by thr moan drift
\1<~lochy ol mart,~
carrl<'rs.
• lw. able 10 US(I
I AIH"V, \\"hN(! n is
s all d irections, bu1 lend to drift lowards the positive terminal or lhe circuit.
1hc numbcf dcmily of
marll"arrlM.
Spoclflc:allon
R•f«eneu
4.t.t and 4. t.2
Figure 2: lcl<';is a/Joc11
e:.'/octdc chargrt hJvc l.xm
around fol J11111d1NJJ of
)'Y\1fS. Phlk>M>phcvs ih
Androt Crc_'(l(.'t' t'IOtlctxJ
auracrion OOwr'ffl pk"CCS of
amlxY and labtk, wftk:h v.-c
now GJ/f stiltlct-k.'<:uic1ty.
•llf~·~
· 'I Modure 4 Secbon 1 EJedJidty
2. Current Charge carriers
Charge carrien are elCC1rically ch.'lrgcd particles that are free 10 move in
Aher all thar stuff ar CCSf abour ck<-111Ciry. >""'wouldn't think there was an objecL The rype ol particle and 1he number ol charge carrier.; in a given
much lefl ro /eJrn. IMYI, unfonunatt>ly )'OU<f be wrong... volume depend on 1he nuocrial.
What is current? Electrons and ions
The current in a wire is like w.uer Rowing in a pipe. The amoun1 of water 1h:u In roog objCC1S (and all mct.ilsJ, rhe charge carrier.; are electrons. Each eleclron
flows depends on rhe flow rn1c and 1he 1ime. ll's 1he same with electricity carries the same amounr of di.:argc, e, where e is the elementary ch.lrge-:
current is the ra1c or now o( charge. Tip: l'lOlons ""'"' an
c = 1.60x10"C equal bu1 opposne
AO _..- Q = charge in coulombs (C) mari;c IO olocuons -
I = rorrent in amptvf'S (A) __. I i.e. each proton has a
Ti The elementary chorgc is the smallcsl quanti1y of charge 1han can be ctt.ars,:ic ol + c.
- - r = time in seconds (s) found on iis own lhc nc1chorgc on any object will always be a mulliple ol c.
The coulon1b is th~ unit ol charge. One coulomb (C) is defined as This means lha1we c:in say thril chnrge is quantisc.->d.
the amounL of dlarge 1ha1 p.isscs in 1 st.-<:ond when the currcnl is t ampere. In 01her materials, m.1inly liquids and gases, ions are the chars,.ic Tip ; In a metal, 1he
carriers. Ionic crystals like ~ium dlloride a re insulators. O nce molten dl.argc carriers arc free
Example -f$H•5 . fll5 !hough, 1he liquid conduclS. lbs11ive and n<.>galive ions a re the charge carrim. clrorons - the ones
from •hi' ouoer sh<?ll ol
The same is true in an ionic solution like copper sulbte solution. A substance
A component has a current o( 0.43 0 A passing through it. ~atom.
coniaining ions thar conducls elCC1rici1y like lhis is called an electrolyte.
Calculate the charge passing through the component in ex.lctly 3 minutes.
FtrSt convert the rime 1akcn from minutes to seconds: Conductors and insulators
3 minures x 60 seconds per m1nu1e =180 seconds. In meuls and orher good conductors, lhere are lots o( charge carriers per Tlp; Goscs are
insuboors, bul if"'°'
unit wlume (nJ. This means lhat •current can easily flow lhrough 1hem.
Then substitute 1he v.ilues for C\J1Tcn1•nd1ime iaken apply. higll mougll p.d
Semiconductors have lewe< ch:lrge carriers (p.159) and perlect insolalon
inlo lhe charge fonnula gi""'1 obovc; ;icross lhcm. cloorons
rul\'e no charge carriCB, so lhcy don'1 allow a currenr ro llow. In real lile, Ill" ripped OU1 of 3I0015,
L\.Q =Ix 61=0.430 x 180 : 77.4 C insulatOfS just have a very sm.111 n. giving you a spark ftonS
along a path).
You can measure 1hc currcn1 Rowing through a part of a circui1 using
an .immeter. You always need 10 nw1ch an ammeter in series (so that lhc
curre nt through the ammeter is the s.imc as 1he currenl through the Mean drift velocity
J
componem - see page 175). \.Vhen current flows through a wire, you might imagine the cle<:1rons all
moving uniformly in the s.1mc direction. In foe~ they move randomly in
Tip ; The moan drifl
The current is pmponional 10 the average speed or lhis d rilring vck>dty is much less
lhan lhc! elcarons'
known as the mean drif1 \'tolocily. You can use lhe continuity equation below oaual speed (v.11ich
to determine rhe size ol a currcn1 ii you know rhe mean drill velociry. is .ooui 1O' ms 'l.
I -= CIJ(fMJ tin A J ~ e = chcltge on OOP
Figure I : M "°""""" COM<'CtCd., S<Yios iYidl 2 mmponmt.
f deaton /in O
Tip; II you're using
In Figure 1, you would label 1he current as llowing from rhe posioi\<e I = Anev- v =""""
clrifi mbcily
1
d•ffro>nl ~ carriers,
terminal of the cell {!he long« line tn 1he cell symboll, 1hrough rhe amm<>tef A = C1CJ11S-!«liona/___,,j ' (in ms ) jusl r<pl.1<r e wioh
arm lin m'I n = number dmsity (i.e. number p<r lho ctwg<? on each
and rhen 1hrough rhe componcnl 10 1he neg;itivc 1erminal (rhe shorter line
in the cell symbol). This is conventional current it is said to flow from UfHt V<MJmeJ ofelecuom (in m 'I arncr~ and lcl n be
positive to negative. However, in mosi cases the actual movement of panidcs ""' number density
So the current through a wire c.1n be increased by: ol ch;&rgc carriers.
is in the opposite direction. FIC<1rons, 1he usual charge carrier in circuits (see
next page). are attracted IOW':'lrck the positive terminal, so the flow of electrons Increasing the number o( electrons more charge is carried past a poin1
is from negative to posirive. in a given time. You c:an do this by either increasing the numl:x!r density
of electrons°' increasing the cross~sc.-cti onal a rea or the wire. Tip ; Semiconductors
This difference occ:urr<.xJ bc<'~l uS<.' ideas abou1 electrici1y a nd current C:.1n change Lhcir
were a round long before the <~ looron was actually d iscovered. Since the Increasing the mc:'ln drif1 velocity of the cleclrons - i1 takes less 1imc number density of
direction of now makes no difference to the effec1 1he current has in a circui1, for a given amount of ch:lrgc lo be transferred. (You can achieve this by olecuons (page I 59).
and current can nmv in either dirce11on d<."PCnding on the charge carriers increasing the potential difference across the wire - see page 153.)
involved, lhe idea ol conventional curmn1 s1uck around as rhe defaull.
ModtJe 4 Sec:bon 1 EJedJicity MfjM
 Deriving the continuity equation
Firsl, imagine a section of wire that has a length or land
3. Potential Difference Learning Objectives:

a cross-sectional a rea of A (see Figure 3). • Understand potential

So you've learnt all about current, bUl you can't get a current to flow withoul d iflernnce (p.dJ .
a source ofpotenti;Jl diff'erence. Potential difference is all aboul Lhe ~vork • Know that the unil ol
done and energy uansferred to get a charge carrier around a circuit potential dirferenc:c is
I.Ix! Voll.

What is potential difference? • Be able to calculate

energy transferred
To make electric charge flow through a circuit., you need to transfer energy
..-i- to the charge - this energy is supplied by the power source, e.g. a battery.
using W= VQ.
• Understand the energy
Rgure 3: A sectk>n ofl!flre. \.Vhen a charge no\vs through lhe power source it is 'raised' lhrough a transfer cV = 11'mV' for
potential and energy is transferred 10 the charge. clccuons and other
The number of charge carriers in this section is equal to the number of
charge carriers per unit volume x the volume of the section, or: When energy is transferred, we say tha1 work is done - so the charg<..id panicles.
pIDver source does work to move the charge around the circuit The potential Specification
no. charge carriers= Aln difference (p.d.), or voltage, between L\YO poin1s is defined as the i.vork done Reference 4..2.2
10 move a unit dlargc between those points.
The total charge carried by these charge carriers is equal to 1he number of
charge carriers x the charge on each charge carrie~ or: , - - - V = potential difference
Tip: \'Vhen a cflargc
Q=Al.ne W = \\'llfkdooe - "'-"Q involts (V}
flows through a
in ·ouies (/} " - "' ....._
To find the time taken for this amount of c:h.;}rge to pass through the section I ' - Q = charb"' in coulombs (CJ compooom, it transfers
of the conductor, you have to use speed-= distance-:- time. energy m the component
(it does work).
The potential difference across a component is 1 volt when 1
time = length of section ~ mean drift velocity, °' t = ~ coulomb of charge does 1 joule of worl< to pass through the component.
Then substitute both or these into the equation for current from page 1SO.

l~~ = (b) =Anev

1 V = 1 JC-1 Tip: Back 10 the '\Yater
analogy' again... tho
p.d. is like the pressure
J
thal's forcing water
along the pipe.
Practice Questions -Application I•
Ql A pan icle has a charge of 4e.
What is the charge of the particle in coulombs?
Q2 A cell has a charge of91 C: passing through it every 32 seconds.
Calculate the current passing through lhe cell.
()3 A copper wire has a c ross-sectional area of O.SO x 10 r. m'.
The number density or electrons for copper is 8.5 x 1QJJI m 3• You can measure the po1en1ial difference across an electrical
A currenl of 12 A flows through the \Vire. Calculate the mean drift
component by using a voltmeter. You ahvays need to attach a vollmeter
velocity of the free electrons in the wire. in parallel (see Figure 2).

Describe the direction of the flow of conventional current. Figure 1: A vo/tmcmr

What is a charge <'.arricr? connecmd across a
filament bulb.
Q4 State the value of the elementary charge, e.
QS What is the number density of charge carriers for a perfect insulator? Tip: The maximum
Q6 Give one way of increasing the ctJrrenL lhrough a wire. value that a voltmeter
Figure 2: A voftmeler connected in paralfc.'lf with a component or an ammeter can
measure is called the
full scaJe deflection.

•llf~flll Module 4: Section 1 Electricity Module 4: Section 1 Electricity lfi•A

 Kinetic energy of charges 4. Resistance and Resistivity Learning Objectives:
When a charged particle is accelerated by a potential difference, it gains • Know 1ha1resistance
kinetic energy equal to the amounl of work done on lhe particle. The larger
the potential difference, the more energy the particle gains and so the faster il
This topic covers eYerything you need to kno\v aboul resisiance.
It's Ceorg Simon Ohm you've got 10 blame for these pages - 1his German is defined by R =t·
• Know lhat resistance
travels. You can work ouL the spc.-'<."<.I of the particle by using the equation from physidst developed Ohm's l<nv and go1 lhe unit for resistance named after him.
is measured in ohms.
the laSI page and E.= •hmv' from page 105.
Work done = Kinetic energy gained What is resistance? • Know Ohm's law.
If you put a potential d ifference {p.d.) across an eleclrical compo nen~ a • Know wh.at is meant
VQ = •h mv' by lhC! resis.1ivity ol a
currenl v1till flow. How much current you gel for a panicular po1en1ial
For electrons, you can write this using Lhe elemental charge, e - see p.151: material.
difference depends on lhe resistance of lhe component.
• Be able to use the
Tip: You'll come across You can lhink of a component's resistance as a measure of ho\v . R pl.
this equation again in e =- charge of an ,,,,-- m =mass of an equauon =Ji·
difficult it is to gel a current lo flow through it Resistance is measured in
elecJJon (in CJ - - ; e/ec1ton fin kgi • Unders(and 1.he
quantum physics on eV= •hmv' ohms {!J). A componen1 has a resistance of 1 n if a potential d ifference of 1 V
page 233. variation of rcsisLivity
V= :;,:~ual differonco - J ~ • = speed (in ms'J makes a current of 1 A flmv through iL This l'qUation defines resis.tanc..-e: or mernls and
semiconductors with
. . ~ V = porontial difference
R = resrstancc m- . . R = V in volts (VJ temperature.
Tip: This equation gives
you the speed al a single Example -18§•$ 1$!8 o/1ms lnJ T...........
I= current in .1mpcres fAJ
• Know 1echniques
ek!cuoo. Don'• gel it An electron is accelerated from rest by a potential difference of 12 V. and procedures used
confused with the mean 10 demrminc the
Calculate the final spttd of the electron. This equation is commonly known as Ohm's law. resistivity of a metal
drift wlocily from p.151.
eV = •h mv' (PllG3).
v' = 2eV-.m Example -ff,!ftUi,fl1d Specification
Tip: An electron's mass v= nev-.. m = /(2 x 1.60 x 10 1'x1 2)-. (9.11x i o"l A fixed resistor has a. resistance of 4.43 0 and the potential difference References
4.2.3 and 4.2.4
is9. 11x10 11 kg = 2.053 ... x 10' = 2.1 x 10' ms 1 (to2 s.f.l a.cross it is 12.0 V. Calculate the current flowing through the fixed resistor.
(so<> page 572).
You just need 10 rearrange the resistance equation and plug the numbers in.
l :V-.R
Practice Questions -Application = 12.0.,. 4.43
Q1 In a circuit, it takes 114 J 10 move 56.0 C of charge through a filament = 2.7088 ... = 2.71A (to3 s.f.)
lamp. Calculate the potential difference across the lamp.
Q2 An alpha particle has a mass of 6.64 x 10 "kg and a charge o f +2e.
It is accelera1ed from rest lo a speed of 2.20 x 104 ms 1• Calculate the Resistivity
size of the potenlial d ifference thal accelerated the alpha particle. If you think abouL a nice, simple electrical component, like a length of wire,
its resistance depends on:
Length (L). The longer the wire, lhe more d ifficult it is to make a currenl
1µn;.t3:it1!1!:61h·hf ffll:{:f$.ill flow through it. The resistance ls proponional to the length of the wire.
Figure 1: G""'g Simon
Qt Define lhe potential difference between l\VO points. Area (A). The thicker the wire, the easier it will be for Ohm - I.he physicist w/Jo
C)2 Ho\Vshould a vohme1er be connected in a circuit to measure the the electrons to pass along it. de\'eioped Ohm's lillv.
potenli.al d ifference across a component? Resistivity (p). This is a property of the matcria I the component is made
()3 Stale the equalion that gives 1he kinelic energy of an electron after from. h is a measure of how much a particular material resists current
il is acceleraled from resLthrough a potential difference. tlmv. h'-3 defined as the resistance or a 1 m lenglh wilh a 1 m1
Define all symbols used. cross-seclional area. It is n1easured in ohm-metres {f!m).
Resi51ivity depends oo the structure of the material as well as on
environmenLa I factors such as lempcrature and light in1ensity.
For metals, the resislivity increases as the temperature increases. This
is because charge is carried through mefals by free electrons in a lauice of
positive ions. Heating the metal causes the ions 10 vibrate more, which makes
the electrons collide with the lattice more often. This causes energy lo be lost,
usually as heat, and increases the overall resistance o f the component.
For semiconductors, increasing lhe temperature causes more charge
carriers lo be released (p.159), so the resistivity decreases.

•llf~}Jll Module 4: Section 1 Electricity Module 4: Section 1 Electricily IE}M


Exam Tip
You'll be given this
equadon in the exam,
bu1 not Ohm's la\V, so
make sure you learn iL
Tip: Don't confuse
resistance and resistivity.
~ isa property
of an muca and it
deptlflds on Lhe ma1crial
and dimensions of Lhe
objca. ~ isa
propeny of a .lllill£lial.
Exam Tip
For resistivity
calculalions, don't
forget that you ooed to
have the leng1h in m
and the cross-seoional
aroa in m' - you'll
lose marks if you don't
use the correct units.
Rgure 1: A micromemr,
used to measure very small
distances. Microtnew.rs are
covered ;n mote daai/ on
page 17.
f!fl Module 4: Section 1 Electricity
You can calculate the resis.1ance of a con1ponent using the equation: Measuring res ist ivity
Exam Tip
Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 3, clamping the wire to the ruler so You can assume
. f--- p = re<isJivity (in !an) it is aligned with the zero reading o n the ruler's scale.
A=.,,,,. (in m')- - --.. R='*--
R = resistance (in l l ) - -
1
.
L = length (in m) power supply
ammetors and voltmeters
are ideal unless yolr'r4?
told othef\vise -
"-"' pago 1&2.
l/yif18 lead
Examples -f 1~iRtij;)4l1li Tip: A flying lead is just
A piece of metal has a length of 0.50 cm, a square cross-sectional area a wire wi1h a crocodile
with a width of 1 1 cm, and a resistance of 1.22 x 104!1. Find the clip ac lhe end to allow
resistivity of the metal. connection 10 any poim
along lhe test wire.
Converl all lenglhs into metres.
The cross-sec1ional area (A) o f lhe melal = 0.1 1 m x 0.1 1 m = 0.0121 m' Rgure 3: TfJ(). experimental set.up for det.erm;ning re.s;stivity ofa metal.
Tip: If the wire heats
Length = L = 0.0050 m up, its resistance <and
Rearrange the resistance equation for the resistivity of the metal: 1. A1tach the flying lead lo the test wfre and measure th e length of lhe test resistivity) will iocrease-.
wire connected in the circuit
p = ¥ = 1.22 x d.~05~ O.Ol 21 2.9524 x 10. = 3.0 x 10.. nm (lo 2 s .f.) 2. Close the switch and measure the currenl through the circuit a nd the
You can minimise how
much it heats up by
potential difference across the Lest wire. Open the switch again once keeping the current low
you've taken your n1easurements a nd use these values to calculate the and using a S\·\'i1ch 10
The healing elen1ent in a toaster is a bare nichrome wire with a radius make sure current only
of 0.2 mm and a length of 0.8 m. Find the resistance of the wire. resistance of the wire.
flows through Lilt? wire
(Resistivity of nichrome = 1.1 o x 1a-< f! m.) 3 . Repeat step 2 at least one more time for lhis length of wire and for shon amounts of
calculate the mean resistance. time while you$m laking
Firs.t or all, you need to find the cross-sectional area of the wire (A) in m1• your measurcmcnis.
Assuming the \Vire lo be cylindrica I, ils cross-sectional area \viii be the a rea 4. Reposition the nying lead and repeat steps 1 to 3 to get an average
resistance for each of several different lengths of test wire.
of the circle, nr2.
5. Plot a graph of average resistance (in 0) againsLlength (in m} using your
Wire radius= 0.2 mm= 2 x 10" m, so A= n(2 x 104 1 = 1.256... x 10 1 m1 Tip: Don'• forgec - if
results. Your graph and line of best fit should look simila r to Figure 4.
Plug the numbers into 1he equation R = ~ 10 get you get an anomalous
rcsull when you
R = (1.10 x 10 • x 0.8) -.1.256 ... x 10-1 =7.0028... n = 1 .0 n (to 2 s.f.) calf.'lllam a resistance.
you should discoun1 it
from calculations for the
average resistance. You
should also discount any
anomalous values \Yhen
Finding the resistivity of a metal
In this experimenl, you'll be finding the resistance of a tesl
\vire made from the metal you want Lo know Lhe resistivity of.
l= 3J drawing a line: of best fit.
You can 1hen use 1his resistance a nd the dimensions of the wire to calculate length I m Tip: The main sources
the resistivity of the metal using the resistance equation above.
ot random errors in lhis
Rgure 4: A typical graph and fine ofbest lit of experiment arc likely
Before you start, you need to do a risk assessment to make sure you resistance against length for a uniform wire. to be lhe temperature
are aware of all the safety issues and risks. of the wire dlanging
Since th is graph is a stra}fht line through the origin, the gradienl
and measuring 1.he
r·
*·
Calculating cross-sectional area of the graph is equal to By rearranging 1he equation for resistivity length of the wire. How
The first thing you wanLto calculate is the cross-se<:tional a rea oi the 16' wire.
Me.a.sure the diameter of the w'ire in al leasl three different places along the
(see page 156), you will find that f= to deal wilh errors
and uncertainties in
This means 1hat to find the resistivity of the wire metal in Orn, you practicals is covered in
wire using a micrometer. just need to multiply the gradient of lhe graph by the cross-sectional a rea of Modulo 1 (on pages 16
Find the mean diameter and halve it to find the mean radius of the the wire (in m'}. and 17J and Module 2
wire. You can assume that 1he c ross-section of the wire is a circle, so you can (p.36-40).
calculate the c ross-sectional area using this formula:
A =- cross-SL-x:tional .ltca in m1 ~
A = 70r ..___ r =- radius of wire in m
Module 4: Section 1 Electricity lfz
 lfr@.t3:i•ii!:f1ji.},g@·!jtiirtf1,t.1,1
Ex.am Tip
Remember to look out
for prefixes on units. If
your rnsuhs seem too
large or too small, check
lhat you haven't missed
one. There's mOf'e about
prefixes on page 32.
Module 4: Section 1 Electricity
5. Types of Conductor Learning Objectives:
Ql A thermistor has a resistance of 8.62 n. O.lculale the po1cn1ial • Understand 1.he
difference across the thennistor when 1here is a c urrent of 2.10 A So you've come across Ohm's Jaw, but not every electrical component foll<Y'lvs variation of the
flowing through it. it. Unforlunately, you have to know the difference between ohmic and resistivity of
non-ohmic componenl5, including some fancy ones like lDRs and thermistors. semiconductors with
Q 2 A fuse has a current of 1.21 A flowing through it. Calculate the temperature.
resistance of the fuse when the potential d ifference across it is 13.4 V. • Know what is
Q3 Copper has a resistivity of 1.72 x 1O •nm. O.lcula1e lhe resistance Ohmic conductors meant by a negative
of a 40 cm long piece of copper wire lhal has a cross-sectional area CondudOlS tha t obey Ohm's law (mostly metals) are called ohmic temperature
o f 2.8 x l o-5 m'. conductors.. Ohm's law states Lhat, provided the physical conditions (such coefficient CNTQ
as temperature) remain constant, the current through an ohmic conductor is thermistor and
Q4 The graph below sho\vs the resistance against length for a test wire
o f an unknown material. The radius of the test wire was 4.0 mm. d irectJy propo<1ional 10 lhe potenlial d ifference across it understand the
variation of its
Calculate the resistivity of the material the wire was made from. resistance wilh
temperature.
• Know the term
'.....ii 0.15 ligh1-0cponden1
..
g 0. 10
resistor {LOR).
• Understand Ille
~ variation of resistance
~ 0.05
of an LORwilh light
intensity.
Potential differemr I V • Know 1.hc techniques
0
0.10 0.20 O~IO 0.40 Length I m and procedures
0 Figure 1: 1-V graph fof an ohmic conductor. used to investigate
1he electrical
If you plot a graph of c urrent against potential difference (page 162), charaacriS1ics for
you get a straight-line graph - doubling the p.d. doubles the c urrent a range of ohmic
Practice Questions - Fact Recall What this means is lhaLthe resistance is constant - the gradient is always a and non-ohmic
Q1 Whal is meant by resistance? fixed v:ilue. components (PAGJ).
Q2 State the equation used to calculate the cross-sectional a rea Often factors such as light level or temperature will have a significant Specification
effect on resistance, so you need to remember that Ohm's law is only true for Refer ences
o f a wire, stating a ny assumptions you make. 4.2.3 and 4.2.4
ohmic condudors under constant physical condilions.
Q3 Describe an e xperiment you could do to find the
resistivity of a metal. Conductors that don't follo\v ()hm's la\v are called non-ohmic
conductors. If you plol a graph of current against potenlial difference for Tip: The gradient of an
Q4 Explain why it is important Lo keep the temperature constant when 1-V graph for an ohmic
d oing an cxpcrimen1 to find the resistivi1y of a metal. Suggest Lhese conductors, you don't get a straight line. There's more on this on
pages 163-164. conductor (like Lhc one
how you could keep the temperalure of the ma1erial constant sho.vn in Figure 1) is~·
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are a group of malerials that aren't as good al conducting
electricity as metals, because they have far fewer charge carriers
(i.e. elec1rons) availa ble.
However, if energy is supplied 10 a semiconductor, e.g. by an
increase in temperature or light inlensily, more charge carriers can be released
a nd the resistivi1y o f the ma1erial decreases. This means that some r..an make Figure 2: Semiconductors
excellent sensors for detecting changes in their environment (p.180). are used in loads of ekx.t1ical
Three common semiconductor componcnLS are thermistors, d iodes appNances, like microwJVeS.
a nd light-dependent resistors (l.DRs).
Diode s
You've probably come across diodes before, in the form of LED lights.
Diodes are designed to o nly let curre nt flow· in one direction, a nd only when
a potenlial differe nce above a particular thresho ld vollage is applied across
the diode. There's more about diodes over on page 164.
Module 4: Section 1 Electricity lf}M

Rgure 3: Thermistor
circuit symbol.
Figure 5: A thermistor.
Tip: Make sum you do
a risk assessment before
you start any praaical.
In lhi.s practical it's
panicularly important
10 make sure that the
1hermis1or and any other
components that will be
in contact w ith the wa1cr
bath are waterproof.
Tip: Having the
1hermis1or in hoe water,
rather than uying to heat
ii directly. helps pmvem
Lhe temper.uurc from
Ouctuating while you're
taking measurements,
and affecting your
resuhs.
[:-11 Module 4: Section 1 Electricity
Thermistors The graph of resi~an ce againsl lighl intensi1y for an LDR is shmvn in Figure 8.
A thermistor is a componcnl with a resistance that depends on its
tempera1ure. You only need lo know about NTC thermistors - NTC stands for
'Negative Temperature Cocfficienl'. This means that the resistance decreases
as the temperature goes up, see Rgure 4. Rgure 7: The circuit symbol
for an IDR.
Figure 8: A resistance vs light intensily graph for an WR.
Figure 4: A resistance vs temperature graph for an NTC thennistor.
Investigating the resistance of an LOR
You can use lhe circuit in Figure 6 Lo investigate the
f~ ]
l~
J
resistance of an U)R - just replace the thermistor with an LOR.
Warming the thermistor gives more electrons enough energy to Tip: The intensity of
escape from their atoms. This means that there are more charge carriers Switch on the power supply, and record ics potential difference - 1his
light rs a measure of
available, so the r~ i sta nce is lower. This sensitivity to temperature makes should stay constant. IY\easure the current through the LDR, and then cover the cnc~rgy transferred
them really good 1emperature sensors. up pan of the LDR's surface with a piece of thick paper. This will decrease to a surfacr by ligl11 per
the light in1cnsity on the LOR. Gradual!)' cover more of the surface \Vith the second, per unit area.
Investigating the resistance of a thermistor paper, taking new current readings each time you do. Record the area of the So the more area light
uncovered surface for each current me.asurcmcnL You can use the current and hits, the greater Lhe
You can use 1hc circuit shown in Figure 6 to investigate
how a thermistor's resistance varies with temperature. p.d. data to calculate the resislance of the I.DR for different uncovered areas intensity of light on the
(i.e. light inlensities). Then plot a graph of uncovered area aga inst resistance. surface. See page 192
{XJwt~r supply Your results should match the relationship shown in Figure 8. for more on this.
I Ar M, M:l•!llM!!.lif •._l.·.,.J.,,\i;ffili.1.1I______
,.ffl., 11
Q1 What happens to the resistance o f an ohmic conductor if you double
the potential differ.ence across ii? Give a reason for your answer.
Figure 6: Circuit used 10 irrvesuga1e the resistance of a thermistor.
Q2 What does the resistance o f a thermistor depend on?
You can measure the 1emperature or a lhermistor more easily by
putting it in water (provided the thermistor is waterprooO. Place Lhe thermistor Q3 Sketch a graph orresistance against light intensity for an LDlt
in a beaker and pour enough boiling water into the beaker l'o cover the
thermistor. Tum on the power supply, and record ilS potential difference -
this should be kept constant th roughout the experiment. Measure and record
the temperature or the waler using a dig.i1al thermometer and the currenl
lhrough the circuit using the ammeter.
Continue 10 record the current and tempcralu re for every 5"C drop
in temperature. Use your recorded values for potential difference and current
to calculate the resistance of lhe thermistOl at each temperature. Then plot
a resistance-tempera1ure graph. For an NTC thermistor, you should find as
the 1emperaturc decreases, the resistance increases (and so the current will
decrease) - your graph should look like the one in Figure 4.
light-dependent resistors
A light-dependent resistor (LOR) is a component with a resistance that
depends on lhe intensity or the light that is incident on it. The greater the
intensity, the lower the resistance of the LDR.
The explanalion for why this occurs is similar Lo the thermistor. Light
provides the energy 10 release charge carriers and decrease the resist..ivity of
the material. A higher intensity means that more photons are h itting the LOR
each second, so more charge carriers are released each second.
Module 4: Section 1 Electricity l!j
 Leam ing Obj ectives:
• Know 100 toc.hniques
and procedures
used 10 investigate
Lhe elearical
characteristics for
a range of ohmic
and non-ohmic
componoms (PAGJ).
• Know and understand
1-V charae1cris1lcs of a
resistor, filament lamp,
thermistor, diode and
light~ itt ing diode
!LCD).
Specificatio n
Reference 4.2.3
Tip: As always, do a risk
assessment before you
stan any experimem.
Figure 2: A variable
resi'sror.
Tip: You could record
your resulls in a
spreadsheet and use
oompu1er software
10 plot your 1-V
characteristics ins1cad of
drawing them by hand.
Exam Tip
In lhe exams, you can
assume all voltmeters
and ammeters are ideal
unless 1he ques1.io n tells
you Olhen\!iSC.
Module 4: Section 1 Electricity
6. 1-V Characteristics Ohmic conductors
As you saw on page 159. the current through a n ohmic conduct Of under
You've had .1 glimpse of lhe l·V characteristic for an ohmic conductor - no\v constant physical cond ilions is directly proporlional to the voltage. So their
1-V c haracteri51ic is a straight I ine as their resistance doesn't d\angc (see
Tip: Most metallic .
conductors are ohm~
I
it's time 10 meel a few n1ore...
Figure 3). Fixed resistors and LDRs in constant conditions a re boih ohmic
What are /. V characteristics?
The term 'f. V characteristic' is just a fan<.y way of saying a graph which shows
hmv the current (/} flowing through a component changes as the potential
d ifference (\.? across it is increased. The shallower the gradient of a 1-V
condudors.
Cur~¥Jl I A I/ -
~IV
chara<:terislic, the greater lhe resistance of the component
Example - -
Rgure J: The characterisric 1-V graph for
....--... 1hc component with the blue
an o/intic conductor.
/Jl characterisric graph has
a kM'CY resistance than the
component with me red one. Filament lamps
Potential diffetlYK.l'! I V
A curve shoW"S lhal the resistance is changing (see n<".Xl page).
Curn~l / A v-.
The /.V <:haracleristic for a filament lamp is a curve that is steep ior small
voltages but gets shallower as the voltage rises (see Figure 5).
Rgure 4: Filament lamp
drcuit symbol.
~v
Finding the /. V characteristic of a component
You can use the circuit in Figure 1 to find the
1-V characteristic for a component r fXM'CI pack
(~
t._.._ 3
_ _ _ __,_
l Figure S: The charactcrislic 1-V graph for a filamem JJmp.
The filament is a 1hin coil of n1etal wire, so you might think it should
have the same dtaractcristic graph as a metallic conduclor. But, a filament
is designed to heal up and glow. An increase in current means an increase
in ccmperature, and an increase in resistance, which causes Lhe currc nl to
decrease again. This is why the /.V graph for the filament lamp levels off a t Figure 6: A J/lamcm lamp
high c urrents. comains a thin coil ofntetal
' - variable resistor
1-.11c inside iL
MOS1 componenlS wilh resis1.ance heal up as the current increases,
but at much higher currents than a filamen t lamp. This means there is usually
a limit to lhe amount of current lhal can flmv through a component.
Figure t: A drcuit I.hat could be used to find
the 1-V characteristic for a component.
Thermistors
By changing the resistance of the variable resistor, you can change The 1-V characteristic for a 1hennistor gels steeper as the potential difference
the voltage across the compooenc you're investigating and the currenl across it increases.
through it You can plol an l·V characteristic for the component by
recording a range of current and vohage values and plotting a n 1-V graph
using them.
Cummr/A I/ _
Ideal voltmeters and ammeters
~v
You can normally assume that any vollmcters and ammeters used in an
experiment are ideal. Voltmeters are assumed lo have an infinite resistance
(so no current nows through them} and ammeters are assumed to have no
resistance (and so \viii have no potential difference across them}. Rgure 7: The characteristic 1-V graph for a thermistor.
Module 4: Section 1 Electricity l@M

Rgure 8: Diode
circuit symbol. Cuuent flo~vs
through the diode in the
direction oi the arrow.
Tip: You can use lhc
threshold vottages of
LEl)s to determine
Pl-anck's constant -
Lhere's more on this on
page 234.
•IJ!~}Jll Module 4: Section 1 Electricity
The explanalion for lhis is simila r to lhal for lhc filamenl lamp. As a currenl
flows 1hrough lhe thermistor, the thermistor heats up. This causes mo re 7. Power and Electrical Energy Learning Objectives:
charge-carriers to be released (p.151), so the resislance of the thermistor • Be abl11 to use th11
decreases and the 1-V characteristic bc<.."'Omes steeper. You should remember all about work and pawer from GC~E. We//, here they equations P = VJ,
.11e again bec.ausc you still need lo kno'v about them. Reme111ber - the fasler
a device does work (transfers energy), the more powerful il is.
P l' R and p =Jfi·
• Be able to calculate
Diodes energy Lransfcrrcd
using W= V/t.
Diodes uncluding light-emining diodes (lEOs)) arc made from semiconductors Power Specification
(see page 159) and a re designed to let current flow in one direction only. Power {P} is defined as Lhe rate of doing wori<. It's measured in walls NV}, Reference 4.2.5
For.vard bias is the direction in \Vhich lhe current is a llowed lo Row. Most where 1 wan is equivalent to 1 joule of work done per sec..-ond.
diodes require a vohage of about 0.6 V in I.he forward d irection befofe lhey
will <.'Onduct - this is called lhe thresho ld voltage. In reverse bias, the
y - W = work done in ;oules If)
resista nce of the d iode is very high and lhe curre nl that flows is very tiny. P = power in watts rwJ"' P- ~
' - - t = rime in seconds (s)
Current/ I\
From this definition, you can derive an equation to fi nd the power of
electrical devices.
From the definition of potentia l difference, you know that W = VQ.
In rewrse bias, Vl?ry _,JI From the definition of current, you know that Q = It.
little current can flow
rhreshold volrage (- 0.6 VJ Substitute these into the equation for power.
VQ \!It
Rgure 9: Tlre characterisric 1-V gmph for a diode. P - -;- = 1
And you e nd up with:
Tip: If your mind needs
Y - V = po1emial difference in volrs M refreshing about
Q l The graph below shows the 1-V characteristic for a component. P = power in waus (WJ - p =VI current and potential
Curttm t /I\
'-._ I =curren1 in amperes IA! difference, nick back
to pages 150-154.
Example -f.,Hi$7 §1d
A 3.0 A currenl flow. through a component when a 12.0 V potentiol
difference is applied across it. CaJculate the power of the component.
P= VI
- 1.5 --0.9
=12.0x 3.0=36W
0.9 U P.d./V
Equations for calculating power
a) Whal type of componenl has this 1-V charac teristic?
As well as the two cqualions above, you can derive two more equalions for
b) Describe how the c urrenl and voltage vary in lhe for.vard bias. c.alcula1ing power in e lectrical circuils ...
c) Describe the resis1.ance of lhe component in the reverse direction. You know from rearranging Ohm's Law that Rgure t: The label on an
c/earical app6anco tells you
~I = current in amperes (A) its po~ver raling lhe rare at
V = polential difference ....-.. V =- fk which ;, transfers energy.
Practice Questions - Fact Recall in volts (VJ ' - - R = resisiancc in ohms (fl)
Qt Whal resistances do you normally assume a voltmeter and an Exam Tip
ammeter lo have? By substituting this rearranged Ohm's Law into the above equation
The good news is you'll
for power. you get:
Q2 Sketch the 1-V characteristic of: be given most of Lile
a) a n ohmic conductor under constanl physical conditions, boxed equations in
P= l ' R the exam, so you don't
b) a filament lamp.
have to memorise
Q3 Is a filamenl lamp an ohmic conductor? them all - hurrah.
Ho\v can you te ll from its 1-V characteristic?
Module 4: Section 1 Electricity l@A
 You can also rearrnnge Ohm's Law 10 m•kc I the subject:
Example -f~§IS.. Jf N Tip: Eloarical oncrgy
can also bC? giYm in
I V It lakes 4.5 minutes for• ketlle lo boil lhe water inside il A cunenl ol
11 k\Yh OcilowoH hours.
4.0 A l1ows lhrough the kettle's healing elemenl once ii is connected to ..., Ille llCXI l»!ll').
And 1hcn subs1i1u1e this inlO lhe equalion lor power 10 give: lhe mains (230 V). How much energy does the kettle's heating element 1 kWh equals J.6 M),
transfer lo lhe water in the time it t.ikts lo boil? so to comm k\\'h eo J,
multiply by J.~ x Ill'.
lime lhe kcnlc takes 10 boil in seconds =4.5 x 60 =270 s.
UscW : Vlr
Obviously, which equalion you should use depends on what quantilics = 230 x 4.0 x 270 Exam Tip
you know. =248 400 J When you're doing 1""5<'
= 250 kJ (lo 2 sJ.) questions, make sur~ Ille
Exan1ples -f$5!tj,.§ N tifoo you USC is al\V2)'S
Exam Tip in S<?COOds, or ,.,..-11
/1Jw¥dooble-c:h«lc A 24 W car headLlmp is conneded lo • 12 V car battery. Ass...,., lhe Ill" Ille wror.: ans-.-....
""'' you'W rrolr.lf1Cl!d wires connttling the lamp to Che bolltty ~negligible resist.mce. Practice Questions - Application •
<qWllions oonoaty in
QI A b.1uery provides 3400 I of energy per second.
""'rum - k'd be sad o) How much wo<I< is done by the lamp in 2.0 hours?
to'°"' mom fClr making b) Find lh< tot.11 rt'SisLlnce ol lhe lamp. What is the power ol the baucryl
such :an easy mistake. =
a) Number of seconds in 2.0 hours 2 >< 60 • 60 7200 s = Q2 A c:>r starter motor requires 12.5 k) ol energy to flow through ir in
2.00 seconds 10 slart the engine.
Rcarmnge 1hc equation P = W ~ t:
= = =
W I'• r 24 x 7200 172 800 J 170 kj (lo 2 s.f.)= :'I) Calcul:ile the power necess.iry 10 !WUL the engine.
b) The r.ar battery supplies 8.00 V to 1hc siarter molor.
b) Rcorrnnge lhe equation P- ~' R ~ ¥.r-W= 6.0 n C:'ilculale the currenl requirnd 10 s1art lhe engine.
QJ /\ motor has a power raiing of 5.2 kW. The potenlial dilferencc across
A m•chint does 750 j of work every second. 1.hc motor is 230 V. Calculalc 1.hc lot•I resislance ol the motor.
a) What is the J>O"-e< rating or lhe machine! Q4 /\ bmp has a potential di~ ol 210 V across it and a current ol
b) AU of the machine's componenls • ..., connected in series, with • lot.11 1.2 A !lowing through it. C..lculoic lhe energy transfe<red 1<> lhe bmp
rt'Sist~nce of 30 Q. What cunenl llows through the machine's wi"'5! 1n 45 seconds.
a) Power = W-. t = 750 ~ 1 = 750 W Q5 A circuit in an electric car convens 1250) ol electrical ellCIJ!y in10
b) RcorT:Jnge 1he equa1ion P l'R, I j~ jZ;g - 125 = 5 A heat every second. The resis1ancc in th.'lt cirruit of the car is 54.2 0.
C:'llculate the curre nt through th:it circuit.

Practice Questions - Fad Recall

Energy
Sometimes it's 1hc electrical energy iransforrcd by 1hc device that you're QI Define lhe lerm power.
in1eres1cd in 1his is equal to I.he worlc done. Just substitute P = W .,. t into Q2 Write down three equations you could use 1<> calculate electrie.ll
1he power equa1ions, rearrange, and tah doh you get these equations lor the power.
electrial energy 1ransfe<red by a device: Ql GM an equation ior lhe energy translened by a deYice in tcrrnS o(
W mrrgy uanskm!d («
cu"""'·
potential diflerence and 1ime.
-ork don<') in joules W
~I = rurrent in JnJf'(Yl!J fAJ
W : Vft

V
J
pott'l•da/ difference
In """ (V) R rr<isWJCe in ohms ({})

w~J I = OOJe in seconds (SI

)
IV=l'Rt

•lll~d~:WI MOdule 4: Section 1 Eleciricity MOdule 4: Section 1 ElectriCtty l!:t

 bample
Leaming ObjectJve.s; 8. Domestic Electricity Charges for lllis period
• Know the kilow;au- Previous Latest Total
hour (lcWh) as a unit W/1iln you probably don '1 have ro worry aboul real e/ectrici1y bills just yet,
you u11fortu11arc/y need 10 kfKl\v Jbou1 lhem for your exam... Eledricity used 29125 29605 400
of rocrgy.
• Be able t0 calcubtc Unit charge 10.25p
the rost of rocrgy.
Specification Electricity companies Total for lllis period £49.20
Rofe<ence4.2.5 Unless you live somewhere incredibly remote, your house will be connected
10 lhc 11.11io11.1I gnd a nciworic of cables lha1 1ransie<s eleclricily from
The clcclrici1y used is givro in uniis (kWh) on an eleclricity bill.
power >1>1ions 10 consumers. Of course, 1his isn'1 free - you h:M? IO pay
your clcclrici1y supplier. Electricity suppliefS charge cusiomers based on lhe The 'previous' value is lhe reading from lhe electricity meter in the
number of 'uniis' ol clec1ricity 1ha1 have been used. cus1omer's house from the las1 1ime 1hey were billed.
Anochcr mmc for a uni1 is a kilowan-hour (kWh), where The 'l•l<:St' value is \Vha1 lhe eleclricity meter currendy says.
The IOl•I is 1he difference betweef1 the previous and fal<:St values
. ~~"~
I kWh = J .6 million joules. Kilowatt-hours are used because a typical
' household uses l_«>ds ol clcctricily each month. so i1'd be impractical to iry IO 1. c. 1~ total eleclrici1y used in this time.
measure 1his in J<>UICS. If you know lhe power of an appliance and lhe length The unit charge is lhe price of one unit oi eleclricity.
' ' ol umc i1's used for, you can calcula1e lhe \\Ori: i1 does in kWh. The 1ocal COSI is found by multiplying lhe number of unilS used by lhe
p<ice per uni1 480 x 10.25 = 4920 p or £49.20.
Eiample -1$51h~ zj. i

Rgrxe I: Uccllio1y mm:n

reccJ(d <he unilS of clcono•y
used by J /loo-.
A 1500 W hairdf)·cr is on for 10 minutes.
How much energy does it ~ in J and k\\11l
In joules: W Pi 1500 x 10 x 60 = 900 OOO j
Reducing electricity use
Reducing the amoun1 of electrical energy you use can save )'OU
@
~
In kWh: I 0 minulcs = 10 -. 60 = 0.106 ... hours money and i1 can help 1hc environment 100. ~s
I SOO .vans : 1500 -. 1OOO = 1.5 kW

-
Tip: Rrolcmbcr, 1 kWh Environmental impacts of generating electricity
equals J.& • IO' J. w = "' = 1.5 x 0.166 ... = 0.25 kWh Burning fcxsil fuels (co.11, oil and gas) releases carbon dioxide into the
a1mosphcre, which adds to 1hc greenhouse effect a nd contributes 10 global
w nrming. Burning coal and o i l rslso releases suliur dioxide. Thts can cause
acid min, which damages planlS and buildings.
Cost of electrlclty Nuc lc:ir power stations p roduce radioactive was1e, which can be
To work out the rost or c lr.c1r ic i1y you need 10 know· h ow much you've used
dangerous 10 the environment and hum.an health if iL isn't d isposed of safely.
(in un1t.s) nnd th e price of cnch unit. The n it's a simple matter of multiply ing
~vcn rcncw.tblc energy sources like biofuels have an impact because lots of
these two numhctS 1ogc1hcr:
land is nt•!de<l 10 produce them.

Cost = Number of units x Price per unit Energy saving devices

fncrgy s..1ving (fluoresccnl) light b ulbs are more expensive than traditional
fil:imen1 bulbs, but :ire about (our times more efficient They a lso last for
t"--""- ~
··--·· 80
!OOl•f1' .......

•WWlllf'llWfll

Exan1ple -l.,H11j~fl l5
,,,,,,, about len yeor< (n< opposed to a year for filamenl bulbs) so reduce lhc number
~-
Figure 2: Rml clcariciry
bills can have mulupl<'
How much does ii cost to use an 800 W micn>\\'"J.Ve
oven for 6 minutes? Electricity cos ls 16.1 p per unit.
of bulbs needing 10 be disposed of and replaced. LED light bulbs are """'
more clficicn1 1han energy saving bulbs, and last even longer. but !hey cosl
more.
[!][J[,:l]
--
charges dnd Wc:oun<s 6 minu1es : 6 + 60 = 0.1 hours
Domestic appli3nces (e.g. washing machines and ovens> sold in the
applcd"' llxm, bur in =
800 walls 800 -. 1OOO : 0.8 kW UK al I ha,,, an energy m1ing. This helps customers choose lhe appliance
Rgure J: Cnctgy cffrc:lrncy
lilbcllng. used for domrWc
yoor eJQITIS, you'll only be W = I~ = 0 .8 • 0.1 = 0.08 k\'llh 1"'11'$ most cfricienl IO run. which can reduce their environmenlal impact.
eJPf!CK!d., knolv <he biJsic app/lancr'S Within ""' fU.
COSI : 0 .08 • 16. I = 1.288 = 1p (lo 1 sJ.)
rqua00n on the ngt>1.
Of course, most people don'1 make a separate payment for !heir Practice Questions - Application
clectric11y e3ch ltme 1hey use a microwave clcc1ricity providers bill !hem at QI A device 1ranslers 72 OOO J ol energy.
regular 1n1ervals instc:>d. Calcula1c lhe energy uanslerred in kWh.
f leclricity bills can look like 1hey're written in a strange code - but Q2 A housdlold's electricity bill for one monlh is £28.24.
ludc1ly for you, lhc examples you'll see are easy to understand. Real ones flcctric1ty IS supplied IO lhe house a1 12.2p per unit. Calculate how
aren'1 really 1ha1 bad either you jUSI need to know where to look to find lhe many unilS ol "lectricity lhe household used during lhe month.
unponan1 informa1ion. Take a look at 1he example on lhe neort page.

Module 4: Secbon 1 Eledlicily Module 4: Secbon 1 Ektctricrty ii{@

 Leaming Obj ectives:
• Know what is meant
by internal resistance.
• Know what is meant
by the eloclromothie
fore<> (e.m.f.) of a
source such as a cell
or a pmver supply.
• Be able 10 calcula1c
energy transferred
using W=<Q.
• Understand Lhe
distinction between
e.m.r. and p.d. in
1erms of energy
transfer.
• Know the meanings of
the terms terminal p.d.
and 'lost volts'.
• Be able 10 use the
equalions £ =- l(R + r)
and £=V+ lt.
• Be able to analyse
circuits wilh more
1han one source of
e.m.r.
• Understand
1.edmiqucs and
prOCl!dures u~d
10 determine the
imcrnal resis1ance
of a chemical cell or
0 1her source o( e.m.f.
(PAG4).
Specification
ReferenCQS
4.2.2, 4.3.1 and 4.3.2
Tip: In general, you can
assume the connecting
wires in a circuit have
no res;s1ance - and it's
no different for internal
resistance problems.
But in practim, they do
have a small resistance.
Tip: There's more on
I.he conservation of
energy on page 107.
,,,, Module 4: Section 1 Electricity
9. E.m.f. and Internal Resistance Calculations using e.m.f.
Examiners can ask you to do calculaljons wilh e.m.f. and internal resistance in
There's resistance in altnost a// ~vires and con1ponents - including inside lots of d ifferent ways. You've got to be ready for whatever they throw al you.
b.1ueries and cells. This makes some resistance calculations a Jiu/e more (ricky. Here are some of the equations you might need and how 10 derive them ...
But don;l \vorry - I.he next few pages \Viii help you \vilh those quest.ions. You'll get this equation for e.m.f. in the data and iormulae booklet in the exam:
e =- chx:uomorive fot<I! , - - R =- load resistance in ohms (fl)
What is internal resistance?
Resistance comes from electrons colliding with atoms and losing energy. (e.m.f.) in VO/IS (VJ ~ = l(R Hl
In a battery, chemical energy is used lo make electrons move. As lhey move, ,;I ~ r = internal resistance
I =- currem in amperes (A) _ / ' in ohms (fl)
they collide with atoms inside lhe battery - so batteries must have resistance.
This is called internal resis:rance. Internal resistance is what makes batteries Expanding the brackets of this equation gives: e = IR + lr
and cells warm up when they're used. Tip: V = IR is jus11ho
Then using the equation V = IR, you can substitute V and v for IR a nd /r...
Load resistance is the total resistance of all the components in the definition of resistance
external circuit. You might see it called 'external resistance'. V = terminal p.d. in vo/rs (VJ ~ V v rearranged (sec p. t 55).
1
1'...- v = /osr volrs in vo/rs (V)
Chemical rroaions in~- - - . . 1n1ernal n~·tancxi fr)
the bauery produce I
ekx11ical energy. Rearranging the cquaLion gives the equaLion for terminal p.d
V =c v Exam Tip
Load n~~·tam.-e (R)
You'll only be g~-en
F. =- l(R + r) and
Rgure f: A circuit diagram shotving the imctnal and external resistances in a circuit
And re-substituting v for fr gives... F.=- V-+ It in Lhe
exam, so make sure
What is e.m.f.? < = V +fr you can work. out
the Olhcr versions o f
The t<Nal amount of \\'Ork the battery does on each coulomb of charge is
these equations.
called ilS electromotive force or e.m.f. (t:). Be careful - e.m.f. isn't aclually a These are all basically the same equation, just \vritten differently.
force. h's measured in volts. Which equa1ion you should use depends on whal informa tion you've got, a nd
r .
IV = work done in,.--..... W = cQ
= elec11omolivc force
what you need to calculate.
(em.I.) tn vo/rs (V) Exan1ple -f$@ft4i§l5
joules U! "'-- Q =d1argo in coulombs (C) A battery has an e.m.1. of 0.15 Y and an internal resistance of 0.50 n.
Calculate the terminal p.d. when the current flowing through the battery
Example --f$§ilj"§ij is 6.0 mA.
A battery has an e.m.f. of 10.2 V. Calculate the work done The values for the e.m.r., the in1emal resistance and the c urren1 have been
by the battery when 0.650 C of charge passes through it. given in the question - so rearrange I.he equal ion c-= V + fr into V = £ lr
W=r.Q to calculate the terminal p.d. 6.0 mA = 0.0060 A.
= 10.2 x 0.650 = 6.63 J
V =t: - lr = 0.15 - (0.0060 x0.50) = 0.1 47 = 0.15 V(to 2 s.f.)
The potential difference {p.d.) across the load resistance (RJ is the
work done \vheo one coulomb of charge nows through the load resistance. As mentioned on the previous page, some power (or energy) is lost
This po1ential difference is called the terminal p.d. (\!). If there was no as heat when overcoming the internal resistance in a power supply. You can
internal resistance, the terminal p.d. \Vould be the same as the e.m.f. calculate the energy dissipaLed (lost) per second due to the internal resistance
However, in real power supplies, there's always some e nergy lost overcoming of a power supply using P =PR (see page l 65).
the inlernal resistance. The energy wasted per coulomb overcoming the
Exampte -f$§1$i§ ld
internal resistance is called the lost volts (v}.
Conservation of energy tells us for any electrical circuit A cell has an internal resistance of 0.35 n and current flowing through it
of 0.60 A. Calculate the energy dissipated due to the internal resislance
of the cell every second.
energy per energy per coulomb energy per Exam Tip
coulomb supplied transferred in load + coulomb wasted in P = Pr = (0.60)' x 0.35 = 0.126 = 0.13 W (to 2 s.f.) You'll be given P =PR
by the source resistance internal resistance in your exam data and
So the energy dissipated every second is 0.13 J (to 2 s.f.) formulae booklet.
Module 4: Section 1 Electricity MU
 E.m.f. in series and parallel
For cells in series in a circuil, you can calculate Lhe total e.m.f. of their
combination by adding their individual c.m.f.s. This makes sense if you think
Measuring internal resistance
and e.m.f.
You can measure 1he internal resistance and e.m.f. of
l= 4J Tip: M.ake sure you
have carried 001 a risk
assessment before you
j
about it, bc<-.ause each charge goes through each of 1he cells and so gains start Lile experiment.
e.m.f. (electric..al e nergy) from each one. a cell or battery using the circuil in Figure 3 .

cm= ei +c-,+ t.'l + ...

Example --f.~ffi$i*11tj
Three cells of negligible internal resistance are connected in series, as
shown below. Cells A, 8 and C have an e.m.f. of 1.5 V, 1.0 V and 3.0 V
respectively. Find the total e.m.f. of the combination of cells. R
Figure J: The circuit needed to work out the
~~~f---- internal resistance of J power source.
1. Set the variable resistor (the load resistance} to its high<..-s! resistance. Tip: Remember that
Total e.m.f. : r.11 + c.11 + ec= 1.5 + 1.0 + 3.0 = 5.SV ammeters are always
2. Close the switch and record the current (/) lhrough a nd potential conooc1cd in series and
d ifference (V) across the circuit vollmeters are always
For identical cells in parallel in a circuit, the total e.m.f. of dle 3. Open the S\Vitch and close it again to get another set of current and connected in parallel
combination of cells is the same size as the e.m.f. or eadl of the individual potential dirference readings for this load resistance. Then repeat 10 get <see pages 150and 153).
cells. This is because the amounl o f charge 00\ving in the circuit doesn'I a third set or values. Calculate the mean c urrent a nd potential difference
increase by adding cells in parallel, bul the number of paths the charges can for this resistance from your results.
take does. The curre nl will split equally be1ween identical cells. The charge 4. Decrease lhe resistance of the variable resistor by a small amount
only gains e.m.f. from. the cells ii travels through - so lhe overall e.m.f. in the
5. Repeal steps 2, 3 and 4 until you have a set of mean currents and potential

I
c:ircui1doesn't increase.
differences for 10 different load resistances (over the widest possible range).
Rgure 2: The total e.m.f..
of iwo idooucal balll!riP.S in 6. Plot a V-1graph for your mean data and draw a line of best fit - you gee a Tip: Rcnw.mbcr not 10
parallel will follow die same s1raigh1-line graph (see Figure 4). include any anomalous
rule as for cells - see right. measurements when
7. Make sure all other variables are kept constant whe n c..arrying oul the calculating mean values.
experiment, including external fac1ors like temperature {which affects the
Example -f{,§ilj"'§1ij resistivity of materials, see page 155).
Three identical cells, each with an e.m.f. of 2.0 V
and an internal resistance of 0.20 0, are connected Analysing the results
in parallel in the circuit shown to the right. You can rearrange lhe equation c = V H r (from page 171) 10 gel V = -rl +£ .
A current of 0.90 A is flowing through resistor R. The equation or a straight line i.s y =- mx + c, where m -= gradient and Tip: You can measure
Calculate the Iota! p.d. across the cells. c = y-intercept. Since £ and rare conslants, V = - rl + E is just the the approximate e.m.f.
equation of a slraight line. o( a pmver source by
In a parallel circuit, the total p.d. supplied by a ny number of identical e.m.f. You can just read t: and r from the graph - the inlercept on the conooe1ing a high·
sources connected in parallel is equal to !he p.d. supplied by one. resistance voltmeier
vertical axis is ~ and the gradient is -r. As the graph is a straight line, you can across its tenninals.
v..., =v, =v, =v, find 1he gradienl of lhe graph by dividing the change in y (p.d.) by che change Since the resistance of
So we can find the tmal potential difference from the potential difference of in x (currenl). the \'Oltmcter is so high,
one cell. P.d. IV a \'CJS'f small current
= =
Rearranging c V + fr, we get V t: - It Will fio\Y, SO the lost
vohs doo to the internal
Since the current 110\ving through the circuil is split equally between e.ach of resistance will be
the three cells, the current through one cell is 1-:- 3. negligible. Bui the value
/ ,, 3 =0.90,, 3 =0.30A you measure will still be
very slightly less than
So, v_, = 2.0 - (030 x 0.20> the Lrue e.m.f.
=2.0 - 0.06
= 1.94 v Cum.::nt / .r\
= 1.9V (to 2 s.f.) Figure 4: Using a V./ graph to calculate e.m.f.
and internal resistance.

•1Jf2;lll Module 4: Section 1 Eleclricily Module 4: Section 1 Electricily Mif A

 lfr@.t3:i•ii!:f1ji.},g@·!jtiirtf1,t.1,1
Tip: For all th"5<1
questions assume I.hat
the resistance due to the
wires in the circuit i:s
""&ligibl<'.
Exam Tip
In 1.he exam, the
examiners oould write
'find the terminal p.d.
of a ba1tery' or 'find the
p.d. across the Lcrminals
of a ba1tery'. They mr..an
exaaty the same thing.
Tip: Remember, voltage
and potential difference
(p.d.) are the same 1hing.
•IJf~lJll Module 4: Section 1 Electricity
10. Conservation of Energy and Learning Objectives:
Ql A power source has an e.m.f. of 2.50 V. The terminal potential • Understand Kirchhoffs
difference is 224 V. Calculate 1he losl volts (v} for this f>O\Yersource:. Charge in Circuits first and second laws
as applied to electrical
Q2 A battery has a terminal potential difference of 4.68 V a nd a n internal
Conservation of eneri,>y is anoiher 1opic you'll probably have me! at GCSE.
circuiis.
resistance of 0.89 !l when 0.63 A of current is flowing chrough it.
Queslions on this stuff are almosc guaranteed co be in the exam so I've put in • Understand Kirchhoffs
Calculace the e.m.f. of the bauery. second law in terms
()3 The power source in a circuit has an e.m.f. or 15.0 V. The internal lot of rime and effort to make sure this ropic"s as easy 10 grasp as possible...
.1
of the conservation al
resistance of the po\ver source is 828 x 10--3 n. Calculate 1he load energy.
resistance of the circuit when the c urrent flowing through the power Conservation of charge • Be able to calculate
source is 26.1 A. As cha rge flovvs through a circuit, it doesn't get used up or lost Thls means the resistance of ,,._'<>
Q4 A power source has a current of 1.2 A no,ving through it and an
that whatever charge flows into a junction will flow out again. Since current or more resistors
is rate or flow of charge. it follows that whatever current Oows into a junction in series, using
internal resistance of 0.50 n. Calculate lhe energy d issipated in
is the same as the current flowing out of it. R= R1 + R1 + R;i + ...
the imernal resistan ce of the power source each second.
• Be able to calculate
C~S A studem varies the load resistance in a circuit to produce the V-1 Example - - 1.lx! resistance of 1wo
graph shown below. If a charge of 6 C flows in10 a junction... or more resis1ors
in parallel, using
I t I t
7r l!i ~ ii; 4 ii; I.
:::.. .'i.O
'
""ti 4.0
Qr= 6 C=>/1=6A
---< I, = 1;, + /J • Be able 10 analyse
circuits wilh
components in both
.;_ series and parallel.
~ .l.O . a c harge of 6 C must flow oul of it as well. Specification
.s Reference 4.3.1
~ z.o
~ Gustav Kirchhofi was a German scientist who developed a set of laws
l.IJ for the current lhrough and potenlial d ifference across d ifferent components in
a circuiL Conservation of current is knovm as h is first law.
0.1 0 .4 0.(J ().8 1.0 1.1
Cunt.Vil I I\ Ki rchhoff's first law
a) Use the graph 10 find the e.m.f. (d of the power supply.
b) Use lhe graph 10 find the internal resistance of lhe power supply. The total current entering a junction = lhe total currcnl leaving it
c) Describe how the graph would be differenl if lhe sludenl swapped
the power supply for one with the same e.m.f. bul hair the internal
resistance.
Conservation of energy
Energy is conserved. You already know that. In electrical circuits, energy is
transferred round the circuit. Energy transferred to a charge is e.m.f. (see
page 1 70), and e nergy transferred from a charge is potential difference (p.d.).
Q2 What units is etectromotivc force measured in? In a closed loop, these two quantities must be equal if energy is <.-onserved
QJ Explain whal lost volts are. (which it is).
Rgure I: Gustav Kirchhoff,
Q4 What do the gradient a nd venical interccpl on a V-1graph for a power the German s.ciemisi lhat
K i rc hhoff's second law:
supply show? formulated Kirchhofl's Jaws.
The total e.m.f. a round a series circuit =
the sum of the p.d.s across eadl component
This is Kirchhoffs second law in symbols:
c = >,1R
" - _ This symbol means 'sum of~
Module 4: Section 1 Electricity lif A
 Applying Kirchhoff's laws Example --f$§!$1§!N
A typical exam qucs1ion will give you a circuit with bits of informalion
missing, leaving you 10 fill in 1he gaps. Not the most fun... bu1 on the plus A batle.ry of e.m.f. 16 V and negligible internal resistance is connected Exam Tip
side you get to ignore any internal resistance stuff (unless lhe question lells in a circuit as shown. All values are gi\•en to two significant figures. 1r an <?xam question tells
you otherw ise) ... hurrah. You need to remember the follo\ving rules: you Lhat somcLhing's
I< f '-~-~ got a negligible imernal
resi.stance. you can
Series circuits e complelely ignora it in
~----1f·~ 1----~ your calculations.

Figure 2: Fairy figJus

are the classic example
of a series circuit..
Tip: Rcmerrd.:>cr
Lhat even in series
circuils, voltmemrs are
plaood in parallel with
componoots.
There will be the same current al all points of the circuit
a) Show that the group of resistors between X and Y could be
(since there ar e no junctions).
The e.m.i. is split between the components (by KirchhoWs 2nd law), so: replaced by a single resistor of resistance 15 n.
1: = V, + V1+ V1 You can find the combined resistance of the 15 n, 20 n and
12 n resistors using:
The voltage splits proporLionally to the resistance, as V =JR.
1/R = 1/ R, + 1/R, +UR,= 1/15 + tno + 1/12=1/5 => R = 5 !l
Example
If you had a 1 n resistor and a 3 n resistor, you'd get 1/ 4 of the p.d. So overall resistance bchvcen X and Y can be fou nd by:
across the 1 0 resistor and 3/4 across the 3 !l. R = R, + R, = 5 + 1o = 15 n
V = IR, so if I is constant
/R = IR, + IR, + IR, where R is the tolal resisiance b) If R, = 20 n:

Parallel circuits
Tip: Don't worry if yoo
don't quite undersrand
what's going on here...
i1' ll all become clear
when you have a
look at the example
on the next page.
Tip: Remember, R in
both series and parallel
circuits represents
Lhe total (or cifooive}
resistance a( the circuit
Cancelling the Is gives: i) calculate the potenti,11 difference (p.d.) across R•. Exam Tip
If you get a question like
Careful - there are a few steps here. You need the p.d. across R..., but you this in 1.hc exam and
don't know the current through it. So start there: you don't know where~
Total resistance in circuit = 20 + 15 = 35 0, so the current through R,.. can to s.1an, write down all
befoundusing l=V""" .,.R=~ A the inrorma1ion you
1- 1, /- {/ +/,,) do know and work out
Then you can use V = IR. to find the p.d. across R.: anything you can work.
out. You might spot how
V= ~ x 20 = 9.1428... = 9.1 V(lo2 s.f.) to do the question whilsl
you're playing around
with the numbers.
ii) calculate the current in the 15 n resistor.
I,
I, I, You knO\v the current flowing into the group of three resistors and out of it,
but nol through the individual branches. But you kno\v that their combined
The currenl is split at each junction, so: resistance is 5 n (from part a)) so you c.an work out the p.d. across the
I= 11 +I,+ I, group:
There is the same p.d. across all components as lhe p.d. across each 16 16
V = IR = 35 x 5 = TV
branch of the circuit is equal to the e.m.f. So by substituting Ohm's 1.aw
rearranged for current, I=*· into the above equation we get
The p.d. across the whole group is the same as the p.d. across each Tip: Kooping nu~mbo
individual resistoi:. so you can use Lhis to find the current through the as fractions in your
v v v v working can help avoid
15 n resistor: ~ound ing errors creeping
J< - 11; -t 11';+7(,
Cancelling the Vs gives: f .,. 15 = 0.15238. . = 0.1 5 A (lo 2 s.f.)
I = V.,. R = 1 into your 31\S\Y<NS.

•IJr~iJMI Module 4: Section 1 Electricity Module 4: Section 1 Electricity lfc

 Practice Questions -Application 11. The Potential Divider Learning Objectives:
Ql A battery of negligible resis1ance is connected • Understand a
in a circuil as shown lo the right Porenlial dividers can be used 10 supply,, varying poremial difference. If only potential divider
lhat was all you needed Lo knoi,v about them, but I'm afraid there's a bil more ... circuit.
a) The to1al resistance of Lhe circuit
• Be able to use
is 40 0 . Whal is the resistance of
the resistor marked R,? What is a potential divider? potential divider
Al its simplest, a potential divider is a circuit \Vith a voltage source and a equations, such
b) The currenl flowing lhrough the
battery is 0.4 A. What is the current
couple of resistors in series. The potenlial d ifference across the voltage source as~ = andJi!
(e.g. a battery) is split across the resistors in the ratio of the resistances.
flowing through the 10 n resistor? V- = ~ V• .
You can write lhis as: N T ">
Q2 The battery in the circ uil belo\v has a negligib le internal resistance. • Understand potential
The coral resistance in the circuit is 1O.n. v, = p.d. across resistor I an VJ -............. .¥"' Ri =resistance of resisror I {in f'IJ divi<kr circuits wilh
~ -~
12 v variab1c oomponems,
e.g. LDRs and
v, = p.d. across resistor 1 (in VJ ~
1
.----1t···· ·11--~
.......... R2 = resistance of resistor 2 tin fi) thermistors.
Tip: Remember to • Know techniques and
calculate Lhe resistance So you can choose resistances to suppty a potential difference, V<liltl procedures used 10
of resistors in parallel between zero and the potential difference across the po\ver supply. investigate potentia.1
differently to the way divider circuits which
you calculate resistors in The vo/rage has dropp<."1 by V, l1y the may include a sensor
series. time you~ here. The rer11.1ining such as a thermistor o r
a) Cafcula1e the resistance of R1• \<b/rage inpu1 v R, voltage that can be suppfied, e.g. to
.___.. .!..L '"I"' an LDR (PAG4) .
b) Calcula1e the poLcntial difference across 1he 5 n resistor. anorhCY component, is v_ Specification
1 Reference 4.3.3
c) Calculate the current lhrough lhe 6 O resistor. R> v_
~---~-' " ' -<,bltageourput
Rgure t: A simple potenlial divider ntadc up of 1wo fixed resistors.

You can find an equation relating V., and Voor using V = IR (see
p.155). The Lota I resistance in the circuit is R = R1 + R2, as the resistors are
Q2 Stale KirchhoWs second law. in series (see page 176). The total vohage across the resis1ors is V,.. and the
Q3 Ho\v are the resistors R, and R1 connected if their lotaJ resistance is current through them is/, so V., = J(R1 + R2) . Which when rearranged gives:
equal to R, + R,I
Q4 Which type of circuit is ~ ~ J!; + t 1 Jt 11\Je for? I = .,.JI.....
You can also wrile I in lerms oi v_ as v_-= V1, a nd the
K1 I- I<,
res i ~a nce across R1'
V- = IR, => I ~ Yi!: Tip: Make sure
when you're using
Substituting J into the previous equation and rearranging gives: this equation tha1
you plug in R, as the
resislOr that you're
measuring the voltage
over - otherwise
you'll get comple1ely
the wrong answer.
Example -f$®$1§ij
For the circuit in Figure 1, V111 = 9 V and V.., = 6 V.
Suggest one set of possible values for R, and Rt.
First find whal fraction Vt.llf is of V.:
v.... =
V. 6
lj' =
2
1 => V- =
2
1V•

V- = ~V., so R, ! R; = ~
This mulliplies out to give 3R1 -= 2R 1 + 2R1 ~ R1 = 2R 1
So you could have, say, R, = 200 o and R, = 1oo n.

•IJr~j-J
.11 Module 4: Section 1 Electricity Module 4: Section 1 Electricity lfPM
 Tip: Vohm<?ters have
a very high rcsismnce.
You ca.n calibrate a
Thfs equation will work as long as something with relatively high resista nce
is conneded across R2 • But if you connect something \Vilh a relatively small
Practice Questions - Application _a
Q l The circuit below shows a simple poten1ial divide r.
resistance, then you stan to run into problems. The cquivalenl resistance
of the component a nd R, will be notably less than R,_. a nd so will cause a

~
\'Ohmetr.r by connecting
it across R1 and sei.1ing significanl change in the curren1 in the circuit. This will mean the equation no
ii so lhat its reading
matchos the value oi v_
given by the equation.
I longer works properly~ a nd will noc give you an accura te answer for v_.

Light and temperature sensors l~ 4 J

A light-<lependenl resislor (see p.160) has a very h igh resistance ...,...
_ __ a) What would the oulput voltage be if R, = 3.0 o?
in the dark, bu1a lower resistance in the light An NTC thermistor (page I 60) b) What would the resistance of R, have. lo be for v_ 10 be 5.0 V?
+l> V~· has a high resistan ce al low temperatures, but a much lower resistan ce at high
temperatures (it varies in the opposite W'3Y to a normal resistor and to a much
Q2 The potenlial divide r befow has 1he values of the resistors missed off.

v_
,..,..
(} v
Figure 2: A sensor used
ro deteet changes in
light fei,-e/s - as i1 gcu
darker, v_ increases.
Tip: Do a risk
assessment before you
start this experiment.
Keep the rest o/ the
circuit as far a.1A'3Y rrom
1he Bunsen burner and
I.he beaker oi water
as possible and make
sure }'OU wat('rproof
the thermistor,. ~g.
by wrapping ii in
polythene.
greater extent). By using one or these components in a potential divider, your
VOOI can vary with light or heat, so it works as a light or heat sensor.
Rgure 3: A hear sensor drcuiL
Figure 3 show'S the d rc uil you could use to create a heat sensor.
Place the thermistor in a beaker of ice water. Measure lhe inilial tempera ture
of the water and record the voltage across 1he thecmistor.
Heat the beaker gently using a Bunsen burner (make sure the water
is well-stirred), and record the temperature and Vllllf a t regular intervals over a
suitable range (e.g. a1 5 "C imervals over a range of 0-100 "O.
Plot a graph of vohage againsl 1empera1ure fro m your resuhs. You
should see that as the temperature of the water increased, VWl decreased. This
is because as lhe NTC them1istor gol hotter, its resistance decreased so it S:°' a
smaller 'share' of the total potential d ifference.
This kind of circuit could form the basis of a d igital thermometer (the
graph of volt.age against temperature would be the thennometer's calibration
curve), or could form pan of the circuit for a thermostat in a central heating
system.
Potentiometers
A potentiometer has a variable resistor replacing Rl and R2of the pc>(ential
divide r (see Figure 5), but il uses the same idea. You move a slide r or turn a
knob to adjust lhe relalive sizes of R, and R,, which is useful when you want
to cha nge a voltage continuously, like in the volume control of a stereo.
~
Give one set of possible values for resistors R1 a nd R,.
QJ The circuit diagra m below shows part o f a lemperature sen sor
for a greenhouse.
When the greenhouse gets too hot this temperalure sensor sets off
an alarm.
a) The resistance of the thermistor when the alarm first starts to go off
is 1.5 n. Calculale the voltage outpul o f the c:ircuil at 1his point.
b} The garde ner starts to grow tropical p lants in his greenhouse.
He wa nts Lhe alarm 10 go off whe n the voltage output drops 10
0.30 V. Calculate the new resistance o f the thermistor when the
alarm first starts to go off.
1Art4.C3:1.-tli:?11t·H€ YMl:<:I!P.111
Q l Whal is a potential divider?
Q2 Write down the equation you would use to work oul the vollage
output of a potential divider. Define all !he symbols you use.
QJ Hmv can you make a light sensor using a potential d ivider?
Q4 Whal is a potentiome ter? Grve an example of when it <."'Ould be used.
Section Summary

OJ
Using a slider, R1 can be
Figure 4: A rowy increased or decreased, which
v~ changes the voltage out and
Make sure you know...
potentkxnewr. fhe relau\ic
v_ effec1i\'t?ly changes R,. The circuit symbols for various components and how 10 draw circuit d iagrams using these symbols.
sizes of R1 and R, arc
conuo/lod by Ille posioon of I The definition of electric current as rate of flow of charge, a nd how to calculate its size using I=~·
the dial.
Thal the coulomb is the unit of charge.
Figure S: A potentiometer. cont..

t:!·• Module 4: Section 1 Electricity Module 4: Section 1 Electricity lf:i

 The d irection of flmv of conventional currenl is opposite to the d irection of actual elecuon flow.
That the net charge on an object is quantised and a mulliple of e, where e equals 1.6 x 10 ,., C.
That currenl is the movement of electrons in melals and movement of ions in electrolytes.
I Exam-style Questions I
How number density of charge carriers, n, differs bet\'\reen conductors, semiconductors and insulatOfS.
That the mean drift velocily of charge carriers is a measure of the a\'erage speed of the charge carriers.
Calculate the resistance of a component that has a
Know how lo use the equation I -=- Anev to calculate the c urrent through a conductor wilh power rating of 11 W if the potential difference being supplied is 230 V.
cross-sectional area, A, charge carrier number density, n, and mean drift velocity, v.
That the potential difference (p.d.) between hvo points is the \\'Ork done to move a unit charge A 2.5 x 1o• n
between I.hose two poinls, and is measured in volts. B 4.8• 10' !2
How to calcula te the work donei or energy lransferrcd, using W =- VC1. c 21 n
That, for electrons a nd other charged particles being accelerated from rest by a potential differe nce V,
cV = Y2mv', where c is the charge of the particle, rn is the particle's mass, and v is its velocity. o 5.8 x 1o•n

That resistance is defined by Ohm's law, R = ~, a nd i1 is measured in ohms. ( 1 mark)

How to use the equation R = '*

That lhe resistivity of a material is a measure o f ho\v much thal particular material resisls c urrent flow.
to c.alculate the resistance of a conductor.
How 1he resistivity of metals a nd semiconductors varies with temperature.
2 A wire made from a material with a constant resistivity p is placed in a complete circuit.
An experiment is carried out in which X is the independent variable, and Y is the
dependent variable. Assume all other variables remain constant.
The techniques and procedures used to determine the resistivity of a metal. Which of the following X and Y quantmes would produce the graph shown below?
That a diode is a scmiconductOf device which \viii only let currenl flow through ii in one direction, Wire length = L, radius of the wire = rand resistance of a wire = R.
and that current will only flow if the p.d. across the diode is greater than the threshold voltage. y
That a negative temperature coefficient (NTO thermislor is a semiconductor device whose resistance x y
decreases with increasing temperature. A L R
That an LOR is a semiconductor device whose resistance decreases with increasing light intensi1y. B R L
How to carry out an experimenl to investigate the eledrical characteristics for a range of ohmic and c r R
non-ohmic components. D L r
The 1-V characteristics or a resistor, filament lamp, thermistor, diode and a light-emitting diode (LEO).
x
How to use the power equations, P = VI, P = PR and P = '!);. (1 mark)

How to calculate energy tra nsferred by an electrical <.-omponcnl using W =- V/t.

That the kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of energy and it can be used to calculate the cost or energy. 3 In one minute. an electric heater connected to a 160 V power supply transfers 120 kJ of
heat energy. What is the current flowing through the electric heater?
What is meant by 1he inlemal resistance and clecLromolive force (e.m.fJ of a power supply.
How to calcula te the e nergy 1ransferred by a source of e.m.f. using W = t Q. A 8.00 x 1Q-> A
\!\/hat is meanl by 'terminal potential difference' a nd the d istinction bet\veen e.m.f. and p.d. in Lerms B 1.25• 1Q-> A
or energy transfer. C 750A
That the 'lost volts' of an e.m.f. source is the e nergy \Vasted per coulomb due to internal resistance.
D 12.5A
How to use the equations t: = l(R + r) and £" = V + lr and how lo de.al \Vilh sources of e.m.f.
in series and parallel. (1 mark)
The melhod used to de1ermine the internal resistance of a chemical cell or oLher source of e.m.f.
Kirchhofi's first and second laws as applied to electrical circuils, including understanding Kirchhofrs 4 Which of the following statemenls is true?
second law in terms of the conservation of energy. A A diode is an example of an ohmic conductor.
How to analyse circ uits with componenls in both series and parallel.
B The resistance of a diode is dependent on the light intensity of its surroundings.
How to calcula te the equivalent resistance of two or more resistors in series and in parallel.
\+\/hat is mcan1by a potential divider circuit and how to use the equations ~ =- ft; and v_ =-~ v..
c Diodes are designed to let current flow in one direction only.

Hovi to investigate potential -dlvider circuits, which may include

o A diode is an example of an insulator.
a sensor such as a thermislor or a n I.DR. (1 mark)

•IJIJ=flll Module 4: Section 1 Electricity Module 4: Section 1 Electricity

 5 The circuit on the right has a cell connected 7 The circuit shown in Fig 7.1 contains a battery with an e.m.f. of 12 V
in series to an ammeter. two resistors with a negligible internal resistance.
and a filament bulb. Component A has a resistance that varies wtth temperature.

The current flowing through the cell is 0.724 A.

(a) Calculate the power of the cell.
(2 marks)
(b) Calculate the charge passing through the cell in exactly 5 minutes.
(2 marks)
(c) It takes 56.5 J of energy to move the charge through resistor R, in exactly 5 minutes.
Calculate the potential difference across R,. Fig 7.1
(2 marks)
At 298 K the resistance of component A is 10.0 n .
(d) The ammeter and the cell have negligible resistances. The filament lamp has a
resistance of 2.00 o. Galculate the pctential difference across resistor R,. (a) Galculate the total resistance in the circuit at 298 K.
(2 marks)
(2 marks)
(e) The I- V graph for the filament lamp is shown on the right.
State whether the filament lamp is an ohmic conductor.
Ctxrortt /AV_ (b) Galculate the potential difference across component A al 298 K.
(2 marks)
Explain your answer. Component A is cooled to 96 K. The resistance of the component drops to 3.21 mn.
(1 mark) (c) Calculate the current flowing through component A at 96 K.
~v (d) Component A is a wire wtth a cross-sectional area of 3.05 • 1CF' m'
(2marks)

6 All batteries and power supplies have an internal resistance. and a length of 3.00 cm. Calculate the resistivity of the wire's material at 96 K.
(a) Explain why a battery has an internal resistance. (2marks)
( 1 mark)
(b) Describe an experiment that could be carried out to accurately determine the
internal resistance of a battery. Include a labelled circutt diagram in your answer.
(5marks) 8 This question is about potential dividers.
In an experiment to find the internal resistance of a battery, (a) Draw a circuit to show the set-up of a pctential divider using the following
a student gathered the following data: components: two cells (connected in series), a thermistor. a resistor and wires.
The circuit must be set up so that the output voltage is the same as the pctential
Terminal voltage (V) Current (A) difference across the resistor.
1.00 2.79 (2 marks)
3.00 2.36 Use the circutt drawn in part (a) to answer the following questions.
4.00 1.18 (b) The two cells connected in series provide an e.m.f. of 22 V. The resistor has a
6.00 1.71 resistance of 6.0 n. Al a temperature of 12' C the resistance of the thermistor is 9.2 H.
8.00 1.29 Calculate the output vottage. Assume the cells have negligible internal resistance.
9.00 1.07 (1 mark)
(C) Draw a V-1graph of the data shown in the table. (c) Calculate the energy dissipated by the resistor when the pctential divider
is used for 12 minutes.
(2 marks)
(2marks)
(d) use the graph to find the e.m.f. of the battery.
(d) The temperature of the circutt increases to 21 ' C. The output vottage is now 13 V.
(1 mark)
calculate the resistance of the thermistor at 21'C.
(e) Use the graph to determine the internal resistance of the battery. (2 marks)
(2 marks)

•lll~:!Jll Module 4: Section 1 Electricity Module 4: Section 1 Electricity


Module 4 Section 2: Waves
learning Objectives:
• Understand lhe
meaning of the term
'progressive V.'3WS'.
• Know lhe meaning
o f the terms
dispJacem<'.m,
amplitude,
w•wlcngth, poriod,
rreqooncy and phase
d{ffcrencc in rc1a1ion
Lo waves.
• Understand what
Lransverse v.13ves and
longitudinal waves
are.
• Understand and be
able 10 d raw graphical
rcprcsco1ations
of 1ra.nsverse and
longitudinal waves.
Specification
Reference 4.4 .1
Tip: Make sure you
learn all these wave
properties, their symbols
and the units lhcy're
given in. You could be
asked to find them from
a graph °' a diagram of
a wave.
Tip: Amplitude can
ei1her be measured at
a cras1or a trough. 11
doesn't have direction,
only magnitude.
l:'fl Module 4: Section 2 Waves
Wavelength, A, measured in n1etres Tip: One oscillation or
- the length of one whole \vave oscillation or wave cycle,
e.g. the distance betv.reen l\VO crests (or troughs) of a wave.
wave cycle is a 'section'
ol a wave from crest
to crest, or Lrough to
trougll.
1. Progressive Waves
Waves are jusr vibrations. They rransfer energy, bur once tbey've passed
through a region, everything goes back t.o normal... like they were never there.
!.r w::
~
~
~
CS
:•~
''
:
'
. nu:
What is a progressive wave? wavdengrh, A
A progressive wave (moving wave) carries energy from one place Lo another
Figure 2: Diagram lo show the wavelength of a wave.
withoul 1ransfcrring any material. Imagine a buoy bobbing up and down on a
water wave - the buoy doesn't move from its loc.a1ion excepl to move up and Period, T, measured in seconds
do\\'Tl as the \vave passes. - 1he time taken for one whole \WVe cycle, e.g. the time it takes a buoy
A wave is cau.sed by something making particles or nelds (e.g. to go from its highest point, back to its highest point again. Tip: Waves with
electric or magne1ic fields} oscillate (or vibrate) at a source. These oscillations differcm frequencies and
Frequency, f, measured in hertz
pass lhrough the medium (or field) as the W<lVe !ravels, carrying energy with wavelengths can have
- the number of whole wave cycles (oscillations) per second passing a
them in the direction of travel. A wave transfers thi.s energy away from its given point ()r the number of \vhole wave <.ycles (oscillations) given
very d iffcreni propenies
source - so the source of the wave loses energy. You can tell \Vaves carry <soo page 195).
out from a source per second. For a buoy, it's the number of times i1
energy from looking at lhe efft.'Cts d ifferent waves can have. For example: reaches iis highest point per second.
Electromagnetic waves cause things to heat up. Phase
X-rays a nd gamma rays transfer so much energy that lhey knock electrons - a measurement of the position of a certain point along the wave <.ycle.
out of their orbils, causing ionisa1ion. Phase difference
Loud sounds cause large oscillations of air particles \vtlich can make llp: 111'! phase
- the amount by which one wave lags behind another wave, or
things vibrate. the d ifference in phase between t\vo poinis on a single wave. difference between two
Sea waves can be used to generate electricity. waves is ihe difference
Phase and phase differe nce can be measured in angles (in bc1woon a point on
degrees or radians} or in fractions of a cycle (see page 208}. one wave, and the next
Wave basics
The re are lots of quantities tha t you can use to describe a wave. --
Phase dlfferem..-e
.! 14.t;"' '
identical poini on Lhc
second wave•
Displacement, x, measured in n1etres
- how far a point on the wave has moved from iLS und isturbed position.
Going back to the buoy example above, lhe displacement would be
how high the buoy is above sea level, or how lo\v it is below sea level.
Posiri,Nt
Amplitude, A, measured in metres
- the maximum magnitude of the displacement, i.e. the d istance
irom the undisturbed position to the c rest, or trough (see Figure 1}.
The amplitude of a bobbing buoy would be lhe d isiance from lhc Figure 3 : Diagram to show rhe phase difference bet"mn ~vaves.
undisturbed position (sea level) to the highest point it reaches above
sea level, or the lowesl point i1reaches below sea level.
Types of wave
\Vaves can be either transverse waves or longitudinal wa\•es.
Transverse waves
In transverse \Vaves, the oscillalion of the particles or field (i.e. the
d isplacementl is at righ1 angles to the d irection of energy propagation (the
d irection lhe wave is travelling in). All electromagnetic waves (see page 194}
a re transverse. They travel as oscillating magnetic and electric fields - with
oscillalions perpendicular to lhe direction of energy transfer. Other examples
' -1roughs/
of transverse waves are ripples on water, waves on strings, and some types of
Rgure 1: Diagram showing lhe displacement .1nd amplitude ofa wave. earthquake shock wave (S-waves).
Module 4: Section 2 Waves I l:f
 ,.....-
Figures 4 and 5 show how a transverse wave can be demonstra1ed Longitudinal waves
using a long spring. In longitudinal waves the oscillalions or the paniclcs or field are in the
d irection of energy propagation. The most common example of a longitudinal
Shake lhc ~ring wave is sound. A sound wave consi5's of a hernale compressions a nd
rarefactions of the medium it's travelling through. That's why sound can'I go
()scj{/a tions
up anc/down through a vacuum. Some earthquake shock waves (P-\vaves) are longitudinal.
Figures 7 and 8 show how a longitudinal wave can be
!! )
WaYe tr.Jnskrring
'"""!.'Y this way
demonstraled using a long spring.
. compressicm

Rgure 4: A uansverse wave on a spring.

Figure S: /\photograph of
a rralJSV('fse wave produced
on a spring.
moving in when given a snapshol of the wave.
Tip: This can be pretty
confusing at first. If
you're struggling. uy
drawing the wave
moved slightly further
atong in the direction of
Lravel. Look at how it
lines up wiLh lhc point
you're given. If the wave
is now above the point,
Ws moving upwards. If
il's below the point, it's
moving downwards.
Figure 6. They can be shown as graphs of displacement against distance along
che path of Lhe wave, or as graphs of displaceme nt againsLtime for a poinl as
the wave passes.
Tip: When )'00
use an oscilloscope
!p.190) 10 look ata
wave, it produces a
displacement-lime
graph.
J "'
s:;:~ !':/C::h8 r;uefacuon
Oscillations a/ons the s.ame
<--+ line .u the direrr1on in which
the wave is travelling
You can work ou1 ....-hat dire<:tion a poincon a 1ra nsvcrse \vavc is
Wave lransk:.rring
energy lhis way Rgure 7: A photograph of a
Example Rgure 8: A long;wdinal wave on a spring. longitudinal wave produced
look al the snapshot of the wave below. on a spring.
It's hard to represent longitudinal waves graphically. You can
Which direction is point A on the wa\•e nloving in?
plol them on displacement-disiancc or displacement-time graphs, just like
1. Look at which direclion lransverse waves. They'll give you graphs that look exactly like 1he graphs
Dft e(.':ll(KJ
the wave is travelling in - for lransversc wavt..'S in Figure 6. This can be confusing. as, unlike transverse
of t.ta~/ waves, 1hesc graphs look nothing like the waves themselves. You'll usually see
here the wave is moving ---+
longi1udinal waves plotted as displacement-time graphs.
from leh 10 righl.
2. The displacement of the wave
just 10 the left of point A is greater l:n@H3:i•iiii1U.l,p ,tjfflf$H.h1
than point A's. So as the wave travels along, point A will need to move Ql The diagram on the right shows a
upwards lO have lhal dispfacemenl. (If the d isplacement to the left was snap shol of a transverse wave. ~
less than point /'Is, point A would need to move down.) The point marked X is moving upwards, -•• --- ---
What is the direct.ion of Lr-avel of the \Vave?
Q2 For the wave shown, find:
Uisplacx.~mt I m
There are two main ways o f drawing transverse waves, as shown in al the displacemenl at A, (/..
0.2
b) the amplitude,
0.1
cl the wavelength. /)-+--------~---+
--0. I
--0.Z
+ + --0.•l
<' <'
E
!!
-!!
_g.
Cl
"'
E
.,.,"'v
Sl-
Ci
fime
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
Ql How does a wave transfer energy through a region?
Q2 On the diagram below, what's shown by A, 8 and C?
-

Figure 6: Two ways ofrepresenting transverse waves gr<tphically

- as a displacemcmt-distancc graph (on me. left) ~F
l; ~-~A--T\----r-
~- - '
8
Tip: Displaccmcn1 is a
vector so ii tus dirooJon
and magni1udt? <sec
or as .1 displacemenr.time graph (on the right).

page 41) - if a point
has moved below its
undisiurbed position,
ii will have a negative
displacement.
Both sons o( graph orten give the same shape, so make sure you
check out the label on the x-axis. On a d isplacement-distance graph, the
separation between two crests (a \vave cycle) gives the wavelength o( Lhe
wave. On a displacemcn1-time graph, thi-s gives the period of the \vave.
DisplacemenlS upv~rds from the centre line are given a +sign.
Displacements downwards are given a - sign.
1 I~/ DistancTJ/m
QJ Describe what is meant by the phase differe nce o f two waves.
Q4 Describe lhe d ifference between longitudinal and transverse waves
in terms of their oscillations.
QS Sketch a displacement-time graph for a longitud inal wave.

Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves I l:c H

 Leaming Objectives: 2. Frequency, Speed and Intensity The screen is split into squares called d ivisions. The vertical axis is in
vohs. The volts per division shmvn on this axis is controlled by the gain dial.
• Be able to use the The horizontal axis is in seconds - also called the timebase. The seconds per
. r -= r1 · No~v it's time for a bil of maths. You'JJ have probably come across the
equauon dfvision sho\vn on 1his axis is controlled by the timebase dial. You can aher
frequency and \Vave sp<."<..\CI equarions before now, but the nev .1nd exciling
• Know techniques world of intensity is also coming up in this topic. .. the gain and timebase to make it easy lo read off measurements.
and procedures You can use oscilloscope traces lo calculate W"ave properties, like frequency.
inw lvcd in using
an oscilloscope 10 Frequency and period Example -f8§i$1®1@ Rgure 3: An ex3.mplc of an
determine frequency oscilloscope being used io
{Pi\G5). Frequency and period arc linked to each other. The number of whole Find lhe frequency shown by lhe
wave cycles (oscillations) per second is 1 7 (time taken for one oscillation). mrosure a wave.
• Be able to use the
So, by definition, the frequency is the inverse of lhe period:
oscilloscope trace on the right.

equation for the speed
ofa wave, V-= f'>..
• Be~ able: to use
the equation for
the imcnsi1y ofa
r:i~ive w.i\'C,
• KnO\V Lhal, for a wave,
intensity« (amplilude.>'
Specificatio n
Reference 4.4.1
Frequency and period on an oscilloscope
A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) produces a funclioo ol
j
lJlJ
The timebase is set to 4.0 nls I div.
First calculale the period of the trace. Tip: Make sure you
f- I carefully read the
f = frequoncy - - - T Poinl A to B is one cycle 1imobasc and gain on
inHZ (= S') - - T = periodins - it is 4 squares wide. an oscilloscope before
you IJS(! it to do any
This means for one cycle, it takes calculations.
Exan1ple -1$§!$ 1$11 4 x 4.0ms=16 ms.
time
A wave has a period of 0.25 seconds. 5<>, the period T = 16 ms.
How many oscillations will pass a given point each second?
Now, use f = f 10 find the frequency: Exam Tip
ir you can remember
The number of oscillations passing a point per second is the frequency, so 1 HZ= I s--1, il'LI help
1 1
f=
16
x1,o1 62.5Hz = 63Hz (to2s.f.) you g~ your units righL
f =T =1T.E =4.0 Hz Don't writes 1 in an
exam 1hough - Hz is
So 4.0 oscillations pass each second. the srandard uni1 for
frequency (see p.31 10<
Wave speed more on units).
You <'..an use speed =distance -:-- time lo find wave speed.
v -= wave . - . . v =
spced in ms' L ~
ri.- --- d -= distance in m

voltage over lime from a signal generator. The displayed t = rime;ns

runc1ion is called a trace.
The type or trace you gel on an oscilloscope depends on the source You can derive the wave speed equa1ion by imagining how long it
takes for the crest of a wnve to move across a diSlance or one \vavelength. Exam Tip
it is connected 10. If you plug an AC (ahernalingl supply into an oscilloscope, You don't need to know
you get a trace that goes up and dmvn in a regular pattern - some of the 1ime The distance travelled is the wavelength, A. this derivation, but
ir's positive and some or the lime ir's negative. A microphone converts sound
Rgure 1: An oscilloscope
displaying the sound wave
waves inlo eleclrical signals whidl can be seen on an oscilloscope.
An example of an oscilloS<.-ope display is shown in Figure 2.
which is equal lo r
The tjme taken to travel one \Vavelength ~s lhe period or the wave, 1his should help you
undersiand where the
equation comes from,
and IA'hy it works.
producc!d by a cuning fork. Now subs1itute these values into the equation above to get the speed oi a
Cain <lia/ in volts wave in terms of wavelength and frequency:
Sc:rt'!f!.n split
pt.vdiv&m
into divi..Uxts
wave speed (v) = distance (.!) Tip: Remember, you're
Tip: As always, limc(t} not measuring how
remember to do a risk
fa.s1 a physical point
assessment beiorc
·working in the tab.
lfrnehase dial in
milliS<'!<:ond!o· per <livi.wm
Dividing something by t is the same as multiplying it by f. (like one molca.ile of
rope) moves. You're
So you get the wave speed equation: measuring how fast
a point on lhc wave

Rgure 2: A diagr.1m ofan oscilloscope~ showing its display

along with iis gain and timebase dials.
• =wave speed in ms' - v:\ _.----- A -= wavelength in m
I
pattern mow.s.

f = frequency in Hz (= s- 1)

Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves MQI

 The inlensily of a wave is also proponional lo its amplitude squared.
Exan1ple -i$§!$i§1ffll You don't need to know why this is lhe case, but you do need Lo learn lhe Tip: If two variables are
Below is a diagram of a water wave. proponion.al like Lhis.
proponionality relation: then you can say 1haL
CJ.lculate the speed of the wave, if the frequency is 5 Hz.
one variable is equal
!; Intensity ex (Amplitude)' to the mher \'3riable
" multiplied by a constanl.
E.g. Intensity =
Tip: \i\fhen a wa,,C?
changes speed, its
Example -f&®$"" zj15 constant x {amplitude)'.
This is helpful for finding
wavelength chanses but A wave has an intensity of 18 Wm-l, and an an1plitude of 1.5 m. missing values.
ils frequency remains The wave's intensity ls reduced to 2 Wnr2.
constant {see p.199). Calculate the new amplitude of the wave.
First find..\ by calculating Lhe distance, e.g., between the first l\VO peaks:
We know that intensily <:<<amplitude)'.
.X=2.5 - 0.5 = 2 m intensity
Then substilule .X and fi nlo v = f.X to find the speed of the wave: So, {ampluudcr' constant
v=f.X:Sx2=10ms' This means that .final inte~sity =- . i?~tial inte~si
(fmal ampl11ude)' m111aJ ampl11ude) 1
. !:
:::> finafamphtude =
final intensity . . .
t' ·r
m1 1a1 1n1ens1 y
.
x m1ualamphtude

Intensity = /fs xl.5 = -lxl.5 = 0.Sm

When you talk about "brightness" for light or ' loudness" for sound, what you
really mean is how much lighL or sound energy hits your eyes or your ears per
second. The scientific measure of this is intensity. lntensily is the rate of flow
or energy per unit a rea al right angles to the direction of travel of the wave. I @fa' tg:l• lii!?1.i·l•fQ.·tmi..,
•;,•w®.-i•·.il.,.t,1
."''L--------
ltS measured in Wm"· Q l A wave hits a 0.2 m' pane l al a right angle 10 the panel's surface.
The intensity of the wave on the panel is S Wm "·
a) Calculate the power of the wave.
b) The amplitude of the wave is then doubled.
Calculate the new intensity of Lhe wave.
Q2 For the wave shown helow:
Disp/attment Im

Figure 4: A diagram demonsuau'ng rlleinrensityofa wave on a unit area.

Tip: Remember, power You can calcula1e intensily using the equation:
is a measure o( energy a) Find its wavelength.
transferred per second. I = imensity. p P = pu.ver in ~V
- -• / - -, b) Find how long ii takes the wave 10 travel
11 ~A = area (al right angles lO
1
in Wm 1.0 m, given 1ha1the frequency is 30.0 Hz.
the v.rave's mcxion) in m"

Example --f1'§1$1§11 I Ar tg.tq:I.- lit:?1tt.Hp :rn I:<:!Mill

A 28.0 W sound wave is incident at right angles to the surface Q l How would you calculate the frequency of a wave, given its period?
of a square metal plate. The plate has sides of length 1.20 m. Q2 Whal are the two axes of an oscilloscope display?
C.1lculate the intensity of the sound wave on the metal plale. QJ Describe how you would find the frequency of a wave shown on an
Surface area of the plate, A = 1.2 x 1.2 oscilloscope from the oscilloscope display.
::: 1.44m2 Q4 Whal is the equation that links wave speed, frequency and
' =~ wavelength?
QS Define the intensity of a progressive wave.
= f.!la = 19.44... = 19.4 Wm" (lo3 s.f.)
Q6 Whal is 1he proportionality rela1ion between intensity and amplitude?

fifi Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module4:Section2 Waves IQSA

 Leam ing Obj ectives:
• Know 100 properties
o f electromagnetic
waves.
• Know the
elcctromagne1ic
specLrum.
• Know lhe orders
o f magnitude of
wavek!nglhs of
lhc principal EM
radia1ions from radio
waves Lo gamma rays.
Specification
Reference 4 .4 .2
Tip: Tllo speed o/ EM
waves in a vacuum is
ofum referred to as c.
h's an important number
in q~mum physics
(See pages 232-244) and
will be giv«l 10 you in
lhe data and formulae
bookie<.
Figure 2: The visible Jigh1
pmion of lhe EM spocuum.
Just like the colours alxnv,
each GJtegoryofw.:rve ;n the
EM specuum flows smoothly
into the mro one.
Tip: Diffrac1ion is
where \Yaves spread out.
and it depends on the
waveleng1h of the wave
compared 10 1he gap
or obstacle causing the
diffrac1ion (p.211 ).
fi}i Module 4: Section 2 Waves
3. Electromagnetic Waves
Perhaps rhe most imponant family of ivaves in physics is the elecuomagnel.ic
specllum. You nL"€.-v:i ro know all Lhe different Lypes of EM \Vaves, their
propcnies, and how these properties change depending on wavelength.
What are electromagnetic waves?
..,..
Radio
waves
Appra tr '
10 1 - 10'
'-
-
PaS"S through mauer.
Mostly pass 1hmugh
Ula
Radio uansmissions.
Radar.
MicrO\vavcs 10 3 - 10 1 malter, but cause some Microwave cooking.
Elcctromagnelic (EM) waves are a group of lransverse \\'aves. They consisl of TV transmissions.
healing.
vibraling eleclric and magnetic fields, nol mauer. which means they are able
to lravel through a vacuum. These electric and magnetic fields are always at Heat dctec1ors.
Mostly absorbed by
righl angles lo each other and lo lhe direction of travel. lnfrarod ORI matter, r.ausing i1to
Night vision cameras..
7 x10 7 - 10 ' Remote conlrols.
Rgure 4: An infrared camera
hea1 up. being used to monitot the
All electromagnetic waves have some properties in common: Oplical fibres.
skin temperature of people
They all travel al 1he same speed in a vacuum - 3.00 x 1o• ms 1 (to 3 s.f.). filisorbed by maller, Human sight. arriving at an aiqx>fL High
Visible light 4x10 7 - 7x 10 7
Op1ical fibres.
Like all waves, !hey can be refracied, reflec1cd. diffradcd and can causing some hr..ating. skin temperature can be a
undergo interference. Sunbeds. sign of illnesses such as nu.
Ul1ravioleL Mlsorbed by ma11er.
They can be polarised, because they are lransverse. 10• - 4xl0 7 Securily marks that
{LIV) Cause some ionisation.
show up under UV.
They all obey the wave cquaiion. v =[}, {like all waves).
To see damage 10
fM waves form a conlinuous series of waves, called the Mostly pass 1hmugh bones and tee1h.
electromagnetic spectrum. The electronlagnelic spectrum is splil inlo seven X-<ays 10° - 10• maucr, but cause Airport security
categories based on \o\'avelenglh. From lhe longes1 to the shortesl wavelength, ionisation as they pass. scanners.
these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared {IR), visible lighl, uhraviolcl (UV}, To kill cancer cells.
X-rays and gamma rays {see Figure 1). lrradfation of food.
Mos1ly pass 1hrough Sterilisation of
Gamma 10 tf• - 10 l O matter, but cause
rays medical instrumen1s. Rgure 5: Banknotes contain
ionisa1io n as 1hey paS"S.
To kill canmr cells. a fluorescent ink pattern;
making lllL'fll ha11:Jer 10 forge.
Rgure J : A table showing the different types of l:.M WJV(', /1 only shows up under UV
their wavelengdt ranges, pcneuation properties, a11d examples of their uses. light of lhe correci frequency.
Increasing frequency
Figure 1: The c/ecuomagnetk specuum. Ql A radio wave wilh wavelenglh of2.40 x 10' m is !ravelling 1hrough Tip: Remember, v = r>.
a vacuum. Calculale the frequency of the radio wave. (sec page 191).
Like all progressive waves, progressive EM Wdves carry energy. As
you go along 1he spectrum, the frcquen<.y increases and the waves carry
more energy. This is because the energy of an EM wave is proportional 10 ils
I Ar ea. t3:1• llt:t1Jt,j·k ,.ffl
......1.:.<:,.1.w......11...1______ _
Ql Are electromagnetic waves transverse or longitudinal waves?
frequency {from E = hf, see p.232). So gamma rays have 1he highesl energy,
while radio waves have lhe lowest. Q2 Which lype of wave in 1he EM speclrum has the highe<I energy?
Towards lhe high frequency end of lhe lN range, waves become Q3 S1a1e lhe wavelenglh range of 1he following pans of lhe
encrgclic enough lo cause ionisation. This is where they transfer so much electromagnetic speclrum:
energy lo an atomic electron, that the electron is removed from the atom. Ii a) micro\vaves b) uhraviolel light c) X-rays
this occurs in the human body ii can kill cells or cause cancer. So, in general, Q4 S1a1e lhe lhree pans of lhc clec1romagne1ic speclrum 1hat are mos1ly
I.he higher the frequency, the more dangerous the EM wave is. absorbed by mauer.
Due to their wavelengths, diffcrenl electromagnetic \'\'aVes also
behave di(ferently in a given situation (e.g. some EM waves can diffract around
hills, whilst others cannot). This means that elcctromagnelic waves have a
range of uses. Figure 3 on the next page describes some of the mosl common
uses.
Module 4: Section 2 Waves MhA
 Leaming Obj ectives:
• Understand what is
mean1 by lhc term
'piano polariS<!d
waves'.
• Understand the
polartsation of
electromagnetic
Wa""5, o.g. fight and
micrO\vaves.
• Know tcdmiques and
procedures used m
observe polarising
effoctS using light
(PAG5).
• Know tcctmjques and
procedures used to
observe polarising
effects using
micrO\vaves (PAGS).
Specification
References 4.4.1
and 4.4.2
Tip: A piano is a flat
surface in JO space.
Figure 2: '/W<> po1ari,;ng
fihc~ts at right angles to C,.'ilCh
other block all ffghr.
Tip: The transmission
axis or a polarising filler
sho\Ys the only direaion
of vibrations which can
pass through the fillet'.
en• Module 4: Section 2 Waves
4. Polarisation Lighl 1ha1 passes 1hrough the first filter in Figure 3 will always
be vertically polarised. \"/hen the transmission axes of the hvo filters are Tip: Just like vectors,
you can think: of lhe
When ~ve drav1• waves,. \Ve usually shO\V them vibraling in il single plane. But
aligned, all of 1he lighl that passes 1hrough the firsl filler also passes 1hrough transmission axis of Lile
~vhen real \vaves are produced, rhey"re usually oscillating in a JOI. ofdifferent the second. As you ro1a1e 1he second filler, 1he amounl of lighl tha t passes rotating filter as having
Lhrough the second tiller varies.
directions. This is where polarisation comes in... a \'ertical and horizontal
As the second filter is roLated, less light \Viii get through it as Lhe component. The larger
the vertiC:ll component.,
vertical component or the second filter's transmission axis decreases. This
Polarised waves means the in1ensi1y of the light getting through lhe second filler will gradually the more vcnicalfy
polarised light will pass
If you shake a rope to make a wave you can move your hand up and down decrease. When the t\vo transmission axes a re at 45Q to each other, Lhe
through the filter.
or side to side or in a mixture of directions - it still makes a transverse wave. in1ensi1y will be half !hat gcuing through lhe first filler. When they're at right
Bul if you try to pass waves in a rope 1hrough a vertical fence, the wave will a ngles Lo each olher no light will pass through - inlensity is 0.
only get 1hrough if the vibrations are vcnical. The fence filters out vibrations As you coniinue 1urning, the imensi1y should then begin to increase
in other directions. The result is a plane polarised wave (see Figure 1). once again. When the two axes realign (after a 180(0 rotation), all the light
will be able to pass through the second filler again. This is shown in Figure 4.
Tip : Light in1cnsity is
just Ille brightness of Lile
light
light. ~more about ii
()nfy up am/ dawn ime.m•itr
on page 192.
vibratiorn; make it /Wm
Vibratkms in a
mixture of
through - the waw! 0-1-~~~ .....;-"'~~~--+~~~-"......--~~~e-
is polarisef/. ](~)
<fitt«:t.i<NtS. 0 180 270
Angle of rotation of filter from the plaoo ofpolari.'t.alion I 0
Figure 1: The polilrisaiion of a uansverse wave IDrough a fence.
or
Rgure 4: The effect rmaiing a polarising filtf!f on the
The plane in which a plane polarised wave vibrates is called the ;mensiLy of[XJlarised light passing through iL
plane o r polarisation - e.g. the rope wave was pola rised in the vertical pla ne
As shown in Figure 4, al 90" and 270", the lighl in1ensi1y is zero.
by the icnce. Polarisation can only happen ior transverse waves. The fact that
you can polarise EM waves is one proof that they're transverse waves. This is because the lransmissjon axis of the second filter \•Viii be perpendicular
to !he firsl fi her, so no lighl will be able to get through. At 180• a nd 360•, the
light intensity is at a maximum. This is because the tra nsmission axes of both
Polarising light
Ordinary light waves a re a mixture of d ifferent directions or vibra1ion.
:. SJ filters will be aligned, so all of the lighl passing through lhe first filter will be
a ble to pass through the second.
Uses of polarising filters
A polarising filler can be used to polarise light (and other waves). It only
You come across polarising filters more often 1han you might Lhink.
transmiLS vibrations in one direction. If you have two polarising fillers at right
angk."S to each other, then no light will get through - see Figure 2.
You can observe polarisation by shining unpolarised vvhite light
through two polarising fillers. Stan by aligning th e transmission axes of t\vo
polarising fillers so they are both venical. Shine unpolarised light on the first
Examples
30 films use polarised lighl to create deplh - the filters in each lens are
at right angles to each other so eadl eye gets a slighlly different picture.
Polaroid sunglasses also use polarising filters - I ight reflected off some
-
RgureS: 1he/igh1..
relTeaing off water is
partially polilrised, so
filter. Keep the position of the firsl filter fixed and rotate the second one. a pol,1ri.i;ing filt(!l can
surfaces is partially polarised so the sunglasses block !his out to help
Im yofl see u1Kicnvate1
Unpo/ariS(.'C/ light -
vihratKNt. . in all ditf!(..:tkms
+ = [J;recrkm of vib rali<Jt,s
prevent glare. shapes more cle.1rty.
~ [= sJ
= Transmission ax~· of a polarising filter
' N°'ating polarising filter Polarising microwaves
Po/am;ngfi/tcy_. !/~ ' / The
, ~.1
/
intf!.OSity of
this fight ray
Polarising fillers don'Lwork on microwaves - their wavelength is too long.
lnslead, metal grilles (squares full of metal wires which a rc all aligned, see
Figure 6) arc used to polarise lhern.
lV -... depends (Nl lhe
Only lighJ wilh vibrati<Nts angle bctwt:en the You can investigate Lhe polarisaLion or microwaves using a
in line with the filrcr:,.. transmission axis 1.tan,.mr..·sion axes microwave Lransmi1ter and a microwave receiver linked 10 a voltmeter. Place
passes through ihe firsi filter. a mclal grille between the micro,Nave transmiller and receiver as shown Figure 6: A d;agram ofa
of the twt:t filters.
in Figure 7. (Ha ndily, microw<we transmitters Ltansmi1 vertically polarised metal grille,. used w polarise
Figure J: An unpolilrised fight wal'l? passing d1toogh two polarising filtf!fs. microwaves, so you only need one me1al grille.) microwave radrau·on.
Module 4: Section 2 Waves Mpi
Tip: As always, make Mk:ro'>vavt~ trJnsmittcr
lran.'>JTliUing vett.ically
Melal grille
5. Reflection and Refraction Learning Objectives:
sure you carry 001 • Understand reflection
a risk assessmem polarist.'<I waves Reflec:lion and refraction are hvo important \Vave effects that can change the and refraction for all
oorore you do either direction a \Vave is traw.4/ing in. 171ey happen ~vhen a \Vave hirs a boundary Wa\'C!'S.
of 1hc polarisa1ion between l\.Yo different materials.
expcrimems. Make sure • Know and understand
all or your e lcctrica I techniques and
equipment is safely Polari.w..'<1mk:rowaves M icrowaves with slightly
What is reflection? procedures used 10
demonstrate reflection
connecmd before you (dif'C(:t.ion of vihrations) nxluced ampliuxJes Reflection is when a wave is bounced back \vhen il hits a boundary, as shown
1um it on - microwave
and refraction using a
Rgure 7: A diagrarrt of rht! experimmlal 5'N-up fof investigating in lhe ray diagram in Figure 1. ripple tank.
Lransmiuers operate at
vory high voltages. the pola1isation ofmicrowaves by a metal grille. normal Specification
Reference 4.4.1
When microwaves meet a metal griHe, some of lheir energy is
absorbed by the gri lie. This is because the vibrating electric field of the
microwave excites electrons in lhe metal. When the electrons de-e xcite, lhey Tip: A ray shows 1hc
path taken by a wave~
I
re-emit this energy in all d irec.1ions as micrmvaves. Onty some of the erniued
microwaves have oscillalions in the vertical direction.
Microwave receivers only detecl verlically polarised microwaves, so
even if a re-emitled microwave lrnvcls towards the receiver, il mighl not be
point ofinddroce
picked up. So whenever micro\vaves are a bsorbed by a metal grille, only a
small fraction of their energy reaches the receiver. Rgure 1: A ray diagram lO show the reflection ofa wave at a boundary.
Microwaves a rc absorbed most when the grille wires are aligned A reflected wave always bounces off a boundary al the same angle to the
\Vilh the vibrations, a nd least when they're perpendicular to the vibrations. normal as it hit the boundary. This is the law of reflection:
So a metal grille lets th rough most vibrations when lhe oscillations of the
microwaves and the grille wires a re at righl angles to each other. angle of incide nce = angle of reflection Figure 2: A ray of light being
When using the setup in Figure 7, the voltmeter \'\•ill measure the reflected by a llar miffor.
Rgure 8: A microwave intensity of the radiation reaching the receiver. The intensity of micrownves
uansmiur.r. passing 1hrough 1he grille is at a maximum when the dirooion of lhe vibra1ion
of the microwaves and the wires on the grille are at righl angles lo each other. What is refraction?
This is because the minimum amounl of e nergy is being absorbed. As you Refradion is lhe way a wave changes diredion as il enters a differcm medium
r<>4alc lhc grille, the inl'ensity of polarised microwaves able lo pass through the al an angle to 1he boundary, as shown by the ray diagra m in Figure 4. The
Tip: Don't get confused grille decreases, so lhe reading on the voltmeter decreases. When the wires change in d ireclion is a resuh of the wave slowing down or speeding up.
by metal grilles. o f lhe metal grille are aligned with the directioo of vibration of the polarised
The transmission axis waves~ little to no signal will be shown on the voltmeter because most o f the
for microwaves is ;nddentra
energy is being absorbed and re-emitted in all directions. angle of incidence
fX!rpendirular 10 the
direction of the~ wires -
which is the opposite of •ae1a.1g:g,11r:;7u.1.p mm·c.1.1 1

what you'd expect.
Ql The diagram below shows an unpolarised wave passing th rough Figure J: The pem:ilin lhe
two polarising filters. glass of water looks bent
because of the refractk>n of
=- Direction of vi/Jrali<N1~· light as it fJi1SSOS be<woen rile
Rgure 4: A ray diagram showing the refracu·on of a wave water and the air.
=fransmisskm axis as it moves from 01te material into another.
You can tell if lhe wave is speeding up or slmving down by the way it bends Tip: fi>r light, and
lowards or away from the nonnal. other EM waves, we can
talk abou1the 'optical
If the ray bends towards the normal - it is slowing down. density' or materials.
If the ray bends away from the normal - the wave is speeding up. light will slow down
a) Is this wave lransverse or longitudinal? Explain your answer. The frequency of a wave remains constant, no maner what the wave is when it passes into a
b) Which line, A, Bor C, represents the transmission axis of the more optically dense
travelling through. As v= f>., this means that when a wave has changed
second polarising iilter? Explain your a nswer. medium, and speed
speed, its wavelength must also have changed. If a wave speeds up in up when it passes imo
c) Explain what wo uld happen if the serond polarising filter was a medium, its wavelength increases an d if it slows down, its wavelength one that is Jess optjcaJly
rorated by 90°. decreases. dense (p.2021.

Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module4: Section2 Waves MQ"M

 Tip: A ripple tank is a
large, shallow tank of
water \\11ich can be used
to observe wave effeas
using waler.
Rgure ~= A series of
straight, para/JeJ Vt'ave fronts,
ptcxiuced in a r;pple tank.
Tip: Close to the
barrier, it might be
difficult to make out the
w:rves. This is because
the inooming waves
will be interfering w ith
the renec1cd waves -
Lhere's more on this on
pages 207-209.
Tip: Take care when
working wilh ripple
tanks. Make sure Lh.a1
the electrical cables
powering the paddle
don't come into comact
with the water. And
make sure yoo clear
up any water spillages
quickty, to prevent any
damage to equipment.
or accidents like people
slipping on a wet floor.
•E·;~,r~·ll Module 4: Section 2 Waves
Using ripple tanks to show wave effects \!\/hen the wave moves from the deeper water into the shallower
water, it will slowdown and refract. You should see the wave bend towards Tip: The cllange in
You can sho\v the reflection and refraction of water waves using a ripple tank. depth of the rippk!
the normal 10 the boundary. You should also see that the wave fronts get closer 1ank probably won't
Demonstrating reflection together, which shows that the wavelength has decreased (due 10 v = f>J. be enough 10 have a
Set up the ripple tank so an oscillating paddle (connected 10 a signal generator If you scl up the experiment wilh the waves starting in the shallow really suong effca. So
and vibration generator) is crealing regular waves with straighl, parallel wave e nd, you should see the opposite - the wa'\15 will bend away from the you'll h:M?to lool<
fronl5, as shown in Figure 6. Place a barrier in the tank at an a ngle to the normal as they cross Lhe boundary, and Lhc \Yave fronts get further apart when closely 10 see lhe
they pass into the deeper water. change in direction and
wave fronlS.
wavelength.
Practice Questions -Application W
Q1 A light ray is incident on a mirror as shown below. Tip: Remember, in
Calculate the angle o f reflection for the light ray. calculations al reflection
and refraction, the
nornMI angles aren't measured
~!
from the surface or
teflE-x.1ed waves
3~ ! boundary, but from the
nOfmal to the surfaoo/
'n I II I II I II I Ill I boundary.
Rgure 6: II diagram ofa ripple rank being used Q2 A student is using a ripple tank to investigate wave effects. The ripple
to demonsuJte the rellocdon of wa.tef waves.
tank has two sections, A and B,. which are at different depths.
A snapshot of the student's experimcnl is shown below.
The a ngle the incoming \Vaves make with the normal to the barrier
is the a ngle of incidence, i. The angle between the direction of the reflectl.>ti
waves and the normal to the barrier is the angle of reflection, r.
You should see the waves reflecting off the barrier and travelUng in
a different direction to the way they arrived. You can change the angle of
incidence to see lhat the angle of reflection changes by the same amount.
They are always equal to each other.
Demonstrating refraction
Put a block of plastic into the ripple tank, so that pan of the tank contains a
different depth of water than the rest of the tank. The point where the tank
Which side of the tank, A or B, is deeper? Explain your answer.
suddenly changes depth is the 'boundary'. Water waves travel fasier in deeper
water, so when they cross the boundary they should refract
Set up the oscillating paddle so it is creating regular waves with
straight. parallel wave fronlS a t an angle to the boundary, as shown in Figure 7.
•Prt3.cq:1,11t:t1H·"k m•;<:Ifll'
Q l State the law o f reflection.
Q2 A wave hits a boundary belwcen two materials a t an angle Lo the
normal. It slows down as it crosses the boundary.
pa<hDe
a) State how· its direction of motion changes.
b) Stale whal happens 10 the wave's wavelengLh a nd frC<juency.
Rgure 7: II diagram ofa ripple tank being used
to demoosuate the refraclion of water waves.
Module 4: Section 2 Waves W1ri
 Leam ing Obj ectives: 6. Refractive Index and When a light ray passes across a boundary between l\VO materials:
• Know and understand n = refractive index of material
Lhc rcfrac1ion of light. Total Internal Reflection ".... nsinO= constanl
• Know what is meant
by the 'refrac1ive
index' of a material.
You saw in Lhc previous topic I.hat \Vaves changes speed and direction if they
pass into a different medium. for light, you can \vork out the ne1,v direction "-o = angle ofray ro the notmal
• Be able 10 caJculate if you knO\v the refractive index of the materials.
This means lhal for a lighl ray at a boundary bet\veen lwo materials, nsinO
Lhc refractive indc~x of must be the same on either side. This can be wriuen nicely as Snell's law:
a ma1erial using
n = ~·
The refractive index of a material 01 = angle of ray to the Exam Tip
• Be able to use
l ight goes fastest in a vacuum. It travels slower in other materials, because it
normal in mate1ial I \.. 01 = angle ofray to the You'll only get givt!n the
nsin o= constant interacts with the panicles in them. The more optically dense a material is, '\. It"( normal in material 2 'n sinO = constant'
to solve problems the more Jighl slows down when il enters it. The optical density of a material n1 sin o, = n, sin O, equation in the: exam,
involving a ray is measured by ils refractive index - the higher a material's optical density is, so make sure you
crossing a boundary, lhe higher ilS refractive index. remember what that
where 0 is Lhc angle The refractive index of a material, n. is lhe ratio bct\veen the speed of n 1 = rcfractiveind!,,,material I " ' n, = tcfractivoindoxofmarorial 2 equation actually tells
10 the normal. you - that
light in a vacuum, c. and the speed of light in thal material, v.
• Know and understand n 1sinll1 =n1 sin01
1edmiques and ...,..- c =J.OOx lfJ'ms t Exan1ple --f$i!f.$ffilj at any boundary.
procedures used n =f. D.lculate the refractive index of material 2 in
n = re~:ctive i~aldex ~
10 investigate Lhe
refraction of light
using ray boxes
1
o hit::maren
v ........_. v =speed of light in maicrial in ms-' the diagram, given that the refractive index is
1.1 for material 1. Tip: You can check
your answer seems
and transparcm The refractive index of a material is a propeny of that material only. First look al what informalion you've been given: right by looking at how
rectangular blocks The speed of light in air is only a tiny bit smaller than c. So you can assume
IPAG6). lhe refractive index or air, n. = 1. n 1 = 1.1, n1 =
?, 01 =39.S.., O., 29" = the direction dlanges.
Here 0 1 > o, so the
• Know what is You can use the law of refraclion 10 find the missing value, ray has bent towards
rooanl by lhe tenn
Exan1ple -f.'.§i!Siflid the normal. This
but you'll have 10 rearrange the equa1ion first to find n,:
'critical angle'. The refractive index of a plastic block is 1.47. shows the light ray has
• Be able to use the What's !he speed of light in the plastic! rqsino, = n) sinO) => n, = n.siio,
sm 7
slowed down (p.199)
so ii has travelled imo
equalion sinC = ~· Firsl rearrange lhe refractive index equalion lo make v lhe subject:
• Know what is meant
=> n
'
= 1.1sin39.s
sin29°
•= 1 44
· ··· = 1·4 (lo2si )
··
an optically denser
by the total internal n -= ~ ~ V = ~ material. This means
that n, < n1, which your
reflection or light. ~ s;n ~ 3.00l.4x 10' = 2 .04 .. x 10' ~ ?-- 04 x 10' ms I It o 3 s..f) anru•er shows.
V
7
• Know and understand
techniques and
procedures used
Snell's law
Investigating refractive indices [= 61
You can find lhe refractive index of a {transparent) ma terial using a rectangular Tip: Remembcr tocarry J
to inves1igate tmal out a risk asscssmem
internal rcflociion of If light is passing lhrough a boundary between l\\'O materials, you c.an use block of 1ha1 malerial and a ray box.
before starting any
light using ray boxes Snell's law to calculate unknown a ngles or refractive indices. Place the rectangular block on a piece of paper and draw a round it. c.xperimen L
and semi-circular
blocks (PAG6). The a ngle thal incoming light makes to the normal, o,, is called the Use !he ray box to shine a beam of ligh1 inlo the glass block. Dim any
angle of incidence. The angle the refracted ray makes \Vrth the norma l, o,, is other ligh!S so you can see the palh of the lighl beam 1hrough !he block
Specificatio n
Reference 4.4.2
the angle of refraction. clearly. Tip: You can also
Trace the path of the incoming a nd ouLgoing beams of light ej1her side of use a device called
a refractometer to
the block. accurately measure the
Remove 1hc block and join up the lwo paths you've drawn wi1h a straight refraa ive index of a
line. This shows the path 1he lighl beam took through 1he glass block material. The machin<~
Tip: Remember, light You should be able to see from your drawing how !he path of the ray benl shines a beam of light
bends tOW'3JdS the at the sample. You 1.hen
normal when it slows
when entering and leaving lhe blod<.
view the refracted beam
down (soo page 199). Measure !he angles of incide nce (0) and refraclion (0) where the through a microscope
lighl enters the block (811 and O,,) and exilS the block (00 and 0,) - and measure its angk!. ot
see Figure 2. refraa ion.
Rgure 1: Refraclion of fight passing into
a more optically dense material.

.:.pi Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves WJ•HA


Tip: Remember to draw
a normal at the poim
where the ray enters and
leaves tile block.
Figure J: A greea laser
beam being refracted as i1
passes through a vansparent
rectangular bkx:k.
Rgure 5: UIJl1t omers !he
prism from underneath
and then st1ikes the prism+
air boundary at around the
critical angle. Some light
i< reflected (loft) .md some
continues parallel 10 the
prism surface (top)+
•1E·'~
. 1 }Jll Module 4: Section 2 Waves
Ouliinc of h/ock First, rearrange il to get the angles on the same side:
~ = !!?
s1n 01
n1
The angle of incidence is equal to the critic.al angle when I.he angle of
refraction is 90", so put these values in:
~
sm 90"
= !!.?
n,
sin90° = 1, so the formula becomes:
Rgure 2: An example of lhe type of drawing obtained from arrying oui an sin C = !!?
experiment into the refraction of Jighr through a transparenr blod<.. n.
The refractive index of air is 1, so lhis can be simplified for a
You can calcula1e the refractive index of the block using Snell's Law'. material 10 a ir boundary by letting n, = 1: Tip: The assumption
Si11;ce n;alr = 1~ Snell's .Law can be si.mpli.fied to sin 011 = nsin 0,1 at the entry here is lhat air is the a
point and nsm00 = s1n011 al 1he exn pomt. Plug in your measurcmenlS
criUcal angle for material . C_ 1 ¥"' refracuVr. index ofmaterial ooticaU,v dense material
to calculate n for both points, and then find the average of the two lo get your 10 air boundary ~ - 7i - this is usually 1.hc
case, because i1s
final value of n.
Examples -i 1~§f tib411li refraci ivc index is
1.0002 ..
The critical angle of a boundary Find the critical angle or a glass to a ir boundary if lhe
glass has a refracti"" index or 1.5.
When light goes from a more optically dense malerial into a less optically
You've been asked to find the critical angle for a boundary with air, and you
dense material (e.g. glass to air), it c..an get refracted along the boundary.
kno\v the refractive index of the other malerial. So you can use the formula
Shine a r:ay of light at a bound ary going from refractive index n1
for the critical angle of a material to air boundary shown above.
ton,, where n 1 > n,.. then gradually increase the angle of incidence. The
But you need to rearrange it ior C first:
light is refracted away from the normal. so as you increase the angle of
incidence in ma1erial 1 (01 ), the angle of refraction in material 2 (0,.) gets sin C = ~. which gives:
closer and closer to 90°. Eventually 01 readles a critic.al angle (0 for
which 02 = 90.,. The Iight is refracted along the boundary - see Figure 4. c =sin '(~) =sin '(nl = 41.8... 0
= 42° {to 2 s.I.) Tip: M>ke sure your
This can happen ior any boundary where the lighl is passing from a calculator is se110
more optically dense material (n,, higher refractive index) into a less optically A plastic block is imnlersed in a liquid. If the refractive index of degrees mode to work
dense material (n,, lo\'\rer refractive index). the liquid is 1.40 and the critical angle for light travelling from the out the inverse sin (sin 1 )
plastic lo lhe liquid is 79, 1 •, find the relractive index or the plastic. ol this angle.
W rite down what you know: C = 79.1 ", n 1 = ?, n, = 1.40
Then rearrange sin ( = * 10 find 0 1:
s in C = 9.: => n, = sfn'L = s•~ 7~ 1' = 1.425... = 1.43 (10 3 s.f.)
0
Total internal reflection
Figure 4: Refraction of fight near 10 and along a
At angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, refraction can'Lhappen.
boundar)'; wJ'ten incident below and at the critiral angle. Tha t means a ll !he light is reflected back into the material. This effect is called
total internal reflection (TIRJ - sec Figures 6 and 7.
You can work oul lhe crilica I angle for a certain boundary with 1he equation:
c = criUr.a/ ---- n1 =refractive index of Jess
angle ~ optically dense maieriill
......._
sin C =- ~ \vhere n1 > n,
Rgure 6.: Total internal
rcfJcction of a /JS(lf bean1
n, = refractive index of more
optically dense maWfial insiclo an optic.al fibre (Ngh1
uavelling from right to loft).
You can derive 1his formula by rearranging Snell's law: More optically dense An opticJI fibre is used in
Rgure 7: Ught hitting a boundary with a Jess optically C0111municalions.
dense ntauYW at dilklent angles of incideoce+
Module 4: Section 2 Waves E{•f A
 Tip: Carry out a risk
Investigating critical angles and TIR
You can measure the critical angle of a glass.to-air boundary
7. Superposition and Interference Learning Objectives:
assessmcn1 beiore • Know 1.he principle
starting this experiment. by finding the angle al which lighl relracls along the boundary. \.Vhen waves pass lhrough each other, they combine their displacements o f supr.rposilion of
If you're using a laser, Shine a light ray into the curved face of a sani< ircular glass block so 1hal ii - they can make a bigger \Vave, a smaller \Vave, or cancel each or.her our... waves.
see page 21& for more always enters al righ1angles to the edge - this means the ray won'l refract as • Lise graphical
about hCM• to use them ii enters 1he block, just when ii leaves from the Slraight edge. Vary the angle of Superposition of waves methods 10 illustrate
safely. incidence, o, until the lighl beam refracts so much that it exits the block a long Supeqx>Sition happens when two or more waves pass through cadl other. I.he prind ple ol
the s1raight edge (see Figure 8). This angle of incidence is now the cri1ical angle, At the instant that waves c ross, the d isplacements due to each wave combine. superposition.
C, for the glass-air boundary. Then each wave continues on its way. You can see this if two pulses a re sem • Understand what is
You can then rearrange the formula ror I.he critical angle at a material- simuhant.~usly from each end of a rope, as in Figure 1. meam by in1ecfcrcnce,
air boundary {sin C = * ) and pul in yoor value r<>f C 10 find the refractive index Direclion of uavel pllaS<-! di ffcrcnoo and
The displacement of the nvo
cl the block. If you increase the angle ol incidence so i1's greater 1han C, you' ll (of lhe wavt-?)
coht'fence.
meeting waves is combined.
find 1he ray is eniirely reflected from the siraighl edge of the block. This is 101al • BP. ablQ to describe
internal reflection {flR). \ f\I - - constructive
interference
, rolrar:ted ray
J\--"- - _J \ . _ - _/\_j\_ and ck!suuaive

71,o/
imerference in terms

~
IJEF<JRE ME£r/NC7 AFTER of phase difference.
Specification

rf'Jloct.00 ray
Here the angle of 1-lf'Je the ansJe of
rota/
internal reflP.Ctian
Here the angle ol
/~
Rope
- - \ -~
-
If the displacements are equal and opposite,,
Reference 4.4.3

modence is less than incidence is equal incklence is greater they cancel each oihet our (see next page).
the critical an[;IP.. to thP. cdtk:al angk. than the ctiti<..al ans/P..
Rgure 1: Supetposition of waves.
Rgure 8: Ray dia11ams showing ~vave behaviour at different angles of inddonce. The principle of superposition of waves says that when hvo or
l@.C§:i•ill:411t.l,fQ·ffliitf1U.1,1 more waves cross, the resultant displaceme nt equals the vector sum of the
individual displaceme nts.
Tip: The vector sum is
just the sum c>l thc 1wo
Q l The spro:I orligh1 in a malerial is 1.94 x 1 ~ m•'· '"'Superposition" means "'one lhing on 1op o( a no1her thing"'. You displaoomcnt5 taking
imo acooun1 bQU1
a) Calcula1e the refractive index of the material. can use the same idea in reverse - a compl<"..x wave can be separa ted oul magnitude and direction
b) light travels from air into the ma1erial. Explain whether the light mathemalically into several simple sine waves of various sizes. (see page 41).
bend lo\vards o r away from the normal as ii en1ers the material.
c) Calculale the critical angle for the material to air boundary.
C)2 A studem is using a semi-circ ular glass bloct< to measure the critical
angle for the gla55-.'lir boundary. Why is ii important that light rays
enter the block at right angles 10 the edge?
Q3 A fisherman sees a lobster cage on the sea noor and tries to retrieve it
by lowering a winch directly over where the cage appears to be. Figure 2: Two sine waves shatvn as
The winch lands behind the cage_
separate waves and as a superposition.
a) Explain why the cage isn'I exactly where he thought it was.
Tip: Remember,
b) The fishennan uses a n underwater camera to get a better view. Constructive and destructive interference amplitude only
light travels from the lobster cage and hilS the camera lens a t an The superposition of two or more waves can resull in in terference. has magnilude,
angle or 37.2"' to the normal. lr the water has a refractive index of Interference can ei1her be construc tive or destrud ive. but displaooment
1.38 a nd the lens has a refractive index o f 1.49, at what angle to has direaion and
the normal \Viii the refrac ted ray in the camera lens be? When two waves meet, if their displacements arc in I.he same direction,
magnitude.
the displacements combine to give a bigger displacement A c rest plus Sec page 186 for morn.
a crest gives a bigger crest. A 1rough plus a trough gives a bigger trough.
This is known as constructi\·e interference.
Ql What is the refractive index o f a material? If a v.ia.ve with a positive d isplacement (crest) meets a \\'ave Tip: A ~ough and a
with a negative d isplacement (trough), they will undergo cres1won't cancel each
Q2 In whal way will light bend if ii passes al an angle into a medium
with a higher refractive index than the material il just left? destructive interferen ce and cancel each other out The other out completely
d isplacement of the combined wave is fou nd by adding unless they have the
Q3 What cond itions need to be met for total internal re nectio n? same magnitude.
the displacemenls of the l\YO \v.tvcs (see Figure 3).

.:.gw Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves W11r


llp: Graphically, you
can superimp>S<? waves
by adding the individual
dis.pl.acem<'1f!ts at each
point a tong the x-axis,
and then ploc th<>m.
Rgure 4: Consuuclive and
desuuclive interference can
be sh<.1.vn by watet waves in
• ripple 1411k.
Tip: If two points arc
exaaty out of phase,
th'1y'ro an odd integer
of hall-cycles apan
(1 hall-cycle, 3 half.
cycles, otc.l.
Tip: The position on the
x-axis tells you at whal
poin1 in the \vave cycle
you are. It's usually
measured as an angle or
frac1ion of a cycle (.see
below).
Tip: Radians am ;ust a
different unit for angle
measurement - soo
page 485.
Tip: Poims A and B aro
a full cycle apart t160'),
while points A and Dare
three half-cycles apart
(1SO° x 3 = 54oe).
.'.11:1 Module 4: Section 2 Waves
BEFORC MECTING AFTER Phase difference between waves
- - You can also 1.alk aboul the phase difference between two coherent waves
~ / -+ -+ l\~
(rather than two poinls on one wave). Two waves are coherenl if they have the
-v --:sv- 7
v
-
same wavelength and frequency and a fixed phase difference between them.
The phase difference is the amounl by which o ne wave lags behind
Lhe other. So you can also talk aboul two waves being in or out of phase. Two
·waves are in phase if their phase d ifference is O or a multiple of 360q - see
Figure J: Desuuoive interference.
Figure 7. In practice lhis is us.ualty because bolh waves come from the same
oscillator. In other siluations there will ncarl)' always be a phase dirferencc
If two waves wilh equal and opposite displacemen ls meel (e.g. a crest and between two waves.
a trough with equal magnitudes), they cancel each olher out completely.
This is total destructive interference.
Tip: \A/aves don't
need m have the
same amplitude to
Phase difference be in phase, but they
Two points on a wave are in phase if they are both al the same point in the do need to have the
wave cycle (the same phase - see p.187) . Points in phase have the same same frequency and
displacement and velocity. wavelength.
In Figure 5, points A and B arc in phasej points A and Care out o f
phase; and poinis A and Dare ex.ac1ly out o f phase.
Tip: Compare the.
posi1ion of 1vto
Rgure 7: Three coherent waves. Two waves are in phase and equivalent points on tv.'O
the third W3\1? is out ofph.ue by 90". coherent waves (e.g.
the top or lV">'Ocrests) 10
find 1he phase difference
posit.ion in \!\/hen two waves tha1 arc in phase with each olher are superposed, be1wecn them.
wa"' c:yclc 1hey will interfere conslruclively with each 01hcr. Des1ruc1ive inlerferen<.-e
occurs when two waves that are exactly out of phase with each other are
superposed. For any 04her phase difference, there will be a mixture of
Figure S: Points in and out ofphase on a 1-\'J\'e pauern. constructive and destructive interference.
Tip: Superposing these
waves would give total
destructive interference:
It's ma1hcmalically handy to show one complete cycle of a wave
as an angle oi 360° (2'r radians) - see Figure 6. The phase difference o/
two points on a wave is 1he difference in their positions in a wave's cycle,
measured in degrees, radians or fractions of a cycle. T\vo poinlS \Vith a phase
difference o/ zero or a multiple of 360" (i.e. a full cycle) are in phase. Points
with a phase d ifference o( odd-number multiples of 180" (n- radians, or half a
cycle) are exactly out of phase.
posit.ion in
wa\le cycle
Rgure 8: Wa!tt?S I and 2 are in phase, so interfere consuuctively.
Y.{ives 3 and 4 are exactly ou1 ofphase and interfere desuuc.tively.
121r
Figure 6: The points fi<>1n Figure S shown as angles.
Module 4: Section 2 Waves W11.! H
 Practice Questions -Application Ji 8. Diffraction Learning Objectives:
Ql What is the phase difference between the two waves in • Understand what is
Diffracrion is the reason you can hear sound vi1hcn you're round a corner from meant by diffraction
1he diagram below?
the source - it's just ivaves spreading out through gaps or around obstacles. for all w:rves,
Displac:e.m<':IJl induding lighL
Diffraction through gaps • Know and understand
The way that waves spread out as they come th rough a n arrow gap or go techniques and
round obstacles is called diffraction. All waves diffract, bul il's not always procedures usOO
easy lo observe. The amounl of d iffraction depends on the Vi.'3.velength oi the Lo demonstrate
wave compared \Vith the size of the gap. diffrac1K>n using a
Diffraction can be shown using a ripple tank. Objects can be ripple tank.
placed into the ripple tank to create a barrier with a gap in the n1iddle of ii. Specification
Q2 Sketch two waves that, when superposed, will have total destructive Reference 4.4.1
interference. This gap can be varied to see the effects this has on how the waves spread
Q3 al In the diagram below, which point (if any) is in phase with through the lank:
\!\/hen the gap is a lot bigger than the wavelength, diffraction is
i) poinlA ii) point B iii) point C
unnoticeable - see Figure 1, Jefl-hand diagram.
b) How many of the points are exactly out of phase with point G? You get noticeable diffraction through a gap several wavelengths wide

I
DisplaCf!t7lellt (Figure 1, middle diagram).

P
The most diffraction is when lhe gap is the same size as the \Vavelength
u
~0
o/ \ LJ ,
c \Op,,w,,,,/•
(Figure 1, right-hand diagram).
If the gap is smaller than the \11."avefength, the waves are mostly jusl
reflected back.
c. £

-
Practice Questions - Fact Recall Ii
Ql Whal does the principle of superposition say?
(~2 Describe constructive interference.
QJ What is mean1 by the phase difference or L\vo points on a wave? Gap much bigger Cap se.ieral Gap the same stLe
than wavelength - wave/eng1hs wide - as the wa..-elcnglh -
Q4 Give three possible units for phase differenc.,. no diffract.ion. some diffracl.ion. maximum diffraciion.
Q5 When are two points on a wave exadly out or phase? Rgure 1: The di/i;aaion of w.uer waVP.s in a ripple tank.
Q6 What does it mean for two wave sources 10 be <..-oherenl?
Q7 Whal does it mean ior two coherent waves to be in phase?
When sound passes through a doorway, the size of the gap and
the wavelength are usually roughly equal, so a fol of diffraction occurs. .
That's why you have no trouble hearing someone 1hrough an open door to the
next room, even if the other person is out of your line of sight The reason tha1
you can't see him or h er is that when light passes through the doorway, it is
passing through a gap around a fe\v million times bigger than ils wavelength
--
Hgure 2: IJiflraction in a
- the amount or diffraction is tiny. So to get noticeable d iffraction with light, ripple tank.
you must shine it through a very narrow slit.
Diffrac ti on around obstacles
When a wave meets an obsfacle, you get di(fradion around 1he edges.
Behind the obstacle is a 'shado\v', where the ·wave is blocked. The \vider
the obstacle compared with the wavelength of the wave, the IC'Ss diffraction Tip: Radio \\"aves whh
you gel, and so the longer the shadow. long wavelcng1hs (or
long wave, LW, radio)
can reach receivers
in valleys and across
mountain ranges,
because diffraction
allows the waves to
bend around the hills.

Figure 3: Tho diffraction of 'vaves around an obsldcle.

•EJ~!~
· ll Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves WU
 The diffraction of light 9. Two-Source Interference Learning Objectives:
Diffraction of light can be demonstrated by shining light through a very • Know 1.he ITK!aning
natrO\V slit (or aperture) onlo a screen. If the W'avelength of a light wave When l\VO wave sources interfere~ they can make prelty interference p.1uerns. of Lile wrm path
is roughly similar to the size of the ape11ure, you get a d iffraction pattern You need both rources lo be preuy much identical... diffcrenm.
of light and dark fringes - see Figure 4. You should use monochromatic,
Tip: Thts is often
coherent light (such as laser light - see page 213) . What is two-source interference? • Be able to describe
constructive
called LhP. single-slit Tvw'O-source interierence is when the waves from l\\ro sources interfere to
experiment - you'll Monochromatic light is lighl of a single w.ivelenglh, and so a single in 1erference
colour. If you use light tha t isn't monochromatic, different wavelengths will produce a pattern. In order to get clear interference pallems, two or more and desuuaivc
come across the sources must be coherent {page 209). If a light source is coherent and in
double-slit experiment diffrad by difforem amounts and the pauern produced i.von't be very clear. interference in 1erms
on page 216. phase, the troughs and crests line up - this causes constructive interference orpath difference.

Mit ~
a nd a very intense beam. • LJnders1and 1wo-
sourcc interference

Ii Ill
diffraCJkm pauern on d1(~ .i.<"..rf.'(~,,
Tip: \oo need to be with sound and
careful using lasers.
Laser ~ams arc very
powerful and could
lig/11
Ill microwaves.
• Know 1echniqucs
and procedures used
damage yoor cyesigh~
so you should take
precautions when
using them (page 21 ~).
IFigure 4: IJiffraciion patiem from
for superposition
experiments
involving sound and
microwaves (PAGS).
monochrotnalic light through a single slk Figure 1: Coherent and non-coherent light sources.
Specification
The pancm has a bright central fringe with alternating dark and bright Interference still happens when you're observing ·waves of different Reference 4.4.3
fringes on either side of it You can alter 1he amount of diffraccion by changing wavelength and frequency - but it happens in a jumble. If the sources are
the widlh of the slit. The narrower lhe sli1, the wider the diffraction pattern. coherent, clear patterns of constructive and destructive interference a re seen.
The fringe pauem is due to inLerference: Whether you get constructive or destructive in1erference al a point depends
The bright fringes are due to constructive interference, \vhere waves on how much further one wave has travelled lhan the other wave Lo get 10 Exam Tip
from across the width of the slil arrive al the screen in phase. thal point. The amount by which the palh lraVelled by one wave is longer In exam qoosdons,
than 1he path travelled by the olher wave is called lhe path difference. the tv.'O sources will
The dark fringes are due to t04.al destructive interierence, where waves almost ~nainly be in
from across the width of the slit arrive at the screen completely out of Al any poinlS a n equal distance from tv.'O sources in phase you will get
phaso. The fixed phase
phase. constructive inlerference (see Figure 2). These points a rc known as maxima. difference will be zero.
You also gel constructive interfere nce at any poinl \'\'here the path difference is
You can do a similar experiment using a \vhitc light source a nd a set a whole number of wavelengths. At these poinls the two \vaves a re in phase
of colour fillers instead of the laser. The size of the slil can be kepi constant
a nd reinforce each other, which is \vhy you gel constructive inlcrferencc.
Rgure S: IJiffraaion of while the Vi.-avelength is varied by putting d ifferent colour filters over the slit.
a laser beam throogh Al points where the path differe nce is half a wavelength, one and a
a sjng/e s/iL half wavelengths~ two and a half wavelengths. etc., the \Vaves arrive exactly
Practice Question - Application out oi phase and you get total destructive interference. These poinl's are knmvn
Q1 A water wave with a wavelenglh of 2 m passes through a gap lhat as minima.
is S cm wide. Will diffraction effcccs be noticeable? Explain your Tip: Path difference
an SWCf. CJNJStrudive Path difft.vmt-T' = ,\ and phase difference are
Desttudivc Path diffL'fcnre = ; differcm Lhing.s.
No path diffr.renre The iwo waves below
l@NH3:1.-llt~fJU.J.Q
CJNJStrudive
ffll:t:i4hil Desttudivc Path diffL'fcnre = ~ are in phase - they
Q1 What sort of waves diffract? have O phase diffCM'ence,
C:onsrructivc Pal.h difkrr!flre = >. but their pa1h difference
Tip: The wavelength of (~2 Explain, in rerms of diffraction, why someone stood next to an open is >..
sound waves is of the doorway can be heard from the other side but not seen.
~~r\N\J\·
Rgure 2: 1\vo-source inwference.
order ol 1 m. Q3 What is monochromatic light?
Constructive interference occurs \vhen: :?~ g~
:
Q4 Describe the diffraction pauem produced when monochromatic light
is shone through a single narro\v sliL path difference = n >. (where n = 0, 1, Z, ...)
~k ,. . ,. .
!(
~gr VV\
Total destrudivc interference occurs when:
. ( ln + I )>. = (n 1
path difference =
2
I
2)>.

if' Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves EJE A


Figure 3: rwo--sou1ce
interference of water waves
demott.Hr.ltC:xf by H\'O
dippers vibrating ar the same
frequency in a ripple tank.
Tip: Yoo could use
a microphone and
an oscilloscope to
investigate how
in1erierenm varies with
position along 1his line.
Tip: YOU may still hear
some sound al lhe
quictes1 poin1s due to
sound being refleacd
off walls and around
the room.
Tip: Make sure you
take all necessary safety
precautions when doing
1hese rwo experiments
and carry out a risk
assessmen1 firsc.
Module 4: Section 2 Waves
Example -f1tHl$ ifl1 d Tip: As usual, strong
Two coherent sources of sound waves each with a wavelength of 1.5 m are signals ocrur where the
set up so that they produce interference fringes. When the path difference t strong two sources interfere
is 3.75 m, would you expect constructive or destructi\•e interference?
~)
I wruk constructively and weak
Find oul hmv many times the \vaveie ngth goes into the path difference: signals oca.ir where 1.hc
I strong t\vo sources interfere
~';:1) deslructively.
T') ~ 2 .5.
3.75
l!Jn.<miuer
So the pa th difference is 25 x A so the interference is destructive. cone.f
J SI.rang
Figure S; Two-source interferooce wilh microvraves.
Demonstrating two-source interference Practice Questions -Application -.
ltS easy to demonstrate t·\vo-source interference for either
sound or water because they've go1 rela1ively large
~"""""""'
ACTmn S
1 Q1 A wave, W, is produced a nd looks as fo llows:
I
wavelengths. This makes it easier to detect interference ~
patterns. The trick for getting them coherent and in phase is to use the same
oscillator lo drive both sources. For \Yater, one vibralor drives t\VO dippers
(see Figure 3). For sound, one amplifier is connected to two loudspeakers (see
Figure 4) .
a) Draw a second wave which is in phase ·with wave W. Tip: If you're struggling.
go bade 10 page
where the path difference bet\vecn them is~· 208 10 refresh your
b) Draw another wave which also has a path difference o f memory about phase.
~ but which is completeJy out of phase with ·wave W.
Path differem.:c = i Q2 Two whereni sources produ~-e microwaves which have a
No palh differe1H:e
wavelength of 12 cm. At a point where the path difference is
42 cm, would lhere be conS1ructive or destructive interference?
Path diffen!l1ce = ~
Path diffCJem::e = A I Pf f$ H3:ltt lll~?1H.],b ffl I :i:f.kiil
Q I Whal must be true of two wave sources if they produce a clear,
standard two-source inlerference pauern?
Rgure 4: Demonstrau'ng two-source intClfefence of sound waves.
Q2 What is meant by the path difference of two wa\lt!S?
QJ For two coherent, in phase waves, a t what palh differe nces will you
In Figure 4, an interference pattern is produced a t the black line. see constructive interference?
You can observe this by having someone walk in a straight line, parallel to Q4 How can you create two coherent sources of sound waves?
the line of the speakers. They w ill observe areas of loud and quiet sound.
QS Describe an experiment to produce and observe an interfere nce
Construc1ive interference (al p.d. = n>J causes the sound to increase in pattern \Vith sound waves.
volume, so you get a loud a.rt>..a. Destructive interference causes the sound to
Q6 Explain what you would observe if you moved a microwave probe
decrease in volume, so you get a quiet a rea.
in a straighl line parallel lo the line of l\vo coherent micro\vave
To see inlerference patterns with microwaves, you can use two transmiuers..
microwave transmitter cones attached 10 the same signal generator (see
Figure 5 on the next page). You also need a microwave receiver probe {like
the one used in the stationary waves experiment on page 225). As you
move lhe probe along the palh of the orange arrow in Figure S, you'll get an
ahernaling pattern of strong and weak signals.
Module 4: Section 2 Waves WU A
 Leaming Objectives: 1o. Young's Double-Slit The double-slit formula
The fri nge spacing (x), wa11elength (>.), spacing between slits (a} and the
• Know tcctmjques
and procedures used
for superposition
Experiment distance between 1he slits and screen (D) (sec Figure 3) are all related by
Young's double-slit formula, i.vhich worl<s for all \vaves when a <<D.
experiments involving Just like for sound and micrO\vaves, l\VO sources of light can interfete.
light (l'AGS}. a = spadng between / x = fringe spadnlJ- 1hc dista~ce
It~ much harder Lo produce and observe clear diffraction pauerns though. s/itsinm ~ ¥ bel~'(C('ntwoad1accntmax1ma
• Be able 10 explain ). _ ax or nvo adjacent minima in m
Youngs doublMlit
experiment using
visible light.
Double-slit interference of light
To see two-source interference with light, you can either (~ s ) ..\ = wavelength in m / - TJ ..___ D = distancv OO'w tm
slilS and saecn in m
Exam Tip
You need to be able 10
• Beable 1ousc;\ = ~ use l\VO cohe rent lighl sources o r you can shine a laser through two slits. use and rea11ange this
double formula, but you don't
for all waves where Remember, a laser is a source or monochromatic and c..'Oherenl light.
sift need to memorise. it or
a<<D. This means you can effectively create t\.YO coherent light sourr.es by shining a

• Know tcdmiqucs
and procedures used
to determine the
wavelength o f light
using a double-slit
(PAGS).
Specification
Reference 4.4.3
Tip: Create a risk
assessmen1before doing
1his experiment and
follow all ol the laser
safP.1y prccauiions given
on lhis pa~.
Tip: Remember, light
lhat isn'1monochroma1ic
is made up of different
wavelengths of light,
which will diffract by
different amounts and
makes the fringes much
less clear.
CAUTION
~~WI! 01'09IM
Figure 2: Laser warnins
signs should be used to ak.vt
people of !he danger oflaser
beams.
~:
know h<M' 10 deriV(! il.
single laser through a mounted card containing two slits (known as a
single-source double-slit set.up}.
The slits have to be aboul the same size as the wavelength of the laser
light so that it is d iffracted (see page 21 1). This makes the ligh1 from the slits
act like l\vo coherent poinl sources. You get a pattern or light and dark fringes,
depending on whe the r constructive or destructive interference is taking place i - --
- see Figure 1. Figure 3: A diagram to show a, x and /J from the doubJe.slit formula.
You might sec this experiment referred to as "Young's double-slit You can derive lhis equation by considering 1hc palh difference
experiment" - Thomas Young was the first person to carry it out, a lthough be1ween the waves fro m each slit when the light interferes constructively to
he used a source of while ligh1 instead of a laser. He then came up with an form lhe first brigh1 fringe - see Figure 5. The path difference between the
equa1ion to work out 1he wavelength of the light from the experiment {p.217). lighl waves a t 1hc first brighl fringe is-\.
.'>':rt.>en
double D
t;fj1 first blight
dP.sttoc1iVf.! intcr!ercm:t.! ffinge
q
~:
fl.ll. = ~ rlarl< frinb'<l
u Jnstructive intt.¥fmt.>nc:e
p.,J. = 0 _. light frin1;e Rgure 4: A laser beam
passing lhrough a double
uN1strtJ(_:t.ive interference~ .slit and iornting a diffraction
p.d. = >. -.. fight frinboe pattetn on a screen.
Rgure 1: T•vo-source imelference of laser light.
Figure 5: Ught waves from each sfit of a double sNt, with a path d;ffe.rence Tip: Figure 5 is 001 10
fr you \vere to use a white lighl source instead of a coherent of A. interfering to foan the first bright fringe of the diflraa.ion pauern. scale, x would have 10
monochromatic laser, the d iffraction panern would be less intense, with wider be much bigg« than
maxima. The pattern would also contain diricrcnt colours with a central white Look al the green and purple triangles in the diagram - the angle 0 a for the pattern 10 be
fringe, because white light is made up of a mixture or frequencies (see is lhe same in each triangle. Using SOH CAH TOA on the green triangle: easily visible.
page 222). sin O-=- opposite palh difference ),
hypo1eneuse sht scparallon a
laser safety precautions
Using SOH CAH TOA on the purple triangle:
Working with lasers is very dangerous because laser light is focused inlo a
very direct, powerful beam of monochromatic light To make sure you don'L tanO -= opposi1c = x Tip: You don't rlOCld IO
adiacen1 U know this deriva1ion
cause damage while using lasers, make sure you:
- ifs just to help you
Never shine the laser towards a person. By small angle approximations: tan (J ~ 0 a nd sin Q ~ 0. Remember, this is unders.r.md where the
Are wearing laser safety goggles. only true if 0 is in radians. equation comes from.
Avoid shining the laser beam at a reflective surface. So we can say that tanO == sinO for small angles.
Ha"" a warning sign on display (see Figure 2 ). f;=~ so>. = '/J
Turn the laser off when i1's not needed.

i'f' Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves WJ f


Tip: As wiLh all
experimems, you
should carry out a risk
assessnmnt beiore you
start.
Tip: Measuring across
several fringes will
reduce the uncenain1y.
Lg. if you measure the
width of one fringe as
1.0 ± 0.1 cm, then tho
percentage un<roaimy
is 10%. But ilyoo
measure the widlh ol l O
fringes as 10.0 ± 0.1 an,
lhen the average fringe
width is 1.0 :t 0.01 cm
{you divide the result
and the uncenaimy by
th<! number of lringesl,
so tht? percentage
uncenainty is only 1.0%.
Tip: Don't g<!t confused
here. Th<!re are 8 brigh1
spots (maxima), but only
7 gaps (fri ng<! widths)
between them. So you
need to divide the total
width tJy 7 and not 8.
-.. .
Finding wavelength using the double.slit formula
You can investigate this formula using the double-slil Sj
r MJ11CD0111.
apparatus on page 216. You'll need to measure D ~
and x using a ruler, and a should be printed on the doub le slit. "-
Since the \'\'3velength of light is so small, you can see from the formula
tha1a high ralio o r Dia is needed to make the fringe spacing big e nough to
see. You <'.an use A = 7j to calcula te the wavelength of the light.
The fringes arc usually so tiny lhal it's very hard to gel an accurate
value of x. It's easier to measure across several fringes then divide by the
number of fringe widlhs between them.
Example -i$ffiij;j§15
The maxima of an interfe.rence pattern produced by shining a laser
light through a double slit onto a screen is shown in Figure 6.
The slits were 0.20 mm apart and the distance bet·ween the slits
and the screen was 15 m. Find the wavelength of the laser light.
Rgure 6: A double-slit interference pauetn.
You can use Young's double-slil formula to find the wavelength (,\).
But fir.1 you need to find the fringe spacing or one fringe (x). Seven
fringe widths in Figure 6 have a spacing of 0.28 m, so one fringe
widlh has a spacing of ~ = 0.040 m.
Substitute Lhe information you kno\v into the fo rmula:
x = 0.040 m, o = 0.00020 m a nd D = 15.0 m.
), = ilJ = 0.040 X 0 .00020 5.333... x 10 '= 5.3 X10 ' m (lo2s.i.)
You can investigate a range o r relationships using Young's doublc-slil
experimenL Try:
Varying D to see how it affects x.
Young's double-slit experiment {over 100 years later} provided the necessary
evidence. h showed that light could bolh diifract (through the lwo na rrow
slits) a nd interfere {to form lhe interference pallem on lhe screen).
•4rt4.t3:i•t•t:i1"·'·€A.·mti~
·---·1 o!f!t!loi.,,.o; 1..1,..111o'"''----~-
0 1 A blue.violet laser wilh a wavelength or 450 nm is shone lhrough a
double-sli1 system to produce an interference pauem on a screen, as
shown in Figure 8. The screen is 12.0 m from the slits and the slits Tip: A nanometre (nm) I
.::.__j
is equal to 1 x 1O !J
arc 0.30 mm aparL
Figure 8: A doubJe.sJit imerfcrence pattern.
a) Give one property of a laser lhal makes it better than while light in
this experiment
b) Where are light and da rk fringes produced?
cl Find the fringe spacing. x.
d) Find the value oi y.
Q2 A laser with >. = 615 nm is shone through a double slit 10
pcoduce a diffraction pattern on a screen wilh fringes 1.29 an
apart. If lhe slits are 0.1 1 mm apart, find the diSlance, D, between
lhe slils and I.he screen.
1:zm . ra~1.u1~41u.1 .µ
Q1 Hmv can you create two coherent sources of light \vaves?
Q2 Describe an experiment lo measure the wavelength
of a laser light source by using a double slit
QJ Explain how Young's double-slil experimenl
suggested that light was a wave.

- ~
1~ ,,
•
Rgure 7: Coloured lenses
can be used lo limit lhe
range of wave/ei1glhs from a
light source.
Tip: It was later
discovered that light has
propenies of both waves
ilOll panides. Soo pages
241-244 fOf more on
w:rve-.paniclc duaJity.
Varying a by using dirferem docJble-slit systems to see how it affects x.
Varying 1he wavele ngth/colour of the light 10 see how it affects x.
You should find 1ha1all or these change x in line wi1h >. =iff ·
Evidence for the wave nature of light @~
Towards the end of the 17th cenlury, two important theories of light ~
were published - one by Isaac Newton a nd the other by a chap
called Huygens. Newton's theory suggested that light was made up or tiny
particles, which he called 'corpuscles". And Huygens pul forward a lheory
using waves.
The corpuscular theory could explain reflection and refraction, but
diffraction and interference arc both uniquely wave properties. If it could
be shown 1ha1 light showed interference pa uem:s, thal would help seule the
argument once and for all.

•EJ~l·J
. 11 Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves w; pM
 learning Objective: 11 . Diffraction Gratings Determining the wavelength of light
[~.....,,..._
----~]
5
• Know tcctmjques You can find lhc wavelength of a light source from the
and procedures used No"v you know about double-slit expetiments, it's time to look at what interference pattern produced when it passes through a . ::::" .
to determine Lhe happens 1,vhen lhere .11e more lhan nvo slits. IJjffraction gratings ate d iffradion grating. It's jus1 like Young's double-slit experiment,
wawl<!nglh of light patticularly hiJJJdy for analysing ligh1 from slats. p.216-219, but you use a diffraction graling instead of a mounted double-slit card.
using a diffraction
grating (PAG5). Using the fringe width, x, and the distance to the screen, D, the angle
Specification
Interference with a diffraction grating the lst order fringe makes with the zero order line can be calculated using
You can carry out single-source, double-sli1 type experiments (sec p.216) using small angle approximations. Figure 4: A laset beam is

I
Reference 4.4.3 split into zero ordet and
more lhan two equally spaced slits. You get basically the same shaped pallem
first otdet maxima by a
as for two slits - but Lhe brighl bands are lxigh1er and na rro\vcr and the dark diffrac1ion grating.
diffraction grating n
a reas between are darker, so the interference patlem produced is sharper. with slits, d apan

Ja.~r
A diffraction grating coniains lots of equally spaced slits very close
together and so can be used to do lhis (see Figure 1}. When monochromatic
light (all of the same wavelength) is passed through a diffraction grating
light of wavelength A ••••••I"'--'----' n =0 x
Tlp: Make sure
you follow the lase<
/) safety precautions on
with hundreds of slits per millimetre at normal incidence (righl angles to the
page 216.
grating), the interference pattern is really sharp because the re are so many Rgure S: The /st order maxin1a for light passing through
beams reinforci ng the paltem. Sharper fringes make f<>f more accurale a diffraction grating onto a screen.
measurements.
llp: The slit separation
For small angles where 0 is in radians; tanO~O and 1.an O= fJ. so: is oflen wriuen on 1.hc
slide frame.

llp: IF muhipl<! orders

The slit separatioo d, for the diffraction grating is usually given. If are visible, you oould
1

1he grating has N slilS per metre, then the slit spacing. d, is just 1/N metres. uy repeating your
measurements for
lr you know the slit separation, d, what order maximum you're observing.. n, diffQrcm orders of n.
a nd the angle between this maximum and the incident tigh~ 0, you can find
Figure 1: laser Hght passing through a diffraction grating. the wavelength oi the incident ligh1 using this equaLion:
d -=- distance between , / n =- order of maximunr
For monochromatic lighl, all the maxima in the diffraction pattern
slits in m - - - . . d sin 0 = n>.
formed a re sharp lines. This means the distance bet\veen the maxim.a can
/ - >. = wavelength oflight
be easily measured {fringe width). There's a line of maximum brightness at O =- angle 10 lhe normal made source in nr
the centre called the zero order line - which is in lhe same direction as the l1y the maxirnum in °or radians
beam incidenl on the grating (see Figure 3). The lines just either side of the
central one are called first order lines. The n<>.xt pair out are called second
order lines, and so on. Exan1ple -i$§!5;1@iij
.lrdorckr (n =- -1) Green laser light of wavelength 5.00 • 10-' m is lransmitted through a
perpendicular diffraction grating with 3.00 • 10' slits per metre. At whal
Rgure 1: Interference
2ndcmic::r(n =2) angle to the normal are the second order maxima seen?
There are 3.00 x 1OS slits per metre, so the slit spacing is:
parterns produced by a laser l st<mkr (n -=- I )
going mrough a diffraaion Ja.W...>r .'i<JU((:C
d= _ ~ , = 3.33... x 10 •m Tip: Make sure that
3 00 10
grating (top! and a doubfe.
sD1 se<-up (bo11omJ. I D ; lst<)lck!r (n = 1)
Rearrange the diffraction grating equation, d sin 0 = n~ for 0, a nd remember
n = 2, as it's the second order \Ve're after. So:
your calailator is
working in the correct
i1H:idcnr heam mode, depending on
( light of waVf.~/ength ).) whether you wan1
2nd on/er (n = 2) o = sin '(~) = sin •( 2 ;;~~/ ~0, ')) 1 degrees or radians.
llp: lie careful he<e - You'll need the buuon
.JuJ"r<ler (n =- 3) = 17.457 ... = 17.S"(to3s.f.) for sin • (inv<!rsc sin}.
Lhe space between slits
is d, but for doublc-slil
experimems it was a. Figure 3: The order ofmaxima for fight passing through a diffraction grating.

Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves W1J


Tip: Coarser jusl means
fev.·er slits in a given
width.
Figure 7: The surface of
a CD contains many tiny
grooves lhal cause it w acl in
a similar way'° a aillraclion
gr.1u·ng. When white light is
shone on it, a spt'Ctrum
is visible.
11'1 Module 4: Section 2 Waves
From this equation you can draw a few conclusions:
If>.. is bigger, sin O is bigger, and so O is bigger. This means that the larger
12. Stationary Waves Learning Objectives:
• KnCM' the similarities
the wavelength, the more lhe pattern \Viii spread out So far you've bee.n looking at progressive waves- - \v.JVes LIMt move. and differences
If dis bigger, sin O is smaller. This means that the coarser the grating, the Nu.v it's lime for stationary \Vaves - waves lhat stay where lhey ate. 00-wecn stationary
less the pattern \viii spread out. and progressive waves.
Values of sinO greater than 1 are impossible. So if for a certain n you gel What is a stationary wave? • Bo able draw graphical
a resull of more than 1 for sin 0, you know· that thal order doesn't exisL A stationary (standing) wave is the superposition of two progressive waves representations of a
\Vith the same wavelength a nd frequency, moving in opposite d irections. So Slationary \V3VC.
a sta1ionary wave has all lhc same properties as a progressive \WVe, however • Know what nodes and
The diffraction of white light unlike progressive waves, no energy is transmined by a stationary wave. anlinodcs are.
While light is really a mixture of colours. If you diffract white light through You can demonstrate stationary waves by auadiing a vibration • Understand 1he idea
a diffraction grating lhcn the patterns due to different waveleng1hs within the that the separation
transducer (an oscillator) at one end of a stretched string with the other end
whrtc light a re spread ou1 by different amounts. Each orde r in the pauem between adjacent
fixed. The transducer is given a wave frequency by a signal genera1or a nd nodes (or aminodes)
becomes a spe<:trum, wilh red on the outside and violet on 1he inside. creates lhal wave by vibrating the slring. is cqua I 10 >J2., where
The zero order maximum stays \vhite because all the wavelengths just pass ). is the wavelength ot
straight through. The wave genera ted by the transducer is renected back a nd forth.
For most frequencies the resuhanl pauern is a jumble. However, if the 1.hc progressive wave.
I I Ill
transducer happens to produce an exacL number of \\'3ves in the time it lakes • Know what is meam
~ ~·
for a wave lo get to the end and back again, then the original and reflected by lhc rundamernal
waves reinforce each olher. mode. of vibration
{1sl harmonic) and
The frequencies at which this happens arc called resonant freq uencies
the harmonics.
and It causes a stationary \vave where the overall pattern doesn1t move along
• Know the stationary
second first zero order fitsl second - it just viOOnes up and dovm, so 1he string forms oscillating ' loops' - wa\'e pauerns for a
otdcr order (whi1e) order on:Jer S<.'<' Figure 1. stretched suing.
Rgure &: The diffraction pattern for whire lighr. These stat..ionary waves are 1ransverse, so each particle vibrates at • Dcmonstra1e
right angles to the string. Nodes are where the amplitude of the vibra1ion understanding of
As1ronomers and chemists of1en need to study spectra to help identify is zero - they just stay perfectly still. Antinodes are points of maximum stationary (sianding)
elements. They use diffraction gratings rather than prisms because they're ampli1ude. The separation between any two adjacent nodes (or aminodes) is wav<?S using sue1chr.d
more accurate. equal to >J'l, where >.. is the ·wavelength of Lhe progressive wave. slrings, air rolumns
and microwaves.
• Know the sta 1ionary
Node ........ ....... • ••• Notle ~--i--- W3\'P. pauerns for air
, •• ~
Ql An orange laser beam wilh a Wdvelength of 590 nm is t.ransmitted ... ..., •• l\ntirnxfe .... ••••
.. columns in closed and
open tubes.
lhrough a perpendicular diffraction grating with 4.5 x 1O); slits
Or.ollato< • Know techniques and
per me1re. procedures usOO 10
Figure 1: A srationarywaW? osdllating on a string.
a) At \vhat angle to the normal is lhe lhird order maximum seen? dclermine the speed
Use the diffraction grating fonnula dsinO = n~ where a is the slit of sound in air by
spacing, 0 is the angle to lhe normal made by the maximum, n is formation of stationary
the orde r of maximum a nd >.. is lhe wavelength of I.he light source.
Resonant frequencies waves in a resonance
A stationary wave is only formed at a resonant frequency (when an exact tube (PAGS).
b) Use the diffrac1ion grating fonnula 10 show whether there number of half wavelenglhs fits on the string). There are some special names Specification
\Viii be a fourth order maximum.
for each resonant frequen<..)'. Reference 4.4.4
c) A red laser beam is used instead with a wavelength of 700 nm.
The fundamental mode of vibration
Describe what \Viii happen lo the interference pattern,
and explain why. The standing wave in Figure 2 is vibrating at the lowest possible resonant Exam Tip
frequency, C'.alled the fundamental mode o( vibration or the first harmonic. II you're asked to sketch
It has one "loop" with a node a1 each end. One half wavelength fits onto lhe a sl'anding V.'3\1?, make
Practice Questions - Fact Recall s1ring. and so the wavelength is double the length of the string. s.ure you make it clear
where the nodes and
Ql Describe an experiment you could carry out lo measure the
wavelength of a monochromatic light source using a diffraction
graling and an observation screen.
Q2 Why are spectra formed when white light passe< through
f ;;;";:;;;;;;;;;;;\~'.~lli~~~;;;;;;;;;;;;;:;:;;;m.;Ki•
, l\ntinode
Osdlfalt:N
aminodcs are. You don'L
need to draw loads of
lines like in Figure 2,
just show wha1 shape
the string is vibrating in.
a diffraction gra1jng?
Rgure 2: A stalionary ~Vi:JVll vibrating at its first harmonic.
Module 4: Section 2 Waves W1'.R A

Rgure 4: A stationary wave
vibrating at its first~ second,
third and fourth harmonics
(going from top 10 bortomJ.
Tip: At the a"' harmooic,
1he number of aminodes
is equal 10 a, and Lhc
number of nodes is
equal toa + 1.
Tip: At the r harmonic,
~ wavelcnglhs will fit on
the string.
Tip: If you're gr.·en Ille
first harmonic frequency,
you can work ouL the
resonant frequency fa t
the at" harmonic with
I= a x first harmonic
frequency.
Module 4: Section 2 Waves
Second harmonic If the in:s!rumcnt has a dosed end, a node will form the re. You get
Figure 3 shows the second harmonic. II has t\vice the frequency the lowest resonanl frequency when the length, /, or the pipe is a quarter
or the rundamental mode or vibralion. There are two "'loops" with wavelength. Antinodes form al the open ends of pipes.
a node in the middle and one at each e nd. Two half wavelengths
fit on the string, so the wavelength is the length of the string.
~ --...!:!!.."f~····="·------·--······.lfocle
~--- ............ ·······~ ---"' - - - - 1=-} - - --
Oscillatnt Rgure 7: An air column vibrating at the fundamental mode of
Rgure 3: A srau·onary wave vibrating at its second harmonic. vibration in a pipe with one dosed end.
Third harmonic If both ends arc open, there are antinodes at both ends. You get the
The third ham1onic is three times the frequency of the firs! harmonic Rgure 6: The individual
lowest resonant frequency when the length, I, of the pipe is a half wavelength.
- see Figure 5. One and a half wavelengths fit on the Siring. pipes in a set ofpanpipes
are cut to diffelent fenglhs
Ant.inode Node Anrioode
to give them different
~------~k speaker'£(]
' ====~~::::--t-::::::=====
__;:;:,;:::.___
' lundamenr~11 frequencies.
~~~· ===-___:=== Tip: Remember,
()s,r_:iJ/attx
Figure 5: A stationary ~vave vibrating a.t ;ts third harmonic. - ----/=+ -----
Fig ure 8: An air column vibrating at the fundamental mode of vibfau·on
the sound waves in
wind instruments are
loogitudinal - they
You can have as many harmonics as you llke - a n extra loop and a n
in an open-endod pipe. don't actually look like
extra node arc just added with each one, the number of>. that fit goes up by 1h, these diagrams.
and the frequency increases by the value or the frequency of the first harmonic. All harmonics have nodes al closed ends and anl'inodes at open
For example, Figure 4 shows the fourth harmonic of a stationary wave. ends. For example, the se<."Ond harmonic for the open-.ended pipe is shown
Example -'·t§! fi1fl1i in Figure 9.
A banjo string vibrates with a first harmonic frequency of 29 0 Hz.
Find the frequency of vibration of the string at the third hannonic.
The third harmonic is three times the frequen<.y of the first harmonic, so:
= =
f 290 x 3 870 Hz +------ l = A ----~~
A violin string is vibrating at fives times t~ frequency of its first harmonic.. Figure 9: An air column vibrating at lhe second harmonic
How many wavelengths fi t onto the string? in an open-ended pipe.
The fi fth harmonic is made up of five ' loop<'. Eadl loop is Vi>. long.
5 x Vi = 2.S. so there are l\1110 and a ha If wavelenglhs on the string. Tip : You could do a
Stationary microwaves
similar cxpcrimcm
You can set up a slationary \vave by reflecting a microwave beam al a using a loud speaker
metal plate (see Figure 10). The superposition of the wave and its reflection by moving around a
produces a stationary Vi.iave. You can find the nodes and an1inodes by
Other examples of stationary waves moving the probe between the transmiucr and reflecting plale. The meter
microphone connected
to a mmer.
Stretched strings or loudspeaker receives no signal al the nodes and maximum signal al the
Jusl like the strings in the demonstration on lhe previous page, transverse a ntinodes.
r
5'ationary waves form on the strings of stringed insarumcnts like violins and Tip : Th<! suing
guitars. Your finger or the bow sets the string vibrating at the point of contact.
Waves are sent out in both directions and reflected back at both ends. mmal plate * pmbe mkmwaw.
demonstra1ion on
page 223 gives )1>U
Air columns _ Q transmlUE-~r
the best idea of wtia.l
sta1ionary waves
actually look like, but
Longiludinal stationary \.Vaves form in a wind instrument or other air column.
If a source of sound is placed at the open end or a flute, piccolo~ oboe or --"------.IT,--L"-,-100-,.-.,.-.;..o..-
rk>•ut•l•speakcr this experimenL also
sho\vs the presence of
other column of air, there will be some frequencies ror which resonance
stuionary waves.
occurs and a stalionary wave is set up. Rgure 10: Appatarus fOI demonst1ating stationary miaowaves.
Module 4: Section 2 Waves . ....; A
 Measuring the speed of sound
You can use the knmvn wavelenglh of a stalionary \\'a.Ve
r.....
::~:c:' sl
l,'. ~
I Arf4,t3:1.. 11t:?1.t.l.µgloi'111.f®.;o
• '"·11!tfiiitiii.
·0110"~·1 1,11.•-------
01 For the ssationary wave in 1he diagram belo\V, find the wavelength.
Tip: Make sure you in an air column Lo CJkulale the speed of sound in air. ..__ _ _ _ _ bm• - - - - - -•
carry out lhis experiment
safely - you shoold
Creale a closed-end pipe by placing a hollow tube in lo a measuring
cylinder of water (see Figure 11). Choose a tuning fork and note dovm the
fiXP.<J .·:.·.·-·.·~·::::,...,. •/::.·.·:.·::.·.\· .·.·.·::.::.·:.::."' flxOO
clear up any \Yaler frequency of sound it produces (it'll be stamped on the side of il). Q2 The diagram below represents a stationary wave on a suing which is
spillages 1hat occur
10 prevcm anybody Gently tap the tuning fork and hold it just above the hollow tube. fixed at A and driven by an oscillator at B.
slipping on a wei floor. The sound waves produced by the fork travel down the tube and get reflected 11_,i,::::::.:::::..·:::::::.:::::::::::::..·:.•..~ IJ
(and form a node:) al lhe air/water surface. Move the tube up and down until
you find the shortest distance bel\Veen the top of the tube and the water level a) The lenglh of the string AB is 2.5 m and the frequency
that Lhe .sound from the fork resonates at (when the sound is at its loudest).
At this poin1 1he frequency of the sound wave is equal to the lo\vesc resonant
frequency of the closed tube.
of the wave is 100 Hz.
Calculate the speed of the waves forming the stationary wave.
b) If the wave is now vibrating at a frequency of 200 Hz, how many
Tip: Remember v = D.. J
Just like with a ny closed pipe, the length of the tube al its lowest wavelenglhs would fit on the suing? Whal is ch e name for 1his
Tip: The amioodt? of resonanl frequency?
resonant frequency is a quarter of the wavelength of the stationary sound
the \Yavt? actually forms QJ A studcnl holds one end of hollmv tube in water and uses a tuning
wave (see page 225). Once you know lhe frequency and wavelength of the
sliglltly above the top of

y
stationary sound wave, you can \VOrk ou1 the speed of sound {in air), v, using fork 10 send sound waves into Lhe tube. She moves the tube up and
the tube. You'd add an
'end oorrcction value' the equation v = o.. down in the wa1er until she finds the lowest resonant frequency of
on 10 take this into the wave. What is the length of the pipe equal to in terms of lhe
account, but you don't
need 10 worry abom iL •==:io-= turnns lotk
wavelength of lhe sound \\<aves?
A speaker is used lo set up a stationary sound
wave in a pipe which is open at both ends.
The wave is a1 the lowest fundamental frequency
and has a wavelength ol 32 m. ~last 0.2 m
of lhe p ipe is then blocked up as shown in the 0.2 m !
diagram on the right. Again, the speaker is used
to set up a scationary sound wave in lhe b locked le
pipe at the lowest fundamental frequen<.y. Not to_
sca> J
water Calculate the v.'3.velength o( Lhe new stationary wave.
hollow plastic tvbe
measuring
cylinder iijff$H3:i• lll~?1H.1,b tGl;<:i+ill
Q I What is a stationary wave?
Q2 Whal is the difference between stationary and progressive waves in
Figure 11: 11ppararus for measuring lhe speed of sound. terms of energy i.ransfer?
QJ Describe what a resonant frequency of a string is.
Figure 12: Tuning forks
Repeat the experiment Ylith differem tuning forks and calculale an Q4 What is the distance bet\vcen t\vo adjacent nodes on a stacionary
produce a vtvy pure sound average value of v from your results. wave?
at one frequency. Q5 What is the fundamental mode of vibration?
Example -ff,§1$ "§'5 Q6 Sketch a string vibrating at its second hannonic and label the
A student conducts an experiment lo measure the speed of sound. positions of all nodes and antinodes.
He holds one end of a hollow tube in water and uses a. tuning fork to send Q7 Give an example or a way to observe sta1ionary microwaves.
sound waves with a frequency of 424 Hz into the tube. He finds that the
shortest distance between the water level and the top of the tube when the
sound is loudest is 20.1 cm. What is the speed of sound?
Wavelenglh = 4 x pipe length = 4 x 0.201 = 0.804 m
v = f), = 424 x 0.804 = 340.896 = 341 ms 1 (to 3 s.f.)

•E,~JJMI Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves En

 Section Summary
Make sure you know...
Exam-style Questions I
That a wave which carries e nergy without transferring a ny material is called a progressive wave.
What displacement, amplitude, wavelenglh, period, freq uency and phase difference mean for waves.
The nature of 1ransverse and longitudinal waves, and be able to draw graphical represenlations of eadi.
Two waves that are in phase and coherent interfere.
Ho\v to calculate the period of a wave using f =f. Which of the following could be correct?
How to determine the frequency of a wave using an oscilloscope. A The waves have a path difference of .>.and interfere destructively.
How to calculate wave speed using v =IA.
B The waves have a path difference of ~ and interfere constructively.
That the intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of ils amplitude and how to calculate it
. I =A. P C The waves have a path difference of 3.>. and interfere destructively.
usmg
\!\/hat the electromagnetic spectrum is and the properties of electromagnetic waves. D The waves have a path difference of 4.>. and interfere constructively.
The ordcts of magni1ude of the wavelengths of each of the seven categories of electromagnetic \vave4 (1 mark)
That plane polarised waves are waves thal only oscillale in one direction, and be able 10 describe
hO\V polarising effecls can be observed using light and microwaves.
That waves can be renected a nd refracted, and how to demonstrate their effects using a ripple tank. 2 Unpolarised white light is incident on two polarising filters placed one in front of the
That the refractive index of a material is the ratio bet\veen lhe spe:cd of ligh1 in a vacuum and the other. The transmission axes of the two filters are aligned horizontally, then one
5.
speed of light in tha1ma1eri.al, and how to calculate i1 using n = filter is gradually rotated. At what angle of rotation is all light blocked from passing
through the filters?
HO\v 10 use nsin O= constant and n,sinO, = n1 sin 01 to solve problems at a boundary belween ma1erials.
Ho\v to use ray boxes and transparent rectangular blod<s to inves1iga1e the refraction of light A 0°
That the cri1ical angle is 1hc angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction is 90". B 45°
How to use the equation sinC =~to calculate lhe critical a ngle of lighl at a material-air boundary. c 90°
How to use ray boxes and semi-circular blocks Lo investigate lotal internal reflection of light D 180 °
The principle of supc<position and how it can be illustrated graphically. (1 mark)
\+\/hat I.he terms interierence, phase difference a nd coherence mean.
How to describe constructive interference a nd deslructive interference in terms of phase difference.
That diffraction is the way tha1waves spread out as they pass through a narrow gap or go rouod 3 X-rays with a period of 1. 7 • 10-" ms travel through a vacuum.
obstacles, and how ii can be demonstrated using a ripple tank. What is the value of .>.?
That all waves can be diffracted a nd that diffraction effects become significant when the wavelength A 5.1 x 10-" m
is comparable 10 the gap widlh 1h;n a wave is travelling through.
B 1.76 x 1Cl"' m
Know whal the lerm path difference me.ans.
How to describe constructive interference and desLructive inlerferencc in terms of path difference. C 5.1 •1Cl-"m
How 10 carry out experiments using sound and microwaves to demonstrale supecposition. D 1.76 x 1Cl" m
(1 mark)
How visible light can be used to carry out Young's double-slit experimenl. a nd how this experiment
gave a classical confinnation of the wave-naLure of light.
That Young's double sli1 fonnula, ,\ =i/J• can be used for al I waves where a<< D.
4 A wave has an amplitude of 78 cm. The intens~y of the wave is reduced from
How lo determine the wavelength of light using a double-slit or using a diffraction grating. 0.42 wrn.o to 0. 11 wrn.o. Whal is the new amplitude of the wave?
The similari1ies and differences between stationary and progressive waves.
A 5.4 cm
How a stationary wave can be represented graphically.
What nodes and antinodes are and that the separalion between adjacenl nodes (or an1inodes) is ~V2. B 20cm
That the rcsonam frequencies at which stationary waves are formed a re called the harmonics, a nd C 152 cm
thal the lowest possible resonant frequency is the fundamental mode of vibration (1st harmonic). D 40cm
How lo demonstra1e stationary waves using stretched strings, air columns and micrmvavcs.
(1 mark)
The stationary wave pauems for a stretched string and air columns in closed and open 1ubes.
How 1he speed of sound in air can be found using stationary waves in a resonance tube.

•E,.~J-J
-11 Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves
 5 Fig 5.1 shows a graphical represenlation of a stationary sound wave in an air column. 7 A student is investigating diffraction patterns. He directs a laser beam through a

.-.-.-.- •.•••-.
double-slit system. where the slits are 0.15 mm apart and the screen is 7.5 m from

xxx
the slits. The interference pattern produced is shown in Fig 7.1.
Q14m

Fig 5.1
Fig 7.1
(a) What is the name for the resonant frequency displayed? (a) Find the wavelength of the laser beam.
(1 mark) (3 marks)
(b) The tube is 1.25 m long. Calculate the wavelength of the stationary wave. (b) Explain why the student used a laser and not a standard light source.
(1 mark) (2 marks)
(c)* Describe an experimenlal method that a student could use to measure the speed of (C) calculate the angle of the first order maxima if the same laser is shone
sound using the phenomenon of standing sound waves in air columns. through a diffraction grating wijh 2.55 x 1Cl' slits per metre.
Your answer should include a labelled diagram and one way to improve the (4 marks)
accuracy of the experiment.
(d) Describe the difference you would expect to see in the interference pattern if a
(6marks) diffraction grating was used instead of the double slit in this experiment.
(1 mark)
A scientist is testing a transmitter of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. He connects an
oscilloscope to the transmitter to display the EM wave being produced. A sketch of
the trace is shown in Fig 6.1. The timebase of the oscilloscope is set to 0.500 µsldiv. 8 Fig 8.1 shows two rays of light at a frequency of 5.00 x 10" Hz entering an optical
Volla1,>c fibre used for communications.

/ / dachfing

I j

1 I 1 I

"' "
lime
Flg6.1 Fig 8.1 not driWllll lo S<:ak
(a) Calculate the wavelength of the detected wave. You can assume the wave is (a) Light travels at 2.03 x 10' ms· • in the cladding.
travelling at the speed of light in a vacuum. Calculate the refractive index of the cladding.
(3 marks) (2 marks)
(b) Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does the wave belong to? (b) Find the refractive index of the core of the optical fibre.
(1 mark) (3 marks)
(c) The scientist connects the oscilloscope to a second transmijter. which produces (c) Find the wavelength of the light as it travels through the core.
EM waves wijh the same frequency and wavelength as tt\e first transmitter. but halt (3 marks)
the amplitude. The waves of both transmitters are displayed on the screen. The (d) Calculate the critical angle of the core-cladding boundary.
scientist notes that the wave from the second transmttter is 90° in front of the wave (2marks)
from the first transmitter. Sketch what the scientist sees on the oscilloscope screen.
(e) Explain why light ray A enters the cladding of the optical fibre.
(2marks)
(2 marks)
(d) Tile scientist measures the power of the first wave to be 15.2 W. (f) Describe what has happened to ray B, and explain why.
Calculate the power of the second wave.
(2 marks)
(2marks)
• The quality of your response will 00 assessed in this question.

W . 11;t1M Module 4: Section 2 Waves Module 4: Section 2 Waves

--i Module 4
Learning Objectives:
• Understand lhe
paniculate nature
(photon model) o/
electromagnetic
radiation.
• Know lhat a photon is
a quantum of energy
of electromagnetic
radiation.
• Know ho\'.' to
calculate 1hP. energy
of a photon, using
f =hfand [ = If·
• Know and be able to
use the ecoctronvolt
(cV) as a unit ot
energy.
Specification
Reference 4.5.1
Tip: The photon model
is needed to explain
I.he photoelectric e ffect,
which is on pages
237-240.
Tip: Thi:s is just the
wave speed equation
from pago 19 1.
Exam Tip
Ln 1.hc exam you'll
be given a da1a and
formulae booklet that
has these equations,
as well as 1he values
or cand h. Soyou
don't have to worry
about learning them
J Calculale 1he energy of a photon wilh a wavelenglh of 3.9 x 10--m.
- just make sure
you can use them.
•ll¥~flll Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics
The electronvolt
The e nergies involved when you're lalking aboul photons a re usually so tiny
thal it makes sense to use a more appropriate unit than the joule. So the
electronvoh (eVi is used.
When you accelerale an electron in a potential difference (p.154), it
1. The Photon Model transfers some elecuical potential energy{= e\I) into kinelic energy (= •hmv1).
You migh1 lhink Lhar light and all orher e/ecuomagnetic ~vaves .ue, ~veil, \vaves.
1
Bue you can use a pillticlc model called the phown model 10 describe them... • = charge ofo n e - eV- imv'- v = speedofthe
elecuon ;n C / \ elecuon in ms '
Photons
When Max Planck was inves1igating black body radiation ~
@""" V -= potmVaJ difference m = n1ass ofan Figure 1: flocuon tubes
(don't worry, you don't need to kno\v about lhis), he suggested that
bmween electrodes in v elecuon in kg arc used to produce and
accelerate ekx.uons.
electromagnetic {EM) \vaves can only be released in discrelc packets.
This mcanl that the energy carried by a wave could only be released in fixed The elcctronvoll is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an
'lumps' of energy, called qua nla. electron when it is accelerated through a potential difference of one volt.
So the value oi one electronvolt can be found using: Tip: To convcn energy
from elcctronvohs to
E.instcin went further by suggesting that EM waves (and the energy
they carry) can only exist in d iscrete pad<cts. He called these \vavc---packcts 1 clectronvoh =ex V = 1.60 x l 0 "C x 1 JC·' joules, just multiply ii
by 1.GO x 10 1'.
photons. One photon is one quantum of energy of electromagne1jc radiation.
To convert from joules
He believed that a photon acted as a neutral particle. He said LhaLil
1 eV = 1.60 x 1o " j to electronvolts, divide
would either transfer all or none of its energy when in1eracting with one other byl.(,Ox 10"
particle {this is called a one-to.one interaction). The energy, E, carried by one
of these photons had 10 be : Exan1ple -f jflifflif§1d
A photon has a frequency of 100 MHz.
E= energy ofo n e - E= hf -4-f = frequency of Tip: Prefixes like 'M'
Calculate the energy of lhe pholon in eV.
phoion in I / lighr in Hz are covered on page 32.
100 MHz= 100 x 10" = 1 x 10• Hz,
h -= Planck's constiJm Substitute f = 1 x 1O' Hz a nd h = 6.63 x 10 "Js into E = hf:
= 6.63 x 10"' Js
E = 6.63 x 10" x 1 x 10' = 6.63 x 10·" J
So, the higher the frequency of the clectromagnelic radiation, the Divide this by 1.60 x 1O ·"10 get the e nergy in eV:
more energy its photons carry. The frequency, wavelength and speed of (6.63 x 10") ~ (1.60 x 10 ") =4.14 ... x 10-1 eV = 4.1 x 10 1 eV (10 2 s.f.)
light arc related by 1he equa1ion:
. . . _.. f = ~ . -c -= speedoflightina
f = frequency m Hz A vacuum = 3.00 x JO' ms '
Q 1 A photon has a n e nergy of 2.20 eV. Calc ulate its energy in J.
' ).. -= wavelength in m
You can substitute this equation into E = hf to give another
Q 2 A photon has a frequency of 6.0 x 1O" Hz. Calculate its energy in J.
QJ A photon has a n e nergy of 8.2 x 10·20 J. Calculate its wavelength.
equation for the energy of one photon:
IQfi$itk:l .. llt~?4H.l.p #Ji;i:Iffiill
E = hi = !J!;.
,\
Q 1 W hal is a photon?
Q 2 What equal io n would you use to calcula te the e nergy of a photon
from its wavelength?
Exan1ple --ff,tjllj1flll Q3 What is an ele<."lronvofl a measure of?
Subs1i1u1e ,\ = 3.9 x 10' m, h = 6.63 x 10 -" js and c = 3.00 x 10' ms
into the C'qUation f = h{ 10 fond the energy, E, of the photon.
E- hc _ (6.6Jx10 ")x(3.00x10') = 5 lxlO "J
1
.>. 3.9x10" ·
Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics E •A

Leam ing Obj ectives:
• Be able 10 US< LEDs
and the equation
eV If10 estjmate
Lile value of the
Plandc: constant, h.
• Dc1crmioo the Planck
constant using
different coloured
LEDs (PAG6).
Specification
Reference 4.5.1
Rgure 1: ll"Ds come in a
range of sizr.s and colours.
They're ofl.en used because
they produce light at a /owN
pommial difference than
uaditional filamoo1 bulbs.
Tip: You may see I.his
. as e v = "l'"·
wntten he
bu1 don't panic, Vis stitl
lh<1 threshold vollage.
Tip: Make sure you
do a risk assessIT'tilt
before you smn this
experiment, 10 ensure
your experimcn1 is
carried out as safely as
possible.
Tip: A milliammetcr is
most suitable (p.17) for
this experiment, as i1
will allow you 10 more
accurately tell when a
curren1 has just t>q;un
1oflow.
•ll¥~*Jll Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics
Start off with the variable resistor set lo ils maximum resistance,
2. The Planck Constant so no current can flow through the circuit Tip: Doing lhis
experiment in a dark
The Planck constant is used in loads o f equations in quantum physics. It's one Adjust lhe variable resistor until a current just begins to flow through room, or placing a tube
the circuit (and the LED lights up).
of the smallest physical constams, and you need t.o knaw how to find it...
Record the 110ltage across the LED. This is the threshold voltage, V0 •
of paper around lhe
LEO, makes i1 easier 10
sec when lhe LID jUSl
Threshold voltage of LEDs Record the wavelength of the light emitted by the LEO. begins 10 ligh1 up.
You can find the value oi Planck's constant by doing a simple experiment w ith Disconnect the circuit Lo allow all or the components to cool.
light-emitting d iodes (LEDs) - see below. Repeat the experiment several times and take
an average or your resuh for V0• Tip: If your LID do<5tl' t
LEDs, like all electrical components, have a potential difference light up, swap over 1he
across them when they're pan o f a complete circuit This potential d ifference Then repeat Lhe experiment for a range or LEDs.
wires oonnected 10 it.
accelerates the efecltOn.s flowing around the circuit (lhe current) and causes
them to gain kinetic energy, like you saw on Lhe last page. This kinetic energy
If you look al eV0 = l!f from the previous page, you can see that LEDs have a positive
and a negative end, and
is transferred into a photon that is emitted by the LED. v, <x 1/ >. (as e, hand c arc all constants). So a graph of the threshold voltages they won't work unless
again~ 1/A wil I give you a s.lraighLline of best fit You can use the gradicnL of they're connected the
However, current \Viii only pass Lhrough an LED after a minimum
this line to find the Pland< constant {see below). right way round.
voltage {potential difference) is placed across it - the threshold voltage V0 •
This is the voltage ne<.~ cd to give the electrons the same energy as a photon You should get a straight line graph similar to the one sho\vn
emitted by the LED. in Figure 3. Your line of besLfit must go through the origin.
Finding the Planck constant (= 6J
You can use the threshold \/Oltage of LEDs to find the r lanck constant. To do Tip: Make sure you use
this, you'll need to use monochromatic LEDs - i.e. LEDs that emit a single the same equipment
colour. The colour of light depends on its wavelength, so monochromatic '°'each repeat, and
LEDs only emit a single wavelength of light. You should know the wavelength conuol variables like
of the LED from the manufacturer. temperature to make the
Al the threshold voltage, the kinelic energy of each electron is equal cxperimeni a fair test
that will give you valid
lO ev. (from the equation on page 233) where v. is the threshold voltage. All results (p.18).
of this energy is trnnsferred into one photon that is emitted by the LED. The
energy of any photon is given by E= 'f
(page 232). So 10 find the Planck L1x llfm~
>.
constant, equate the energy of one electron to the energy of a photon emitted: Rgure 3 : A grap/1o f th1eshold vo/wge against II.I. for LEDs.
e = charge of°"" bs;, - energy of one p/>01on The gradienl o( this graph is equal to:
elecuon in C - - . . eV0 = >.
v, = thres/Jold vo/r.ge in V ___,.,JI gradient= ~ = V0 A Tip: There's mOfe about
graphs and how 10
calculate a gradien1 on
Then rearrange this for the Planck con:stant to get Substitute this into the equation from lhe previous page: page 14.
h -- .!tlil h = e\{,A =ex gradient
c c c
To detennine the Planck ronstanl from an LED, you will Example -f$§iljj§1d
need to set up the circuit shown in Figure 2.
A student investigates the threshold voltages of some LEDs, They plot a
6V graph o f threshold \'oltage against 1/ .X, The gradient of the graph is equal Tip: All of Lile data here
I1 I t - - - - - - {flll',,___,
lo 1.24 x 1 o~ Vm. Use this data to calculate Planck's constant.
. ex grad1cnl
is to three significant
figures. As the question
Subsutute the grad1en1mto h = c doesn't specify 1ho
number of significant
figures for 1hc answer,
h = (1.60 x 10 ' > x ( 1.24 x 10 "l you should matdl
3.00 x 10 the data gi\'en in I.he
h= 6.613.... x 10-><Js=6.6l x 10"Js(to3s.f) question (page 9).
Rgure 1: A circuit used to find the Planck constant from an LfD.
Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics Ef A
 3. The Photoelectric Effect Learning Objectives:
Ql An LED e mits light at a wavelength of 600 nm. • Understand 1.he term
Calculate the threshold voltage for the LED, to 2 significant figures. One of the most famous cases of light acting like a particle i.s the work function.
photoe/ecuic effect. Read on to find out more... • Understand the
Q 2 A student investigates the r lanc:I< constant using LEDs. He m~.asures
the threshold voltage for a range o f monochromatic LEDs o f different pllo1oeleclric effect,
wavelengLhs. He Lhen produces a graph of his resuhs, sho\vn below.
What is the photoelectric effect? including a simple
If you shine radiation of a high enough frequency onto the surface of a metal, experiment to
Use the graph to determine the Planck constant. demonstrate this
ii will instantly ejec:L electrons (see Figure 1}. For mosl metals, the necessary
effect, e.g. using a
2 ..5 ' frequency falls in the ultraviolet range. gold-leaf eleClfoscopc
' Because of the way aloms are bonded togefher in metals, metals and a zinc plate.
contain 'free electron.et' that are able to nlove about the metal. The free • Undersland the term
electrons on or near lhe surface of the metal absorb energy from the radiation. lhreshold rrequcncy.
Before an electron can leave lhe surface of the meta I, it needs enough • Know that there is a
e nergy to br~.ak the bonds holding it there. This energy is called the work onc-10-onc interaction
function energy (\Oi and its value depends on the metal. If an electron absorbs bct.ween a phOton and
~~ .. + ~ l•I• -~ ~ Lhis amount of energy (or more}, il is released. This is called the photoelectric a surface electron.
' effect a nd the electrons emitted are called photoelectrons. • Know how to

~ -. + ~
Metal sliool use Cinstcin's
photoclccuic equa1ion
~ hf=t/>+KE_.
~~ -~ - • LJndersland I.he idea
0 ..5
Tip: Rcme~r to . ~. that the maximum
~ ~- ~
ultr.1.,,lq/N kinetic energy of
watch out for prefixes r.u/J,ukm pholocloctrons is
and scaling factors on independent of
axis labels. Lb 1.7 1.8 l.'1 2.0 2. 1
the imensi1y of the
.l..1 x utm·• incidenl radia1ion.
A
• llndersiand Ill<: idea
Figure I: The photoc>l<x:rric c/focr. that ra1e ot emisston

•ae1a.tq:g,J1t:f1it·'·S m•;<:r4111 The photoelectric effect can be demonstrated with a simple

of pholoclocuons
above the lhreshold
Q l What is the thresho ld voltage of an LED? experiment that uses a gold-leaf electroscope (a box containing a p iece of frequency is directly
metal with a strip of gold leaf a ttached). proportional 10
Q 2 State the equation that links thresho ld voltage to the rlanck constant. the intensity of the
Q3 a) Draw a circuit diagram for the circuit you could use to de termine A zinc plate is attached to the top of the electroscope (see Figure 3). incident radiation.
the Planck constant using LEDs. The zinc plate is given a negative charge (which in tum means the mclal and Specification
the gold leaf in the box are negatively chargedi. The negatively charged metal Reference 4.5.2
b) Explain why a milliamme ter is m0<c suitable than an ammeter in repels the negatively charged gold leaf, causing ii to rise up. UV light is then
this circuit shone onlo the zinc plale. The energy of the light causes electrons Lo be lost
from the zinc p lale via the photoelectric effect. As the zinc plate, the metal
and the gold leaf lose their negative charge, the gold leaf is no longer repelled
and so falls back down.

! : > - UV/amp
zinc plate
UVradiaUon
/

~~ rn
Figure J:
rn
Demonsvarion of !he phrnoeJec1ric effect using a UV lamp and a
line plate awe/Jed to the top ofan elocrroscope.
Rgure 2: Solar cells use
rhe ph0<oe/ec1ric effect to
convcfl light energy into
elocttidty.

•ll¥~1JMI Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics fii

Tip: The koy thing
about the photoelectric
effect is tha 1 it shov.1s
that light can't jyst ag
as a Vi' 3V£. Cenain
observations of the
phoLoclectric effect
can't be explained by
d MSical W3vt!' theory.
Figure 4: Alben finstein, lhe
physicist who explained the
photoelocuic elfec1
using photons.
Tip: Remember -
[ instcin saw photons of
light as having particle--
like in1cractions. So
they either transfer aII of
their energy, or none of
it (page 232).
•ll&~!·J
. 11 Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics
Conclusions from the photoelectric effect So you can fi nd the threshold frequency, (" by rearranging hf0 = ,P to get:
®
Exam Tip
From photoelectric t'.xperiments, scientists came up with these conclusions: Asking you to explain
Conclusion 1 For a given metal, no photocleclrons are e miued why there's a threshold
if the radia tion has a frequency below a certa in ~ frequency and how
value - called the threshold frequency. ~ this shows Iight actS as
a panide is an exam
Conclusion 2 The photoelectrons a rc emitted with a variety of kinetic favourite - make sure
energies ranging from zero Lo some maximum value. Example -'3fllffllh§lj 1
you know it.
This value of maximum kinetic energy increases with the A metal has a work fun ction of7.2 •JO·" ).
frequency of the radiation, but is independent of the intensity Calculate the Olinimum frequency of EM radiation needed
oi Lhe incidenl radiation. Exam Tip
for a photoelectron lo be released. You won·1get this
Conclusion 3 The number of photoclect.rons emitted per second is directly equation in the exam,
proporlional Lo the intensity of 1he radiation. f.• = !!.h ~ 6.63•1
7 ·2 • 10 " = 1 lxlO"Hz (lo2s f }
0 ~ . .. but you are given
But they L'ouldn't explain the firsL l\ VO conclusions if EM radiation only acts as hf =~+ KE_. At the
a \vave... threshold frequency,
KI_ =- 0. This leaves
Threshold frequency you with hf = ,P, which
Wave theory says tha t for a particular frequency or EM wave, the energy you can rearrange to get
carried should be proportional to the intensity of the beam. The energy Maximum kinetic energy the threshold fmquoocy.
carried by lhe EM wave would also be spread evenly over the wavefronl. The e nergy transferred from EM radiation 10 an electron is the e nergy it
absorbs from one photon, /Jf. The kinetic energy it will be carrying when it
This means tha1 if an EM Virave were shone on to a metal, eadl free
leaves the me tal is hf minus any energy losses. These energy losses are the
electron on the surface or Lhe metal would ga in a bit of energy from each
reason the electrons emitted from a metal have a range of kinetic energies. Tip: There are loods ol
incoming wavefronl. Gradually, each electron \VOUld gain energy until its
The minimum a mount of energy an electron can lose is the work ways clcttrons leaving
ene rgy equa lled the worlc function a nd it could leave the me tal. If the EM the metal can lose
wave had a lower frequency (i.e. was c.arrying less energy) it would take function energy, so the maximum kinetic energy, KEflQX' is given by Lhe
equation KE-.= hf - t/>. Rearranging this equatio n gives you Einstein's energy, e.g. they might
longer for 1he electrons to gain this energy, bul it would happen eventually. have to do work 10 get to
However. electrons are never emitted unless the \vave is above a threshold photoelectric equatio n: the surfam of lhe metal.
frequency - so wave theory can't explain the threshold frequency.
Kinetic energy of photoelectrons
The higher the inrensity of the wave, the more e nergy it should transfer to each
electron - the kinetic energy or the electrons should increase with intensity. Kinetic energy= y, x mass x speed', so 1hc maximum kinetic
Wave theory can't explain the fact that the kinetic energy depends energy a photoelcctron can have is:
only on the frequency in the photoelectric effect
. . . 1 , v_ = maximum speed of
KE_ = maxrmum kineuc ._.. KE_= imv_ ,,._-- an emiued electron
roctgy of J pl>0toe/octroo ;J
Explaining the photoelectric effect
According Lo the photon model, when EM radiation hits a metal,
@""'
~
m = mass of an elecuon =- 9. I 1 x JO-" kg
the metal's surface is bomba rded by photons. If one oi these
photons collides with a free electron, there is a one-lo-one interaction You can use lhis to write the photoeJectric equation as:
between the photon a nd the surface electron. The electron gains energy
equal to hf (as all of the photon's energy is transierred to the electron, p.2.32).
This idea could be used to explain 1he conclusions from lhe photoeleclric
effce1, meaning LhaLthe phOloelectric effecl supporled the particulale
(particle-like} nature of EM radiation. The intensily of radiation is the pD\Ver tra nsferred by lhe radial ion
Threshold frequency over a given area. In the photon model. this is the number of photons that hit
a given ar<'.a every second. Increasing the intensity just means more photons
If the energy gained by an e lecuon (on the surface of the me tal) from a photon
is greater than the \oVOrk function. lhe electron is emiued. If the energy is per second on an area - each pho1on has 1he same energy as before. The
lower, the elecLron will just shake abou1 a bit, the n release the energy as kinetic e nergy o f the electrons is independent of the inlcnsity, as they can only
another photon. The metal will heat up, but no e lectrons will be cmiued. a bsorb one photon al a time and lhe e nergy of each photon has not changed.
So for electrons to be released llf2 <f>. The value of ( is the threshold
frequency when hf = 4>. as this is lhe minimum requirement fo r elec1rons to
be emiued.
Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics fieM
 Example -f$®$1flll
The threshold frequency of radiation needed to cause the photoelectric
4. Wave-Particle Duality Learning Objectives:
effect in a luminium is 1.03 x 10 15 Hz. Radiation with a frequency of • Be abl11 to use th11
The photoelectric effect shows that lig/11 can act as a p<JrUclc, bur there's plenty de Broglie equation~
3.45 x 10 15 Hz is shone on an aluminium sheet. Calculate the maximum
of evidence that it acts as a wave too. It turns out that not only can \.vaves acl h
kinetic energy of a photoelectron en1itted from the surface of this sheet
like p.llricles, but particles can also ac1 like waves.
.l. =-p·
• Know abom elcctron
To work out the maximum kinetic energy you need to rearrange and use the
photoefecuic equation.
Is light a particle or a wave? @ diffraction, induding
cxperimenlal evidenoo

~
Firsl, use lhe threshold frequency 10 calculale lhe worlc funclion, ef>. of this effect.
"'=hr.= (6.63 x let") x (1.03 x 10")= 6.82 ... " 10 "J Diffraction ~ • Know tlla1 diffraction
When a beam of lighl passes through a narrow gap, ii spreads out o f clecuons ocrurs for
Then substitute this, Planck's constant and the frequency of the radiation elecLrons travclling
This is called diffraclion (sec page 211 ). Diffraction can only be explained
being shone on the metal into the photoeleclric equalion hf = <{> + KE._. so through a thin slice
using \Vaves. If the light W"as ac1ing as a particle. lhe light particles in the
or polyc:J)"'ralline
KE,m = hf- 4> beam would either not gel lhrough lhc gap (if they were too big), or juS1 pass graphite, causod
= (6.63 " 10 -" "3.45" 10") - (6.83" 10 "J straight through and the beam would be unchanged. by the atoms or the
= 1.60 x 10 "J (10 3 s.f.) graphite and the
spacing between I.he
atoms.
Rate of emission of photoelectrons Specification
Providing the incident radiation is above the threshold frequency of a mctal 1 s/;rJ Reference 4.5.3
the number of photoelectrons emitted every second {the rate of emission) is
dire<:tly proportional to the intensi1y of the radiation. This is because each
collision liberates an electron, so if more collisions occur in a given lime,
more photoelectrons musl be released in lhat lime.
I
Figure 1: Difiraction oflight waves as the)' pass tlltough a narraiv sliL
Tip: These ca1<:u1a1ions Ql Photons each with an energy 6.0 x 1O "J strike 1he surface
involve a 1o1 or numbels of a shee1 of zinc. The worlc funclion of zinc is 5.82 x 10 " J. The photoelectric effect
·wriuen in standard Will any photoelec1rons be emined from the surface of the Exam Tip
form - be careful when The results of pholoelectric effect experiments (see p.238) can only be
zinc sheet? Explain your an-s\ver. Make sum you know
you're punching Lhcm explained by thinking of light as a series of particle-like photons. If a photon
C)2 Eleccrons are cmiucd from a metal's surface when it is irrad iated wilh of light is a discrele bundle of energy, lhen it can inleracl with an electron in a the two examples that
in10 your calculator
radiation with a frequency of 1.20 x 10 16 H1_ show light acts as bmh
1hat silly mistakes one-to-one way. All the energy in the photon is given lo one eleclron. a ·wave-and a particle
don't creep into your a) Whal effect would increasing lhe frequency of the incidenl The phe1oelectric effect and diffraction show !hat light behaves as - they might jus1
calculations. radial.ion have on the elcclrons emitted by lhe melal? Explajn bolh a particle and a wave - this is an example of a phenomenon known as come up in the <!xam.
your anS\ver. wa..,-particle duality.
b) Calculale the energy of a single phOlon of incident radiation.
c) The maximum kinelic e nergy of an electron
Tip: II yoo get asked 10 emilled from the metal's surface is 7.26 x 10 111 J.
find 1he maximum spood Calculaie the worlc funclion or the metal.
of an emitted electron Wave-particle duality theory
- just rearrange good
old Kl:._= 1/Jmv- '.
I @G.t3:1• li !:t)tt.1.p it$ I :i:Iffii II Louis de Broglie made a bold suggestion in his PhD thesis. He said
if 'wave-like' lighl showed particle properties (photons), ' particles' ~
®""" Tip: Remember that

J
Ql Describe whal is meant by the 'pho1oclectric effec(. like electrons should be expecled to show wnve-like properties. momentum is the
Q2 Explain what happens when UV radiation is incident on a negatively The de Broglie equation relates a wave properly (wavelength, ,\) 10 a mass multiplied by Ille
velocity of an objt'Ct
charged zinc plate which is auached 10 a gold-leaf electroscope. moving particle property (momenlum, p).
<page 138).
Q3 Describe whal will happen to the eleclfons emiued by a
metal if the inlensity of the light shining on iL is increased. -" =de BrogBe - - h- h =lhe Plwck conS1ant
wavelength in m .>. - p = 6.G3 x Irr" Js. Tip: The deriva1ion of
Q4 Explain why !here is a lhreshold frequency below the de Broglie equation
which no electrons will be emilted by a mcLal. is beyond the scope or
QS Explain why electrons cmilled due 10 the ph<>loelectric " ' p = momentum in kgm>1 this course, so you don't
effect have a maximum possible kinetic energy. noed to worry about it.

W!ol Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics Fi


Figure 2: Louis de Broglie,
lhe physid.st wilo first
sugges!Cd the idea of
wave-particle duality.
Tip: There's more about
diffraction on page 2 I I .
Rgure 4: An elecuon
diffraction pattern from an
electron diffraclion tube.
Tip: Clcctrons can
be used to investigate
lhe spacing between
a1oms in a crystal -
an electron beam will
dif fract when lhe
de Broglie '""""length
of 1.he electrons is
roughly the same size
as the spaces between
the atoms.
M&fl Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics
The de Broglie wave or a panicle can be interpreled as a 'probabiliry
Exanlple -f*,6i$ 1fuld
wave'. "'1.any physiciSls al the time weren't very impressed - his theory
wasn'l acccplcd straight away. Other scien1is1S had lo evaluate de Broglic's An electron of mass 9.1 1 x 1o-3' kg is fired from an electron
theory (by a process known as peer review, p.1} before he publis hed it, and gun at 7.0 x: 1O' ms-1• What size object will the electron need
then it was lesled \Vith experimenls, such as electron d iffraction (see below). to interact with in order to diffract?
Once enough evidence was fou nd to back it up, the lheory was accepted as An e lectron will diffract when the size of the object is roughly !he
validated by the scientific community. same size as its de Broglie wavelcng1h, so you need to find A.
Scientists' understanding of the nature of matter has changed over Nk>mentum of electron, p = m v
time through this process of hypothesis and valida tion. De Broglie's theory is =9.11 x10'°x7.0x10'
accepted to be Lrue - al lea.si until any new conflicting evidence comes along. =6.377 xIO" kg ms 1
Substitute this into de Broglie's equation:
). : l1.: 6.6Jx10 M Tip: Momentum is
Electron diffraction @~ P 6.377x10" a~ quamity, but
we're only interested
In 1927, t\VO American physicists, Clinton Davisson and ~ = 1.0J ... x 10-1• m = 1.0 x 10 •• m (to 2 s.f.)
in its magnitude here
Lester Germer succeeded in d iffracting electrons using an electron So, only crystals \Vith atom layer spacing around this - wh ich is why p isn't
diffraction tube. In the tube, electrons are accclerrucd lo high velocities size are likely to cause the difiraction of this eJectron. boldcd in 1he de Broglie
in a vacuum and then passed through a thin sheet o f polycrystalline equation.
graph ite. As they pass through the spaces between the carbon atoms
of the graphite, !hey diffract ju SI like waves passing through a narrow
slit and produce a pattern of rings. This provides evidence that
Exan1ple -f 1~@Mh§ld
electrons have wave properties, sup porting de Broglie's Lheory.
Electrons with a wavelength of 0.170 nm are diffracted as they pass
a
between atoms in a crystal lattice. Calculate the velocity or the electrons.
To convert fro m nm tom, multip ly by 10-9 : Tip: Remember - nm
A beam of high >. = 0.170 x 10_. = 1.70 x 1O 1• m is nanometres and
vckx:ity elf:f;trun.-. should bo cooV<>ned
Substitute A= 1.70 x 10 ·1• m, h = 6.63 x 1O " js, to m before using the
Thin sheet and m = 9.11 x 10 _,1 kg into the de Broglie equation. de Broglie equa1ion.
of polyt:ryst:alline b-raphik! Ck."C.tr<Nt ,/iffr.u:tion pa ucrn
).- h - h SOV- h _ 6.6Jxl0 M
Figure J: An electron diffraciion tube cxperinHYu shows --p-7m, - mA - 9.1ix10 ' 1xt.70xlo 18 Tip: You could wri1e
c/ccuons ha\.-e wave propcr6es. = 4 281 009.8 ... ms' the answer 10 this
= 4.28 x 1 O' m>' (10 3 s.f.} calculation in standard
You only get d iffraction if a particle interacts with an objec• of about form as4.28 x: 10" ms- 1•
the same size as its de Broglie wavelength. Electrons \Vith a wavelength of
around 1 x 10 •• m are likely lo be diffracted by the atoms in polycrystalline
structures. like the ones used by Davisson and Germer.
Example Exan1ple -f1t§i.$ i§ll
An electron and a neutron are travelling with velocities such
A 0.058 kg tennis ball travelling at 100 m>' has a de Broglie wavelength
!hat they have equal wavelengths. The mass or an electron is
of 10 1'I m. That's 101., Limes smaller than an atom's nucleus. Ther e's
9.1 1 x 1er'' kg and the mass or a neutron is 1.675 x 1o-" kg.
nothing that small for it lo interact with, and so ii only acts as a panicle. If the electron has velocity 5.00 x 10• ms-', what is the
velocity of the neutron?
According to wave theory, the spread o f lhe lines in the d iffraction Exam Tip
panem increases if the wavelength or the wave is grealer. In electron = =
Substitute v 5.00 x 10' ms-1 and m 9.11 x 10 l l kg into the The mas-s of an elccuon
diffraction experiments, a smaller accelerating voltage, i.e. slower electrons, de Broglie equation to find lhc wavelength of the electron: and the mass of a
gives widely spaced rings. Increase the electron speed and the diffraction neutron will be given in
pattern circles squash together towards the middle. This fits in with lhe A =~= r::v' so A - g_llx,.~31r}2.o':i xlo' = 1.455 .. x 10 °0 m the data and formulae
booklet in lhc exam.
de Broglie equation - if 1he velocity is higher. the waveJength is shorter
and lhe spread of lines is smaller. Use this wavelenglh in the de Broglie equatio n to
If panicles with a greater mass (e.g. neutrons) were travelling at find the velocity of the neutron:
the same speed as the electrons, they would show a more tightly-paclced A= 1J. = J:!._ so v= ..!!.. = 6.63x 10 u
diffraction pa.Hem. lllal's because a neutron's mass (and therefore its P mv' m>. 1.675x10 "x1.455 ... x10 16
momentum) is much greater than an electron's, and so a neutron has a shorter = 2719.4... ms- = 2 .72 x 10' ms-' (10 3 s.L)
1
de Broglie wavelength.
Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics FSA
 Electron microscopes
A shorter wavelength gives smaller diffraction effects. This fact
@ ~
Section Summary
Make sure you know...
is used in 1he electron microscope. Diffraction effects blur detail
on an image. If you \Wnt 10 resolve tiny detail in an image, you
need a shoner wavelength.
Ligh1blurs out detail more than 'clectron-W"aves' do, so an e lecuon
microscope can resolve finer detail Lhan a light microscope. They can let you
look a t things as 1iny as a single strand of DNA.
Practice Questions -Application
Figure S: A faborawry Ql Explain how a particle's velocity affects its de Broglie wavelength.
rechnician using an
elecuon microscope. Q2 An elecuon has a de Broglie wavelength of 0.162 nm.
The mass of an electron is 9.11 x 10 )1 kg.
a) Calculate the momentum of the electron.
b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the electron.
Tip: Remember kinetic
energy c, = YJ'mv'. Q3 An alpha particle has a mass of 6.646 x 1O "kg.
a) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an alpha particle travelling
at a velocity of 60.0 ms 1•
b) Calculate the speed of an electron that has the same de Broglie
wavelength as the alpha particle in pan a). (The mass of an
electron is 9.11 x 1O " kg.)
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
Ql Name one effect demonstra ting that electromagnetic
waves have wave properties and one demonstrating
that they have particle properties.
Q2 Describe what is meant by wave-particle duality.
Q3 What phe nomenon sho\vs that electrons have wave-like properties?
***' Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics
·
Tha t electromagnetic radiation exists in d iscrete packecs, called quanta.
That Einstein called these packets photons.
That photons behave like particles - they have one-to-one interactions with other particles.
Tha t the e nergy of a photon can be found using E= hf or E= lif ·
That the electronvoh is a unil of energy.
What the term threshold voltage n1eans and lhe equation relating it to the Planck constant, h = ~­
How to use LEDs to determine the value of the Planck consta nt
Tha t the work function is 1he minimum energy a suriace electron needs to a bsorb to be released from
a metal.
What the photoelectric effect is a nd how ii can be demonstrated, e.g. using a gold-leaf electroscope
and a zinc plate.
Tha t for a given metal, if the incident radiation is below the threshold frequency, ph()(oelectrons
won't be emitted.
Tha t the kinetic e nergy of photoelectrons ranges irom zero to a maximum value, a nd that this
maximum value increases \vith the frequency of the radiation.
That the number of photoelectrons emitted each second is directly proportional to the intensity of the
incident radiation.
That wave theory cannot explain the idea of a threshold frequency; or why the kinetic energy of
photoelectrons doesn't depend on the intensity of the inciden1 radiation.
That ideas about photons can be used to explain the photoelectr ic effect~
Thal photons have a one-to-one inlcraction with surface electrons, so all of a pholon's energy is
transferred Lo a single electron in the photoelectric effect.
Thal one-1o-one interactions explain vvhy 1here is a 1hreshold frequency in the photoelec1ric eifecL
and why the kinetic energy of the electrons is independent of intensity.
How to calculate the threshold frequency of a metal, using f, =
How to use Einstein's photoelectric cqualion, hf =ii>+ KE,__.
*·
That diffraction shows that light behaves like a wave, but the ph01oelectric effect shows that light
behaves like a particle.
The idea of wave-particle d""lity - that waves display particle-like properties and panicles d isplay
wave-like properties.
Ho\v to use the de Broglie equation, ..\ =
momentum (a particle propeny).
i· which relates wavelenb'lh (a wave property) to
That electrons are diffracted when they travel through a thin sheet of polycrystalline graphite.
That electron diffraction suppons the theory of wave-particle duali1y.
Thal you only gel d iffraction if a particle interacts with an object of abou1 1he same size as its
de Broglie wavelength.
Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics EE A
 Exam-style Questions 5 An LED emits light at a wavelength of 5.00 x 10-' m.
(a) calculate the energy carried by each photon emitted from the LED in electronvotts.
(2marks)
(b) The LED is connected in a circuit. The potential difference across the LED is 2.0 V.
Ra<liatioo is made of photons that each have an energy of 2.0 GeV. Determine whether or not the LED will light up.
What is the frequency of the radiation?
(2 marks)
A 3.0 x 10'2 Hz
B 4.8 • 10" Hz
c 4.8 x 10'' Hz 6 Louis de Broglie was the first scientist to propose wave-particle duality.
His ideas were later supported by electron diffraction experiments.
D 2.1 x1 CP' Hz
(a) Describe what is meant by the term 'wave-particle duality'.
(1 mark) (1 mark)
2 The worK function of a metal is 4.33 eV. What is the maximum (b) An electron gun contains two electrodes. The potential difference across the
wavelength of radiation that could liberate electrons from the metal? electrodes causes electrons to be accelerated between them. so that each electron
A 7.35 x 10-'' m is fired out of the electron gun with a Kinetic energy of 1.02 • 1o->6 J.
(I) Calculate the velocity of one electron.
B 2.87 x 1o-" m
(2 marks)
c 3.47 x 106 m (Ii) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of each electron.
D 4.59 x 1o->6 m (2marks)
(t mark) (111) By What factor would the de Broglie wavelength of the electrons increase or
decrease if the potential difference across the electrodes was halved?
3 A monochromatic LED emits light with a frequency of 5.8 • 10" Hz.
What is the threshold voltage for this LED? (1 mark)

A 0.4 v
B 1.2V
7 A metal surface emits electrons when a certain frequency of light
c 2.2V is shone onto It. This effect is called the photoelectric effect.
0 2.4 v (a) State What is meant by the work function of a metal.
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
(b) Explain why there is a threshold frequency for the light being
4 A beam of neutrons is fired at a grating. The neutrons travel at 3200 ms-'.
shone onto the metal, below Which no electrons are emitted.
The spacing of the grating is 2 µm. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
(2 marks)
1 The neutrons diffract when they go through the grating. (c) Describe an experiment using a gold-leaf electroscope that illustrates the
photoelecflic effect.
2 If the speed of the neutrons was doubled, they would diffract as they went
through the grating. (5marks)
(d) A beam of light is shone onto a sheet of lea<l. Each photon has an energy
3 If the speed of the neutrons was halved, they would diffract as they went
through the grating. of 3.0 x 10-" J . The threshold frequency of lead is 1.03 • 10" Hz. Calculate the
maximum Kinetic energy of an electron emitted from this surface.
A 1, 2and 3 (3 marks)
(e) The intensity of the radiation is increased.
B Only 1 and2
(I) Explain how this affects the maximum speed of the photoelectrons emitted.
c Only3
(2 mark)
0 None of the statements are correct. (Ii) Explain how this affects the rate at which photoelectrons are emitted.
(1 mark) (t mark)

W !M Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics Module 4: Section 3 Quantum Physics

--i Module 5
l earning Objectives:
• Know the simple
kine1ic model that
describes solids,
liquids and gases in
terms of the spacing.
ordering and motion
of atoms or mok!cules.
• Be able to explain
BrO'Nnian moLion in
terms of the kinetic
model and describe a
simp1e demonstration
using smoke particles
suspended in air.
• Knc>'ov the meaning of
'internal energy'.
• Know 1ha1the
internal energy of a
body increases as its
1emperature rises.
• Know that <luring a
change or ph3se, the
internal energy of a
subs1anoo r.hangi!s
bu1 Lh<! temperature is
constant
• Know that lhc absolute
scale of temperature
does not dopend 00
the propeny or any
panicular substance.
• Knrn.v 1ha1 absolute
zero (0 K) is lhe lowest
limit for temperature
and is the temperature
at which a substance
has minimum internal
energy.
• Know that temperamre
measuremcnis can
be recorded in both
clegrees Celsius re>
and kelvin (K), where
HKJ "'O ("Q + 273.
• Know the meaning of
'thermal equilibrium'.
Specification
References 5.1.1 I associated with Lhe molecules, which increases the temperature of 1he
and S.1.2 _J
W{}I Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics
You can o bserve Brownian motion in lhe lab. Starl by puHing
some smoke in a glass jar. Use a glass rod lo focus fight from a lamp into
the glass jar to illuminate it, and observe the panicles using a microscope
- see Figure 3. The smoke pa rticles a ppear as bright specks moving
hapl1'lzardly from side Lo side, and up a nd down (see Figure 4).
1. Phases of Matter and
Temperature
You should remember Ille l/Jree phases of maller from GCSE. Solids, liquids
mhn>se<'f"' - 8
and gases are described by the kinetic model of m.111er.
~skm<:ell
~:onlai11ing
Three phases of matter glass f'(K / to
smoke
Solids, liquids and gases arc three d iffcrcnl phases tha1mauer can c xiSf in.
lamp fo<:us light
~ni c les behave d ifferenlly in each phase (see Figure I): Rg.ure 2: BriUsh botanist
Figure 3: Apparatus used to observe the B1C11vnian Robert Brown, afie1 wham
Panides in solids vibrate aboul fixed positions in a regular lattice. nrotion ofsmoke particles in air. Bro.vnian motion is named.
They're close together, and a re held in position by s.lrong forces of
aurac1ion.
Particles in liquids are constantly moving around and a re free to move
past one anolher. The auraction bel\Veen particles in liquids is weaker
than for particles in solids. They're fairly close togc1her bul have an
irregular arrangement. Tip: Brownian motion
can happen in any Ouid
Particles in gases are far apart and free 10 move around wilh constant
- i.e. any liquid or gas.
random motion, and so arc not in any particular order. There are no
forces of auraction bet\veen particles in an ideal ga:s (p.264).
SOIJD LIQUID GAS
•
Rgure 4: Brownian motion of a smoke partidc in air.
Internal energy
Particles in a gas have a range of kine1ic and potential energies. The kinetic
Figure I: The solid, liquid and gas phases of matter.
e nergy of a particle depends on ils mass and speed. Polcntial energy is caused
by inleractions bct\veen particles and is based on their positions relative to
The idea that solids, liquids and gases are made up of tiny moving each 01.her. These energies are ra ndomly distributed amongst the particles.
o r vibraling particles is called the kinetic model of matter (or kinetic theory). The amoun1 oi energy contained in a system is called its internal
It seems obvious now, but this \Wsn't a hvays accepted by the scien 1ific energy - it's found by su mming the kioe1ic and potcnlial energies
community. It took several scientists and hundreds of years to develop a of all the particles within it Tip: The hotter a gas
controversial idea into an accepted theory. is, Lhe faster iis pa.niclcs
lnlernal energy is the sum of the random d is1ribution o{ kinelic move. Remember -
~
and potential e nergies associated with the mo lecules of a syslem. the kinetic energy of
Brownian motion
~
an object is equal 10
In 1827, bo1anis1 Robert Brown noticed 1ha1 tiny particles of pollen 1hmv', where m is the
Heating a substance mean s supplying that substance \Vilh thermal
suspended in water moved with a zigzag, random motion. This type o f object's mass and v is
e nergy. This e nergy can be transferred lo the kinetic and po«enlial energies
movemen1of any panicles suspended in a fl uid is known as Brownian nlolion. the object's speed. So
substance. So as a body's 1cmperature increases, its inlcmal e nergy in<:re.ases. the average kinetic
Brown couldn'l exp lain lhis, but near1y 80 years later Einstein
showed that this provided evidence for the existence of a toms or molecules in energy or the panides
The particles in a n ideal gas don't have potential energy, so the in a gas i nc:reases with
the wa1er (lhe kinc1ic model of mailer). The randomly moving water paniclcs in1emal energy of an ideal gas depends only on the average kinelic energy of temperature.
were hilting lhe pollen paniclcs unevenly, causing this motion. ils particles - see p.268-269.
Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics pc+
 Change of phase
If you heat or cool a substance, a c hange of phase may take place. A change
of phase, sometimes also referred to as a change of state, occurs when a
subs.lance changes between a solid, liquid or gas. When a substan ce changes
phase iis internal e nergy dlanges, but the total kinetic e nergy of the panidcs
and its temperature stay the same (see Figure 6). This is because the change or
phase is altering lhe bonds between, and therefore potential energies of, the
particles, while the kinetic energy of the particles stays constant
For example, in a pan of boiling water, the sum of the potential
energies of the waler molecules increases as they break free of the liquid.
But the water in both phases is at 100 •c.
kinetic energy stays
lhe same, potential
energy increases as
bonds ate broken
\ body A and body B must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Figure 5: When boiling
parricks gain kineric and potential
water, the energy is used to
cont.1:lft the \v.lter into steam
energy as watet is heated
ratOO< th.1n to increase the
temperature of lire water.
lntcma/ £11t:rgy I J
Figure 6: Graph or temperature against ;nmmal energy for a sample oi
warer being healed aJ a constant rate lo its boiling po;m and beyond.
The absolute scale of temperature
The Celsius scale (with lhe freezing and boiling points of water at 0 °C and
100 °() c..;in easily Ix! used ior day-t0-day activities. However, scientists use
the Kelvin scale (lhe absolute scale of temperature) f0< all equations in thermal
physics. h's also knO\vn as the thennodynamic scale, and it does not depend on
the properties of any particular substance (like the frceT.ing a nd boiling points of
Thermal equilibrium
Suppose A, B and C in Figure 8 are three identical moral blocks. A has been in
a ·warm oven, 8 has come from a refrigerator and C is at room temperature.
Rgure 8: Three identical nKnal blocks.
There is a net How of thermal e nergy from A to C a nd C to B until they
all reach therm.ii equilibrium and the nel flow of energy stops. This happens
·when lhe three blocks are at the same temperature. Tip: Becarerul - at
thermal equilibrium,
energy is s1ill flo\\•ing
If body A and body Bare both in thermal equilibrium with body C, then
tx."tween 1.hc bodies,
but it's the~ lhaL
stops.
Thermal energy is always transferred from regions of higher temperature
Lo regions of lower lemperalure.
l@M.tg:l•lii!?1.t.l,pQ·tmttt!!t·1,1
Ql A student needs to heat a flask of liquid to 345 K. Calculate the
temperalure the student needs to heat the nask to in degrees Celsius..
Q2 a) A person making a pie encases some hot filling in cool pastry
and leaves it to resL State the direction of the net flow of thermal
energy between the pastry a nd the filling.
b} The whole pie eventually comes to thermal equilibrium with the
room. State how you know that the filling and the pastry arc now
the same temperature.

I Qr tg.t9:1, llt:t1Jt.J.µ ,.:ffl

Tip: Absolute zero
is rounded 10 273 K
O s.f.) here, so we use
an approximamly equal
stgn (~ rather 1han an
equal sign(=).
Tip: You don't use the
degrees sign (") when
writing tempcrmures in
kelvins.
water). The unit of this scale is the kelvin (K).
Zero kelvins is the IO\vest possible temperature and is called •..,.1.:.<.,:t.M•.•11111_____ _
absolute 7.ero. At 0 K (or - 273 "C, to 3 s.f.) all particlc'S have the minimum Ql Describe the order, spacing and nlovement of the particles in:
possible intern.al energy. At higher temperatures, particles have more energy. a) a solid b) a liquid c) an ideal gas
In fact, with the Kelvin scale, a panicle's energy is proportional to iLS Q2 When pollen particles are suspended in \va.ter, they appear to move
temperature \see page 268). with a zjgzag, random motion. State 1he name of I.his type of motion
The Kelvin scale is named after Lord Kelvin who firsl suggested it and exp lain why this occurs~
A change of 1 K equals a change of 1 "C. To change from degrees Celsius into Q3 Explain why the average kinetic energy of particles in a subsiance
kelvins you add 273 (or subtract 273 to go the other way}. remains constanl when the substance changes phase whils:L being
heated.
T = tempcr.uure in Y 0 =- tempcrawre in
degrees Celsius ("CJ
kelvins (KJ - - T"' 0 + 273 Q4 Skelch a graph of temperature against internal e nergy lo show how Tip: It's easier to draw
the internal energy of waler changes as iL is heated al a constanL rate the graph in Q4 using
37.l /(
to its boiling point and beyond. Label the energy changes of the degrees Celsius, but you
(/ /( 2731<
particles on the graph_ could also use kelvins.
- 21:1 ·c 0 "C QS a) Whal is lhe lowest possible lempcrature an object can
theoretically reach called?
Rgure 7: Equivakmt temperatUles in the Kelvin and degrees Celsius scales.
b) What is Lhe value of this temperature in kelvins a nd degrees
Example --f$§•$ 1fll8 Celsius?
An object is heated to 75 (IC. \Vha t is this temperature in kelvin? Q6 What is meant by the internal energy of a body?
T "' 0+273 = 75 + 273 =348 K Q7 When are two objecls said to be in thermal equilibrium?

•llf~j~·ll Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Wfi
 Leam ing Obj ectives: 2. Thermal Properties of Materials Measure the mass of the subs1ance a nd ils initial temperature.
Heat the substance with the heater - you need a temperature rise of
Tip: The value )'OU
• Know what is meant end up with for c will
by 1hespccific Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat are quantities used lo calculate about 1OK. Measure the ne'v temperature of the substance and subtract probably be too high by
hea1capacity of a the energy rL-YJUired to heat up or change Lhe state of different substances. the initial temperature from it to get the change in temperature. Use an quite a long W'J'Y. That's
substance and be able a mme ter and voltmeter attached to your elecuic heater to measure the because some of the
to user=- mcao.
Specific heat capacity c urrent through, /, and voltage across, V, the healer, a nd time how long the energy frcxn lhe heater
• Be able to describe an healer is on for, t, using a stopwatch. You can lhen calcula1e the energy (t) gets 1ranslerred 10 1hc
electrical experiment When you heat something, the amount of energy needed to raise its supplied by the heater using E = W = V/1. Plug your data inlo E= mctJ,O air and the container.
10 determine Lhe temperalure depends on its specific heat capacity. to calculate c. You can reduce the error
specific heat capacity by slaning below and
of a metal bkx:tc or finishing above room
liquid.
The specific heat capacity (c) of a substance is the amount of energy Example -f3ft!i.Jfild temperature to cancel
• Know what specific
needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the subslance by 1 K (or 1°(.1. 0.250 kg of water is heated from 1 2. 1 •c to 22.9 •c with an electric 001 gains and losses.
lamm heat of fusion inlmersion heater. The heater has a voltage of 11.2 V and a current or
and specific latcm Or pul anothe r way: 5.30 A, and is on for 205 s. Calculate the specific heat capacity of water.
heat of vaporisation Tip : Yoo met the
am~ and be able to use E= Vil = 11.2 x 5.30 x 205 = 12 168.8 J equation W = V/t in
the formula r = ml. energy change= mass x specific heat capaci1y x change in temperature 1).0 = 22.9 - 12.1 = 10.8 "( .v.oduk! 4.
• Be able 10 describe an
etecukal expcrimeni f = LlfJP.t_gy change ..........._ (" c =- spedlic /Jea1 capacity in =
E mcf).O soc =...L_ 1216810
·8 -4506 9
0 ·250 x
10 dcterm im~ 1he ml "" / kg 'K'orfkg "C' mM ·8 : 4510.Jkg ••c' (to 3 s.f.)
E= mct:.O ......___ (or 451 0 )kg ' K ') Tip: You don'1ooed 10
specific latent convcn between oe: and
hea1 or fusion and m =- mass. of __,If Ll.O =temperature Khere, since the change
vaporisation. substance m kg dtange ;n Kor oe in temperature will be
Specification
the same for both.
Reference 5.1.3 Exan1ple -f.'.§i!S1fl!N Estimating specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity of water is 4180 J kg-' K· '. If 172 kJ of energy If it's difficult to use the method above ior a panicular objec1, you could try
Tip: Q is sometimes is supplied to 5.00 kg of water at 300 K (correct to 3 significant figures), using the method of mix1urcs 10 estimate the specific heat capacity. It works
used instead ol r for what will its final temperature be? on the principle 1ha1 when a hot substance is mixed, or combined, v1tith a cold
the 1100rgy mange. substance, they will eventually reach thermal equilibrium and end up at the Tip: Goto page 251 if
Fir.a find the value o( l;.o-. same temperature. h relies on the assumption lhat no heat is lost from the you need a refresher on
You might also SOO tlO
wrincn as 6 .T. £ -- mcf).O => M _- mc
f _ 172 X 10'
- 5.oo x 4l80 system to the surroundings. Of course, some heat will be lost, so the thermal equilibrium.
specific heat capacity obtained is only an estimate.
= 8.229... K
In 0<der to use lhis method to find the specific heat capacity of a
Then add this 10 the initial temperature: substance, you musl know the specific heat capacity or the other substance il's
Tip: Energy is suppli<!d finaltemp<!rature = 300 J- 8.229 ... = 308.229 ... being mixed \Vith. For example, to find the specific heal capacily of a metal
10 the \Yater, so the = 308K (to 2s.f.)
block you can use \Voller, which has a specific heat capacity of 4 180 )kg~ • K ' :
1cmpt'l'ature goes up. Heat lhe metal block of known mass, mv up to a temperature Tb.
Quickly transfer this b lock inlo a n insulated container con1aining a mass
Measuring specific heat capacity of water, m. at a temperature r•. Rgure 2: Water JtaS a very
The hot block will heat the water. Measure the temperature of the water hig/I specific heiJt G1pad1y,
You can use this experiment to measure specific heat capaciLy yourself.
once it h.as reached a steady value, T,. so its 1emper.uure goes do•Nn
The method is the same for solids and liquids, but 1he se1-up is a little very slowly as it gives out
b i1different The heat (e nergy) gained by the water is equal to the heat lost by
Tip: As always, do ooergy. rha1~ why a mug of
the block, so: too stays warm long enough
a full risk assessment
before beginning this for you to drink iL
experiment, and take
extra care if you arc which becomes:
Tip : Yoo could also
placing an nloorical mwc.(T, - T.) = m•c•<T• - T) use this cxpcrimmt 10
l'K!atcr in water. estimate the specific
Rearrange for c,,, 1he specific heal capaci1y of the block: heat capacity of a liquid
c, m.c. u; T.) if you know the specific
m..O. /J heal capacity of a
Figure 1: Set.ups used 10 dewrmine t/Je specific metal blodc.
heat capacity ofa solid ot liquid. So you can plug the specific heal capacily of waLer in10 the formula with
your measurements to find cb.

•llf~f~ll Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Wf-•A
 Example -13§1$1§11 Measuring specific latent heat of fusion
A 0.982 kg steel bar is heated to 75.0 •c !hen placed in water, which is Figure 4 shows a set-up you C'.an use 10 measure the specific latent heat
initially al a temperature of 20.5 •c. The water has a mass of 3.12 kg and of fusion of a substance such as ice. First connect a healing coil up to an
a mmeter and a vohme1er, and put equal masses or ice in t\VO identical iunnels Tip: M.ake sure that the
a specific heat capacity of 4180 J kg-' K-1• The steel and water come to ammeter is in series with
therm.al equilibrium at a temperature of 22.4 °C. Estimate the specific above beakers. Put the heating coil in one of the fu nnels a nd tum it on for the coil and that th~
heat capacity of steel. three minutes, using a stopwatch to lime it. Measure the currenl through, voltmeter is in parallel
I, and voltage across, V, the coil during ihis time. Calculate the energy with the coil.
Q. m.c.(f. - T.l 3.12x4180 x (22.4 - 20.5) = 4 79.719 ... transferred by the heater in the three minutes using the equation E= W = VIL.
1711.(/, /j 0.982 x \75.0 - 22.4l = 480 )kg 1 K 1 (to 3 s.f.) Al lhc end of lhe three minutes, measure the mass of water collected
in the beakers. The unheated runnel of ice is there so you can measure how
much ice melts due to the ambient temperature of the room. Subtract the
mass of water collected from the unheated funnel from the mass of water
Specific latent heat collected from the heated funnel. This gives the mass of ice, m, that melted
To meh a solid, you need 10 break lhe bonds that hold the particles in place. sole ly due to the presence of the heater. E=ml, so to find the specific laten1
Tip: TOO specific latent
heat ol fusion is used The energy needed for this is called the latent heat of fusion. Similarly. when heat of fus ion for water just d ivide lhe energy supplied by the heater by the
when a substanc:e is you boil or evaporate a liquid, e ne<gy is needed 10 pull !he particles apart mass of ice that the heater melted: L = E 7 m.
completely. This is the laten1heat of vaporisation. Rgure 3: II rhecmogram
melting or freezing. ofa mc/1ing ice cube shO\-vs
The specific latent heal The larger the mass of the substance, the more energy it takes to cool areas in blue and wann
of vaporisation is used cha nge its slate. That's why the specific laten1heal is defined per kg: c11eas in red and yellow.
when a substance is
boiling or conde:nsi.ng. The s pecific latent heat {L) of fusion or vaporisalion is the quantily of
thermal e nergy required to change 1he Slate of 1 kg or a substance. \ Once the specific latent
heat of fusion has bee.n
transferred to the ice, it mehs
into watet and begins to rise

LJ
Tip: Energy has to be w the same u.vnperature as
W hich gives: itS surroundings.
added for a material
10 melt or boil. When
energy change= mass x specific latent heal
a material (rLlt?zcs or
condenses, energy is los1
from tM matlllial. Or in symbols: Figure 4: Cxp!!fimemJ/ SQt.Vp iOf clr!l(!(mining the
f = energy change.......... r' ___ t = specific latent heal spedfic Jaoc.>nt heat of fusion of water.

tnl " E=mL inlkg'

Tip: You'll usually
see 1hc latent heat of m = mass of subst.111ee in kg -.___)
vaporisation written L~
and the latent heal of
rusion written /.r
Tip: \1Va1cr turns 10
steam at I 00 ~.
Example -t4@1jifl!d
Find the energy needed to turn 1.00 kg of water at 90.0 •c to 1.00 kg of
steam at 110.0 •c. c_, = 4 180 Jkg-' K- 0, c._ = 1890 I kg-' K- 1, and the
latent heat of vaporisation of water is 2.26 x 1O' Jkg- 1•
First find the energy needed lo heal the water by 10.0 •c:
E = mcllO= 1.00 x 4180 x 10.0
= 4 1 800 J (or 41.8 k)l
Then find the e nergy needed to turn lhe water to steam:
E= ml = 1.00 x (2.26 x 10')
= 2.26 x 10• )(or 2260 kJ)
Then find the e nergy needed to heat the steam by 10.0 "C:
E = mcllO = 1.00x1890x1 0.0
= 18 900J (or18.9 k))
Then just add a ll these numbers together:
Energy needed = 41.8 + 2260 + 18.9 = 2320.7 = 2320 kJ (to J s.f.)
Measuring specific latent heat of vaporisation
Another experiment c.an be carried ouL to determine the specific latent heat
of vaporisa1ion of a liquid such as water. Figure S sho\vs the set-up for the
experiment
Tip: This experiment
doesn't require a comrol
apparatus (like the extra
funnel of ice in lhc
experiment atxwe) since
water won't boil at room
temperature.
Rgure !i: Expcrimem;i/ set.up for determining the
specific /atem heat ofvaporisau·on ofwatet.
Place insulation around the outside or a small beaker, but leave 1he
lop of 1he beaker open lo the air. Fill the beaker pan-way up with waler.
Connect a voltn1cter and an a mmeter to a heatjng coil a nd insert the coil inio
the water. Then place the beaker and its contems on a balance.

f!' Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Wf}M
 Wilhoul removing Lhe beaker from the balance, switch the healing
Tip: ensure lhat the
balantt rcma ins on
coil on. Once the water is boiling, record the mass on the mass balance and 3. The Gas Laws Learning Objectives:
start the timer. Measure Lhe voltage across and current lhroogh lhe heating • Know 1echniques
for the dura1ion of the An 'ideal gas' follu.vs the three gas laws, which describe how a fixed mass of and procedures used
coil. When the mass has decreased by approximately 15 g, stop the timer and
experiment gas behaves ~vhen you change its tcmperalure, pressure or volurne. Be careful 10 investigate PV =
turn lhe heating coil off. though - they \vork on the Kelvin temperature scale, not tradicional "'C. constant (Boyle's l aw)
Tip: Your value for L
Record the new mass of Lhe beaker a nd its contenlS. Subtracl this
from the original mass 10 gel the dc.->crease in mass of the water. Calculate Boyle's law
and f conslant
will probably be too• (PAG8).
high, since some of lhc the energy transferred by the heater to the water by multiplying the recorded A (theoretical) ideal gas obeys all three gas laws. Eadl of the three gas laws
voltage and curre nt togeLher with the time taken (since f. = W = Vil). Rearrange • Know how to make
heat energy supplied \Vas worked oot independently by careful experiment with fixed masses of an es1im:nion of
will be lost 10 1hc E=ml. to L = E.,. m, then plug in the e nergy transferred and the change in the gases. The first of them is Boyle's law, which says that:
mass of water to get the latenl heat o( vaporisation of water. absolute zero using
surroundings. lhc variation of gas
At a conslanl temperature the pressure p and temperature wilh
pressure (PAGS).
Practice Questions -Application volume V of a n ideal gas are inversely proportional.
Specification
Q 1 How much energy is required to raise the temperature of 0 .45 kg o f a Reference 5.1.4
Tip: Mead back to Inversely proportional mean s thal as one variable increases, Lhe other
liquid w ith specific heat capacity 244 J kg 1 K 1 by 3.0 kelvins?
page 250 fo r a reminder decreases by the same proportion. i.e. p u ~· For example, if you reduce the
about the Kelvin Q 2 A 270 g meta l bloc!< with a temperature ol 8 2 •c a nd a specific heal

j
capacity of 890 J kg ' K 'is placed into a beaker of liquid of mass
volume of a gas, its parlicles wil I be closer togelher and will collide with each
1cmpera1urc scale.
91 O g a nd temperature 34 •c. If the specific heat capacity of the other a nd the container more oiten, so the pressure increases.
liquid is 3600) kg 1 K 1, c.alculate the temperature at which 1he solid Boyle's law means that at any given lempcra turc 1he product of p
and liquid reach thermal equilibrium. a nd V w ill always be the same: Tip: Most gases can
usually be assumed to
Q 3 A bowl conta ining 100.0 g of water at 25.0 "C is p laced in a freeze r. act as ideal gases - see
A lew hours later, all of the water has become ice at - 5.00 'C. pV =constant the assumplions on
Find how much energy the \Valer lost to its surroundings. page 2<>4.
c.~ : 4 180 ) kg 'K 1, c.,,= 21 1 0Jkg ' K 1, L1= 334 OOO ) kg '.

I JiffilHS.:f. IIIM,[.} & tf!! I ;(,jffil II Tip: If the volume

halvCJS, Ille pmssurQ
Q 1 What is the specific heat capacity of a subs1ance?
Q2 Describe an experiment thal can be used to measure the specific heal
capacity of a solid malerial.
doubles, and so on.
J
Q 3 What is the specific latent heat of fusion?
Q 4 Describe an experimenl that can be used to fi nd the specific latent
heal of fusion for wa1er.
Volume
Rgure 1: Graphs ofpressure against volume for an ide.11 gas
ar di/ferem temperatures wl«.¥e 1; < Tj < T..

Example --f$§i!jjzj1@
The diJgram shows J sealed cont.liner with J divider at its centre. An idea l
gas fills the left half of the container, and the right half is a vacuum. The gas
is contained at a pressure of 350 kPa. The divide.r is then removed so thJt
the gJs fills the whole container. Calculate the new pressure of the gas, Rgure 2: Irish chemist and
JSsuming that the temperature of lhe gas renlains constant. physicist Robert &:Jy/c.
pV =constant so p,V, = p 1Vr

Rearranging: p, = 0(~}
The volume containing the gas is nmv 1wice Gas Vat..-uum
as b ig, so V, = 2v , => ~ ~l
So P •= 350x10' x G ) = 1 75 x10' = 175kPa

•llf~ilMI Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics WfJ
 Experiment to investigate Boyle' s law So a graph of pressure against temperature will be a straight line

Tip: Do a full
You can invesaigatc the effect or pressure on volume by
setting up the experiment shown in Figure 3.
[g: s] {ilS gradienl will be constant). This is shown in Figure S.

risk assessment
before staning any
experiments involving
gases (including the
experiment on the next
pagcJ. This experiment
involves pressurising a
glass container - so
wear b'QSSIC?s and don't
use too high a pressure.
Tip: If yoor gauge has
units of bar, you can
rnuhiply by 10' 10 gc1
your readings in ~.
If you plot a graph of p against ~ you should get a straight line.
The o il 1raps a pocket oi air in a sealed tube with fixed d ime nsions. Tip: Th<? lines a~wys
reach the temperature
Use a 1yre pump 10 increase the pressure on the oil. axis a1 absolute zero.
Use the Bourdon gauge to record the pressure. As the pressure increases,
more o il will be pushed inlo the tube, lhe oil level will rise, and the air
will compress. The volume occupied by air in the tube will rt-'Cfuce:.
Measure the volume of air when the system is al atmospheric pressure by
mulliplying the length of the parl of the tube coniaining air by-. x radius
of tube squared. 273.1.~ Tcm1x.-vatU1e (°C) Tt.¥11pcmture ( K)
Gradually increase the pressure by a set inteival. Malec sure you wail
a few· moments eadl time you change the pressure - this \Viii give the Rgure S: Graphs of pressure against temperature for an ideal gas at
temperature lime 10 stabilise before )'OU take any readings. consmnt volume on the degrees Celsius scale and on the Kelvin sea.Jc.
Note down both the pressure and the volume of air as it chanb>es.
Multiplying these together al any point should give the same value.
Example -f$§1$.. fl1i
Repeal the experiment twice more and take a mean {or each reading.
A gas is contained in a. sealed box with a fixed volume at a temperature
of 2 J•C and pressure of 110 OOO Pa. Calculate the temperature the gas
would need to be healed to in order to increase the pressure by 15 OOO Pa.
Tip: To rougllly convon
from degrees CeJsJus 10
kelvins, add 273 (sec
j
P P• P• P•·r,1 page 250).
r ~ conslanl so 1i=;; ::) T.1=p;
T,"' o, + 2 73 =21 + 273 =294 K
p1 = 110 OOO+ 15 OOO= 125 OOO~
So r;-12500Qx294 334.09 ... ~ 330 K ( = 57•q (lo 2 s.f.)
,- 110000

Tip: Absolute zero

Experiment to investigate the pressure law and is lhc lowest possible
estimate absolute zero temperature, where
all panides have lhe
~ sJ
oil reservoir minimum possible
Rgure J: Experimental sewp for invesugming Boyle~ l.aw. internal energy

j
(sec page 250).

Rgure 4: The low pressure

in a plane cabin causes
The pressure law Tip: In prat.1ioo a
real (oon-ideal) gas
a crisp pad.et sealed <H The pressure law states that: would condense before
aunosphefic pressure w reaching O K.
expand to a larger volume. At constant volume the pressure p oi a n ideal gas is
1

directly proportional to its absolute temperature T.

Tip: If the marlcings
on your thermometer
For example, ir you heat a gas, the panicles gain kinetic energy. flask of air are quile far apan,
This means they move faslcr. If lhe volume doesn't change, the particles will Figure 6: experimental set-up fol investigating the pressure Ja\V.
you could interpolate
collide with eadi other and their <.-ontainer more often and at higher speeds, t>e1·ween them (e.g. if the
increasing the pressure inside the container. Immerse a stoppered flask of air in a beaker of water so temperature is halrway
that as much o/ the flas k as possible is submerged. between the markings
Al absolute zero the pressure is also zero. If the pressure la\v is for 24 °C and 25 °C
obeyed, the pressure divided by the temperature for a fixed volume is a constant: Connect the stopper to a Bourdon gauge using a short length of tube - you could record it as
Tip: If you use this the volume o( the tubing must be much smaller than the volume of the 24.S <'Q. But i1's better
relation, make sure the
tempcrature is in K. If =constant fiask.
Record the temperature oi the water a nd the pressure on the gauge.
to use one with a finer
sea le if you can.

Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics WfSM

 Insert an electric heater a nd S\ViLch on for a few minutes to heat the \Wler,
then remove iL Stir the wa1er to en sure it is al a uniform temperature a nd
allow some time for the heat to be tra nsferred from the water to the air.
Ret.'Ofd the pressure on the gauge and the lemperature, then repeat several
times until the waler slarts to OOil.
Repeat your experimenl twice more with fresh cool water.
Multiplying pressure and temperature logether al any poin1should give
you a constant
Plot your results on a graph of pressure against tempera1ure.
Draw a line of besl tit.
Estimate the value of absolute zero by <.-ontinuing {ext.rapolaling) your line
of best fit until it crosses the x-axis.
Example
A student healS a ~a ker of water that contains a sealed flask of air. He
measures Lhe water temperature a nd air pressure at several points as he
healS Lhe wa1er irom O '<: lo 100 '<:. He plots his resulis on a graph as
shown belo\Y. The student then extrapolates back his line of best fil until ii
in1ercep1S the x-axis (shown by the dashed line in lhe graph below). At lhis
point of imerception lhe pressure is zero a nd 1he tempera ture is therefore a t
its lheoretical minimum value, i.e. absolute zero.
- 200 - llXI 0 100
f<.'1Tlperatum { 0 ('J
So, using his results, the Sludenl finds lhe value ol absolute zero 10 be - 270 '<:.
Charles' law
An ideal gas also obeys Charles' law. Charles' law Slales Lhal:
1 Qrf3,t3:1.. 111:i1u.1.µ .ffl
Tip: If lhe temperature
At constan l prl'SSur.e, the volume V of a n ideat gas is
direclly proportional to i1s absolute temperature T.
<k>ublcs, the volume
doubles. and so on.
Al lhe lowes1 lheorelically possible temperature (0 K, see page 250)
the volume is zero. If Charles' law is obeyed, the volume d ivided by lhe
ten1perature is a constant
¥-= constanl
•EJ~,~·11 Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics
Practice Questions -Application
C)1 A student conducLS an experiment to escimate absolute zero .
She immerses a flas k of air in \oV31er and gradually heats the water.
She takes measure me nts o f the 1empera1ure of the water and the
p<essure of !he air. The !able below shows her resulis.
Tempera1ure ("Cl Pressure (kl>.!)
20 102
40 107
60 11 4
80 122
Plot a graph of her results and use it to es1imate absolute zero.
Q2 A gas syringe is filled with 30.0 c m' of an ideal gas al 27 •c a nd the
pressure inside the syringe is measured as 1.4 x 10 5 Pa.
a) The plunger of 1he syringe is pushed in so that the volume inside
the syringe becomes 15 cml. If the temperature remains constant,
what will the pressure inside the syringe be?
b) The syringe is !hen cooled 10 - 173 '<:. Assuming the volume
remains constant, what will the pressure inside Lhe S)'ringe be
now?
Q3 A pair of SludenlS trap a pod<el of air in a sealed 1ube ol radius 3.0 mm
by filling the bottom with oil. They use a pump 10 increase lhe pressure
on the oil which pushes mcxe oil into the tube and decreases the
volume of lhe trapped air. They use a Bourdon gauge 10 measure the
pressure oi lhe oil at certain inteivals and measure the length of tube
occupit.>d by the air a l these pressures.
al Al a pressure of 350 kPa, the length o f the trapped air is 92 mm.
Calculate the volume 0<.'<:upicd by the air a1 this pressure.
b) Calculale the volume of !he air at a p<essure of 420 kPa.
cl Explain why the studenls should wait a few momenlS each time
they increase the pressure before taking any readings.
d) Describe 1he type of graph lhe Slude nlS would expt.'CI Lo see if 1hey
plolled 1heir values of p against ~-
e) Which gas law is this experiment investigating?
•...,..1,.:<.,.r;
...1"'11.________
Q l Whal mu5' be true oi a gas's mass for it to obey the three gas lavi.'S?
Q2 Whal is lhe pressure law?
Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Elj
 Leaming Obj ectives: 4. The Ideal Gas Equation The Boltzmann constant Tip: You can think of
• Know that the amount The Boltzmann constant, k, is given by: the Bohzmann oonstanl
of a substance can be You can use the gas J.11vs from I.he last lopic ro form 1he equation of stare of ----R = molar gas canst.wt as the gas constant
measured in moles. an ideal gas.It~ pretty important in thermal physics, so you'll see it quite a /Ol. k = ~ Bo/~JJI~ co'!'"'"' - . . . . k = g__.- (= 8.31 /K •1nol '! for one panick! or
1- 1.38 10 IK J N, ...._ N, =Avogadro~consram gas, while R is lhe gas
• Know that the constant for one mole
Avogadro constant (= 6.02 x ID" mo/ 1)
N.. is equal to
Avogadro's constant o/ gas.
x 1Q1l mol '
6.02 One mole oi any ma1erial contains the same number of particles, no ma11er If you combine this v.•ith N =- nN... from the previous page, you' ll see
and is the number of what the maLerial is. This number is called Avogadro's constant and has Lhe = =
that Nk nR. First rearrange N nN,., for N... to get N,,. = !:::l. Then subS-titule
this into the equation for Bollzmann's constant n
panides in one mole.
• Be able 10 use the
equa1ion of siate of an
symbol N,. The value of N, is 6.02 x 1O" particles per mole. The number
of particles, N, in an amounl of gas is given by the number of moles, n,
multiplied by Avogadro's constanl, N"':
k = fr. ,,, k= &l = !,(§ => nR = Nk
ideal gas pV = nRT, Substituting this in10 the equation of state (from the previous page)
where n is the number N = number ofparticles ~ N,,. = Avogadro's constant
of moles. - - N=nN :- j (= G.OZx /Cf1.1 mol') gives the equation of state (or N molecules:
• Know that the ~ n = number of molos ·-·• . m'-----...
V = 'IU'Ume1n · , ~N = numbcfofmo/ecule.sofgas
Bohzmann constant, pV- kT- T = ""1lpetarvrein K
k., is calculated using
n is measured in 'mol', so NA has the unit mol 1.

R p = pre<sure in Pa - - i...__ k = the /lolamann consrant

k = N; != /..l8 x 10 " JK '!
• Be able to use the The equation of state Example -i3§15h§hi
equation pV = NkT. The three gas laws from the previous topic can be combined to give the equation: An ideal gas a t 303 Kand1.00 x 10' Pa occupies 23.2 litres. Rgure 1: Ausuian physicist
Specification lud\vig Bohzmann.
ef. Find how many molecules of the gas are present.

J
Reference 5.1 .4 = constant
Rearran~ equation: N _ pV (1.00 X I 0) X (23.2 X 10 ~
The con:stant in the equation depends on the amoonl of gas used. The ,,- - kT (1.38 x lo ") x 303 Tip: There are?
amount of gas can be measured in moles. Putting in values for 1 mole of an ideal = 5.5483 ... x 10" = 5.55 x 10n(lo3s.f.) 1000 litres in 1 ml.
'--~~~~~~~~~~~-
gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure gives the constanla value of
8.31 JK'mol1. This is the molar gas consranl, R.
The value or ef.increases or decreases if there'S more or less gas present
•UrM lfl•!l!:MMibA®"®•l·1,1
1

Ql Find the volume occupied by23 moles of an ideal gas al 25 •c and a

- Lhe more gas you have, the more space it takes up. The amount of gas is Tip: R= 8.3 I )mol 1K 1
pressure of 2.4 x 1O' r...
measured in moles, n, so the constanl in the equation above becomes nR, where andk = l.38 x 10"IK·'.
Q2 A sealed, airtight container conlains 8.21 x 1024 molecules of an You'll be given these in
n is the number of moles of gas present. Plugging this inlo the equation gives: ideal gas a1 a fixed volume of 4.05 m'. The gas is heated 10 500 K the data and formulae
Tip: Don't IOfget to
p¥ - nR (correct to 3 s.f.). WhatS the pressure inside the container? booklet in Che exam.

J
convcn the uni is -
remember the Kelvin Q3 A sealed airtight container is filled with 1.44 x 1 Cl-15 molecules of an
Which can be rearranged to give the equation of sta te of an ideal gas: 1

sea le is used for ideal gas and kept at a cons rant pressure of 1 .29 x 1o' Pa.
1empcrature in ideal gas The containe r is heated so that its volume expands 10 0.539 m3 •
C - n =- number of moles~gas
1
calculations. V = volume in nt - - . What temperature is the gas inside the container al this point?
RT- - T = 1empcrawre 1n K
V-
A sealed, airtjght container w·ith a fixed volume oi 0.39 m1 is
. - p -n filled \vith 20 moles of an ideal gas. The maximum pressure the
p = pressure m Pa ~ R = molar gas consr.Jnt
containe r can \vithstand is 2.3 x 1fr\ Pa. What's che highest
(= 8.31Jmo/ 1 K 1/
temperature the container can be heated Lo before the pressure
on i1would be 100 h igh?
This equation works well {i.e. a real gas approximates to an ideal
gas) for gases at low pressures and fairly high temperatures.
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
Example --flftlff!ti1fllij Q l Whal is Avogadro's consrant?
What's the volunle occupied by exactly one mole of an ide.al gas at room Q2 Write down the equation of stare for n moles of an ideal gas, and
!emperature (20.0 •a and al a pressure of 1.00 x 10' Pal state wha1 each term in the equation r~presents.
QJ Give the equation for calculating the Boltzmann constanl, stating
Rearranging the equation of s1a1c: pV = nRT => V = n~T what each symbol represents.
So V = 1 X 8.31 X (20.0 + 273) = 0 0243483 = 2 ·43· X 10-' '(t0 3 f ) Q4 Write down the equation of state for N molecules of an ideal gas, and
1.00 x l O · m s. · state whal each term in the equation represents.

•IEJ~f~ll Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics EfiA
 Leaming Objectives:
• Know 100 model
o f kinelic lhoory or
gaS<!S.
5. The Pressure of an Ideal Gas
Kinetic theory (p.148) can be used to derive another formula for the
pressure of an ideal gas,, but first we need some assumplions of ideal gases.
The particles of Lhe gas are free 10 move around with constanl
random moLion. There are no forces of allraction bet\veen lhe parlicles,
so according to Ne\vton's lst law, they continue Lo move with consLanl
velocities until they collide with another particle or the box itself.
Tip: You covered
Newton's laws in
,'Aocfule 3.
J
• Be able 10 explain \!\/hen a particle collides with a wall of the box, il cxens a force on
pressure in terms o f Assumptions made in kinetic theory the wall, a nd lhe wall exerts an equal and opposite force on the par1icle.
lhis model. In kinetic tht'Ory, physicists picture gas particles moving at high speed in This is Ne\vton's J rd law in action. The size of the force exened by the
• Be able to use ra ndom directions. To obtain equations thal describe the properties of a gas~ particle on the \vall can be calculaled using Ne\vton's 2nd la\V, which
llle equation some simplifying assumptions are needed: says the fOfce is equal to ihe rate of change of momentum.
pV - ~Nm?, where The gas contains a large number of particles. For example, if particle Q is <ravelling direcliy towards wall A with Tip : lmagioo putting a.
N is thC number of velocity u, ils momentum is mu. When it hits lhe wall, the force of the single grain of sugar into
panides (atoms or The particles move rapidly and randomly. a lunchbox and shaking
impact causes i1 to rebound in the opposite direction. at lhe same speed. it around - the box
mok!cules) and C' The volume of the particles is negligible when compared to the volume
Its momentum is now - mu, which means the change in momentum is - 2mu . might as wcU be empty.
is the mean square of the gas.
speed. So, the force a particle exerts is proportional to its maS'S a nd its Now put a couple ol
Collisions between particles themselves or bet\veen particles and the spoonfuls of sugar in,
• Know what root mean velocity. The mass of a single gas particle is tiny (for example, an a tom of
walls of the container are perfectly elastic. and shake tha1around
square (r.m.s.) SjX!<!<I helium gas is only 6.6 x 1O 11 kg), so each particle can only exert a
The duration of eadi collision is negligible when compared 10 the time - this time you'll hear
and mean square minuscule force. the sugar thumping
speed-are. between collisions.
But, there isn't just one particle in Lhe box - there's probably against Lile walls ol the
Specification There a re no forces belween parlicles excepl for the moment \vhen they billions of them. The combined force from so many tiny panicles is much box as it collides. 'mu
Reference 5.1.4 are in a collision. don't notice the effeci
bigger than lhe contribution from a ny individual particle. Because there are
An i<leal gas obeys all of these assumptions. Real gases behave ol the individual grains.
so many parLicles in the box, a signiricant number will be colliding \Vith only the combined
Tip: Pcrfooly elastic like ideal gases as long as the pressure isn't too big and the temperature is each wall of the box at any given moment. And because the particles'
reasonably high (compared with their boiling points). action of loads or them.
collisions are collisions molion is random, lhe collisions \ Viii be spread all over the surface of each
in which no kineiic
energy is lost
.. t I /
\Vall. The resuh is a sle.ady, even force on all the walls of the box -
lhis is pressure.
Tip: The mean square

~
/
I ..
I I

...... I "
I So, the pressure in a gas is a resul1 of all the collisions bet\veen
particles and lhe walls of the conlainer. The pressure of an ideal gas
can be calculated using this equation:
speed represents the
mean ol iho squared
speeds of all tho
I
I ' __,.,,.. C'=mea11 square sp<!<!d
panicSes, i.e. if 3
panick?s had V<!lociLie s
Tip: Remember -
I ' I I' 1
~ ofgas particles in m1s 1 v,, v, and v,.. their mean
--Al t '---
~
pV = 3NmC' square spc<>d WOO Id be
paniclC$ can mean
a1oms or molecules
Figure 1; A visual representaOOn ofan id<.:.al gas. All parlides p = prossure in Pa m = mass ofa gas <v,1 + v,1 + v/) + l .
are idemiral, have negligible volume and move randomly. paruclem kg
in a gas. V =volume in m' N = number of
particles ofgas
Newton's laws and ideal gas pressure
You can use Newton's laws and the assumptions of kinetic theory lo The equation sho\YS that the pressure exened by a gas depends on four things:
explain the pressure of an ideal gas. Imagine a cubic box containing N The volume, V, of the container - increasing the volume of the container
particles of an ideal gas, each with a mass m. decreases the frequency of collisions because the particles have further to
t.ravel in betwt:en collisions. This decreases the pressure.
The number of particles. N - increasing the number of particles increases
of using a mode@
Tip: This is an ex.ample the frequency of collisions benveen the particles and the container, so
increases the tO(al fOfcc exerled by all the collisions.
to develop a
scicmific.
explanauon. ~
~
;;ow ; -_,,
Q _..!!.+
A The mass, m, of the particles - according lo Ncwlon's 2nd law, force is
proportional to mass, so heavier particles will exert a greater force.
The speed, c, of the particles - the faster the particles are going when
they hit the walls, the greater the change in momentum and force exerted. Rgure J: Pumping more
air imo a ball increases
tlw number of particles in
the balli which ra-isc.~ the
Rgure 2: A rubic box with sides of area A, pressure inside the ball.
containing N particles each of mass m.

•lll~}Jll Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Wlffi A
 Exan1ple -f.\6!$1flll 6. Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas Learning Objectives:

J
Tip: NA is
61.0 moles of a gJs are enclosed in a 0.750 m3 containe.r. If the pressure • Know v.'hac is mr..am
in the container ls 101 kPa Jnd each particle has a mass of2.65 x 1o-1' kg, Panicles in gases all have difierent amounts of kinetic encrgr .1nd il all by Lile internal energy
6.02 x 1on mol 1
calculate the nlean squJre speed of the gas particles. depends on the absolute temperature. of an ideal gas.
\se<! page 262).
Rearrange pV = ~Nm? to <" = **
• Be able to derive and

Number of particles in the gas N = nN. (see page 262), so

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution use 1m2 1kT
The particles in a gas don'l all have the same kineLic energy. Some par1icles Specification
<" = JpV Jx l Olxl ~; x o.750 • = 2.335 .. . x 10' have a fol of kinelic energy and move at high speeds, but others don'l have Reference 5.1.4
nN.m 61.0 x6.02x1 0 x 2.65x10 =2 .34 x10'm's' (to3s.f.)
much kinetic energy and move much n1ore slowly. Most will lravel around
the average speed.
If you plot a graph of the numbers o f molecules in a n ideal gas with Tip: The Maxwell-
Holt1.mann di-stribu1ion
Root mean square speed differen1 kinetic ene rgies you gc1 a Maxwell-Bollzmann disnibu1ion. It looks
like this: is a theoretical model
It often helps to think aboul the motion of a 1ypicaJ:,Particle in kinetic theory.
C1 is 1he mean square speed a nd has unilS m'-s 2• c is the average of the
squared speeds of all the panicles, so 1he square root of it gives )'OU the 1ypical
Most molecules are moving
ar a moderate speed so their
energies are in this range.
:'..~™""®-
~
to.exp.lain
speed. 1hc curve scienufic
This is called lhe root mean square speed or, usually, the r.m.s. speed~ StaflS Jt (0, 0) observations.
lt5 often \vriuen as c,,,,,. The unit is the same as any speed - ms 1• because no
molecules have
z<.vo energy. RJY;uively few molecules Tip: You get preuy
c- ~ Jmean square speed ~ ./C1 are moving quickly.
much the same
distribution in solids and
liquids too.
Exan1ple -1:.§!$ 1§11 Rcl<Jtivoly k!w molecules
The particles in a gas have a mean sqll.lre speed of 2.4 )( 10.; nlls-l. are nroving sk.n '''Y.
Calculate the r.m.s. speed of the particles. Rgure 1: The Maxwel/.Bolwnann disuibution of kinelic energies in a gas.
c_ : R : / 2.4x1 o' : 489.89... : 490 ms-• (lo 2 s.f.)
Speed distribution
Kinetic energy is proponional to (speed)', so you can also plot the speed
d istribution of gas particles, which is also a Nt.aX\vell-Boltzmann disltibulion.
Ql A sealed, rigid container with a volume of 1.44 m' is filled with The shape of lhe MaX\vell-Bohzmann distribution depends on 1he templ-rature
exactly 5 moles of an ideal gas. If the molecules of the gas have a of the gas. Figure 3 shows L\VO diffcrenl speed distribulion curves. Both
mean square speed of 8.1 1 x 10' m's 'and a mass of c urves represent the same number of parlicles, but the cooler c urve has a
5.31 x 10 2f> kg, find the pressure inside 1he conlainer. higher, steeper peak at a lower speed. As lhe temperature of lhe gas increases:
Q2 A container wilh a volume of 905 cm3 is filled wiLh 0.310 moles of The average particle speed increases.
gas. The gas exerts a pressure of 7.40 x 1OS ~ on lhe container walls. The maximum parliclc speed increases.
Calculate the root mean square speed of the gas molecules if they The distribution curve becomes more spread out Figure 2: The speed
each have a mass of 5.10 x 10 "' kg. disuibutions of particles in
~"t> a gas can be compared 10
IQ6f$.tS:l,Jlt:?1it.l,pll$1;i:iffiiimz:: -..
ll 8.
2CKJK shoppers on a busy sueet-
some will be walking sk.nvl~
Ql State fou r as.sumplions made about an ideal gas in kinelic Lheory. 0 ...
'·· c othPJS ~.._;11 be in a hurry, but
most will be walking with a
Q2 Explain why a con1ained gas exerts pressure on 1he walls of its .g·t moderate speed.
container. :s ·~
8-:S
Q3 What does c~ represent? et ~

Tip: A kinetic energy

curve would djffer willl
a temperature in the same
Rgure J: The Ma.xwcl/.Bo/17.mann di5uibution of way.
particle speeds lor a gas at 200 Kand at 500 K.

•EllilMI Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Eh

 Energy changes between particles In an ideal gas Lhe potential energy is OJ because there a re no rorces
The particles of a gas collide with each other all lhe time. Some of these bet\veen 1hc particles. This means that the internal energy is equal to the total
random kinetic energy only (see p.249).
collisions will be 'head-on· (particles moving in opposile directions) while
others will be 'shunts from behind' (particles moving in the same d irection). So you can multiply Eby the number o f gas particles, N, 10 get an
As a result of the collisions, e nergy will be 1.ransferrcd between particles. equation for the internal energy, U, of an ideal gas:
Some particles will gain speed in a collision and others will slow dmvn. N = numbctof
Beti.veen collisions, the panides will travel al conslant speed. particles ofgas ~ r-- k = me Boltzmann constam
Although the e nergy of an individual particle changes a t each U=2Nk/ inJK'
U = imornal energy- " '--. . .
collision, the collisions don't alter the total energy of the system. So, the ofidca/gasinJ T = temperaturetnK
average speed of the particles will stay the same provided the temperature of
the gas stays the same. Exan1ple --f$§!$1ffilj
A container is filled with 2.5 moles of an ideal gas. The temperature of
Average kinetic energy and internal energy the gas is 31O K. Calculate the internal energy of the gas. Tip: N = nNA was
You alre<>dy know thatpV = NkT(irom page 263) and that pV= iNmC' Number of particles = N = nN, = 2.5 x 6.02 x l<l2' = 1.505 x I O'' covered on page 2~2.
(page 265). You can combine these to derive the kinetic e nergy of gas particles
U:~NkT= ~ x 1.505x 10''x 1.38 x 10 " x 310= 9657.585.J
in an ideal gas: = 9.7 kj (lo 2 s.f.)
The equation above and the equation on the previous page show
and you can cancel N to give: that average kinetic energy and internal e nergy are both directly proportional Tip: Remember -
to lhe absolute temperature - a rise in absolute temperature will C'.ause an absolute temperature is
imC' = kT increase in the kinetic e nergy of the particles, meaning a rise in internal jus1 the temperature in
kelvin - see page 250.
e nergy.
which you can rearranbie to give:
m'2=3kT
ime? is the average kinetic e nergy of an individual particle. (Remember 2 is
I :zm'C§:I• lll!?1 ,{.]·bO.·tffl~·;tij·...
!t!ftflil;
.• 1..1;;
. 1,.,.,.1- - - - - -
Ql The graph below shows the Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions
ameasure of speed squared, so this is just like the equation for kinetic energy, for a gas al two d ifferent temperatures. State whether the higher
Exam Tip
E, = ~mv', that you'll know already.) temperature is shown by curve A or curve B.
You could be Jested on
this derivalion, so make So multiplying both sides by~ gives you:
sure you knO\v i1.
k = the Boltzmann constant
m = massofagas-....._ / (= l.38x UJ-"JK 'I
paruc/e m kg -. lf
Tip: The kinetic energy ~m?=~kT
of gas pan ides is ? = mron square speed ~ ' -T= temperature in K
always an average value ofgas pa.rticles in mJs-1
because 1hc panidcs are
all travelling ac diffNent So the average kinetic energy, E, or one gas particle is given by:
speeds.
E= 1kT

Exan1ple -f.ttj!lj;iflld
Q2 Whal's the average kinetic energy or the molecules of an ideal gas
What's the average kinetic energy of the molecules in an ideal gas al at 112 K?
100 •c (correct to 3 significant figures)?
Just put the numbers into the equa1ion above, making sure to convert the
tempera ture to kelvin. Practice Questions - Fact Recall
lmC' - :lkT
2 2 QI State the two equations from which ~m? = ~kT can be derived.
- ~ x (1.38 x JO '? x (JOO ; 273) Q2 For an ideal gas, what can you assume about its potential energy?

- 7.7211x 10 " - 7.72 x 10-" ) (to3s.f.)

•EJ~1·J
. ll Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics WJ,.,,+
 Section Summary !
Make sure )'OU know.•• Exam-style Questions •
That solids, liquids <>nd g;ises can be described by a simple kinetic model in terms o( the spacing,
onfering and motion of particles.
That Browni•n motion describes the zigzag. random motion ol small p;irticles in air, and be able to
describe how a microscope can be used IO obsenle Brownian mooon in smoke particles. A syrilge contains a fixoo amount ot an ideal gas at a pressure ot 120 kPa.
Th.'1 intcm:il C""'!IY is the sum of the random distribution of kinetic and potential energies associated The plmger is PUied out extending Ille tube length containing the gas rrom JO mm to
wuh the molecules or a systemf and that i' increases with tem~turc. 50 mm, WllilSt lhe lemperature is kept conslant. What is lhe new gas pressure?
That intcmal energy <flanges during a change o( phase while temperature remains constant A 43 kPa
That the •bsolute scile of temperature docs not depend on the property of any particular substance. B 72 kPa
That the lowest limit for temperature is absolute zero (cquo l to O K or 273 "CJ, and that at this
1cmpcra1urc a subsLance has minimum internal energy. C 200 kPa
That tcmpcr:nure measurements can be in Celsius ("C) or kelvin (K), and how to convef1 bet\vcco D 330 kPa
them using T(I() "' O("C) + 273. (1 mark)
Thal two objc."Cl.S in thermal equilibrium are at the same temperature with no net now of
energy bctwe<>n them. 2 A cold spoon ls put ln some hol water. Which of the following Is true?
That if body A and body Bare both in thermal equilibrium with body C, then body A and body B A There is no net ene<gy flow from the water to the spoon.
must be in thcnnal equilib<ium with each odler. B The spoon and water can never reach thermal equiibrium.
That the specific he.lt capacity of a substance is the amount o( mergy needed to raise the temperature
of l kg of the S<bsl.lnce by 1 K. and how to calculate the cnc<gy dl>nge using E = mc!JJJ. c Energy won't now from the water to the spoon When 111ey reach Ille same temperature.
How the specifoc heat capacity of a mecal or liquid can be determined using a stopwatch and an D The spoon and water are in thermal equilibrUn When they reach Ille same temperature.
electrical hc:lter connec&cd to a vohmecer and an ammeter. (1 marlc}
How the ~hod of mixtures can be used 10 es1ima1e the opccific heat cap;icity of a mecal l>lodc and
a liquid. 3 A sealed container with a fixed volume of 0.51 m' ls filled with an Ideal gas at low
That the specific latent heal of fusion or wporisa1ion is the quantity of thermal energy required 10 temperature. The gas is heated so that Ille pressure inside the container increases.
r
chnngc 1hc s1a1c of 1 kg of a substance, and how 10 use = nil 10 cak:ulatc the energy needed to
(a)
At 0.0 ' C Ille pressure inside the container is 8.1 • 10' Pa.
ch;ingc the sta1c of a substance. By considering the molecules of Ille gas, explain Wily increasing the temperature
How the spc..~ific la1en1heat of fusion or the spccilic latent hca1of vaporisation of a substance f'.an be leads to an Increase in pressure inside the container.
determined using a Slopwatch and a heating coil connected to a vohmetcr and an ammeter. (3 marks)
That Boyle's law is PV =constant and experimental techniques 1ha1 can be used to investigate it. (b) Using the axes below, show how the pressure of the gas varies with temperature
between - 273 •c and 100 •c.
Th;it 1hc pressure law is f . . ,. constant and expcrimcn1:el 1cchniqucs that can be used to investigate it
How the VJri3tion of gas temperature with pressure can be used 10 estimate the value ior absolute Tero. (2 mat1<s)
That Avogadro's consta.n~ N.N is the number ol paniclcs con1a1ned in one mole of a subslance and is Pressure (Pa)
cqu•l 10 6.02 • 10" mol '.
How 10 use the equation of stale of an ideal gas pV = nRT, whcre n is the number of moles and R is
the mol•r g;is constant, equal 10 8J 1 ) mol 1 I( • .
Th311hc Bolu:m..nn constan~ k, can be calculated using t *.·
How 10 USC the equation of stale IO< N particles of gas, pV =Nk r.
The 055Umpuons for the model of kinetic theory of gases, ond be •l>lc to '"'Plain pressure in terms of
this model. - 213 Temperoture r CJ 100
(C) carcu1ate tile number of molecules of gas present in the container.
How to use the equation pV - ~NmC".
(2marks)
That the mean ><1uarc speed, C", is the average of the squared speeds of all the particles in a gas, and
tha1 1hc square rooc of it gives you lhe roo mean square (r.m.s.) SJX.'<..'<J, c...... (d) The specific heat capacity of Ille gas is 2.2 • 10' Jkg-•K- 1 and the mass of a
Th:u the distribution or Lhe kinetic energies of paniclcs in nn ideal gas can be described by a molecule of lhe gas is 2.7 • 1<r'6 kg. If the gas was healed from - 150 •c lo o.o •c.
M axwcll.Bol11mnnn c urve.
calculate lhe energy transferred to the gas.

How to use im2' ikl and be able to derive it from pV = Nkl and pV =!Nm?.
(2marks)

•E·~i~
·'I Modute 5 SecilOll 1 Thermat Physics Modute s Sedht Themlal Physics W.riM
 4 A glass beaker contains a cylindrical block of ice at -25 •c. A heating element is
placed inside the block of ice and turned on, supplying energy at a rale of 50.0 Js-•.
The ice has a mass of 92 g, a specific heat capacity of 211 0 Jkg-' K-• and a specific
- - -l Module 5 f
latent heat offusion of 3.3 x 10' Jkg-•.
1. Circular Motion Leaming Objectives:
Power supply • Know l\O\v lO use
In circular molion, you'JJ see lhat all angle mcasureme11ts ase radians, radians as a measure
so make sure yrnlre comfortable \vilh them before tackling this section. of angle.
• Know wlklt is meam
Radians by angular velocity. w.
Objects in circular motion travel through angles - these angles are usually • Be able to use the
measured in radians. formula for constant
speed in a circle,
V= Wf.
The angle in radians, 0,
is equal to the arc-length • Understand what is
(a) Calculate the energy needed to heat the ice from -25 •c to Its melting point, 0 .0 ' C. divided by the radius of the meant by 100 period
circle (see figure I). and rmqueocy of an
(1 mark) objoo in circular
(b) Calculate the energy needed to melt all of the ice once It reaches o.o •c. molion.
In oLher words: • Know how lo
(1 mark)
Rgure 1: Tlie radius of a circle, and the calculate angular
(c) Assuming the ice is heated uniformly and there is no heat transfer between the ice arc length = rO vcloci1y using
angle and ar<.._fength ofa secwr.
and the surroundings, calculate how long It will take for all of the ice to melt. w='lf and w =2'fff.
(2marks) Foe a complete circle (360'), the Specification
(d) In practice. heat can be transferred between the ice and the surroundings. arc-lcnglh is just the circumference of the References 5.2.1
State whether insulating the beaker would speed up or stow down the melting circle (2,,-r). Dividing this by the radius (r) and 5.2.2
of the ice. Explain your answer. gives 2w. So !here are 2wradians in a
(2marks) complete circle (see Figure 2). 1 radian is Exam Tip
equal to about 57°. You're given formulas
To convert from degre6 lo for lhe circumference
(and other properties) of
5 The kinetic model of matter is used to describe substances in different states. radians, you multiply the angle by rfcj:= Rgure 2: For a complete drcle,
a circle in the data and
Ille angle O= brr.
(a)' Describe solids. liquids and gases in terms of the kinetic model of matter. formulae booklet
Include an explanation of Brownian motion and describe a simple demonstration angle in radians = ,W x angle in degrees
that can be used to observe the Brownian motion of smoke particles in air.
Exam Tip
(6marks)
Figure 3 shows some common angles, given in both degrees and radians. You should remember
(b) A sealed container with a fixed volume of 4.18 m>is filled with 54.0 moles the equa1ion 10 convcn
of an ideal gas. Each particle has a mass of 3.40 x 11P' kg.
1nrt~
between radians and
(t) Calculate the total number of molecules of gas in the container. degrees, bm it's a good
idea to memorise lhese
(1 mark) • rad~ common angles too.
(ii) Calculate the temperature of the gas ii the pressure is 1.00 x 10" Pa.
(2marks) Rgure 3: Angles of sectors in degrees and radians.
(tit) The container is uniformly heated lo 855 •c. calculate the r.m.s. speed
of the gas particles.
(3marks)
Angular velocity
Angular velocity is the angle an object rotates through per second. jUSl as Tip: Angular Vl?locity
(Iv) Sketch a graph showing the distribution of the particle speeds in tile gas at the linear velocity, v, is defined as displacement -:- time, Lhe angular velocity, w, is is a vector quantity
temperature found in (Ii) and at 855 •c. and identify each curve. defined as angle--:-- time. The uni! is rads-' (radians per second). (i.e. it has a size and a
(2marks) direction). HowC?\'er,
you're 001 usually
. - - - O = angle !hat !he object
• The quality of your response will be assessed in this question. w =a~gular w;lodiy ----... w = O iurns lhrough in rad imerested in its direction
rnrads 1 ~ I -= u·meins - just the si1.e.

Mfl Module 5: Section 1 Thermal Physics Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations
 Tip: Angular velocily is
the same at any point on
a solid rotating objca.
Tip: The linear speed v
is how fast an object
·would 00 1ravelling in
a straighl line if iLbroke
off from circular motion.
The magnilude of the angular velocity (angular speed) can be wrinen
in terms of the magnilude of the linear velocity {linear speed), v. Consider an
Frequency and period
Cin:ular motion has a frequent.')' and period. The frequency, (, is the number
o bject moving in a circular path of radius r lhat moves an angle of b radians of complete revolutions per second (measured in hertz, Hz, or s 1) .
in t seconds. The linear speed is equal to d istance ~time, where the distance The period, T, is the time taken for a complele revolution (in seconds).
travelled is the arc le ngth that the object moves through in ilS circular motion.
Frequency and period are linked by the equation:
So the equation for speed can be "'1'itten as:
v = a rc length
I f = freqfK!llC'/ in Hz - f ~j - T =period ins
The arc length of a sector of a ngle 0 was given on the previous page as:

G·
Substituting this into the equation for v gives;
From 1he equation on the previous page, you \.an see I.hat a ngular speed (w)
can be written as w = so the equation f0< linear spe<.->d \.an be written as:
Tip: )bu don't need lo
knO'N the derivation of
v -= wr for your exam.
And )'OU'll only """" to
use it in ~tua 1ions wflcre
100 speed v is constant
arc length = rlJ For a complete circle, an object turns through 21f radians in a time T.
So the equation for angular velocity becomes:
v = !!l Exam Tip
2'r .,._- T = pen·ocrms
=T
I
w = angular velocity ___... w The equations w = 2T
in rilds 1
¥·
and w = 2-x-/will be
given in your data and
By replacing ~ \Vith frcquen<.-y, (, you get an equation that relates w and f. formulae booklei, bu1
..- r = radius of circle of rotation in m
v = linear speed in ms ' - - . . v-= wr make sum you know
l_,_.-. w = angular speed in rad>' _ f ,.____ f = frequency in Hz how 10 use them.
w = angular velocity ___.. w - 211'
in rads r
Example - - - -
A cyclotron is a type o f particle accelerator. Panicles star1 off in the centre Example --f$tj!lj1flll Exam Tip
of the accelerator, and electric a nd magnelic fields cause them to move in A wheel is turning at a frequency of 20 revolutions per second. Exam questions may
circles of increasing size. Calculate the period and angular velocity of its rotation. ask you to leave an
Leave your answer in lernls of 1f, answer in terms or -.
particles 1 1 1 rather than convening ii
start f1cff! Ail pam of the f ~ T· so T = 7 = 2o = o.os s to a horrible fradion or
decimal. AJways read
beam take the Angular velocity -= 2.rf = 2 x 1r x 20-= 40...- rad s- 1
samctimew 1he qlll'Stion carefully.

Figure S: One of the first
cydoYOllS, built by Ernest
Lawrence at the Universiiy
of California.
j
rotate through
this angle. •Pr'3·'9:i•''':t1"·1.pg.nmm11.1,1 Tip: The radii of the
Q 1 The Moon orbits the Earth at a distance of roughly 384 OOO km. Eanh and Moon are
If it takes the Moon 28 days to complete a full omit, find its much smaller than the
Figure 4: The path oi a particle in a cyckJYon. angular velocity a nd its linear speed. disi:anoo between them,
so you can jusl treat
Different parts of the particle beam a re rotating at different linear speeds, v. Q2 An observation wheel of diame ter 125 m turns exactly iour times
them as two poinis.
Bui all rhe parts rotale through the same angle in the same time - so they every hour. \iVhat angle does it rotate through each minute? What is
have the same angular velocity, w. the linear speed oi one of the passenger cars?
Q3 A CD is spinning a t a frequency of 460 rpm. What arc the angular

I
Tip: 'rpm~ is
and linear speeds at points 2 .0 a nd 4.0 cm from the centre of the CD? 'revoluLions per minme'.
Example --f§§Jlj. ,zj1fi
Q4 A ball with mass n1 is spun al a constanl speed in a circle on the end
A cyclist is travelling at a speed of 28.8 km h-' along a road. The diameter
of a string of length J with time period T. Rod the kinetic energy of
of his fronl wheel is 63 cm. What is the angular speed of the wheel?
How long does it take for the wheel to tum one complete revolution?
Linear speed in ms 1 = 28.8 x 1 OOO .,. 3600 = 8.00 ms 1
the ball in terms of m, I and T.

Practice Questions - Fact Recall

Tip: The cycli;t's speed
is Lile same as the linear
speed of 1he tyre, as
long as there's enough
rriaion bet'o\'Ccn the 1yrc
and ground so that the
wheel doesn't slip.
Angula r speed = w = ~·
\vhere r -= ~ x diameter -= ~ x 0.68 = 0.34 m
So angular speed: w = ~:~~ = 23.5294 .. . = 24 rads 1 (to 2 s.f.)
Time to complele one revolution can be found by rearranging w-= ~:
I=~ = 23 .f!<J4 ... = 0 .2670.. . = 0.27 s (to 2 s.f.)
Tip: The equation for
kinetic energy is ~mv'.
I
How would you conven a n a ngle from degrees Lo radians?
Whal is the definition of angula r veloci1y?
Write down the formula that links angular veloci1y and linear speed,
defining any symbols you use.
Q4 What is meant by the period and frequency of rotation?
QS How would you calculate the angular velocity of an object in circular
mo4ion using ils frequency? Define any symbols you use.

MU' Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Wik A
 Leaming Objectives:
• Understand that a
consiam nc1 force
perpendicular to Lhe
velocity of an objea
causes it to travel in a
2. Centripetal Force and Acceleration
Objects moving in a circle are accelerating even if their speed isn't changing.
This n1ight sound strange.. but itS lx.."'Cause velocity is a veer.or quantity and
lhe direction of the object S velocity is const;inlly changing.
9A •\:0
LY
o
6
Tip: These twotriang.Jos
are similar - lhey'rc
the same shape, just
djffcrem sizes and
orientations.

circular palh. Centripetal acceleration Figure J: /he velocity vectors vA, v, Jnd av form an ;sosce/es uiang/e.
Objects travelling in circles are accelerating since lheir velocity is changing. Tip: If Oissmall,
• Know how to use If IJ is small, 1hen the length of the straight line AB is approxima tely / 11: AB.
1hc equations Even if the car shown in Figure 1 belo\Y is going at a constant speecl; its

~
equal to the lenglh of the a rc 1. Because the two lriangles in Figure 3 have the
for centripetal velocity is changing since ilS direction is dlanging. Since acceleration is same shape, the ratio of I and r is the same as the ratio of f:l.v and VA .
accek~ra1ion, defined as the ra te of change of vclocily, the car is accelerating even though it
v'
a 7anda =wf, ' isn't going a ny faster. This accelera1ion is called the centripetal acceleration I ~v ~v
and is always directed towards the cenlre of lhe circle. r = v; = v
and centripetal force,
f = ~and The previous equation, 1=v6.1, can be subslitu1ed in: Tip: The length of each
of the vectors vA and v,
F:m.lr.
r = £ll::
.!:ru V.ut
=> ~ = ~
r = Y'r. is just v.
• Know and uncl0mand
mdmiqucs and Since acceleralion, a, is equal to the change in velocity over time, this gives:
procedures used to Tip: Remember -
·=~=~
investigate circular The acceleration of rhe
car is dircx:ted towards linear speed and the
ITK>tion using a magnitude of the linear
whirling bung. the centre of the circle.
The formula for centri ~al acceleralion can then be written in terms velocity arc the same
Specification Figure 1: A car moving in a circle. of either the linear speed or angular speed: thing.
Reference 5.2.2
Derivation of formula for centripetal acceleration . v'. - v = linear sprod in ms-'
a -= cenwperal - . . . . a = 7 Exam Tip
A ball is moving a t a <.'Oflstant speed in a circle t~ Figure 2). Because acce/eratiot1 in ms ' "-
lhe ball is always changing direction, the linear velocily is always c hanging. You'll be given both of
" r = radius in m these formulas in the
However, the magnitude of the line.ar veloci1y, v, is always the same exam data and formulaie
(sometimes this is called linear speed). During time at, the ball moves from a 1 - r = radiusinm booi(fet.
point on the circle, A, Lo another point, B. The ball turns through the angle 0 a = centripetal- - . a =Jr - - -
(the angle between the lines OA a nd 08). acceleration in mr
Tip: You don't need to ' w = angular sp<.'UI in rads '
knCM' this derivation
for the exam, il's just Centripetal force
here so you can see Newton's first law of mocion says that a n object's velocity will s1ay lhc same
r is dre radius of
where the equations for unless there's a force acting on it. Since an object travelling in a circle has
cemripeta I acceleration thedrcle.
a centripetal acceleration, there must be a force causing this acceleration. Tip: You met New1on's
come from. These Circular motion is caused by a constant nel force perpendicular to the velocity laws of motion in
equations are on the Modulo3.
O is I.he cenue of (i.e. ading towards the centre of the circle}, called a centripetal force.
neXl pago.
the circle. Although the force changes the direction o f the motion, the object
never moves towards or away from the centre of the circle, so there is no Tip: The cenlripetal
Rgure 1: A ball uave/ling in a cirL11lar palh uavels motion in the direction or the force. Hence no work is done on the object.. force is wha1 keeps the
Tip: linear velocity through angle O l-viHYJ it moves from poim A to point B. a nd the object's kinetic energy (and therefore speed) remains constant. object moving in a circle
has the same magnitude The distance, I, that lhe ball !ravels along lhe circle from A Lo 8 equals - remove Lhc force
Ne\vton's second law says F =ma, so subslituting this into the and the object would
as linear speed, but the ball's linear speed multiplied by the time it takes to move thal d istance: equations above for the cenlfipetal acceleration gives you equations ior
is a VQOOC that is a fly off at a 1angem with
tangem 10 the circle. I= V~l the cenlripetal force: velocity v.
At point A the ball has linear velocity vA and at point 8 il has linear m =- mass in kg
v.. and v• have the same
magnitude but different velocity v,.. The change in line.ar velocity, D.v, is: / . .
f = cenuipetill force in N - . .
F = mv' .....- v -= linear speed m ms' Tip: Don't confuse the
d irections. r centripetal force with
6V: V# VA
...__ r -= radius in m the centrifugal force.
You can draw a lrianglc made up or the veloci1y vectors vA' v• and
The centrifugal force is
~ ... (sec
Figure 3). The linear velocity i-s always at a tangent lo the radius, so
Tip: Isosceles triangles the outwards reaction
the angle between vAand v. is also 0. This triangle is the same shape as the f = cenuipmaf IOlce in N ___.. F = mulr . - . r -= radius in m force you experience
have two sides the same
kg~
triangle ABO, since boch are isosceles triangles with the same angle 0 bct,veen when )'OU're spinning.
leng1h. m -= mass in ' w = angular speed in rads'
the two sides of identical lenb'lh.

Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Wu

Tip: The acceleration
due to the Eanh's gravity
decreases a.s you move
funher away from the
centre of the planet -
only at the surface is it
9.81 ms-' . Seepage JOO
for more.
Tip: Make sure thai the
bung and th<?washers
arc securely fastened to
lhe string. thal you're
not standing too close to
anyone and that there's
nothing breakable
nearby. And remember
10 wear S3fety g~les.
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations
Example -i4§1$1fl1i Measure the lime take n for the bung to make one complete
circle. This is the time period, T. In practice, this may be Loo small to lime Tip: Keeping 111<1
A car of mass 890 kg is moving al 15 ms-1 • It travels around a circular reference mark level
bend of radius 18 m. Calcula te lhe centripetal acceleration and accurately, so you might need to measure the time taken to complete ten wilh the top of the tube
circles and divide to get an average. is a b it tricky, so you
centripetal force experienced by the car.
Acceleration = a = f = Jfa = 12.S = 13 ms' (to 2 s.f.) Once you've got an accurate value for T, use the formula w = 'lf 10 may oocd to repeat 1.hc
experiment quite a few
find the angular speed of the bung. You can then fi nd the cenlripeial force
times to gei an accurate
Force= F = mrv' =ma = 890x12.5 = 11125=11OOO N (to2 s.f.) exerted on the bung using F = m,,!Alr. In th is equation, r is lhe radius of the measurcmcm of f.
bung's circular palh, which will equal the distance from the reference mark on
lhe string to the centre of the bung.
Exan1ple -f4§1§1fl1j
A satellite orbits the Ea rth twice every 24 hours. The acceleration due to The centripetal force should be equal to the weight of the washers
(W = mwe). This weight is what causes the tension in the string, which acts as
the Earth's gravity is 0.57 ms-' at the satellite's orbiting altitude. How far
.tbove the farth's surface is it orbiting? The radius of the Earth is 6400 km.
Lhe centripetal force .
Repeat this experiment for different values of r (i.e. different d istances
1 orbi1 iakes 12 hours, so period in seconds= T = 12 x 3600 = 43 200 s between the bung and lhe reference mark) - you should find tha1 as r gets
Angular speed = w = ¥ bigger, the time period gets longer but the centripetal fo rce siays the same.
= 4 };00 = 1.4544 .. x 1 0 ... rad s- 1
Acceleration a -= r..lr so radius r = ~ I Pfli 1+1- !i!:H 11.1.g A ·1¥1® t !.J !l
I
Figure 5: When a hammer
Ql On a ride a t a Lhe me park~ riders are strapped into seats altached to thrower is spinning, the
(l
5
.4s.i1.: ~ 10 ~· = 26 945.2 . . km the edge of a horizontal wheel of diameler 8.5 m. The \vheel rotates cenuipetal force acting along
Height above Earth = radius of orbit - radius of Earth 15 times a minute. Calcula te the force feh by a rider of mass 60.0 kg. tlle chain keeps the hammer
moving in a circle. When
= 26 945.2 ... - 640-0 = 20 545.2 .. = 21 OOO km (to 2 s.fJ Q2 A plan et follows a circ ular orbit o f rad ius r around a star. The planet
tho fhra.ver Jets go, this force
experiences a constant centripetal acceleration a. How long does it vanishes and the hammer
take for the planet lO orbit the star 3 1imcs? Choose the correci opfion. flies off with .1n initial speed
Investigating circular motion A 3•/~ B 6"/1 C 1nffr 0 ~ir/dr equal wits linear speed.
You can investigate circular mo1ion using a rubber bung, some washers, some QJ A student is investigating circular molion ......- -........~.... Tip: For Q2, start by
using the experimental set-up shown. ' - sin ng-.... bung
string and a clear plastic lube, as shown in Figure 4. finding expressions for
bung on a piece or s!ling - + .......-
~-··- - 'i"..:;,
......... .....
radius
She auaches a washer of mass m"' = 31 Og ....._•-·- ........ .._....·
to the end or Lhe s.tring, a nd spins a bung of mass
mb = 22 g in a circle or radius r-= 0.60 m.
lube
win terms ol a and r
and in terms of T. 'rbu
can then rearrange and
ref<rnna::~:·/I: . . !•"""'.-~ Calculale the lime period (7) o f the bung's motion. washer
Q4 a) A car is being driven in a circle of radius 56.8 m w ith a linear speed
combine th<~m to find
the answer.
of 31.1 ms- 1 • Calculate the cenlripetal acceleration o f Lhe car.
b) The linear speed or the ('.ar decreases to half its. original value.
If the original cenLripelal force experienced by the car was F, what
is the new cenLripe1al force experienced by Lhe car in terms or R
QS A biker rides in a vertical circle around the inside of a cylinder of
Figure 4: The experimental set+up for investigating circular mOlion. radius 5.0 m (so he's upside down a l the top of the cylinder). For
the biker to not fa ll off al the top of the loop, he must be going fast
Measure the mass of the bung (m,) and !he mass o f the washers (m), enough that his centripetal acceleration docs not drop belo\v the
then anacll the bung to the string. Thread 1he string through the p lastic tube, acceleration due to gravily, 9.81 ms 1 • Whal's the n1inimum speed he
and weigh down the free end using the washers. must be travelling a l the lop of the loop?
Make a reference mark on the string, then measure the d istance
from the mark to the centre of the bung. Pull the string taut to
make sure this measurement is as accurate as possible. Practice Questions - Fact Recall
Line the reference mark up with Lhe top of the tube, then begin to Q l Whal is meant by centripetal acceleration and cenlripetal force?
spin the bung in a horizontal circle, as shO\r\'n in Figure 4. You'll need to Q2 Give the equa1ion ror cenLripetal acceleration in terms of
spin it at the right speed to keep the reference mark level with the top of the angular velocity. Define a ll the symbols you use.
tube (if you spin too quickly it'll move outwards, but if you spin loo s lowly it'll
move down). Try 10 keep your hand as still as possible whist you spin. QJ Give the equation for centripetal force in lerms o f linear speed.
Define all the symbols you use.
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Wf4 M
 Leam ing Objectives: 3. Simple Harmonic Motion Graphs of simple harmonic motion Tip: Sino and oosino~
• Know what is meant You can draw graphs to show how the displacement, velocity and acceleration waves arc graphs plotted
by simple harmonic A S\¥inging pendulum n1oves \'Vith simple harmonic morion - Lhis topic is all of an object oscillating with SHM change with time (see Figure 3). There's ol the funaions sin and
molion. about what simple h.lrn>0nic motion is and where you might see it occurring. more informalion about where these graphs come from on pages 284-285. cos of some changing
value (like time).
•Know that the defining Displacement
equa1ion of SHM is What is simple harmonic motion? Displacemeni, x, varies as a cosine o r sine \Wve with a maximum value, A
J :-.JX. An object moving \ Vith sin1ple harmonic motion (SHM) oscillates 10 and fro, Tip : w is called angular
(the amplitude).
• Understand the either side of an equilibrium position (sec Figure 1). Thts equilibrium position frequency in SI IM,
1crms displacement, Velocity and angular velocity
is the midpoint o f the object's motion. The distance o f the object from the
amplitude, period, equilibrium is called its displacement Veloci1y, v, is the gradient of the displacement-time graph. It has a maximum in circular motion {see
frequency, angular value of .wA, where w is lhe angular frequency of the oscillation. The angular page273).
Frequency and phase frequency can be calculated using w = hf or w - 2;' (see page 275).
differcnoo in lhe
context of simple Acceleration Tlp: Th<> cqua1ions
that determine lhe

. -:.p ,
harmonic motion. Acceleration, .i, is 1he gradien1 of 1he velocily-Ume graph. h has a maximum
• Know what angular displaoomcm-1ime
value of W'A. graph are on p.284.
Frequency (,.>) is, and

L~
The velocity-tim(?
be able to calcula1e
it using w = 2'fff and
w=lf.
Figure 1: A meuonomc moves with simple
harmonic motion about an equilibrium posiu·on. C\ graph is derived from
the gradiem of the

..,,,.,. __
displacement LilTK!
\J \J """'
4

• Be able 10 use
There is always a rest0<ing force pulling or pushing the objc'Ct bade - I\ Wlten rhe gradient graph bc><:ouse • = ~ .
graphical methods 10 .mr·1ar.,,
tu 6V I
towards the equilibrium position. The size of the restoring force depends on of the disp/accmeru. S1 a -= ]J·
rel.ate the changes in
displacement, velochy the d isplacement (see Figure 2). The restoring force makes the object accelerate ~
/ rile velocity is zero.

-""'~
and accrleration tmvards lhe equilibrium. wl\ (\
Tip: See page 285
during simple to see: w here these
harmonic motion. velodty 0 lime
small displac<meJJ~ maximum values

---- ....
• Know that the therefore sm.111 force W/Nlllrhegradientof of velocity and
period or a simple Ille ve/od1y-time graph acceleratioo come from.

/! ·~
w'AL\ L\ --~
harmonic oscillator
is independent acceleration isat•
or its amplitude maumum. Tip: Kinetic energy
(isochronous acceleration 0 v~ time (fJ w ill v.uy in a
oscillaLOr). similar W'J'/ to v, since
...JI\ . fr= V1,mv1-cxcept the
• Be able 10 describe
tile interchange Rgure 2: The sfLe of the restoring force for an object moving wilh simple graph for fx will alW'J'fS
between kiootic and harmonic motion depends on its displacement from its equilibrium positioo. Rgure 3: Graphs showing how displacemem, velod1y and acceler.uion be positive (as v1 is
potential energy of"" object experiencing SHM chdllge with time. always posi1ivo).
during simple SHM can be defined as: It migh1 seem odd lhaLthe ao::eleration should be a maximum
harmonic motion. al zero velocity, but it mighl be helpful to remember that acceleration is Tip: These graphs
• Understand energy 4
the rate of change of velocity - acceleration is fou nd from the gradient or can be plotted from
An oscillation in which the acceleration of an object
displacemcn1 graphs the velocity-time graph. The steepest part o f the velocity-time graph (and experiments by using
for a simpJe harmonic ls directly prOJX>rlional to its displaceme nt from the posi Lion sensors al'Kf
oscillator. midpoint, and is d irected lo\vards the midpoint. therefore the largest acceleration} is \Vhen the c urve is passing through zero.
data loggers to measure
Specification
Also, remember thal .i =- -Wlx. So the maximum acceleration the mo1ion of an object
Referen ces 5.3.1 occurs at the maximum negative displacement (the turning points of the underi,>oing SHM - sro
This definition can be wrinen as the relation: d isplacement-time graph), which coincides with where velocity is zero. page 287.
and 5.3.2
Phase d ifference
Phase difference is a measure of how much one wave lags behind another
Tip: As acceleration wave, and can be measured in radians, degrees, or frac1ions of a cycle.
is proportional to Here, a is the acceleralion, x is the displacemen~ a nd W' is a Two waves that are in phase with each other have a phase difference of zero
displaccmeru, th<! force constant. The minus sign shows lhal the acceleration is always opposing the (or 2?r radians) - i.e. the maxima a nd minima in each wave occur at lhe same
is also proportional to displacemenl (that's the "directed towards the midpoinl" b it in the definition}. lime. If t\VO \Wves a rc exactly out of phase ('in antiphase1, they have a phase
displacement. d ifference of '1r radians or 180° - one wave's maximum occurs at the same
I ime as lhe other's minimum.

Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations EH

Tll>: - - iho«>
;w~ 2.. r.tdians in a full
cyci<', so .; 13dians is •
qu.1nor cyck!.
Tip: Rorncrnber, f + SHM is lhe number ol cycles per second {measured in hertz, Hz). The period,
tsro p.275).
Tip: Gr.witltional
"'*""131 """'l:Y is
1Pinl'd by nn'ing ~
from • mass (page JO<.),
~nd C'lastic potential
'etas.1
"""llY1c objects
is siorodby
when
ll'M'.'y'rr 1au1.
Figure 4: An osd/l;Jtins
ptVJdulum moves faswsi
whm h passes throug~ ics
cqulibrium position whro
alhsmergyisldncdc.
Module 5: Section 2 Circula r Motion and Osclllallons
The ..,1oci1y is • quaner oi a cycle in lron1 ol lhe displacemen1 on EnmTip
1he ,..,locity-time and displacemeot-time graphs lor an objecl in SHM lStt Moke sure )'OU li:now
i
Figure 3) - il's radians oul ol phase. The accelcrnlion is anolher radiansi Ille graph$ in ltgoos 5
and 6 woll - yoo could
ahead of the veloci1y, 3nd so is in antiphase wi1h the displacemenL
be asked «> l'Calgnise,
sketch and npply ohcm
to otht>r thinbtS.
lt.·lt f'fJUilibtium right ('(/Wbbrium left
Frequency and period
From maximum posi1M: displacement le.g. maximum displacement 10 1he Rgure '' C.nph ID show hoW llN' lanroc dlld ,_.,,..,,
righl) 10 maximum nq;;11ive dispba=ml (e.g. maximum displacemen1 10 lhe M<.'<lft ofan objr!cl"' SJ IM cllange "ith tin<>.
lcfl) and bade ai;ain is called a cycle oi oscilla1oon. The frequency, f. ol lhe
Practice Questions -Application
J, is 1he time taken lor a compleie cycle (in seconds). Q l This graph shows d isplacemenl •s•ons1 1ime for a mass on 1he end of
The amplituclc of :an oscillation is the maximum magnitude of 1hc a spring. Which of the poin1(s) i\-E shows: _ ~
displacement In SHM, 1he frequency and period MC indcpendenl or the . . i ...
a) when 1hc magnuude of the velocuy .,
amplitude {i.e. th<.'Y'r< constant for a given oscilla1ion). So a pendulum clodc
of the mass is at a max1muml ~ o A C" t.itne>
will keep licking in rcgulor lime inlefVals e""n if ilS swing becomes very small.
This kind oi oscillalOr is e>lled an isodlronous oscilla1or. b) when lhc magnirude of 1he ac:C<?lera1ion ~-X :
of the mass is at a maximuml
Q2 A girt is snung on a "'ing undergoing simple harmonic mouon.
To stan lhc mo1ion, she raised 1he swing so ii was higher than iis
Potential and kinetic energy lmvesl posnion, 1hen lifted her feel oil 1hc ground. Skctch • grnph
An object in SHM cxch:mgcs potential energy and kinetic energy a.s il of the girl's kinetic energy againSI lime (or two complete oscill:uions
oscilla1cs. The type or po1cn1ial energy II) depends on what it is lha1's of lhe swing. where I = 0 al the poinl where she lifled hero(( lhc
providing the restofing force. This will be gravilntional £,for pendulums ground. You c:in assume no energy is lost to the surroundings.
and elastic E, (elastic 1>0Ccn1ial cne<gy) and possibly gravi1a1ional £,for Q3 A pendulum os undergoing simple h.1rmonic motion. The maximum
masses on springs. dispbcerncnl ol 1he pendulum is 0.60 m and lhe maximum speed ol
As the obj«t lllOl'CS 1owards the equilibrium posirion, lhe restoring lorce the pendulum is 0.90 m>1. Top: Romm'lbcf lha1
does worlc on lhe object and so transfetS some f, 10 £,. a) Calcula1c 1hc frcqtre0cy ol lhe oscoll ..ion. speed h:as a maximum
When lhc objcc1 is moving away from 1he equilibrium, all 1ha1 k, is value at""' or hfA.
b) Calcula1c the 1ime iaken for the pendulum 10 compleie one
transferred b;Jck to f,. again. oscilla1ton.
At the equilibrium, the object's E, is s.1id 10 be zero and c) Calculate the maximum accdcrotion of the pendulum.
its EK is maximum therefore its vek><:ity fs m:iximum.
Al lhe maximum displacement (lhe ampli1udc) on both sides of lhe
equilibrium, tM of>icct's E, is maximum, and its Etc is zero so itS •Mr'5·'~:1.111-t, •t·'·Plltm';{t+1 1 1
""locity is zero. Ql Write do"n 1he defining equation ol simple harmonic mo1ion.
Q2 Whal is mcani by the frequency and period of an oscilla1ionl
Q3 Whal is 1he ph>sc difference belw<'Cfl 1he displacernenl and the
velocity or an object moving wi1h SI IM?
Q4 For an object undergoing simple harmonic motion, stale whc1hcr the
following occur at equilibrium or maximum displacement:
a) maximum velocity
b) minimum vekxiry
c) maximum accelera.1ion
Rgure $: Craph ID show how rll(' kinroc and po«Yltial d) minimum acceleration
"""'BY ol an objocJ in SHM do>llb<' 0\1th di5p/ac:mxYlt
QS Sketch the gr:ophs ol displacemenl, vclocily and acceler.11ion ogainSI
The sumo( 1hc po1cn1ial and kinetic energy is called the mechanical lime for an c>hject moving with SHM. Marte on your graphs 1he
energy and scays const.'lnt (as long as the mocK>n isn't damped sec f>:agc maximum and minimum values chat each can take.
291). The energy ir•nsfcr for one complele cycle or oscilla1ion (see Hgure 6) Q6 Describe how lhe kinetic and po1cn1iol energy of an object moving
E,
is: ID£. ID£,"' E,"'f ,... and !hen lhe process rcpealS ... with SHM change wilh lime.
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations WJ:FM
 Leam ing Obj ectives:
• Know solutions to lhe
equa1ion a = ~x,
c.g.x =Acos{""J
orx =Asin(wtJ.
• Be able 10 use lhe
equa1ion
V =%W/AJ - X1 .
• Know that v_ = ~.
Specification
Reference 5.3.1
Tip: See pages 273-279
for more about circular
motion.
Tip: A is Lhc maximum
d isplacement - it's not
acC(!lcr.u ion.
Tip: Angular frequency
(w) and frequency (I) arc
similar but not the same.
w is measurt.'<f in rads •
and f is mP.a.surcd in
Hz (ors 1). 11lc relalion
between the two is
w=211:f.
Tip: Remember to
set your calculator to
radians when using the
equations here and on
11ie nox1page.
Tip: Rcme~r, the
o nly difference between
lhe graphs for sin and
cos is a 'horizontal shirt' .
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations
4. Calculations with SHM Acceleration
The acceleration or an objecl moving with SHM C'.an al-so be related 10 the
Tip: You don'l need to
know the derivations of
acceleration of a n objed in circula r motion. Look again at Figure 1. all these equa1ions -
You saw I.he defining equation of simple harmonic rrtotion (a = --W'x ) on p .280.
The next feiv pages arc about solutions co that equation, vvhich will be equations The ball is moving in a circle, so its acceleration is Wlr. they're just here to help
for x in terms of lime (t). There's some marhs here, bu1 i<'.< hopefully not 100 bad. you undcrsr.and SHM a
Seen from point S (and assu ming 0 =Oat t = 0), the acceleration of the little more.
ball, a, would appear lo be just the ' left-lo-right' componenl of .;,:
Equations for simple harmonic motion a =-olrcosO= -olAcos(wl) a
To undersiand the malhs behind SHM, it's useful 10 think abou1 what circular
There's a minus sign because the acceleration is always acting towards the
motion in a horizontal plane would look like when viewed from the side.
cen1re of the circle (e.g. ir x is posilive, then a is in the negative direction).
Imagine a ball spinning in a horizonlal circle (see Figure 1). From above,
you'd see lhe ball's circular palh, but from the side (in the plane o f ro1a1ionl Bui Acos(wt) is equal 10 lhe ball's d isplacement, x.
it will look like lhe ball's oscillaling from side 10 side, and moving with SHM. So 1he accclcralion of Ille object is:
Its speed_, v, will appear fastest when x = 0 and appear slowest when x = ±A. ~ x = displacement inn,
a = acce/e.ratian in ms 1 ~a = -wlx
'----- w = angular frequency in rads '
1he ha.II appears to moW! Rgure 2: Graph shO\ving
This is 1he defining equation of SHM (see page 280), which means the how accelcratK>tt varies with
slower as x approaches I\.
formula x =Acos(wd is a solution to this equation.
-A:
V~v from above. '
.I\ e•• • •--.-
•••• Similarly, if al t = 0 the ball had been passing lhrough its equilibrium
position, its acceleration would still be given by the 'left-to-right'
componenl of .Jr. But lhis would now be a = -olAsin (id) = -W'x.
displacement for an object
1noving with SHM.
Tip: You'll be given the
IVH!W from the side. ( So the formula x =A sin(wd is also a solution to lhe SHM equation. formulas for x, v and d
~,,
.. .. .. .. .
~'
~·
Since a = - w2Acos(wt) or a = -WAsin {wl), the object's acceleration has in the data and formulae
a maximum magnitude of amn =WA. This occurs when the object's bool<let, but yoo ooed
displacen1ent is al its maximum magnitude - i.e. when x = ±A: to understand whai they
Rgure t: A ball follo.ving a circular path, piclured from mean and how to use
above f/!'{1) and from !he side at po;m S (r;ghl). ~ A = ampliwdein m lhem.
You ·won'1be given the
Displacement a_, -=- magnitude of the ~ a-=w1A formulas for v_.and
Figure 1 shows thal x, the displacement of the ball w'hen viewed from max accelera#on in ms ' a_ 1hoogh, so )'OU
point S, is just equal to the 'left-lo-righL' component of the ball's posilion, \ w = angular frequoocyin rads' either need 10 learn
i.e. x = rcosO. them, or be able 10 work
them out
When viewed from the side, the amplitude of the ball's simple harmonic Velocity
molion, A,. is the same as the radius of the circle, 1. You also need to know the equation for the velocity or an object moving wilh
If lhe ball's displacemenl (as seen from the side} is a t iLS maximum when SHM. Don't \·vorry abou1 the derivation of v. i1's pre tty <.'Omplicated. You just
l = 0 (i.e. when t = 0, 0 = 0 and x =A) and its angular speed is w, need to know thal it is given by:
lhen 0 =c...'/.. Note thal the equivalent 'component' tow in SHM is called
angular frequency. h still has the same value, the same unils Y = velodtyinms ,_____.. v = ±w/A' - x' + - X : displacemcnt inm
and the same symbol, it's just got a differenl name.
Combining these equations gives you a n expression (or the
displacement, x, of an objecl undergoing SHM:
x = rcosO =Acos(wt)
w = angular frequency in rads 1
I " A =amplitude in nt Rgure 3: Graph shC»ving
how velodty varies with
displacement for an object
If the d isplacement (as seen from the side) is Wll at its maximum when The velocity is posilive if the object is moving in the posilivc direction moving with Sl-IM.
t = 0, !hen 1he displacemenl graph (see p.281) would just be 'shiflcd' (e.g. lo lhe right), and neg.alive if it's moving in the negalive direction (e.g. to
the left) - that's why Lhe re is a ±sign in there. The maximum speed
horizontally. In particula r, if lhe ball is passing through its equilibrium Tip: Rcmember - wis
position {x = 0) when t = o. lhe cqua1ion for displacement becomes: (magnitude of veloci1y) is when the object is passing through 1hc equilibrium, called angular velocity
in circular motion and
x = Asin(wt) \vhere x = O:
angular frggucn<.y in
So for an object undergoing SHM, the displacement can be described by: v_ =maxspeedinnrs-' SHM. It's just the name
""' / A = anrpliwde mm that's d ifferent, so Lhc
x = displacement -.. x =A cos{t.;.t) or x =Asin (wt) . - I = lime ins Max speed = v_ = wA w = angular frequency equation for w is always:
"--l.- w=2ttfor w - 2• .
inm
A = ampfitude in m J
•
L angular frequen<.:y in rads '
in rads 1 1
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Wj:f A
Tip: It's alWa)" helpful
10 draw a quick skeLch
for qucs1ions like lhis-
it can help you visualise
what's happening.
Tip: Pan C) of this
example asks you 10 find
lhe speed. You can use
1 1
V = i w./A - x and
jus1ignor~ the% sign, as
lllis shows the direction
of 1.hc motion - \\lhicfl
is only imponam for
velocity, not spoed.
Tip: Remember lh<>
time period is jus.t 1hc
inverse of the frequency.
Tip: TOO speed is at its
maximum value when
Lhe mass passes through
i1s equ ilibrium position.
Tip: 5<.>e pages 2fl!l.289
for moce on pendulums.
Example -13§1$ 1§11 5. Investigating SHM Learning Objective:
A mass is attached to a horizontal spring. It is pulled 7.5 cm from its • Understand
equilibrium position and released. It begins oscillating with SHM, and Simple harmonic motion (SHMJ is very common. This means there techniques and
takes 1.2 s to complete a full cycle. arc various different experimental sel-ups you can use Lo investigale it procedures usOO 10
a) What i.s the frequency of oscillation of the mass? for example, \Vith a mass on a sprin~ or with a pendulum. determine the period
b) What is the magnitude of its maximum acceleration? and frequency of
c) What is its speed when it is 2.0 cm from its equilibrium position? Using sensors and a data logger simple harmonic
1 = 1.2
1 = o.8333 ... = o.83 Hz (to 2 s.f.) oscillations (PAGIO).
aJ Frequency= T Data loggers and sensors a re a useful way of inves1igating simple harmonic
motion, as they allow you to make very precise measurements. To investigate Specification
b) Amplitude in m = 7.5 -o 100 = 0.075 m Reference 5.3.1
w = 2nf = 2 x ;r x 0.8333 ... = 5.2359 ... rads 1 lhe motion of a mass oscillating on a spring, set up the equipmenL as shown in
• - = w 'A= (5.2359 ...)' x 0.075 = 2.056... = 2.1 ms" (to 2 s.f.) Figure 1. If you don't have a long spring you can connect a fc\v shoner ones
together.
c) Speed at x = 0.02 m Tip: Before carrying
v ="'/A' - x' = 5.2359 .. x /0.075' - 0.02' = 0.3784 .. out any experiment, you
= 0.38 ms 1 (to 2 s.f.) should always carry out
a risk assess.mcnL
Practice Questions -Application
Ql A pendulum oscillating with SHM has an angular frequency of
1.5 rads 1 and an amplitude of 1.& m.
a) Calcula1e i1s acceleralion when i1 has a displacem.ent of 1.6 m.
b) How long does it take 10 <.."<>mplete 15 oscillations?
Q2 A mass attached to a spring oscillates with SHM. It has a period of worklx.'flch
0.75 s, and moves \Vith speed 0 .85 ms- 1 when passing through its
equilibrium position.
position .W!nsor
a) What is Lhe amplitude or its oscillation?
lo data kJS8fY- .........
b) What will ilS velocity be when it is 8.0 cm 10 the right of ilS on a <:tHnpute,.....-
equilibrium position~
Tip: You should Lry to
Q3 A pendulum is pulled a distance 0.45 m from ilS equilibrium position Figure 1: Exp?ritnentaf sel..Up for investigating the
lift the mass straight up,
and is released at 1ime L = 0. If it takes 15.5 s 10 romplete exactly 5 motion of a mass oscil/au·ng on a spring.
to stop the mass from
oscillalions, how far will it be from ilS equilibrium position after 10.0 s? swinging from side 10
Q4 A mechanical metronome produces a ticking sound every rime a Lift the mass slightly and release it - this \viii cause the mass-spring side. 1l1c string also
pendulum arm moving \Vith SHM passes Lhrough ilS equilibrium system to start oscillating with simple ha rmonic motion. helps to stop the mass
position. Its maximum d isplacement from its equilibrium position from swinging from side
To make sure your experiment is repeatable, pla<.-e a ruler behind the to side.
is 6.2 cm. ff it is set to produce 120 ticks per minute, whal is the spring to measure how far you raise the mass. Make sure your eye i.s
magnitude of the a rm's maximum accelera tion? level with the mass when you take lhe measuremenl
As the mass oscillates, the position sensor will measure the Tip: You could a1so use
displacement of the mass over time. The computer can be set to record a set square to help get
this dala automatically. an accurate reading for
Ql Write down the solutio n to the SHM equation a = - c.lx, assuming Let the experiment run until you've got a good amounl of data (al least the initial displacement
lhal al l = 0, the objecl is at its maximum displaceme nt Give your ten complete oscillations). ol the mass. Using a set
an s\ver as a function of time, and define any symbols you use. square helps you read
C)2 Give Lhe equa1ions for the acceleration and velocity of a n objcc1 Once you've collected your data, you can use the computer to the mark on the ruler
generate a di-splacemen1-time graph, like Lhc o ne in Figure 2. From the that's exactly level wilh
moving with SHM as a function of displacement Define any symbols
graph, you can measure T, the time period o f the oscillation, a nd A, the the mass.

you use.
Q3 What is the maximum speed of an object moving with SHM?
Define any symbols you use.
Q4 What is Lhe magnitude of the maximum acceleralion of an object
moving wilh SHM? Define any symbols you use.
y
amplitude of the oscilla1ion. The frequency of the oscillations (f) is given
by( = +
You should find that the amplitude of the oscilla1ions geis smaller
over time. but the Lime period a nd the frequency remain con5'anl. This is
because e nergy is Jost to overcoming air resistance as the mass moves up displau:mienl
and down.

Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Wl:r

Tip: O<!pending on how
your posi1ion sensor is
set up, the res1position
may not be sho\vn as
zero.
Tip: If yoo leave ""'
sysmm oscillating
for long enough, the
amplitude will decrease
umil 100 mass evcniually
comes 10 rest
Tip: If the osc:illa 1ions
happen so quickly
that it's difficuh to
measure Lhc dmc period
accurately, tlt<>n you
coutd use a stroboscope.
A stroboscope is a
light that flashes at a
frequency which the
user can set. When
the frcqU(lflcy of the
stroboscope matches
lhc frequency of the
oscilla1io n, then the
mass will appear 10
oo s1a1ionary. You can
find Lhe time period
using T ~.where
f is the freq~ency of
the strobosoope (and
thcmrom the frequency
of the oscillation).
Tip: A reference mark
like the one shown
in Figure 3 is called a
fiducial marker.
Figure 4: To get a perfeclfy
vertical reference line, you
could use a plumb bob - a
mass on the end ofa st1ing.
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations
Record 1he time when the mass passes the nlark again, nloving fronl the
Tip : To get 1.lle time
same direction - this is the time period or the oscillator. Depending
period a{ a complete
on your pendulum, T might be too short to measure accurately from oscillation, only record
one swing. If so, measure Lhe total cime for a number of complete
times when I.he mass
oscillaLions combined (say 5 or 10) and take an average {or you could use passes in front of the
a stroboscope - see previous page). reference mark from the
Keep recording Tat regular intervals as the motion dies away. same direction (e.g. from
You can use these values of T lo calculate lhe frequency of the oscillations lefl 10 right).
Rgure 1: A displacement·time graph for a mass oscillating
on a spring. You can use 1he graph to measure the time
period of the oscillations ff/ and their ampHwde (A).
using the formula f ~ +·
You should find 1ha1 T and f remain conslanl as
Tip: Measuring Lhc
the ampli1ude or the swing decreases. total time ror a numOOr
You can inve>tigate how d ifferent factors affect the motion or the °'complete oscillations
You can use this srs-em to investiga1e hcnv different variables affect and Laking an average
the time period of the oscillation. You just have to change one variable at a pendulum. Measure all the variables as accurately as possible, and only
means any human error
1ime (the independent variable), while keeping all lhe olhers fixed. You should change one variable at a time. introduced by stan..ing or
repeal the experiment for each different value of the indepcndem variable Change the length of the piece of siring you use for your pendulum. <iopping the stopwatch
too late (or 100 early)
you're investigating. For example, you could: Change the weigh! of the mass o n lhe end of the pendulum.
will be 'shared' over
Change the weight of lhe mass. Change lhe amount by which you initially move the mass to the side several oscilla1ions. This
before releasing it (making sure you keep 1he angle belo\v 10.,).
Change the stiffness of the spring you're using. means the time period
you calculate for a
Change the size of the initial d isplacement. You should find that as the length of the string increases, the 1ime
period also increases, but that the \veight of the mass and the angle of the single oscillation will be
You should find thal a heavier mass leads to a longer time period and
initial displacement have no effect on the time period of the pendulum. more accurate.
a stiffer spring leads to a shorter time period, while the ini1ial d isplacement
has no effect on the time period.
Q l The graph below was plotted by a sludenl inveS1iga1ing simple Tip: Your data will
Without using sensors and a data logger harmonic motion. The graph shmvs the displacement of a mass on a
comain more random
errors if you don' t use
(f you don't have a dala logger. you won'I be able 10 generate a spring against lime.
a data logger, so you'll
displacemenl-rime graph~ but you can still investigate the lime period of an need to do more rcpe.:us.
displacr:rmm t
oscillation. For example, you can invcs1igate the simple hannonic motion of a
pendulum using the experimental set-up in Figure 3 and a stopwa1ch.
ran!
al Find Lhe time period ffi of 1he oscilla1ions.
/~' 'TP.'"'" n,~ b) Find Lhe frequency (f) of the oscillations.
cJ Calculate 1he angul;ir frequency (w) of lhe o.cillations.
~ roferem:e mark
IPr t9, t3:1, tlt:ti"·' .g :rn1.:<:il1.w.11...1__________,
.. . •
1 11 1 111 11111
Q l Describe an experimental set-up you could use lo investigate simple
d amp and dampstand
harmonic motion.
Rgure J : Experimental set up for investigating
4
Q2 If you're investigating simple harmonic motion without using data
the motion of a pLlf>dulum.
loggers and sensors, why is ila good idea to:
Measure lhe weight of the mass, and use a ruler to find lhe s!Cing's lengLh. a) find the time period or a single oscillation by recording the time
J
Move lhe mass to the side, keeping the string tauL 1\<\easure the angle for mulliple oscillalions, 1hen dividing by the total number of
between lhe string and the vertical using the protraclor. Make sure it's less oscillations?
than 109, or the mass won'l swing wilh simple harmonic mocion when b) use fiducial markers when recording the Linle to complete a
you release it. number of oscillations?
Release the mass. Position your eye level with the reference mark on the
card, and start 1he stopwatch vvhen the mass passes in fron1 or it
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations El:" M
 Leaming Obj ectives:
• Understand what is
mean• by Free and
forced oscillations.
• Know what resonance
is in terms of the
natural frequency.
• Understand and
be able 10 sketch
amplitude.driving
frequency graphs for
forced oscillators.
• Be able to give
practical examples of
forced oscillations and
resonance.
• Understand the effects
of damping on an
oscillatory system.
• Understand
observations of
Forced and damped
oscillations for a range
of systems.
Specification
Reference 5.3.3
Tip: \bu should carry
out a risk assessment
before staning 1his
experiment.
Tip: At resonance, Lile
driver displacement is
goo out of phase to the
displacement ol the
oscillator - i.e. when
1he displacement of the
driver is at iis maximum.
1he oscillator is passing
1hrough its equilibrium
poinL
Osc.ilt.Hw dlspl.JCerilf>rjl
'-529\,
Df1VW c/isplMemMt
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations
6. Free and Forced Oscillations
An object can be forced to oscillate by providing a driving frequency. If this is
near I.he objecl's natural frequency, rhe object vvill srart to resonate which
can be good or bad new:s, depending on what the objL>cl is needed fo,
Examples ------------~
Here a re some examples of resonance:
A radio is tuned so the electric circuit resonates at the
same frequency as the radio station you want to listen lo.
Tip: M.ake sure you
know some examples of
resonance.
J
A glass resona1es when driven by a sound wave at the
Free vibrations right frequency. Tip: Remember,
Free vibrations involve no lransfer oi energy to or from lhe surroundings.
a stationary wave
If you stretdl and release a mass on a spring, it oscillates at irs resonant is created by the
frequency (or natural frequency). The san1e happens if you strike a metal The column of air resonates in an organ pipe, driven by superposition of
object - the sound you hear is caused by vibrations at the object's natural the motion of air at the base. This creates a stationary two w:rves (with the
frequency. If no energy1s transfo"ed to or from the surroundings, it 'viii keep wave in the pipe. same frequency and
oscillating wilh the same ampli1ude forever. In practice this never happens, amplitude) moving in
A swing resonates if it's driven by someone pushing it
but a spring vibrating in air is called a free vibration (or oscillation) anyway. opposi1e dircaions.
at its natural frequency.
Forced vibrations
@~
·
Forced vibrations happen 'vhen there's an external driving force. A system
can be forced to vibrate by a periodic external force. The frequency of this Damping
force is called !he driving frequency. In practice, any oscillating system loses energy 10 ils surroundings. ~
This is usualty down to frictional forces like air resistance. These are Tip: Anolher name
for damping foroos is
Resonance oiled damping forces. Systems are often deliberately damped 10 stop them
'dissipative forces'. since
When the driving irequency approaches the natural frequency, lhe system oscillating or to minimise the effect of resonance.
they dissipate 1he energy
gains more and more energy from the driving force and so vibrates with a Example - - - - or the oscillator to its
rapidly increasing amplitude. When this happens the system is resonating. Shock absorbers in a car's suspension provide a damping force by surroundings.
At resonance 1hc phase difference becween the driver and oscillator is 900.
Figures 1 and 2 show how the relationship between amplitude and driving
frequency can be investigated by experiment --...--..,··- CJ!
squashing oil through a hole when compressed.
body
l
mass ascilla1es
with very large
...,._-"" amplitude al I.he figure 3: Damping in a car suspension system.
'
resonant frequency
The degree of damping can vary from light damping (where the
damping force is small) to overdamping. Damping reduces !he amplitude Figure 4: In lhis car
1.&.;;loi!Oil..,~~Q=:::::i,.--vibralion generalOf of the oscillation over time. Generally, the heavier the damping. the quicker suspension system, the
shock absOlbct ;s inside the
the amplitude is reduced lo zero {although overdamping is an exception).
spring. It quickly reduce~
Figure S shows ho\v different degrees of damping reduce the amplitude 10 the amph.lude of the spring'!
Rgure 1: Using a v;bration generator to oscillate a mass-spring s_yslent.
The S)'Stem resonates Mm lhe driving frequcrt<.y equals the nawrJI frequency. zero at different speeds. oscillations.
light and heavy damping
Lightly damped systems lake a long time to stop oscillating. and their ampli1ude Exam Tip
only reduces a small amount each period. Heavily damped systems lake less 1V.ake sure you're
time to stop oscillating, and their amplitude gets much smaller each period. able to describe 1he
four different types
heavy damping ol damping (lhC 11<?XI
two are on the next
natural frequency driving fn~1uency page!, and sketch lhes<'
lime graphs showing how the
Rgure 2: Graph showing hatv the ampfiwde of osci!l.1tion
of a system changes with driving frequency.
.· amplitude of oscillation
changes with time.
Figure S: Graphs .<11o1>;ng the effect of figJ!r and hruvy damping.
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Eli!

Tip: TOO period al
a pendulum doosn't
depend on its mass, so
Lhe mass of the book
·wouldn'1affect lhe SHM
in anyway.
Tip: You met plastic
deformation in
Modu l~ J - n·s w00n a
material is permanently
suetchOO, beyond its
elastic limit.
Tip: S1ructurcs are
damped to avoid being
damaged by resonanoo.
Loudspeakers are also
made to have as flat a
response as possibl<! so
that they don'1'oolour'
Ille sound.
Tip: In general, the
more damped a system
is, the Oalter IM graph al
amplitude of oscillation
against driving
frequency.
Tip: For heavier
damping. resonance
oc:rurs at a sligh1ly lower
driving frequency than
the natural frequency.
.:fl Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations
Example - - - - - - - - - - Notice from Figure 7 that when lhe driving frequency approaches
zero, the amplitude of the oscillations are the same, however much the
A pendulum formed of a small bob on a rod is an example of a ligh1ly
damped system - air resistance will cause the pendulum to slow down system is damped. If the driving frequency is close Lo zero, the amplitude of
only very slightly each period. Ii the pendulum bob was removed a nd the oscillation must be the same as the amplitu&! of whatever"s driving the
re placed with this book, the larger surface area of the book would increase oscillation.
air resistance, and the d amping forces \YOU Id be larger, slowing the Example - - - - - - - - - -
oscillation more quickly. Some structures are damped to avoid being damaged by resonance. Some
buildings in regions prone to earthquakes have a large mass called a tuned
Critical damping mass damper. When an earthquake causes the building to shake, the mass
Critical damping reduces the ampli1ude (i.e. stops !he sysiem oscillating) in moves in the opposite direction to the building. damping its oscillation (see
!he shortest possible time (see Figure 6). Rgure 8). This is an example or critical damping.
Example - -
l Car suspension syslems are criticalty damped so that lhey don't oscillate but
re turn to equilibrium as quickly as possible.
Overdamping
Rgure 9 shows apparatus that can be used to demonstrate the effect
of damping on the resonance of a spring-mass system. A flat disc is attached
10 the set-up you saw in Figure 1. As the mass oscillates, air resistance on the
d isc acts as a damping force, reducing the amplitude of the oscilla1ion. The
Figure 8: nte Taipei IOI
building in Taiwan, standing
ar 508 m tall. A GGQ.ronne
Systems with even heavier damping are overdamped. They take longer to larger the disc, !he larger the damping force a nd the smaller the amplitude of pendulum suspended down
return to equilibrium than a critically damped system (sc.~ Figure 6). oscillation of the system at resonance. the cenuc of I.he bl.Jilding
xample - - acts as a tuned mass damper,
redudng the amplitude of
Ll Some heavy doors are overdamped, so 1ha1 they don'I slam shut too quickly,
ut instead close slowly, giving people Lime to walk lhrough them. signal generator sms
driving frequency
disc w inamse
air resistance
nlass oscillates a.ta
smaller ampliuJde at tho
the buikling'S oscill.alions in
earlltqu.1kes.
I
critical damp ing
'&.1-'~-------,,·
.me
litne
...-- resonant frequency lhan a
~=~!!!'.::> free osdllator
Tip: Bclorc carrying
out this experiment,
you should be aware
I
of any safety risks lhat
'6 are associated with the
equipment.
Figure 6: Graphs showing lhe effects ofdifferent .wounts ofdamping.
Oscillations can also be damped using objccLS made from duClile Figure 9: Expcrimem to show how damping affects resonance.
materials. As the shape of 1he object changes and the object plastically
deforms, it absorbs energy and reduces the amplitude of the oscillations
(i.e. it damps the oscillations). IQft§~t§:i"lii!?1 •i·l,pllffll;J:I+.iil
Q I What is the differe nce behveen a free vibration ancJ a forced
Damping of forced systems vibration?
l ightly damped systems have a very sharp resonance peak. Their amplitude
only increases dramatically when the driving frequency is very close to the Q2 Whal is resona nce, and when does it occur?
natural frequency. Heavily damped sysiems have a flatter response. Their QJ Give three examples of situations \.\fhere resona nce can occur.
amplitude doesn'l increase very much near the natural frequency and they Q4 What is meant by a damping force?
aren't as sensitive to the driving frequency. Figure 7 shows the eifect of Q5 Name and briefly describe the four types of damping.
increasing levels or damping on oscillations near the natural frequency.
Q6 Sketch a graph of amplitude against driving frequency for a sysiem to
show how the level of da mping affects the sharpness of the resonance
peak al the natural frequency.
"4- flat 1t.>11po11se
~----+----~
nawral ftt.'qlH!IK.)' <iriving ftt.>c/um<:y
Rgure 7: Graph showing haw damping affects resonance•
Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Wfi A
 Section Summary
Make sure you know...
Exam-style Questions I
Ho\v to use radians as a measure of angles, and how lo convert between radians and degrees.
That angular velocity is the a ngle an object moving with circular motion roi:ates through per second.
How to use v = (J)f" lo calculate the a ngular speed of an object moving wilh circula r motion.
A roundabout with radius 3.0 m is spinning at a rate of 6 revolutions per minute.
That the frequency of rotation is the number of complete revolutions per second. What is the linear speed of someone standing on the edge of the roundabout?
That the period of rotation is lhe time taken for one complete revolution in seconds. A 0.3ms-'
The relationship bet...veen frequency and period. B 18ms-'
How to use the formulas w =-¥and w = 2wfto calculate angular velocity. C 0.63ms·•
()bject-. undergoing circular motion experience a centripetal accelera1io n towards the circle's centre.
D 1.9 ms-1
That a constan t net force perpendicular to an object's velocity causes ii to travel in a circ ula r path. (1 mark)
How to use the formulas J = 'f, .a = W'r, F = m,v' and F = n1W'r 10 calculate centripetal acceleralion
and force.
Techniques and procedures used to invesligate circular motion using a whirling bung.
That simple harmonic motion is 1he oscilla1ion of an object wilh an acceleration that is proportional 2 A mass is attached to a sPling and set oscillating with simple harmonic motion.
to its displacement from the midpoint and lhat is always directed lowards the midpoinl (a = -w2x). The system is damped. Which of the following is false?
What is meanl by the displacement and amplitude of an object undergoing SHM. A If there was no damping at all, the mass would oscillate forever.
How to use w =1f- =
and w 211'f to calculate the angular frequency of an object undergoing SHM.. B The maximum displacement of the mass decreases with each oscillation.
How to sketch the graphs of displacemen1., velocity and acceleration against lime for SHM. C The mass would take longer to come to rest if Hwas critically damped
That the velocity of a n object undergoing SHM is given by lhc gradient of a displaccmc n1-1jmc graph compared to if Hwas overdamped.
and acceleration is given by the gradient of a velocity-time graph. D When the amplitude decreases, the frequency remains the same.
The phase differences between displacement, veloci1y and acceleration '°' SHM.
That a cycle of oscillation in SHM is from maximum positive displacement to maximum negative
( 1 mark)

displacement and back again, and how this relates 10 the frequency and period of SHM
That frequency and period are independent or amplitude for an object moving with SHM (i.e. it is an
isochronous oscillator). 3 A pendulum is oscillating with simple harmonic motion. At time t = o. the pendulum
Ho\v the kinetic and polenlial energy of an object moving with SHM vaiy with time and displacemenL passes through its equilibrium position, and passes through Hagain 1.5 s later.
Which of the following graphs shows how the pendulum's potential energy, E,,.
That mechanical energy is the sum of lhe kinetic and poten tial energy of an object and that ii stays
varies with time?
constant for undamped oscillalions.
That solulions lo 1he t.-quation a = -W'x are of 1he form x =A cos(wt) or x =A sin{wt).

.~J\l\/
How lo use the formulas x = A cos(wt) and x =A sin (wr} for the displacement oi a n object in SHM.
How lo use a = --ulx and v -= ±w.r,.v--;; for the acceleracion and velocity of an object in SHM. B
How to use the formulas for the magnitude of maximum acceleration a nd maximum speed.
How to determine the frequency and period of an object undergoing simple harmo nic mo lion using.. 0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0
e.g. pos.ition sensors and data loggers, or by using a stopwatch. lime/s
That free vibralions involve no transfer of energy bel\veen an object and its surround ings, and 1hat an

c~'J/\./\.
object oscillating freely does so al its natural frequency.
That a forced vibration is driven by a periodic, ex1emal driving iorce at a driving frequency.
That resonance is a rapid increase in the amplitude of oscillation of an object, and thal it usually
occurs at the object's natural freq uenc.y.
Some practical examples of forced oscillations and resonance:. 0 1.5 3.0
,"JI\!\!\!\
0 1.5 3.0
time Is time / s
That a damping force causes an oscillator to lose energy to i1s surroundings and reduce the a mplitude
or its oscillations. (1 mark)
How lhe shape of an amplitude-frequency graph changes as you change the degree of clamping.
'--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J

•lfi-~
· }Jll Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations ModuJe 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations
 4 A block of wood on a smooth surface is attached to one end of a horizontal spring. Module 5
The other end of the spring is attached to a wall. The mass of the block is 0.60 kg
and the restoring force (F. in newtons) produced by the spring is given by F = - 18x.
where x is the displacement of the block (in m) from its equilibrium position.
When the block is displaced a distance of 20 cm from its equilibrium position and 1. Gravitational Fields Leaming Objectives:
released, it begins to oscillate with a time period of 1.147 s. • Understand
So far you've p robably only considered forces acting al a sp<."C:i(1e poinl, \Vith 100 ooocept ol
(a) Find the velocity of the block Wilen it is 15 cm away from the equilibrium position.
.1 speci fic cause (e.g.. the pushing of a swing). Cravitalional fields, on the gravitational fields as
(2marks) other hand, are regions in ~vhich .a mass will experience a force. being one of a number
(b) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the block. or forms of field giving
rise to a force.
(3marks) What is a gravitational f ield? • Know tlla1
(c) As the block oscillates. a stopwatch is started as the block passes A gravitational field is a force field - a region where an objecl will gravitational fields are
through the equilibrium position. Find the distance of the block experience a non-contact rorce. Force fields cause in1cractions bel\veen due to objecis having
from tts equilibrium position 3.0 s after the stopwatch is started. objects or particles - e.g. sLalic or moving charges inleracl th rough elecuic mass.
(2marks) fie lds (p.368) a nd objects with mass interact through gravitationa l fields. • Be able to use
gravitational field lines
A gravilational field is a force field generated by any object with mass to map gravita1ional
fie lds.
which causes any other object \vilh mass to experieace an attractive force.
5 A motorcyclist is riding around a vertical cylindrical • Be able to model the
track with radius 5.0 m, as shown in Fig. 5.1. mass ot a spherical
Any object with mass has a gravilational field (even you have a objea as a point mass
To avoid sliding down the track and falling off. gravitational field}. Any object with mass will experience an attractive force at its c:emrc.
the centripetal force acting on her must be if you put it in the gravitational field or another object. Only objects with a
al least 1500 N. • Boablcto apply
large mass, such as stars and planets, have gravitational fields lhat produce New1on's law of
(a) The combined mass of the motorcyclist and
her motorcycle is 210 kg. Calculate the
.. ...... ... .. a significant effect. For example, the gravitational fields of the Moon and
the Sun are n04iceablc here on Earth - they're I.he main cause of our tides.
gravitation fOf 1he
force between
minimum speed (v..,) that the motorcyclist needs Smaller objects do still have gravitational fields !hat attraei 01.her masses, but tWO point m:tSS<lS,
lo ride al lo avoid sliding down !tie track. Fig. 5.1 the effect is too weak to detect \Vithout specialised equipment. G,\<fm
(2 marks)
F ·--r·
Force fields can be represented as vectors, showing the direction of Specification
(b) Find the motorcyclist's angular speed if she were to ride at speed v_. the force they would exert on an object p laced in that fie ld. Gravirational References 5.4.1
(2 marks) field lines, or "lines of force", are arrows showing the direction of the force and 5.4.2
that masses would feel in a gravitational field (see f igure 2 below).
(c) Find the lime period of the motorcyclist's motion al speed v..,.
(2marks)
Radial and uniform fields
Point masses have radial gravitational fields, where all the field lines meet
al the point where the mass is concenlrated. Spherical objects of uniform
densi1y can be lreated as poim masses with all of their mass concenlrated al
6 A simple pendulum is made lo oscillate in a vacuum by a periodic driving force, al a their centre.
Rgure 1: The gravitational
frequency below its natural frequency. The Earth's gravitational field is radial - if you extended 1he Iines fields of the Moon and the
(a) DesClibe Wllal happens as the driving frequency is increased to the pendulum's of force, they would meet at 1he centre of 1he Earth ($ee Figure 2). If you put Sun are the main causes of
natural frequency. Give the name of this phenomenon. a small mass, m, anywhere in the Earth's gravitational field, it will always be our u·des.
allracted towards lhe Earth.
(2 marks) Tip: The smaller mass,
The lines can be used to show the
(b) The same pendulum is placed in a l ank of water. and made lo oscillate again. m, has a gravitational
strenglh o f the fie ld a t each point, where the field ofiis own.
OesClibe and explain what happens this lime as the driving frequency is increased lines being closer together shows a stronger
up to the pendulum's natural frequency. This doosn't have a
gravitational field. The stronger the gravitational noticeable e«ea on
(3 marks) field, the larger the force on a mass, m, due to Lhc Eanh Lhougll, becauso
fie ld (sec page 300). Ii you move mass m fu rther the Eanh is so much
away from 1he Earth - where che lines of force are more massive.
furlher apart - the force it experiences decreases. Figure 1: A sm.111 mass, m,
in Earth~ gravitational field.

•E;-~
·IJMI Module 5: Section 2 Circular Motion and Oscillations Module 5: Section 3 Gravitational Fields

Tip: Remember,
spherical objeas can be
in~ated as point masses
{Se<> previous page).
Tip: G is the
gravituional constant -
don't get this confused
with g, Lhc gravitational
field strength (see
p.300).
Tip: Fbr these
calculations, you have
to afbilrarily pick which
mass is Mand which is
m. The bigger mass is
usually M. The equatioo
gives 1hc force go m
ducJll M, whore the
positive direction is Imm
Mwm.
Tip: Note that r is the
distance bet\veen lhe
centres of mass of Lhc
objects, not 1hc edges.
Exam Tip
An exam question
might ask you to work
ou1 Lhc mass of one of
Ille objoclS fi"l. [ .g.
you might need to use
density = v~:~~.
Tip: If yoo'd "'1\'C used
Lhe minus sign in tile
equation, you'd have
had to use a minus value
for the foroo too, so
the minus signs would
cancel out and you'd get
the same answer.
Module 5: Section 3 Grav~ational
Close lo Earth's suriace, the field is (almosO uniform - the field lines Inverse square laws
are (almosl) parallel and equally spaced. Tip: The • symbol
The law of gravitation is an inverse square law: F u .J,r means "'is proportional
t t t ! t t This means if the d istance r between the masses increases, then the
force F will decrease. Because it's r2 a nd not just r, ff the distance doubles
then the force will be one quarter the strength of Lhe original force.
to"'.
Figure 3: The gravilationa/ froid at Earth's surface is rooghly unifoun.
Exan1ple -i?,§!$1§15
The gravitational force belween lwo objecls 10 m apart (to 2 s.f.) is
0.291 N. What will the gravitational force between them be if they move
Newton's law of gravitation to 25 m apart?
Newton's law of gravitation says Lha1 Lhe force acting be4\veen two poinl masses
(or spherica I masses) is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely 25 m is~= 2.5 times larger than 10 m. So to find the new gravitational
proportional to the square of Lhe distance between their centres of mass: force, divide 0.291 N by 2.5' (because of the inverse square law):
G = gravitational constant ~ M =- mass causing l!1fil = 4.656 x 10 ' N = 4.7 x 10' N (10 2 s.f.)
2.5 1
= 6.67x IO"Nm'kg' ~ /I' tholorccinkg
F~ GMm m = masstheforce
F = force acu·ng on ntass ~ ~ is acu·ng on in kg
m due to mass Min N -.......,.r =- distance between lire
ccnues of the two ntasses in m Q 1 Two stars a re orbiting each olher \Vith a consta nt separation of Tip: Doo't forge< 10
100 million km. If their masses are 2.15 x 10"' kgand 2.91 x lO"'kg, convert any distance
Remember, force is a vector quantity, so direction is important For show that the force they are exerting on each other is approximately measummems into
this equation, the posilive direction is ahvays defined as from M (the mass 4.2 x 1O" N. metres before using
causing 1he force) tom (the mass feeling 1hc force). So, the force on n1 is Ncwion's law or
Q2 Two aslcroids 2.5 km apart exert a gravitational force on each 04her
negative (and has a minus sign) because its direction is always towards Lhe gravi1ation.
of 25 N. Calculate the magnitude of the force they will exert on each
centre uf the A1. The force on m due to Mis equal and opposite to the force
Dlher when they're 0.5 km aparL
on Mduetom.
QJ An aircraf1 wilh a mass of 2500 kg is hovering 1O OOO m above Tip: Remember, you
ground. have to assume tha1 the
al If the radius of Eanh is 6370 km, how far is the aircraft from the F.anh is a point mass, so
The posirivc c/jrecti<Hl js
cenlre of the Earth? ( is the distance or the
ckfitH.>d as from M lo nt
b) How much upw·ards force must be acting on the aircraft to keep iL aircraft from the [arth's
cenire..
hovering at a constanl ahitude?
Figure 4: Tiie forces acting on the W•'O masses are equal but opposite. The mass of Eanh is 5.97 x 10" kg.
We sometimes only <..'Onsider the force acting on the smaller object
because thal's the one that experiences a grea1cr acceleralion - a = ~· so as
m becomes bigger, a becomes smaller. Practice Questions - Fact Recall
Q1 What's a gravitational field?
Exan1ple -fi'J§!lj1§li
Q2 Draw a diagram showing the gravitational field lines of Earth:
Two planels ha>'t' masses of 7.55 x 10" kg and 9.04 x 1O" kg respectively. a) Looking al Earth from a distance.
If the force due to gravity between the two planels is 6.69 x 1O" N, b) At Earth's surface.
how far apart are the planets?
QJ Give the formula for Newton's law of gravilalion.
You want 10 find r, so you'll need Newton's law of gravitalion. Define any symbols you use.
\JVe're O-Of inlerested in the direction of a particular force in this exan1ple;
so you can ignore the minus sign in the formula:
F _ G~m ~ i' _ G~m => , - l'rm
= 8.2491 ... x 10 10 m
= 82.5 million km (10 3 s.f.)
Fiel<ls Module 5: Section 3 Gravitational Fields Wl1" M
 Leaming Objectives:
• Knowwhat
gravita1ional field
strength is.
• Be able 10 use
g = ~ 1ocalculate
gravitational field
strength.
•Know that
gravita1ional fieJd
strength is uniform
close to the surface
of the [anh and
numerically equal 10
Lile acooler.nion of
rrce lall.
• Be able to use
g = GM to
calcu1a:f;ravita1ional
fictd strength for a
poim mass.
Specification
References 5.4.1
and S.4 .2
Tip: From F =ma you
can biet a = Flm, whi-ch
has the units Nlcg 1 -
just another \YaY of
measuring accclermion.
Tip: Remember,. a
spherical mass of
uniform density can
be treated as a point
mass with all cH its
mass concentrated at its
centre (p.297).
Tip: Remember, for
a spherical mass, M, 1
is the distance from its
mmre ol mass, not from
its surface.
•lll~·r~•ll Module 5: Section 3 Grav~ational Fiel<ls
2. Gravitational Field Strength Example --f3§15hfll5
The mass of the Earth is 5.97 x 1 O" kg a nd its radius is 6.37 • 1O' m.
It's no use being able to draw gravilationa/ field fines if you c.an"t use them Find the value of g a t the Earth's surface.
10 work anything out. The gravitatfonal field suenglh, g, tells you how strong
Just put the numbers into the equation:
the force due to graviry is at any point in a gravitational tield.
g= {.;M - (6.67 x 10 ·~ x (5.97 x 10~)
r' - (6.37 X l Oj'
The gravitational fi eld strength, g = - 9.8134 ...
Gravitational field strength, g,, is the force per uni1 mass. Its value depends on = - 9.81 Nkg 1 (to3 s.f.)
where you arc in the field. There's a really simple l->quacion for working il out:
, _-- F = fofce experienced by a mass,
g = gravir.1liona/ fteld f ~ m,, in the gravitational field in N This is another case of the inverse square law (page 299) -
srrenglh in Nk8 ' ----.. g = in J ..., .. as r doubles, g decreases to a quarter of its original value.
- - - - - - - - m = mass in kg If you plot a graph of g against r for the Earth, you get a curve like this:
F is the force experienced by a mass m when it's placed in the
rim
gravitational field. Divide Fby m and you get the force per unit mass.
g is a vector quantity - it has a magnitude and a direction. h's
always pointing tov1tards the cenlre of mas.s of the object whose field you1re
describing. Depending on the direction defined to be positive, it could be
negative. Since 1he gravitational field is almost uniform a Lthe Earth's
surface, you can assume g is uniform near the Earth's surface.
The value of g at the Earth's surface is approximate ly 9.81 Nkg'
g can also be seen as the acceleration of a mass in a gravitational -9.81
fie ld. It's often called the acceleration due 10 gravity. O n Earth,
this is approximately 9.81 ms"'-.
Figure I ; Graph shaiving the reJauoruhip benvet'fl g and r for Eilrth.
Example -f1\ri!Mhflld Rgure 1: The va/uf! ofg on
An 80.0 kg astronaut feels a force of 130.0 N due to gravity on the Moon. It shows that g is grealesl at the surface of the Earth CR,), but decreases mp ofa mountain is s#ghtly
What'"s the value or g on the moon? rapidly as r increases and you move further from lhe centre of the Earth. lowe1 than .11 sea ICNel.
Just pul the numbers into the formula:
Example --ff,§i!j"§ll
g =L 80 = 1 ·625 = 1·63Nkg (10Js·f·l
nl = 130
1
The graph shows how the gravitatjonal field strength, g, varies with
distance, r, from the centre of the planet Mars. The radius of Mars is
approxin1ately 3..4 x 103 kn1. Estimate the n1ass of Mars.
Radial fields
Point masses (or spherical masses) have radial gravitational fields (see page rlxlo'km You can see from the graph that the
29n. The value of g depends on the distance r irom the centre of the mass M. 2468!0 v.llue of g at the surface of Mars is
about - 3.7 Nkg ' ..
G = gravir.1liona/ M =- mass of obiect causing
1
consrant in Nm'kg - - - - - - - . . CM ...---- the rtravilatk>nal field in kg
c = 7: o·
-I Rearrange the formula: g = -fj#- 10
find M. then st·ick the values in
g = gravitatK>nal field _____.,. ._._____ r = distance from l/Je
strength in Nkg' ~ -2 - don't forget to convcr1 to standard
centre ofmass M in m units first.
You can derive this formula by looking al Newton's law of gravitation (p.298):
"'...
~ -3
gr'
So, M =
Start with F = G~n1 a nd substitute this into g = ~. cancelling down -4 c
where possible: - 3.7 x (3.4 x IO')'
-5 6.67 X JO II
GM a = 6.4 x 10" kg (to 2 s.f.)
r'
g is negative because the positive direction is defined, again, to br. away
from M (see p.298). g is a vector towards the centre of M, so g is negative.
Module 5: Section 3 Gravitational Fields Wl1!
 lfr@.t3:i•ii!:f1ji.},g@·!jtiirtf1,t.1,1
Tip: The mass or an
Ql A 105 kg object experiences an attractive force due 10 gr.wily of
3. Gravitational Potential Learning Objectives:
• Know 1.hat
objca is always Lile
same w'hcrevcr il is. 581 N. What's the gravitational field strength?
Q2 Why would an astronaut find it easier to pick up a rock with a mass
and Energy gravitational potential
at a point is Lhe work
done in bringing a
of 20 kg on the Moon than a rode with a mass of 20 kg on Earth? All objecl5 in a gravitational field have a gravitational potential that depends on unii mass Crom infinity
QJ Venus has a radius of 6050 km and a mass of 4.87 " 1O" kg. how far 1hey ,,,e from 1he centre of lhe field. /1 can be hard 10 gel your head tothcpoim.
Calculate the gravitational lield strength al the surface of Venus. round al first, but try not lo gel il confused \Vith gravitational potential energy. • Know that
Q4 a) A person standing on the surface of the Moon experiences a gravitational potential
is zero at infini1y.
gravitational force of magnilude 105 N. If the mass of the Moon
is 7.J4" Hl" kg and the mass of the person is 65 kg, what is the
What is gravitational potential? • Be able to calculate
radius of the Moon? v,. al a point is the \vork done in moving a unil
The gravitational potential, gravitational pmential
b) What is the gravitational field strength 640 km above the surface
mass from infinity co that poinL In a radial field (like the Earth's), 1he equation using v, - fFl. at a
for gravitational potential is: distance r rrom a poini
of the Moon? massM.
C = gra~tational ~ M = mass of the object causing • Be able to calculate
constam m Nm'kg·' GM _ . . - Iii<! graviiationa/ field in kg
1Wf:i.C3:i•iii:?1ii.J,f i+Al:hi®iii
Ql Other than the acceleration due to gravity, how is g defined and what
v, =gravitational
- v. - - r- - - - - r = distance from the
changes in
gravitational potential.
• Be able to sketch a
po;ential in Jkg ' centre of the object in m
are its units? force.distance graph
for a poini or spherical
Q2 What does M represent in the formula for gravitational field suength Gravit.alional potential is negalive - you have lo do work against the mass.
in a radial field? gravitational field lo move an object ou1 of it. The fu rther you arc irom the • Knmv that the area
QJ Which of the following shows how gravitational field strengch centre of a radial field, the smaller the magnitude of V . At an infinite distance underthe force--
1
changes \Vith distance r? from the mass, the gravitational potential will be zero. distance graph for
~ w a poi rn or spherica I
mass is the work dooe.
Example -l$bi$ ;§fj
• Be ablQ to calculate
Find !he gravitational potential at !he surface of the Ear1h.
gravitacional pommial
The Earth's mass is 5.97 >e 102" kg and its radius is 6.37 x 1et" m . energy using
Just put the numbers into the equation: f=mV, = GAjm
v = - Qi= - (6.67 x 10 '?x (5.97 x 10" ) al a distance r Crom a
poini massM.
g e r 6.37 x 10'
= - 6.25 11 ... x tcl' • Know wh.:at escape
d) = - 6.25 x 1O' Jkg·' (lo 3 s.f.J (= - 62 .5 MJ kg-1) vcloci1y is.
cl
Specification
Reference 5.4.4

,(
Figure 1 shows hO\v gravitational potential varies with distance from
the Earth. The: graph is the same for any sphere, where R, is the radius of the
sphere. Tip: The answer to the
R, example means a I kg
mass needs 62 .6 Ml or
0 cneq,'Y to be able LO
tully escape lh<> l:anh's
grnviiational pull.

Tip: Note that Vis

v, proportional to 1/r, 001
Rgure 1: A graph ofgravitational potential againsi distance for tlie Earth.
11r like the gravitational
fiek1 strength.

If you find the gradienl <>fa V1-r graph a t a particular c.oint using a 1:.angen1,
you get the value of - g al cha! poinL In Olher words g = ~·

•lll~•flll Module 5: Section 3 Grav~ational Fiel<ls Module 5: Section 3 Gravitational Fields WJ.kA

Tip: In physics, doing
·work means using a
forrn 10 u:msfClf llflergy
from one type 10
another. for example.
if you drop a ball from
a height, gravitational
potential CrMYgY is
convened into kinetic
energy.
Figure 2: A woman docs
~'r'Ofk to kick aball high into
the aitr where the ball has a
higher gravilational potential.
•lll~•}Jll Module 5: Section 3 Grav~ational Fiel<ls
Example -f1t§!$ 1§1N Exan1ple -.f§@ljdifilj
The graph below shows the gravitational potential V against the distance r A forklift truck lifts an 80 kg pig 2.S m from the surface of the Earth.
from the centre of a planeL Find the gravitational fi'eld strength g The mass of the Earth is 5.97 x 1O" kg and its radius is 6370 km.
air = 15><10'm. Calculate the difference in potential, and therefore how much work is done.
Ve/ x I<fJkg' Tip: Check you\•o got
s ~) 's ·ls 1" ll.W = mll.V,, and m = 80 kg. so you nec'Cl to find ll.V •
f '{' 1 1/xulm the sign right. The pig
'°
11 1 1
-2
.. i.····
,,..-
ll.V. =- CM _ CM = CM 1 CM
' r., " r-, "
+ (6.67x10 ''x(5.97xlO")
is being lifted funhcr
from lhe t:arlh, so it's
.4 -
..... (6.67xl0 ''x(5.97x10")
(6370x IO'H 2.5 6370xl0'
gravitational po1emiaJ
should increase. So .o..v
-6
v = 24.533 ... = 25)kg 1 (to2s.f.) should be positive. If '
-8
,.•' :/ So ll.W = 80 x 24.533 ... = 1962.68 ... = 2000 J (10 2 s.f.) it isn't you've probably
dona Lhe subtraction Lhe
The gravitational field strength is given by the negative of the gradient wrong way round.
The graphs in Figure 3 show how the magnitude of Lhe force on an
~ 0 -(-x8XIO~ Nk '( l f.) object, due to the gravilational field of a point mass and a spherical mass,
g = ll.r =
130 lO') -O =- 0.2666 =- 0.3 g to s. varies \Vith the object's distance, r, from the mass. The area under the curve
bel\vecn two values of r gives the work done to move the object benveeo
those two points. Exam Tip
Since F is usually
I F
Changes in gravitational potential defined to be nega1M?
(see pago 298), you
Two poinlS at differenl distances from a mass will have d ifferen t gravirat.ional migh1 see a graph of F
potentials (because the magnitude of the gravitational potenlial decreases against r. This would
with dis.lan ce} - this means that there is a gravitational potential difference have the same shape as
bet\veen these two points. the graphs in Figure 3,
bu1 retlcctcd in Lhc r axis
When you move an object against gravity to change the gravitational
instead. Figure 3 just
potential, ~·ou do work - the amount of energy you need depends on the mass sho\vs the magnitude
o r the objec1 and the gravitational p<>len1ial d ifference you move it through: Rgure J: A graph of the size of the force on an objeci due io the gravililrional
ol F.
freld of a point mass !left! or a sphefiGJ/ mass !rig)ltJ agains1 lfm.inm.
4 V = gravitational poUNJUal
6W : work done - l l .W=m ll.V - - • differcncei11Jkg-' Exan1ple -fti·ffl!lj'f §15
ml .....,:
The graph below shows the force on an object due lo a plaoet's
" - m = nJaSs of the objt:.ct gravita·tional field as a function of the distance r away from the centre of
in kg
the planet The radius of the planet is approximately 2 x 1o• m. Use the
Exan1ple -f·'tifii#J.1§1fl graph to estimate the work done lo move the object from the surface of
Show that the work done to move a mass nl the planet lo a. point 3 x 1O' m above the planet's surface.
through a gravitational potential difference of Cl. v,
can be derived from the equation for gravitational
field strength. The mass m is being moved a.way
-o--r---- LIV,
6<KJ
SCXJ
The work done is equal to
the a rea under the graph.
The question is asking for
from the mass creating the gravitational field.
The gravitational field slrenglh is given by:
-0 -- ---- ~ 4CXJ
...._ J OO
2()()
an estimate, so the best
way to do this is to count
the number of squares.
g in a uniform field g= - ~ = /;i - g dL>/ined as force per IOU 3 x 10 6 m above the surface
~ unit mass lpalJ" JOO). o is equal to S x 1f1> m from
1 2 3 4 S fJ 7 H 9 1 / x Jtl m
This rearranges to give: the planet's cenLre.
mLIV
1
= - Fc:.r The total number of squares 6<KJ
By definition, the \VOrk done is equal to force x distance moved, where the uoder the graph between
SOO
2 x ICJh m and 5 x 10' m is
force is equal and opposite to f, since the work's being done against gravily. ~ 400
a pproximately 6.5.
So Lhe work done is given by - f ar and so you can write: I.a... ] CXJ Tip: Remember, joules
Each square has an area of
wori< done= - Fll.r =me:. V, l 00x(1 x l 0')=1 x 10'Nm,
2CXJ OJ are oqual 10 Nm.
)()() Make sure the area
So the energy needed to move a mass n t against a gravilational potential so the work done
().j._...J.=.:.:~t.::::::==::... you've <'.alcul.ated fs in
d ifference is the same as the work done, which is given by mD. v,. • 6.5 x (I x 108) = 6.5 x 1O' J. 1 2 J 4 5 f, 7 8 9 r lxUfm Nm before writing ii in I.
Module 5: Section 3 Gravitational Fields WH A
 Tip: E is negative
because V is n~1 ivc.
6
II ""'""' sense 1f you
lhink about it An object
at infinity has zero
gravituional potential,
and so zero gravitational
potemial energy. As
it is attracted towards
the mass, ii loses
gravituional potential
energy. Think of a ball
falling co Earth, it's
losing g.p.e.
Figure 4: Rockeis bum a kn
of fuC!I lo provide the kinetic
energy needed 10 escape
Ea11h.
Tip: The escape
velocily equa1ion is
noidependent on the
mass of the object
So, wtieiher you were
1hrowing a tennis ball
or projccting a doubl~
decker bus imo the air,
lll<>y'd nood the same
velocily 10 escape tl'M?
F.anh's gravi1ational field
{assuming 1hcrc was no
air resistance).
•lll~•IJMI Module 5: Section 3 Grav~ational Fiel<ls
Gravitational potential energy
Gravitational pofenlial is work done per unit mass, so I.he gravitational
potential energy {E) of an object al a point in a gravitational field is its
gravi1ational potential muhiplied by iLS mass. You kno\v the formula fo r V so
you can substi1ute i1 in to get the following formula:
1
Example -f&,ffiidij§IN
Calculate the escape \'elocity for an object on the surface or the Earth.
Earth's mass= 5.97 x 10" kg and Eanh's radius= 6.37 x HJ" m.
Substhule these values into the equation for escape veloci1y:
Tip: The direaion or
the escape veJoci1y is
always dimcdy away
from lhe mass creating
the gravitalional field.
J
m = mass of lftc
object in kg
G = gravitational constant
= 6.67 x 10 "Nm'kg-1
v= /EfJ
- J 2x (6.67xlO 1\x (5.97x lO")
~r
f = gravitational
objecr ofn~ass m in I
\ / y - - M = mass tJ_>e object c:iusing
potcmia/ energy of __.. E= mVJl= - G1~m the gravttauona/ f1eld rn kg
"'---- r = the lfsstance betwoon
- (6.37 x 10'1
= 1.1181... x 10•
= 1.11 x 10' ms 1 (to3 s.L) (or 11.1 kms 1)
Tip: This means you'd
have to throv.• a ball
j
upwards at I I .I kms 1
l
Example _f1®1ji§i1
...
!ml~l - - -- - - =ccn : :u:.:es:.:'.of the! two masses in m for it 10 fully escape
Calculate the gravitational potentia.1 energy or a person of mass I Pr: t; ~ tg:l•lii:~1 "·' ·€@.·!jt!]oL'&i llli@tlloiilo;
' .....1••111i'L'- - - - - -
l:anh~ pull.
70.0 kg standing on the surface of the Earth. The mass of the Q l A satellite is orbiting Earth. What's the effect (if a ny) on the following
Earth is S.97 x 1O" kg and its radius is 6370 km. values of halving the satellite's orbital radius? Explain your answers.
E - - GMm _ 6.67x1 0 "xS.97 x l o~ x70.0 al G b) V aL the satellite's orbital radius
8
· r 6370 x1 0 ' cl m d) g a1 the satellite's orbital radius
4.375 .. . xl o' ~ 4.38xlO' j(Lo 3 sJ.)
Q2 A 1.72 kg brick is dropped off the side of a cliff. If its gravitational
potential changes by 531 )kg 1, how much work is done by gravity
Escape velocity on the brick?
The escape velocity is defined as the velocity needed so an object has QJ The graph below shows the force on an object due to the gravitational
just enough kinetic energy to escape a gravitationa I field. In other words, field of a planet against the radial distance from the centre of the
it's the minimum speed an unpowered objccLneeds in order to leave the plancL The ol>jecL is moved upwards from 2 x 1O" nl to S x 1C1' m.
gravitational field or a planet and not fall bad towards the planet due to Use the graph to estima te the work done moving the object.
gravi1ational attraction.
FIN
To clcrivc lhe equation for escape velocity, you need Lo think aboul llO
the energies involved. At an infinite distance (i.e. the point at which an object (,()
has escaped 1he gravitational field of the planet), the gravitational potential
40
energy of the object is zero. At the surface of the planet, the gravita1ional
po1.ential energy is negative. 20
The increase in the gravita1ional potential energy of the object {from
the surface to infinily) comes from the initial kinetic energy of 1he object If o 1 2 J 4 5 & 7 8 , Ix utm
the object is given just enough kinetic energy to escape the gravitational Q4 a) 11 lhe mass of the Moon is 7.34 x 1O" kg and the radius of the
field oflhe planet, you know from conservation of e nergy that all of its initial Moon is 1.74 x 1O' m, what is the gravitational potential e nergy of
kinelic energy will be converted into gravitational potential energy. a 95.0 kg astronaul standing on ils surface?
So kinetic energy lost =gravitational potential energy gained, a nd so:
lmv
2
-~
r
b) What is the minimum veloci1y wi1h which the a5'ronaut must
project a piece of Moon rock so that it is able to escape the
Moon's gravirational field?
J
Cancelling out m an d rearranging for v gives the escape veloci1y:
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
,,----- G = gravitational cons1ant
v = C!Scape velocity in ITJS'' ~ ' = 6.67 x 10 "Nm'kg' Q1 Whal is gravilaljonal polcntiat V,? What are its units?
v- ~~ Q2 Whal is the significance of the negative sign in the equation
V. _ GM 1
r = distance of !he _ _ _ _ _/ r M = mass of the : - r . Tip: Make sure your
graph for QJ stans at the
olJiec< from !he ccnue or planet in kg QJ Sketch a graph of the gravi1a1ional potential (V,> against distance (r)
mass of the planet in m radius of Eanh and not
for an object in Earth's gravitalional field.
at i1S centre.
Be careful wi1h the value of r in this equation - itS the radial Q4 Define escape velocity.
d istance from the centre of the planet to the objed. So if the object i.s inilially
a t the planet's surface, then r is just the plane1's radius. But if the object is
initially in orbit, then r will be the planet's radius plus the orbital distance.
Module 5: Section 3 Gravitational Fields @ j.,
 Leam ing Obj ectives:
• Know that the
cenlripctal force on
a p1anct is provided
by the gravitational
force bet\Yeen it -and
lhe Sun.
• Know and be able to
derive the equa1ion
1' (~)r'
• Know what is meant
by a gcosta tionary
orbit, and uses
of geostationary
satelli1es.
• Know Kt'Plcr's three
laws of planetary
motion.
• Know the relationship
for Kepler's third law
71 a rl and lhat it can
be applied to systems
olhcr lhan our solar
sys1cm.
Specification
Reference 5.4.3
Tip: The minus sign is
missing in Nc\vton's law
of gr.wit:uion because
i1's just lM magnitude of
lh<! force.
Figure 2: Near.fnfra1ed
image of Uranus and some
of itS moons. TOO moons
are natural satelliws of
Uranus; kept in orbit by
the planG<~ graviry.
•lll~·!·J
. 11 Module 5: Section 3 Grav~ational Fiel<ls
4. Motion of Masses in Orbital period
The Lime taken for a satellite Lo make one orbit is called the orbital period, T.
Gravitational Fields Remember, speed = dis.lance, and the distance for a circular orbit is 2nr, so
_ 2 .,.r. time
You sa\V circular motion earlier on pages 173-119; and here it;s coverc.->d
V - ,.-.
again for objeclS in gravitational 1iclds. Cravi1y provides the centripetal V = 21'ir
T => ·r=h:l
v
force that keeps objects in orbit around a much larger body.
Then substitute the expression for v on the previous page and rearrange:
Satellites
Satellites are kept in orbit by gravitational forces. A satellite is just any smaller
mass which orbits a much larger mass - the Moon is a satellite of the Earth,
T= 2;r = ( jf!p.) = 2jf:ff
planets are satellites of the Sun. etc.
Satellites are kepi in orbit by the gravitational 'pull' of the mass Taking the square of the expression gives:
they're orbi1ing. In our Solar System, the planets have nearly circular ocbits, / r = distance from tlie cenue
so you can use the equa1ions of circular motion {pages 273-279) to investigate T =period in s f of the object being otbirod
their orbital speed and orbital period. -._p~(m
4w')r rorltecenrre_ofrheorbiting
satellite lfl m
Tip: This ts where
Kepler's third law comes
Orbital speed G -= gravitat~11 consta~t _ , A ~ M = mass ofthe object
from (sec next pagcl.
Any object undergoing circular motion is kept in its path by a centripetal = 6.67 x 10 Nm'kg being orbited in kg
force. \Vhat causes this force depends on the object - in the case of
satellites it's the gravitational attraction of the mass they're orbiting. This Example-f$§!ifih§IN
Tip: This is the disLance
means lhat in this case the centripetal fOfce is the gravitational force.
The Moon takes 27.3 days to orbit the Earth. Calculate its distance from from the IJlllWl ol the
the Earth. Take the mass of the Earth to be 5.97 x 10" kg. Eanh 10 the ~ of the
Moon.
You're trying 10 find the radius of the orbit, r. Use the formula for period,
T, and rearrange for r3:
T' = 1:ir "°' f = Pf;•'f Tip: T is given in days,
so you need 10 conven
Then just put the numbers in: it 10 seconds l'irst.
I day=8.64 x lO's
f = (2.35... x 10i' x (6.67 x 10 'l x (5.97 x 1 o'~ (lhis will be in your data
4>- and formulae booklet in
= S.6116 .. . X 10'.i. m'
the exam), so 27.3 days
= 2.35 ... x 10' s.
Figure 1: Diagram showing the farth's orbit around the Sun. r = '/5:61 16... x t on
= 3.8285 ... xlO'm = 3.83 X lO'km (to3s.i.)
The Earth feels a force due 10 the gravitational 'pull' of the Sun -
Tip: just take the cut>e
see Figure 1. The m,agnitude of this force is given by Nc\vton's law of
root of rl h'"~rc - you' ll
gravitation (p.298): probably h:rve a button
- -r
F-GMm for it on your calculator
(\ID).
The Earih has velocity v. Its linear speed is conslanl but its direction Geostationary satellites
is not - so it's accelerating. The magnitude of 1he ceniripetal force (p.277)
Geostationary sateJlites orbit directly over the equator and are
causing this acceleration is: always above the same point on Earth. A geostationary satellite
F -- -,
m v' !'ravels at the same angular speed as lhe Earth turns below it and in the
The centripetal force on the Earth must be a result of the gravitational same direction (\vest to east). A geoslationary orbit takes exactly one day.
force due lo the Sun, and so these forces must be equal: These satellites are really useful for sending lV and telephone
mv' = GMm ,,., v' - ~ signals and have improved communication around the world.
r f r.Rl Communications satellites are slationary relative to a certain point on Lhe
So the orbital speed is: M
Earth, so you don'L have to alter the angle o f your receiver {or transminer)
=massof·•-o11·
uw. 1ea to keep up. Geostationary satellites are also used to monitor and track the
G = gravitational constanl ~/ being orbited in kg weather from above. Figure J: Geomrionary
= 6.Glx 10''Nm1kg ' _,v = /T..--r = dist.ancef~omth~ce.nucof
There are downsides though - they are expensive and pose a small
sa1ellites ren1a;n in a fixed
v = die orbir•I speed in ms ,/ the objecr being or/Jiroo 10 the position rel.1tive ro a point on
amue of the orbiting satellite in m risk of something going wrong and the satellite falling back 10 Earth. the rarth's surface.
Module 5: Section 3 Gravitational Fields WloGM

Tip: All goosiationary
satellites orbiting [anh
are a1 the same heigh.I -
regardless of their mass.
Kepler's three laws of planetary motion
Kepler came up with these three laws around 1600, about 80 years
before Newton developed his lalY of gravitation. They're usually
used to describe the planets in our solar system, but can be used
for any object and its satellite.
Tip: An ellipse is a
curve determined by
1v.'O focal points (foci)
inside it
At any point nn ttu! !!<lg<!
of th<> ellipse, the toial
length al tho rod line
shown is constant. In a
cirdc, tha foci are both
at its centre.
Rgure 4: A diagram shatving 1<11pJet~ second law. The planet takes the same amount
Tip: Yoo'll usually
assume that orbits are
circular when using this
relation.
•EJi~!~·il Module 5: Section 3 Grav~ational Fiel<ls
Exan1ple -f8ffli$ "fli5 Example -f$§i!jjfl1d
Calculate the height above the Earth's surface that a geostationary satellite The diJgram shows the orbits of two exoplanets around a star in a nearby
orbits. The mass of the Earth is 5.97 x I O"' kg and the radius is 6370 km. solar system. Exoplanet A completes one orbit of the star in 42.5 hours. Tip: An <!Xoplanet is
= =
You know that T 24 x 60 x 60 86 400 sand M 5.97 x 10" kg, = Find the orbital period of exoplanel B to the nearest hour, assuming just a name ror a planet
both orbits are circular. that orbits a differeru star
T' = (6-~)r' to find r:
so re.arrange
Using Kepler's third lalY:
..·· ··············
......... "·.
to our own Sun.
(J •••
, _, /f'GM ~ , /(86 40<J)'x 6.67 x 1o 'rx 5.97 x lo" ~ 4 2 , x l O'm
v-r;, v· 41t1 • - ··· r ' r.'
d =~ Tip: You can leave
the o rbital period of
r is the orbital radius from the Earth's centre, so subtract the Earth's radius: Re.arranging: A in hours in your
Height of orbit= 4.22 ... x IO' - 6370 x 10'
= =
3.585 ... x 10' 3.59 x I O' m (to 3 s.f.)
Tu= jJJj =
= 85.212 ...
(42.5)' x (6.7 1 x IO')'
(4.22 x 10')'
= 85 hours (to the nearest hour)
..'......... .....
··.... .......... ...
calculation, as you're
asked to give your
aOSIA'er in hoors too.
j
@
~
Atmospheric thickness
As well as predicting the motion oi satellites, Newton's law of gravitation
Tip: An atmosphere is
tho layer of gases that
~ can also help to explain how thick a planet's a tmosphere is. 1he p lanet's surround a planet or
gravitational field exens a force on everything a round il, including the other large body.
partic les which make up its atmosphere. O therwise, the particles would fioa t
Kepler's fi rst law: Each planet moves in an e llipse around the Sun,
with the Sun at one focus (a c ircle is just a special kind o f ellipse). o ff into space.
Kepler's second law: A line joining the Sun to a planet will S\Yecp The thickness of a planet's atmosphere is dependenl o n the
out equal areas in equa l times. So in Figure 4, if moving from A to B gravitational force on the particles o f the a1mosphere around the planet's
takes the same amount of 1ime as moving fro m C to D, the l \VO shack.'"Ct surface. You've already seen 1hat this force is depende nt on lhe mass of
sections will have equal areas . the planet and the d istance from the planet (see p.298). So, for example, if
two planets have the same volume but different masses, the planet wi1h the
............................................................ ..... 11
larger mass will have a thicker atmosphere. This is because, at any distance
above irs surface, the gravitational force will be greater than at the same
d istance above the pla net with the lower mass. So lhe larger mass planet
.....·· can stop more almosphere panicles escaping inlo space, leading 10 a thicker
a tmosphere.
1· focus
'\
: • 1:mg.tg:l•lii!t1.t.J.f@·!ffii©tftit.1,1
.... QI Using the expressions F ~ ~ and F - !!Jf.. derive an expression Rgure 5: The thick11ess of
···..•.. for the speed of a pla net orbiting a star. tbe Earth's atmosphete ;s
Q 2 A satellite orbiting a planet has orbital period T = 42 hours and m/alivo/y liny compared 10
................... orbital radius r = 3.95 x I O' km. C;ilculate the mass of the pla net. the earth~ radius.
---~
D c; Q 3 A satellite 1Yith orbital radius r has orbita l period T. The satellite is
moved so that its orbital radius i.s hatved. What is ils ne\v orbital
of lime to move from A ro B, as from C w D, and the shaded areas are equal.
period in terms of n
J
Kepler's third l.iw: The period of the orbit and the me.an disLance
between the Sun and the planet are related by Kepler's third law:
•Prta.ca:g.11c:i;•c.1.4 .m
•.lilli•.;.<li:r.+•.• 111111_ _ _ _ _ __
Q1 Define a sate llite.
Q 2 How is the orbita l speed of a satellite related to the radius o f its orbit?
T1 u f
Q 3 How is the orbita l period of a satellite related to the radius of its orbit?
Q4 What is a geostationary satellite a nd why are they useful for
So the greater the radius of a salellitc's orbit, the slower it will
travel a nd the longer it will take lo complete one orbit. You can see transmiuing TV and telephone signa Is?
1his relationship in the expression for the orbital period derived on the Q5 State Kepler's three laws o f p lanetary motion.
previous page.
Module 5: Section 3 Gravitational Fields WU
 Section Summary
Make sure you know...
Exam-style Questions I
That a force field is a region where an object will experience a non-contacl force, and that force
fields cause interactions between objects or panicles.
That gravitational fields a re a type of force field that are caused by objc'Cts having mass.
Which of the following graphs shows how the magnitude of the gravitational field strength
How to use gravitational field lines to map gravitational fields, including for a poinl mass and for a
varies with distance from a spherical mass with a radius R'?
uniform field.
That spherical objects can be treated as point masses, where all of their mass is concentrated al
ihcir centre.
How to use Newton's law of gravitation, F = - C~m, to calculate the force between Lwo poinl
masses.
That gravitational field strength, g, tells you the force per unit mass due to gravity at a point in a

Ho\v to use g ='

gravitational field.
to calculate gravitational field strength.
That gravitational field strength is uniiorm close to the surface of the Earth and equal to 9.8 I Nkg 1•
A B c D
(1 mark)

That g is also numerically equa I to acceleration due to gravily in ms'·

How lo use g = G/:1 to calculale gravitalional field strength for a poinL mass. 2 Two identical objects of mass m, are a distance of r away from each other.
That gravitational potential a1a poinl is the work done in bringing a unil mass from infinity 10 the Which of the following is an expression for the magnttude of the force F acting
poinl, and lhal it is always negative, and is zero a t infinity. on each of them?
How to calculate gravitational polential using 11: = ~- Gm'
A -;r B ~ c Gm- r-
o Gm'-,- ( 1 mark)
That t\.VO points at different distances from a mass will have d ifferent gravitational potenlials.
That work has to be done to move a n object lo change ilS gravitational potcnlial.
How to sketch a force-distance graph for a point mass or spheric.al mass. 3 The four largest moons of Jupiter are known as the Galilean moons. They can be
That lhe area under the force-distance graph for a point mass or spherical mass between two distances considered lo be uniformly spherical in shape and to have regular circular orbits.
gives the work done moving the object between those l\VO dis1ances. (a) The orbttal speed, v, of a satelltte undergoing circular motion can be calculated using:
How to use E = m~ = Cft./m lo calculate the gravilalional potential energy
of a mass m in I.he gravitational field of a mass M. v=fl/'1
That escape velocity is the velocity needed so an objecl has just enough kinetic energy lo eSC'.ape a where G is Ille gravttalional conslanL Mis the mass of the object being orbited.
gravitational field, a nd that it can be calculated using v = /%!:fl. and r is the distance from the centre of the object being orMed to Ille centre of
Ille orbiting satelllte.
That the centripetal force on a planet is provided by 1hc gravitational force bel\veen it and the Sun.
Use the orbital speed eciuation lo derive this expression for the orbital period:
How to use and derive the equation T1 =(tf?)r, where Tis the period of a n orbit and r is the
distance from the centre of the object being orbited to the centre of the orbiting satellite.. r -(4"')r
- GM
(2marks)
That e.ach planet moves in an ellipse a round the Sun, with the Sun at one iocus {Kepler's first la\vt
(b) The closest of the Galilean moons, 10. lakes 1.8 days to orbit Jupiter at an
That a line joining the Sun to a planel will S\Veep ou1 equal areas in equal times {Kepler's second
average orbltal radius of 420 OOO km. Europa is another Galilean moon.
law).
Europa lakes 3.6 days lo orbit Jupiter.
That the period of the orbit and the mean distance between the Sun a nd the planet are related by Galculate Europa's average orbital radius.
T' • r' (Kepler's third law). (2marks)
That the relationship for Kepler's third law, 77 • r', r.;in be applied to S)"tcms other than o ur (CJ The gravitational field strength on the surface of lo is 1.8 Nkg-'.
solar system. Galculate the gravitational force that would act on a 65 kg person stood on
That a geostationary orbit of the Earth takes exac11y 24 hours, fol!O\vs the same direction as the the surface of lo. assuming the gravitational force from Jupiter is negligible.
rotation of the Earlh and is located directly over the equator. (1 mark)
Some uses of geos-1.ationary salelliles, such as for sending TV and telephone signals. (d) Garpo is a smaller moon of Jupiter with an elliptical orbit. State what Kepler's
second law of planetary motion says about the orbit of the moon Garpo.
( 1 mark)

•EJi~flll Module 5: Section 3 Gravltational Fiel<ls Module 5: Section 3 Gravitational Fields

 4 (a) Define a force field.
(1 mark)
----ll Modules J W I ! § -
(b) Sketch the gravitational field lines for the gravitational field around Earth.

A student is conducting an experiment to determine the local value of g.

(1 mark)
1. The Solar System Leaming Objectives:
• Understand the tf'Jms
He finds the magnitude of g to be 9.83 Nkg-', to 3 significant figures. A solar system is made up of a star (e.g. the Sun) at the cenue, all the objects 'universe', •galaxy',
Another student conducts the same experiment and finds the value to be 6.31 Nkg-•. r.h.1t orbit around iL - and everything else i.,vhich orbits around them. 'solar s~tem'.
He claims his value is about 1/3 lower because his work bench is about 113 taller 'plane<', 'planctaiy
than the other studenfs. satellite' and 'comet'.
(c) Explain Whether the student's claim is true or not.
Our place in the universe • Understand distances
The universe is everything Lhal exists - this includes plcnly you can see, like measured in
(1 mark) stars and galaxies, and plenty t.hal you can'l see, like microwave radiation astronomical units,
(<I) If the Earth has radius 6370 km and mass 5.97 x 10" kg, calculate the altitude at (page 336), dark energy and dark matter (pages 339-340). Galaxies, Iike our AU.
which the local value of g is-6.31 Nkg-'. (Altitude is measured from sea level.) Milley Way galaxy, are clusters of stars and planets that are held together by Specification
(2marks) gravity. References 5.5.1
Inside 1he Milley Way is our solar system. A solar system consists of a and 5.5.3
A satellite is in orbit around Earth at a gravitational potential of -20.6 MJkg-•.
(e) Calculate the value of g at this point. star and all the objects thal orbil it. In our solar system, the star is lhe Sun.
The Sun is orbited by:
(f) Calculate the speed that the satellite would need in order to escape the
(3 marks}
Planets - these are large objeccs which orbil a star. There are eighl of Tip: There arc a lol of~
other conditions tha1 an
them orbiting lhe Sun. They have to be large enough to have 'cleared
gravitational field of Earth from ils current position. objocc has to mec1 10
their neighbourhood". This means thaLlhelr gravity is suong enough to
(2marks} be considered a planet.
have pulled in any nearby objects apar1 from their satellites. Size is just one ot 1.hcm.
(g) Another satellite orbits the Earth once every 24 hours in the same plane as the Dwarf planets - e.g. Pluto. These are planet-like objects that orbit stars,
equator, and in the same direction as the Earth's rotation. Name this type of orbit. bul are 100 small to meel all of the rules ior being a planet
(1 mark) Planetary s.>tellites - these are objects 1ha1 orbit a planet.
An asteroid passes close to a planet of mass 2.14 x 10" kg then continues travelling Fo< example:
5
away. Fig 5.1 shows the gravilational force acting on the asteroid against ils 1. Moons - these orbit planets. They're natural saLellites.
distance from the centre of the planet. 2. Artificial satcllifes are sa1ellites fhal humans have built There are
Ftg 5.1 loLS orbiting the Earth and some orbiting olher planels.
10

8 Figure 1: A phowgraph
z of the plane< /upiu11. Tho
~ lWO black spots arc camed
e 6
try lW'O ofJupimt's moons
4 passing in from of I.lie planer..
;;:
2

0 2 3 4 5 6
rl x 1o' m
(a) use the graph to calculate the mass of the asteroid.
(2 marl<s)
(b) Explain why the gravitational potential energy of the asteroid. E, always has a Figure 2: A diagram showing sotne of the coments of out solar system,
including lhe eight planets in order.
negative value at a distance, r. from the planet.
(2 marl<s)
Asteroids - these are chunks of rock and mineral that orbit the Sun. lhey
(c) Sketch a graph of the gravitational potential energy of range in size, but can be anywhere from just over 1 m in diameter to the
the asteroid as il gets further away from the planet. size of a dwarf planel. The asteroid beh is a disc of many asteroids that all
(1 marl<} sit in orbits between M.ars and Jupiter.

•EJl~tJll Module 5: Section 3 Gravilational Fields Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology
 ComelS these are •diny snowballs", m;idc of ire, dUSl and rock. We
1hink most comets uswllyomi1 lhe Sun aboul 1000 times further away
2. Astronomical Distances l.Alaming Objectiv. .:
• Understand siclla1
than l'lu10 does (in 1hc "Oort cloud"). Occasionally one gets di>lodged The dist.1nccs to stars C.JIJ bf• difficult to calculate. Asuonomers hJ\'C parallax, and how it
and heads 1owards 1hc Sun. h 1hen fo llows a new e lliptical orbit, which severJI rncthods to work rllcrn out - but not JI/ of ihc n1ethods work for all can be usC?d to rind
can take millions of years 10 complete. The orbi1.s of the comets we see distJnccs. Astronomers J/SO use a feo.v diff<."T<..'lll unilS to measure distance. distances in parst.'CS.
arc highly ellip1ical. Some comets (from cl05Cf in than the Oort cloud) • Understand disl>nc<s
follow a smalle< Olbit and swing round the Sun more often. The most measurt'd in I"""°
Rgure J; A COOlC'f $M1 famous is Halley's~. which orbits in 76 years. Parallax Ip<).
ua""'*>g across thl' tvght Imagine you're in a moving .c:ar. You see tha1 .<sta1ionary) objects on 1he • ll<>abk!IOUS4>lhc
sky. as ii passes thl' 1•nh. iorcground seem lo tx> moving faster lhan obJCCIS m the distance. equaoion p ~ 10
The scale of the solar system This is an example of p._1rall:i.x. make parallax
From Copernicus on\vards, as1tonomers have lricd 10 work out The dis<ancc Lo nearby Slars can be cak:ula1ed by observing how they calculations.
lhe dis1anres of 1he planets from the Sun. They could not work out appear 10 move relative lO st..1rs thal are so di.sunt that they appc~r not to move • llndl!ntand disl>n<X'S
lhe actwl disianres in siandJod units, but they could worlc OUI relauvc al all badcground surs. This is done by comparing lhe posiuon of the nearby measurt'd in
disianres by comparing the od>its ol other planctS 10 1he orbil of lhe fanh. Sl>r on rclalion to the badcground stars al difl~I parts of the f;inh's omit. ligllt·ye>IS Oyl.
This led 10 the creation of lhe aslronomical unit (AU). l~rallax is measured in 1erms of 1he angle ol parallax. If you obsC1Ve Specification
1he posi1ion of the star from opposile points ol 1he Earth's orbi1 (6 mon1hs . Reference 5.5.3
One asoronomical unil (AU) is defined as apan), 1he angle of parallax is ha lf the angle tha1 1he slar appears 10 move in
the mean d isrnn,~c bchveen 1hc binh :ind the Sun. relation 10 1he background wirs. The greater the angle, lhe nearer 1he obiec1
is to you.
Tip: 'lllu can""'
The size of lhe AU wasn' 1known accuralcly uniil 1769 when it
was circfully measured dunng a u:msil al Venus (when Venus passed
par>ll2x •• """"by
holding your hand OUI
between 1he Fanh and lhe Sun). We now know 1ha1 1 AU is equal 10 abou1 in front of your face :and
150 mill Ion km {1.S x 1011 mJ. Nepcune,. the ou1crmos1 plane t in our solar ck.sing jus1your righ1
sys1em, is abou1 30 AU from 1hc Sun. I')"', followed by juSI
/.l:Jcli4ri' of 1hc La.rth~~ your lefi eye. Your hand
or1,.1 ¥ound the Sun will mD'fl' in rel31ion K>
till' IXl<:tlJOUlld. The
Practice Questions - Fact Recall • clos<r,...
yourlace, the
hand is ..
more
11
Ql Whal is a galaxy? Figure 1: The dl5rmct' ofa nrorby sw an b<> calculated by nJNSuring the
moves in relation to d'W"
angle orpilr>nJx and using lhc dian"''"' of the Carrh~ orbiL
Q2 Whal is a solar sys1eml badeground.
QJ Where do most comets usually omi1 the Sun?
Q4 St:a1c what is meant by ::an ::astronomical unit. Using lhe shaoc'<l 1rilngk: in Figure I, you can calcula1c 1he
distance 10 the nearby siar, d, using uigonomeiry. if you know the angle of
par:olLlX and the radius ol 1he Earth's omit Tip: R"'1ll!Tbcr,
trfgonomeuy s;iys lh>I
Ian O= fr tan 0 = oeposi1~ side! .
adjaccrn side
,,, d=~

For small angles 1.1n O"" 8, where 0 rs on radians. ~use 1he

angles used in astronomy are so tiny. you can use this assumption loc
olcula1ions of parallax (as long as you're worlcing in radians). So:

- - - - - r =-radius of 11~ I atthts orbit

d
.
disrance oo rhc ,.,,
- d"<L -
0 - 0 = angle of,,.,.,,.. in radians

Remember, the angle in radians = angle in degrees x m\see page 485). Tip: 'lllu cm ""'any
unias for d and 1, but )G.!
must use the same unh
for booh.

Module 5: SecbOn 4 Aslrophyslcs and Cosmology

l•Ill~#I Module 5: 5ectiOn 4 Astrophyslcs and Cosmology
 Example -f*®Hiiflll Light years
A nearby star has an angle of parallax of 1.39 x 1o-' •. Calculate the All electromagnetic waves iravel at Lhc speed of light, c. in a vacuum
distance to the star. The ave.rage radius of the Earth's orbit is 1.50 x 1011 m. (where c = 3.00 x 1O' ms 1). The distance that electromagne tic \Vaves travel
Di!;tance tu the star
through a vacuum in one year is callt>d a light year (ly).
I
d
~r -1.5Dx 10"m
1 light year = 9 .5 x 1015 m
1..l!Jx]i} ~
0

If we see the light from a star that is, say, 10 light years away then we
Convert the angle inlo radians:
1.39 x 1 0~. x rso
= 2.42 ... x 10,, rad
a rc actually seeing it as it was 1Oyears ago. The fu rther away the object is,
the further back in lime we are actually seeing it
d ~ L = 1.~0 x 1on" 6.1 82 ... x 1 0 1' m xamples
O 2 .4- ... X l O =6.1 8x10" m (to3s.f.)

e
light from the Sun takes a round 8 minutes to reach Earth, so the
ight that we sec from the Sun actualty lert the Sun 8 minutes earlier.
The star rroxima Ccntauri is 1.3 pc away from Earth, which is
approximately 4.3 light years. So the light from Proxima Centauri
Tip: An arcsecond
Parsecs will take a round 4 years a nd 4 months to reach us.
is just a measure of
The angle of parallax is used to define a unit of distance c.alled a parsec (pc).
angle like degrees and
radians. It's equivale:n1 The lighl from very distant galaxies has taken billions of years to
A Siar is exactly one parscc (pc) away if the angle of parallax, reach us. Astronomers search ior distant galaxies so that they can 'look into
to (m )", so i(s useful 0= 1 arcsccond = (-1-)• the past' al what the Universe was like billions o f years ago.
when measurrng the 3600
really small ang"'5 that
astronomers use. The d istances measured in astronomy are usually huge - even the Practice Questions -Application
nearest large galaxy to the Milky Way is 780 OOO parsecs away. Astronomers
oflt'n use parsecs (pc) or megaparsecs (Mpc) to measure these large d istances. Q l The star Alpha Tauri in the constellation Taurus is 20 pc away.
Exam Tip Calculate this distance in light years.
You need 10 be able to use this conversion:
This conversK>n b<.'l\vee:n Q2 Scientists a t an observatory are studying the star Sirius from EarLh.
parsecs and me1res will One image of Sirius is caplured, a nd another is captured 6 months
be in the: exam data 1 pc=J.1 x 10"m later. The angle of parallax is recorded to be 0.37 arcseconds.
and formulae booklet,
so don't worry abou1 al The average radius of the Earth's orbit is 1.50 x 1011 m.
learning it. When you're calculating d islances in parsecs, you can use a special Calculate the distance lo Sirius in metres.
form of the parallax equation from the previous page: b) How long will it take for light from Sirius to reach Earth in years
p = angle orparaYax ' - and months?
in arc.seconds ......_ _
1
P - d . . - d = distance to the star
in parS«s Practice Questions - Fact Recall l
Q1 What is meant by the angle of parallax?
Exan1ple -f$M!$ 1fll5 Q2 What is the definition o f a parsec?
Proxima Centauri has an angle or parallax of 0.77 arcseconds. Q3 What is the definition of a light year?
Calculate the distance to Proxima Centauri in parsecs.
p=~
Rearrange the parsec parallax equation for d istance, d:
d = p' = 057
1 = 1.298... pc
= 1.3 pc (10 2 s.f.)

•EJ!~l·J
. 11 Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Module 5: Section 4 Aslrophysics and Cosmology W!p M
 Leaming Objectives: 3. Stellar Evolution Figure 3 sho\vs a summary of the stages a star goes through during
1he main sequence and red gian1 phases.

j
• Know lhat a sLar
i:s formed from 'Su~/Jar' means 'ro do lvith stars; so this topic's all about ho'v s1ars change. MM sc.yumcr star
interstellar dust and Stars go through several different stages in I.heir Jives. The Sun is a main IJ Utrc hyJra;,>en burning
gas. sequence star right nm"~ but il S still got a fol of life lefl in it I I in <:ore runs oul, c:ore burning stop!>, Tip: This process is jusc
• Understand how cure L"<Kltracts and heal\· up. a toad of contracting.
gra.vita1ional collapse, Corn UNllrJcl.ion caus~· the slK!fls amJ ooU!I layt:.rs healing and fusing o f
nuclear fusion and
Formation to expand and uxH - Jhe slar becomes a rt'Al giant successively bigger
a balanoo between All stars are born in a cloud of dust and gas, mOS-1of \vhich \vas left when nuck!i.
gravilalion.a.1 forces previous stars blew themselves apart in supernovae (see page 322). The denser JlJ:d..gWi!.
and radia1ion and gas clumps of the cloud conlract (very slowly) under the f0<ce of gravity. 2) Sh<.11 hydrogen burning
pressure lead to lhc I /eat from lhe <"XKC lw.ats up a shdl of I I surrounding
When these clumps gel dense enough, the cloud fragme nts into Jt enough lhat I I fust!!S to I le in the shell. /le
crealion of a stable regions called protostars that continue to contract, and heat up as they do.
ma.in sequence star. Tht~ I le <:01e <.untinues to c:ontrac:t and hc~at up.
Eventually the lemperature at the centre or the prol.OSlar reaches a few million
• Understand how degrees, and hydrogen nuclei start to fuse togethe r to loon helium (see page 445).
I01N-mass Slars, like
our Sun, evolve imo As the star's temperature increases and its volume decreases
(remember, it's contracting), the gas pressure increases (p.262). There is also lle7and 0
red giants.
• Know lhat a low--01a:ss radiation pressure in the star - a pressure exerted by electromagnetic
rod gian1 will oollapse radiation on any surface it hits. Radiation pressure is usually too tiny to
into a white dwarf and notice, but becomes signi fica nt in stars because of the e normous amount of
a pla,,.,tary nebula. electromagnetic radiaLion released by fusion. The combination or gas pressure Rgure 2: A red giant witll a
• Understand that and radiation pressure counteract the rorce of gravityl preventing the star from radius of around 1 bilfion kin.
a s1a.r core with contrading further. The star has now reached the main sequence and will stay
mass less than the
Chandrasekhar limit
becomes a white
there, relatively unchanged, while il fuses hydrogen into helium.
Tip: Th<> cooling of tho
outer layers of the star
makt's the star's colour
1
cf\.Yarf bocausc
electron degeneracy change 10 becornc
pressure prevcnls redder - this is why we
funhe:r collapse. Proout;u
call them md giants.
Ckmd of dust and gas Main .'t(-XflW.fH:C star 4) Shc/J helium burning
• Know 1ha1 stars Core bummg l·tops and the <XHe umtrac.U and heats up.
much more massive Figure 1: A star in rlle early st.Jges ofits stellar evolution. / /eat from cxx1 lr.«~1ing c:ort..' causes I le to begin fusing in
than the Sun cNOlve lhc shdl around UK! core~.
into red supt.lf
giants, which will Core and shell burning sequence Figure 3: The helium and hydrogen burning sequence ofa star
eventually explode in Stars spend most of their lives as main sequence stars. The pressure produced as it uanshions front a main sequence star to a red giam.
a supernova leaving from hydrogen fusion in their core balances the graviialional force trying to
behind eiLhcr a
neutron star or blade
compress them. This stage is called core hydrogen burning. White dwarfs
hok?. When all the hydrogen in the core has fused into helium, fusion In low-mass stars, like our Sun, the carbon-oxygen core won't get h04 enough
• Know I.he stops, meaning the outward pressure also stops. The helium core conrracts for any further fusion and so it continues to contract under its own weight.
characterisLics of and heats up under 1he weigh! of the star. As a result, the outer layers expand Once the core has shrunk to about the size or the Eanh, electrons exert Figure 4: \iVhen a lo.v..n1ass
neutron stars and and coot and the star becomes a red giant. e nough pressure (electron degeneracy pressure) to stop it collapsing any more red giam cools OOv.n, tfte
blade holes. The material surrounding 1he core still has plenry of hydrogen. {don't \Vorry - you don't have to know how}. shells are ejected and acale
a beaUliful planetary nebufa1
Specification The heat from the contracting helium core raises the temperature of this The above is only true for stars \Vith a core mass under a bout 1.4 Fike this one.. leaving a white
Reference 5.5.1 material enough for the hydrogen Lo f""'. This is called shell hydrogen times the mass of the Sun lhough - in bigger stars the electron degeneracy dwarf al tlle cenrre.
burning. (Very low-mass s1ars stop a t this point. They use up their fuel and pressure isn't high enough to counteract the gravitational force and the
slowly fade away...) slar collapses (see n<".xt page). The maximum mass for which the elecuon
Tip: As a star contracts, Tip: Th<> torm 'planetary
I.he temperature The helium core continues to comract until, evenlually, il gets hot degeneracy pressure can counteract the gravitational force is called the nebula' doesn't aaually
i ncrcases due IO enough and dense enough for helium to fuse into carbon and oxygen. This is Chandrasekhar limit. have anylhing to do
conserv.11ion of cnefb'Y called core helium burning. This releases a huge amoun1of e nergy, which For stars below the Chandrasekhar limit, the helium shell becomes wilh planelS. They were
- gravitational potemiaJ pushes the ou1er layers of the star fu rther outwards. more and more unstable as the core contracts. The star pulsates and ejcclS irs called thal because
energy is convcr1cd to outer layers into space as a planet·ary nebula, leaving behind the dense core. they tend to be roughly
When the core helium runs out, the carbon-oxygen core contracts spherical, and so look
Lhermal energy. The star is now a very hot, dense solid called a white dwarf, which will simply
again and healS a shell a round it so that helium <'An fuse in this region - shell like enormous planets.
helium burning. cool down and fade away.

Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Wd

llp: supernovae release
a huge amount of energy
- a supernova C\•c-n
as far as 1000 ly away
could seriously damage
the C-anh's atmosphere.
figure 6: An opuca/ image
of the T.1rantula Nebula
!top lelr) and a n001by
supernova (bot.torn right).
The raranwfa Nebula ;s an
inaedibly bright regjon,
where many siars arc being
formedi but Ute SUJX?rnova is
able to reach a comp<tJable
level of brightness.
Figure 7: T/Jc Crab Nebula
- a supernova remnanr with
a pulsar (rorating neutron
star) in tl'te cenue.
ff1 Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology
Supernovae
High-mass stars have a shorter li re a nd a more exciting death than lower-mass
stars like the Sun. Even though stars with a large mass have a lot of fuel, they
use it up more quickly and don't spend so long as main-sequence stars.
When they a rc red giants the 'core burning to shell burning' process
can continue beyond the fusion o( helium, building up layers of different
fusing elements in an onion-like structure, to become red super giants (or
super red giants). For really massive ~ars this can go all the way up lo iron.
Nuclear fusion beyond iron isn't energetically favourable Cp.447), so once an
iron core is formed then very quickly it's goodbye slar...
When lhe core of a star runs oul of fuel, it starts to con1ract. If this
core's mass is larger than lhe Chandrasekhar limit, electron degeneracy can't
stop the core contrac:iing. This happens when the mass of the core is more
than 1.4 times the mass of the Sun.
The core of the star continues to contract, and as it does, the ou ter
layers of the star fall in and rebound off the core, selling up huge shockwavcs.
These shod<waves cause the star to explode cataclysmically in a supernova,
leaving behind the core, which will either be a neutron star or (if the star\Ws
massive e nough) a black hole.
lhc c:ore ofa high mass
0 . the·~
red !..upcr giant c:ontrac.ts... in a supernova...
...and leaw..."i
0 lx!hind either
a neutron star...
/ w!locity = c
hur star i.<> too
ma.5.'>iW! for c.>lec:trcNI ~ • ...or black IHJ/c?.
<Jes,oenc:rdcy pressure
to stop aNe contraction.
Figure 5: The possible evo/ulion palhs of a
high-mass star frorn its red supe1 giant phase.
When the star explodes in a supernova, it will experience -a brief
and rapid increase in brighmess. The light from a supernova can briefly
outshine an entire galaxy, before fading over the next few weeks or months.
Neutron stars
As the core of a massive star conlracts, the electrons in the core ma1erial get
squashed onto the atomic nuclei and combine wilh protons to form neutrons
and neutrinos (hence the name neutron star).
Ii Lhe s:tar's core is be1wcen 1.4 and 3 solar masses, this is as fa r as
lhe star can contract - the <..'Ore suddenly collapses to become a neutron star
made mostly of neutrons. The outer layers of the star fall onlo the neutron star,
which causes shockwavcs in these layers and leads to a supernova. After the
supernova, the neutron star is left behind.
Neutron stars a re incredibly dense (about 4 x 10" kgm..l). They're
also very small, typically about 20 km across, and they can rotate very fast (up
to 600 times a second).
Neutron starts emit two beams of radio waves as they rotate. These
beams sometimes sweep past 1he Earth and can be observed a.s radio pulses
rather like the flashes of a lighthouse. These pulsing neu1ron stars are called
pulsars.
Black holes
If the core of the star is more than 3 times the Sun's mass, the core will
contract until neutrons are formed, but no\v the gravitational force on the
core is greater. The neutrons can't with.stand this gravitational force, so the
slar con1inucs to collapse. For something of this size, there a re no known
mechanisms left to stop the core collapsing to an infinitely de nse point, called
a singularity. At that point,, 1he laws of physics break down completely. Tip: Remember, the
The escape velocity (p.306) is the velocity that an object would kinetic energy of an
need 10 travel at to have e nough kinetic energy to escape a gravitational (ield. object is given by
\.Vhen a massive star collapses into an infini1ely dense poinl, a region around f•= ~mv'.
it has such a strong gravitational field that il becomes a black hole - an
object whose escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, c. If you enter Tip: Nothing can Lravcl
this region, there's absolutely no escape - not even ligh1can escape it. faster than the speed of
The boundary of this region is called the event horizon. At the event light, c.
horizon, the escape velocity is equal to c, so light has just enough kinetic
energy to escape the black hole's gravitational pull. The radius of a black hole
is considered to be the radius of the evenl horizon. ~sl thal point, everything,
including ligh~ can do nothing but travel further into the black hole.
/ lnliniwly dense point
Inside the event_horizon,
nothing csc:a1)f~S as
the csc.apc ...,!/odty > c
At lhe E-:-vcnt horizon,
~<-:ape
Figure 8: The structure ofa black hole.
Astronomers now believe that there is a supermassive blad< hole
Rgure 9: Asttonomers think
(more than 1O' limes mo<e massive than our Sun) at the centre of every galaxy. the jmense rJdiation 5e'<m
As stars get closer to the event horizon of the black ho le, and begin to be at I.he centre ofgalaxies is
caused by matter falling into
consumed, they gel very hot and produce intense radiation, making the ccnl.re
a supermassive black hole.
of galaxies very bright.
I kffi,tq:I• lii!?1:t.J•f ..i'f.l
•._,oiiw:w<,.:Ir,;:t."."1.,11.________
Q1 What causes a cloud of dust and gas to contract and (orm a Slar?
Q2 In what stage of evolution dOL-"S a star spend most of its life?
Q3 Explain how the process of core hydrogen burning stops a main
sequence star from compressing under the gravitalionaJ force.
Q4 What happens to the core of a star when it runs out of hydrogen?
What effect does this have on the hydrogen layer surrounding the
core o( the star?
QS Whal causes a main-sequence star 10 ba"Ome a rt-'d giant?
Q6 How is a white dwari formed?
Ql Whal is a planetary nebula?
QB Why can Slars \vith a core mass greater tha n 1.4 solar masses no4
form ..vhite dwarfs?
Q9 Describe how the contracting core of a star creates a supernova.
QlO Whal is left after a supernova if the core of the star is not massive
enough to form a blade hole? What are they mostly made of?
Ql 1 What is a black hole? How is one fanned?
Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Wij A
 Leaming Obj ectives:
• Know hO\v \Alien's
displacemcn1law can
be used to estimate
Lhe peak su.rface
1emperamre of a sta.r.
• Know what is meant
by the luminosi1y of
a star.
• Be able 10 use Stefan's
law to calculate
luminosity.
• Be able to use Wien's
disptacement law
and Stefan's law m
estimate the radius of
a star.
• Know that the
Henzsprung-Russcll
(HRJ diagram is a plcx
of luminosity against
1cmpcraLu.re ror stars.
• Be abk> 10 identify
Lhe regions of 1.lle
HR diagram tlla1
correspond m main
sequence siars, red
giants, super red
gianis and while
dwarfs.
Specification
References 5.5.1
and S.S.2
Figure 2: ~Vilhe/m WJen was
a German physicist who was
awarded Ille 1911 Nobel
Pri7.c in physics for /I.is work
on radiation emissK>n.
fZ' Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology
4. Stellar Radiation Stefan's law
au
The luminosity of a star is a measure of its brightness. h is lhe 101al energy
and Luminosity it emits per second, i.e. its power output. The luminosity o f a star is directly
proportional to lhe fourlh power of the star's sorface lenlperalure and is a lso
Asuonomers can estimate a siar's ternperalure based on the radiazion it emirs. d irec1ly proportional 10 the surface area. This is Stefan1s law:
Tip: Th<! surf•ce
They can then use lhis information to help identify \Vhal type of star il is. L = luminosity of . ol a sphere is given by
w ""'
the star in / T = surface temperature m K 41rr1. Sinoo stars are
spherical, this is the
Wien 's displacement law L = 4ar'uT' surface area of a star.
Objec1s cmi1 electromagnetic radiation due to Lheir temperature. AL everyday
temperatures Lhis is mostly in the infrared parl of the spectrum (\vhich \Ve can'I /\
r = radius oft/Jc star a = the Smfan constant
Exam Tip
see). Bur heal something up enough and i1 will slart to glow. in m = 5.67 x to·•
Wm 1K...
S1eran's law and lhe
SLars can be assumed 10 emit radiation in a conlinuous spectrum. Stefan constant are given
The relationship between intensity ('power per unit area') and wavelength Example -.f!,§1 5;1§1N in the data and formulae
for this radialion varies wilh temperature. As shown in Figure 1, a hotler star booklet.
The Sun has a surface lempera.ture of 5800 K, and J. radius of 6.96 x 1O' m.
will emit more radiation than a cooler one, and so have a higher total power
output {assuming i1 has the same surface area). The most common wavelength What surface temperature would a star have if it had a radius of
9.42 )( 101 m but the same luminosity as the Sun?
or EM wave cmiued becomes shorter as the surface temperature of the star
increases. This is r.allcd the peak wavelength, A- shown by the doucd line; L = 41f"r'o-T4. The luminosilies of the star and the Sun are the same, so:
on Figure 1. 4w{r.,)'a(T..,,,)' = 4a(r.)'o(T,,,)'
J he houer star emits a Jot more radiation near its
_ , /<r..J'(f,_)'
peak wavekngth than a cooler star... => T~I - v· (r~r (cancelling 4~a from bolh skies and rearranging)
~c:;- (
"
6!i00
. K
..-- visihle waw..4'mgths => T _ , /(6.96 x 1o•f x(saoor Tip: AsmaJlcr star
~- v- (9.42 x 1o')' needs 10 be a lot hotter
r
.e = 15 765.47 ... = 16000 K (Lo 2 s.f.)
to have the same power
OOtpUI.
...bot a similar amount of
radiation at the ends of
d?spec1Ium. You can combine Stefan's law and Wien's d isplacement law (sec
previous page) to es-Limate a star's radius:
Example -f$§ijjjzj1fi
Sirius A is a main sequence star, and Sirius B is a white dwarf. Sirius A has
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Z.5
a surface temperature of 9800 Kand produces electromagnetic radiation
Wdvt~/(mgth I µm wilh a peak wa..,length of 300 nm (lo 2 sJ.). Sirius B has a luminosity
Rgure 1: Thn.ie rnnres showing I.he cfifferent tJnge and intensity of of 9.4 x 101" Wand produces elec1romagnetic radiation with a peak
wavelengll1s of radiation emitted by srars of different temperatures. wavelength of 115 nm. Estimate the radius of Sirius B.
You can use ~I( to estimate a star's peak surface temperature First, find lhe temperature or Sirius B. >.ma u ~., so f"'.- = cons1an1.
using Wien's displacement law:
This means T.\,... = T•A~•so9800 x 300 x 10 ' = (1 15 x lO'JT•
>._ = peokwa""1ength - A o. 1 So T = 9800x (300x10 "l = 25 565 2 K
i11 n, 11w: T 8 11Sxl0 3 . ...
" - T = temperature in K Theo use Stefan's law to find the star's radius:
We can use this to estimate lhe temperature of stars from their colour. L = 4nr'u1' so r - CC.
A star that appears red will emit lighl in 1he red part of 1he visible spectrum -v~f'
wilh the highesl inlensity. From the shape of the intensity-temperature curve, - ,- gTxfii'. . -
lhis means its peak wavelength can be no smaller than the red part of the - v~.67x10 •)x (25565.2 .. .) 4
visible spec1rum. A star that appears white will emit all frequencies or visible
light with a similar power output. This me.ans they musl have a shorter peak = 5.557... x 10' m = 5.6 x 10' m (10 2 s.f.)
wavelength, around the middle of the EM spectrum. So a white star mus1 have
a higher temperature than a red star.
Module 5: Section 4 Aslrophysics and Cosmology Wff A
 The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram Practice Questions -Application _a
You can p lot a graph of luminosity against tempera ture for stars. In the Q l The diagram belo\v shoW'S l\VO stars, A and B, marked on a
191 Os, this \vas done wilh data from a survey of a large number or stars.
luminosity-lempera ture graph.
Independently, L\vo scientists, Hertzsprung a nd Russell, noticed lhat the
graph didn't just throw up a random scattering of points, but showed points
clustered in distinct areas. These d is1inc1areas turned oul to correspond to
i J(/'

different stages or a slar's life cycle. C·~ I (}'

evolve (p.320-323) and became known as the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR)
diagram (Figure 3).
Tip: ii 'solar
luminosily unit' is jus1
the luminosity or 1he
Sun. So, a star with
a luminosity of 10'
luminosity units will
be I 00 times more
luminous than the Sun.
Tip: Be careful with lhc
axes on an HR diagram.
The horizontal axis goes
from high temperatures
10 low 1empcra1ures
from left 10 righ1.
This d iagram ended up being really important for sludying how stars
·:sc .s_0 10 '
E§
_,", i-
~
0.01 a.
SOOOOK 3(}()() K
[)(.-:cn>..asing te.mf'E'Yalute (ncm fine.ar sc:ak)
a) Which star you would expect to be bigger, and why?
b} What type of star is Star /\?
c:) What type of star is Star B?
d) \.Vhich star is further along in its evolution sequence?
Q2 The star Rigel, in lhe constellation ()rion, is measured to have a
surface temperature of 12 OOO K. The Sun has a surfac.-e temperature
of 5800 K.
a) Suggest how Rigel's peak wavelength will diffe r to that of the Sun_
b) The luminosity of Rigel is measured as 4.5 x 10" W.
Calculate the radius of Rigel.
.SOO<KI K 31KKI K
Decrca.'>ing tf.¥nperature (non linear .scale)

Rgure 3: The Henzsprung-Russell diagram with the positions 1Qffi~td:l•ilf:(1if.],g tGl:l:Iffi!!i

of the Sun and the stars Vega and Betelgeuse filbel/od. Q1 Which would you expect to be hotter, a white star or a red star?
Q2 Write down Stefan's law. Define all the symbols you use.
Distinct areas of the HR diagram Q3 Sketch the HR diagram. Mark on your d iagram the regions
The distinct areas in whidi stars fall on the HR diagram correspond to four corresponding to I.he main sequence, red giants, super red giants
main types of s1.ars: and white dwarfs_ Make sure you label both your axes.
llp: In several billion There is a long, diagonal band along the middle of the graph, where
years, the Sun will luminosity increases wiLh lemperature. This corresponds to main
beoome a red giant (see sequence st.ars.
pages 320-321). Ii will There is a section w ith high luminosity (1 !Y-10'), but relatively low
expand 10 be around surface tempera ture. From Wien's displacemenl law, we can tell these
20% larger lhan the stars should appear reddish. And from Stefan's law \Ve know they must be
Earth's current orbit and
shine 3000 times brigh1cr
very large Lo produce the same luminosity as muc:h honer main sequence
than it does now. .s1ars. Therefore, this section must correspond to red gian ls.
The re is anolher section, a1 similar temperatures to the red giants, bul
even higher luminosity (-10 6). These stars must be even bigger than red
gianls, a nd so this seclion corresponds to super red giants.
There is a fourth section with very high temperatures, but low luminos ily~
From Stefan's law, we know they must be small to be so hot while only
being as luminous as low· temperalure main seque nce stars. And from
Wien's disp lacement law we can tell Lhese slars should appear \Vhite.
So this section corresponds to white dv.iarfs.

f{fl Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology W&
 Leaming Objectives: 5. Stellar Spectra White light and diffraction gratings
White lighl is a continuous spectrum of all the wavelengths of visible light
• Understand how If you pass white light through a diffrac1ion grating, ii will be splil up, as
a transmission One ~v.1y astronomers analyse srars is by splitting the light received from
them using a diffraction grating. By comparing lhe sp<.>ctrum produced to 1he differenl wavelengihs wilhin !he white ligh1are d iffracied by differenl
diffraction grating can
be usod lo determine the emission SfX"Ctra of elentents, they Cilll \vork out \Vhal a sl.1r is made of. amounts.
lhe wavelengLh of light Each order in the paHem becomes a specuum, wilh red on the
(PAG5). Diffraction gratings r.~51 outside and violet on the inside, as shown in Figure 2. The zero order
• Know and uncl0mand You can pass light lhrough a transmission diffraction grating to ~ maximum stays white because all the wavelengths produce a maximum
Lhat dsinO=nA is the form an in1erference paltem. Since different \Vavelenglhs of light diffracl when O=O.
condition for maxima differenily, you can use this interference pallcm to analyse the ligh~ and
in an interference determine some of its prope11ies. As always, before you start any investigation, Znd cHtk"f
pattern producoo by a make sure you carry out a risk assessment.
diffraction grating with
spacing d. Determining wavelength
lst order
• Know 1hat electrons If )'OU shine monochromatic light
in isolated gas atoms (ligh1 with a single \vavelength or zero cHdcr (while)
orbit the nucleus in frequency) 1hrough a d iffraclion
distina energy levels. gra1ing, you'll get a pattern of J..;t <>nler
• Know that electron brigh1 lines (maxima) on a dark
energy levels are background. This is a result of
given negative values
by convention.
lhe ligh1 interfering wi1h ilself ZndcHtk"f
constructively and des1ructively
• Be able Lo use the tliffrn<.1ion grating
(you mel inierfcrencc in Section 2 Rgure 1: Whi1e /ight being splil inw spectra
cqua1ions ll.E=hfand or Module 4). as it passes lhrough a diffraction grating.
M = !Jf to calcula111 moncH.:111omalk
The line or maximum li);ht
1he energy of emi11ed
brightness at the centre is called Rgure t: A diagram of lig/11 passing
photons.
• Understand hm\• the
the zero order line, the next lines throug/I a diffracUon gr.iting and forming an
on each side are called first order
Electron energy levels and photons
emission or photons irne1ference pattern. Elec1rons in an isolated gas atom can only exist in certain welklefined energy
lines, and so on. Tip: Wh~nw~say
by electrons moving levels. Each level is given a number, with n = 1 representing 1he ground state "isolated gas alom", we
bct\\,.cm energy levels Using !he fringe widlh (the distance between the maxima), x, a nd the (i.e. the lowesl energy leveO. '"""' Fnergy me.an an atom of a gas
leads Lo lhe creation distance to the screen, D, 1he angle the first order line makes with the zero
of emission speara. order line can be calcula1ed using 1he small angle approximation:
When energy is transferred to
a substance (e.g. by heating), elecirons
n = 00
n=S -
=:::;::::;::::ZeJO enCYgy
-0.54eV
thm is not interacting in
any way with the olhcr
• Understand wha1 aLoms of 1he gas.
0 = angle between the in irs atoms can be 'excited' - they
is mea.nl by a
continuous spccuum zero and first order . _ . 0"" tan 0 = fJ. - -x = fringe width in m move to higher energy levels. Eleclrons
n= 4 -0.85 eV
fringes in radians ......__ D = distiJllCe IO the screen in m can move back down energy levels by
and an absorption tine
spec:Lrum. emitting a ph()(on. Since these transitions
If you know 1he slit separation, d. the order of the maximum you're a re between discrete energy levels, the
• Unders1and how
observing, n, and the angle between this maximum a nd the incidenl light, 0, e nergy of each photon emincd can only
Lile spectral tines of
different atoms can
you can find 1he wavelenglh of the incident light: Lake a c.ertain allowl->d value.
be Used lO identify d = slit spadng in m ---.... d . ...--- .>. = wavelenglh ofincident Figure 3 shows the energy levels
elements within stars. sm 0 -=- nA light in m
ror atomic: hydrogen. The energies are all
Specification O = angle between tl'te zeto ~ ' . ncgalive because of how 'zero energy' is Tip: Remember, an
Reference 5.5.2 and nth ordr:.v fringes in radians n = number offrmgo order
defined. The e nergy carried by each elccuon volt, eV, is
photon emitted is equal to the differe nce equal «> 1.60 x IO·" J.
Exan1ple --f$Milj1flhj in energies between lhe Lwo levels.
A laser beam is passed through a diffraction grating with grating spacing of For example, a phoion produced by
2.0 }( 10-S m. The interfere,nce pattern it produces is displayed on a screen a n cleclron moving from the n = 3 to
1.6 m away. The first order fringe is located 0.05 m away from the zero Rgure 3: The clecuon energy
lhe n = 2 IeveI wou Id have energy /<Neis • . hyd
order fringe. Calculate the wavelength of the laser light. equal 10 .O.f =- 1.5 - (- 3.4) =1.9 cV. m awmic rogen.
Firs!, calculale 0: tan 0 = W =) 0• W = 0.03125 Eleclrons can also move up energy levels (be excited) by absorbing
photons. For a n electron lo absocb a photon and become excited, the photon
Then find.>., when n = 1: J. = dsinO = 2.0 x 10 • x sin(0.03125) must be carrying an amount of energy thal exactly matches the difference
= 6.24898 ... x 10 ' m = 6.2 x 10 ' m (lo 2 s.L) between the electron's current energy level and a higher energy level.

f):I Module 5: Section 4 Aslrophysics and Cosmology Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Wf-' M
 You can relate the energy change of an electron in an atom to the Each line on the spectrum corresponds 10 a panicula r \vavelength of
frequency of the photon it absorbs or emits using the following equa1ion: light emitted by electrons in the gas as they drop down energy levels. Since
only certain photon e nergies a re allowed, you only see the corresponding
LlE = cfl(!fgy carried by - - -"E _ hf - f = Frequency of wavelengths. You can calculate I.he wavelength, ,\. of each line in a line
photon (or change in - '- the photon tn Hz emission spectrum usingdsinO = n>. (see page 328), if you know which o rder
e/eaton enetgyJ in I '-. maximum the spc..~trum is.
h =- Planck's constant in Js

You can also write this in terms of "'"avclength:

Tip: Thfs uses the fact
that C= 0...
Tip: You' ll usually be
given elect roo energy
level values in eV.
Make sure lhat you
convcn them Lo J before
you uy and use any
energy values in these
equations.
= 6.63 x '"°" Js
nv"""" ri·Jgh rmm~. ,
Different atoms have d ifferent electron energy levels and so different
sets of emission spectra. This means you can iden1ify a gas from its emission
c =..,.,._.,,...,.o spectrum.
=- J x 10" m~'
"E = ¥-/ >. = 1vave!ength of
lhe phofon ;n m Absorption line spectra
Yoo gel an absorption line spectrum when light with a continuous spc.~trum
Examples -l$®fi1fll8 of energy (white ligh1) passes through a cool gas: Tip: Remember, the
An electron in the ground state of a hydrogen atom (E = - 13.6 eV) Al low temperatures, most oi the electrons in the gas aloms \Viii be in their change in cnorgy of an
absorbs a photon and is excited to a highe,r e nergy level with an energy ground staLes. ek!clron that absorbs
of -0.850 eV. Calculate the frequency of the absorbed photon. a photon is the same
Photons of the correct wavelength a re absorbed by the electrons to excite change as ir it had
First, calcula te 6.E, and conven it to J. them 10 h igher energy le\l<?ls. cmi1led a phoion or the
Ill= (-0.850 - (- 13.6)) = 12.75 eV = (12.75 x 1.6 x 10 ") = 2.04 x 10 •• J These waveJengths arc missing from the conlinuous spectrum when it same frequency, but in
Rearranging the equation for frequency: comes out on the other side. reverse.
4 xlO " You see a continuous spectrum \vith black lines in it corresponding to the
f=M=
h 2.o
6.63x lo~
307692
· ··· x l O" Hz=308x
· l O"Hz(lo3sf)
· ·· a bsorbed wavelengths - see Figure 5.
The electron emits a photon, and drops from the -0.850 eV energy level
to an energy level with energy-3.40 eV. Calculate the wavelength of the Tip: You can use
photon emitted in this transition.
iiE = (- 0.850 - (- 3.40)) = 2.55 eV = (2.55 x 1.6 x 10 '') = 4.08 x lo·" J
Rearranging the energy equation for wavelength:
dsinO = nA 10 find
the wavelength of
absorption lines too. j
.X = ~ = 6· 63:.~~=t031: 1o• =4.875x 10 ' m = 4.88x10 'm (to3 s.f.)

Emission line spectra

Tip: )'bu can assume U you heat a gas to a high temperature, many of its elecLrons move to higher
that all the atoms in energy levels - the gas is said to be 'exc ited'. As they fa ll back 10 the ground Rgure S: NI absotplioo spec1tum, produced by passing w/1iie lighr
these gases are isola1ed. state, these eleclrons emil energy as photons. If you split the fight from a hot gas through a cold gas and lhe.n lhrough a diffraction grating.
wilh a diffraction grating, you gel an emission line spectrum - see Figure 4.
If you compare 1he absorption and emission spec1ra or a partic ular
gas, the black lines in lhe absorption spectrum match up to the bright lines in
the emission spectrum - as seen in Figure 6.

Rgure 7: The absorprion

Figure 6: An emission specuum and absorption spt.'.IC.ttum of the same substance. and emission specua or
Figure 4: A fine emission specrmnt, produced by passing light The li1N?S in the emission spectrum correspond to the missing parts hydrogen (rop) and helium
emittt!d by a hot gas through a diffract.ion graling. of the ful/ spearum in the absorption SfXXUUm. (bottom) .

t:!1i Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology WUi
 You gee absorption lines in lhe spectra of lighl from stars. Stars
<'.an be assumed to cmi1 radiation in a continuous spectrum. This radiation 6. The Big Bang Theory Learning Objectives:
has to pass through a large amount or gas at the surface of the star (the • Know 1ha1Lile
While .1Stronomers examine space as iL is nO\V, cosmologists try to use all the cosmological
star's 'atmosphere') before lravelling 10 Earlh. This gas absorbs panicular evidence ive've got to discover more about rite origin, evolution .1nd fate of principle states
wavelengths of light depending on the elements it consists of. the uniVefSe. And right now; the best idea they've got is r!Je Big Bang theory. 1.hat the universe is
Comparing the absorplion spectra of slars to sets or emission spectra homogeneous and
from the lab therefore allows you identify elements \Vilhin a star. The most isotropic, and 1ha11hc
common element in most stars is hydrogen, so the spectral lines for hydrogen The cosmological principle lav.is of phys.ics are
are usually the clearest. This makes these lines lhe easiest to identify and It's easy to imagine thal the Earth is al the centre of the universe, or that there's universal.
measu re. something really special about it. Eanh is special to us because we live here • Understand w hat is
- but on a universal scale, it's just like any other lump of rock. meam by 1he Doppler
effect
The idea thal no part o f the universe is any more special than any • Understand Lhe effects
other is summarised by the cosmological principle.
1µ 0tg.tq:l,Jlt:?1ii,},pQ,.·!tt1l
..·....·11i@tll·ii1i1!1i1.111i
!i1 'L'------ or IJopplor shift on
ck?ctromagnetic
0 1 The diagram below shows three line emission spectra produced by The Cosmological Principle: radiation.
elements in a lab, a nd an absorption spectrum of a slar. The laws of physics are universal (they're lhe same everywhere), and • Be able to use the
on a large scale the universe is: Doppler equation
II
9~,========:;::====;::;;:~
homogeneous (every part is the same as every other part) and
isotropic (everything looks the same in every direcLion)
¥ "'-o/ "t
to quamrfy the effect
ol Doppler Sh ill.
cl • Understand how
(n
star:=l l;;:I=i=TI~(==:;;;.. ,~~.:.: This is a powerful idea - it means \Ve c.an apply what we kno\v galactic red shift
about physics on Earth and in our Solar System to the res1 of the universe. suppons 1.he idea of an
Which element, A, B or C, is not present in the s1ar? expanding universe.
()2 An electron in a hydrogen a tom emits a photon as it drops from I.he • Undersiand Hubb le~
- 3.4 eV energy level 10 the - 13 .6 eV level. Calcula1e the frequency The Doppler effect law, v _. H,fl, for
of che emined photon. recedjng gal.a.xies.
You'll rui\<l! experienced the Doppler effect loads of Limes wi1h sound waves.
Imagine a police car driving past you. As it moves towards you its siren • Know 1hai the Hubble
Q3 An electron in an a tom absorbs a photon with a wavelength o f
sounds higher-pitched, but as it moves away, ils pitch is low·er. This change in constam, H"' can be
3.60 x 1 0 1 m, and moves 10 a - 2.00 eVenergy level. Find the measured in both
energy value of the original energy level of 1he electron. frequency and wavelength is called 1he Doppler effect kms·1Mpc·1 and s 1•
Q4 Laser ligh1with wavelength of 4.7 x 10 1 m is passed through a The frequency and 1he wavelength change because the waves bunch • Know 1.he Big
diffraction gra1ing. It produces an inlerfere nce pallern on a screen. togelher in front of the source and stretch out behind it The amount of Bang thco<y. and
The third order fringe of the diffraction panern is at an angle or stretching or bunching together depends on the speed of the source. understand that the
0.020 radians to the inciden1light Calculate the grating spadng of Sound waves vavc/Nng in Big Bang gave rise
the diffraction grating. Sound waves emitted a.t Sound waves uavelfing in the same direction as the 10 Lhe expansion of
the s.1100 wavelmgthl the opposite direaion w motion are 'bundted up'. spacc-1imc.

=~
lhemotionares~ • Understand how
lfrtt4.C3:1,Jii:?1Ji.l,p ,.lffl.,
. 111;;1••• m
•.,.,11..1_______ _
·l.:..t the existence
of microwave
Q l What is Lhe zero order maximum of an interference pattern produced background radiation

~o-
by a diffracLion grating? at a temperature

• •
or 2 .7 K provides
Q2 Why are speclra formed when white light passes through a diffraction experimema1 evKlencc
graling? for the Big Bang
QJ Whal is emiucd by an electron when it moves from a higher energy Slalionary car Moving car thooly.
level to a lower energy level? How does ils energy relate to the Specification
Rgure 1: The Doppler effect ofsound waves from a moving police car siren. Reference 5.5.3
energy change of the cleciron?
Q4 Why do abSO<ption lines only a ppear at particular wavelengths in the Doppler shift
spectra of stars? The Doppler effect happens with all waves, including eleclromagnctic
radiation. When a light source moves away from us, the wavelength of the
light reaching us becomes longer a nd the freque ncies become lower. This
shifls the light that we receive towards the red end of the electromagnclic
spectrum and is called a red shift.

•E·~flll Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Wf•A
Tip: Remember, rod
than 1he adual light emitted by the star.
light is the lowcs1
frequency of light in the
visible spcc1.rum.
Tip: It's important
10 realise 1.1\at the:
frequency of the source:
doesn'I change, jus1
lhe frequency of tho
radiation reaching us.
Tip: Blue light is at the
lighl from 1he slar undergoes a blue shift and looks bluer than il actually is.
higher frequency end
of 1.he visible spectrum.
In bill<! shifi, ligh1 gets
shunted towards (or
beyond) 1hc blue ond ol
1.he visible spectrum.
star is moving relative to us (either away from or towards us). The higher the
speed, the more the waves arc shifted.
You can quantify the amoun1 of Doppler shifl using the equation:
Tip: You can use any
units for v and c in this
equation, as long as tht.-y
are the: same.
Where:
Tip: This equation only
wor1cs when the speed of
Lhe source is much ICis
1han the speed of lighL
Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology
The light that we receive from a star moving a\vay from us is redder
Exarnples-f$rjilji fill
A star emitting light with a peak wa\'elength of 617 nm is moving
away from the Earth. When it is detected in the lab, this wavelength
OhSf..'fV(~rfrom
larth s~ light
~ of light is Doppler shifted by 5 nm. Calculate the speed at which the
willt a /onc•e:.y I'.... St;1r m ewing
star is receding from Earth.
\~,
~ = "¥sov = -¥xc
wavehm1:,>th "' ...... "' ' away from us
l11an that c..>mittt..>fl.
v= rl7 x (3.00 x 1O') = 2.431... x 10• i:is I
Figure 2: The red shift of fight cm;tted by a star mov;ng away from us. = 2.43 x 1O' ms- (10 3 sJ.l
The frequency of this wavelength of light is 4.86 x 1O" Hz. Calculate
When a lighl source moves towards us, the opposite happens. The the size of the Dopple.r shift in light of this frequency from the star.
o/-=-¥soM=£¥-xf
O/m:rverfmm ~ M= ;f, x (4.86 x 10 1
') = 3.938... x 10" Hz
fartb sees fight = 3.94 x 10" Hz (to 3 sJ.)
with a shorter
wavt~fength &. · ... '"·~· ..... ··:·
• Star m<JVtng
than that emitted. tcYWards us The expansion of the universe
Un1il 1he early 201h century, cosmologists believed 1ha1 the Universe
Figure J: The blue shift of fight en1iued try a star moving towards us. was infinite in both space and Lime (that is, it had always e xisted) and static.
This seemed the only way ii could be stable. This changed when Edwin
The amount of Doppler shifl (red or blue) depends on how fasl the Hubble realised thal the spectra from galaxies (apar1 from a few very close
ones) all show red shift - so they're all moving away from us. The amount
of galactic red shift gives the recessional velocity - how fast the galaxy is
moving away. Tip: Some nearby
ga1axit'S are moving
Ohsem~r •
frmn farth
@..
· ~· away/mmui;.
Swrmav;ns
Plotting recessional velocity againsl the d istance of the object from
1he Earth shows 1ha1they're proponional - i.e. the speed 1ha1 galaxies move
away from us depends on how far away they are. This suggests lhal the
tow'<lrds us due to
gravitational attraction.
The ligh1 from lhOS<!
universe is e xpanding, and gives rise to Hubble's law: galaxies shmvs blue
H• = Hubble constant shifl.
V-=tecessionafvelocity - - /' inkms 'Mpcr
inklns 1 v =- Hd
I\ star (~mitring 1he 0
Obs<:<V<Y , , . ... , ~ d = dist..1ncc i11 Mpc
f«xn f:.att.11 .'iMTJc wavc>Jength
radiatHN1 but movins
The ol&!rved wavekmslit away from us fa:su~r.
Since di-51ance is very d ifficult to measure, astronomers used 10
of light frr.Nn l1rc souu:e with d isagree greatly on the value of HIY wilh measuremenLc; ranging from 50 to
the higher w.Wxiry is longer, 100 kms-'Mpc 1• h's now generally accepted thal H0 lies between 65 and
.'>o the s.r-ar kKJk.s re:.Yl<k¥".
Tip: To ronvcn a value
80 kms- ' Mpc 1 a nd most agree it's a round the low to mid 70s. You'll be in kms 1Mpc·1 to s 1, first
given a value to use in the ex.am. The SI unil for H0 is s 1• To gel H,, in multiply i1 by 1OOO to
Figure 4: Red (or blue) shift increases with me velocity of the source. SI units, you need v in ms ' and din m. get it in units of
ms· 1Mpc 1• Then divide
Exan1ple -f$M!$1§1
5 ii by lh<> number ol
The Perseos Cluster is located at a distance of around 2.28 >< 1o:u m from meLres in an Mpc,
3.1x1011• This w ill give
Earth. Assuming that the Hubble constant is equal to 71.9 kms-1Mpc-',
you uni1sof ms 1m 1,
estimate the recessional velocity of the Perseus Cluster. 1
which is the same ass •
First convert H0 to s- 1:
Ll.A is the difference between the observed and emiued wavelengths, = =
H, 71.9 x 1000 71900 ms 'Mpc 1
and ..\ is 1he emitted wavelength, : 719()0 ~ 3.1 X 10": 2.319... X 10 1's I
Llf is the difference between the observed and emiued frequencies, Then p lug the values you're given in10 Hubble's l.aw:
and f is 1he emiued frequen<.y, V • H,d
= 2.319... x 10 "x 2.28 x 10"
vis the speed of the source relative lo the observer and
c is 1he speed of light = =
5.2881... x 10• ms 1 5.29 x 10• ms 1 (10 3 sJ.)
Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Wkt A

Tip: A dosed system
just means that energy
and fTIOCllef1tum are
conserved. If thcrC!-'s
only so much energy
in lhe universe, as it
expands, it must also be
cooling.
Tip: lflhc universe
began at a specific point
in time, i.e. with Lhc
Big Bang, then it lras a
finite age - see p.338.
Rgure 5: A WMAP image of
I.he CMBR. )bu can see that,
except 1<.>1 the red horizontal
band, which shO'tvs Milky
~v.iy omissions, the G\1BR
is mostly hornogeneous and
ismropic, but shows small
variaUoos.
•E·~IJMI Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology
The red shift of light from other galaxies isn't caused by them flying
away from us through space - they arc moving away from u.s because space
I Arf4, t3:1.. 11t:?1.t.l •PA"·!®"·~·l'!!!tfill!ll!." •"!i;;,,;:,;,- - - - -- -
itself is expanding. Since the universe is expand ing uniformly away from us it 0 1 The Antennae galaxies are a pair or colliding galaxies at a distance
seems as Lhough we're at the centre of the universe, but lhis is an illusion. of 1.4 x 10 7 pc from Earth. Calculate the recessional velocity of the
You would observe the same thing a1 any point in the universe. Antennae galaxies using H 0 = 70 kms-1 Mpc 1•
A good way to visualise this i-s to think of the universe as the surface Give your answer in ms 1 •
of a balloon with lots of dots on it, rep<csenting galaxies. As you blow up the Q2 The Whirlpool galaxy is receding from us a t a speed of 463 kms 1•
balloon, the space between all the galaxies (dots) gets bigger. Each galaxy A frequency or radiation emiued by atomic hydrogen has a
sees all the other galaxies moving away from it, even though il's not at the wavelength o f 0.211 m in the lab. The same radiation, when emitted
ccnlre or the motion. from the Whirlpool galaxy, is obse<ved to have been red shifted when
it is observed from Eanh. Calculate the change in the wavelength of
this radiation due to red shifL
The Big Bang theory
So the universe is expanding and cooling down {because it's a closed system).
So further back in time it must have been smaller, denser and hotter. If you
I µ;ra ca!c,JIC:t1 i{,]·fo .n;li
I ...ill.:itli'•'~-- 111111_ _ _ _ __ __
trace time back fa r enough, you get a Big Bang: Ql State the cosmo logical principle.
Q2 Explain how the Doppler effect makes police car sirens sound higher
Tur Big Bang lbeooc pitched as they travel towards us.
The universe staned off very hot and very dense (perhaps as an infinitely QJ What is red shift? What is blue shift?
hot~ infinitely dense singularity) and has been expanding ever since. Q4 Write down Hubble's law. Define all symbols used, and give the units
of each quantity.
According to the Big Bang theory, before the Big Bang, there was no QS What is the Big Bang theory?
space or Lime - space-time began \Vith the Big Bang, (when tin1e = O and Lhe Q6 Explain what cosmic micro\vave background radiation is.
radius o r lhe universe = 0) and has been expanding ever since.
There is a lol or evidence 10 suppon the Big Bang theory ior lhe
creation or lhe universe, such as the red shift of galaxies, and the existence of
the cosmic microwave background radiation.
Cosmic microwave background radiation
The Big Bang model predicts that loads of gamma radiation was produced
in the very early universe. This radia tion should still be observed tcxJay (it
hasn't had anywhere else to go). Because the universe has expanded, the
waveleng1hs of this cosmic background radia tion have been stretd1ed and are
no"' in the microwave region.
Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) was discovered
accidenrally by Pen7.ias and Wilson in the 1960s. In the late 1980s a satellite
called the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) was sent up to have a dc<ailed
look at the radiation. It round a continuous spectrum correspond ing to a
temperature of abou12.7 K. The radiation is largely the same everywhere
(homogeneous) a nd in all direclions (isotropic), in line with the cosmo logical
principle.
There a re very liny nuctuations in temperature, which were at the
limit o{ COBE's detection. These a re due to tiny energy-densiry variations in
the early universe, and a re needed for the initial 'seeding' or a star or galaxy
rormatjon.
The background radiation also shows a Doppler shift, indica1ing
the Earth's motion through space. It turns out that the Milky Way is rushing
to\vards a n unknown mass (the Great Attractor) a1over a million miles an
hour.
Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Wkf
 Leam ing Obj ectives: 7. The Evolution of the Universe During this period, the universe is a sea of quarks, antiqua ries,
leptons a nd photons. The quarks aren't bound up in particles like pr04ons
• Be able 10 estimate and neutrons, because there's too much energy around. At some point,
the age of the universe So ~ve have a preuy good idea of how the universe staned. But hmv we got
from there to our current sta.t c is another question. And there are slill a lot of mauer-.antimauer symmetry geLS broken, so slightly more matter is made
from Hubble's law,
using1 1e /-10 1• things we don't have a concrece answ·er for. than an1ima11er. Nobody knows exactly how or when this happened, bu1
mosl cosmologists like to put it as early as possible in the history of the
• Know hO\v the universe.
universe has C\'Oli.·c-xl
from the Big Bang to The age and size of the universe Once we reach 1O"" s after the Big Bang. we're a bil more confident
iis preS(l'..nt state. If lhe unfverse has been expand ing al the same rate for its whole life, with what went on.
• Knowsome !he age of the universe can be estimated by plugging Hubble's Law 1o-' seconds after the Big Bang - This corresponds 10 a temperature of
currem ideas aboul inlo velocity= distance-:-- time. This gives us the equation: about 1012 K. The unfverse is cool enough ior quarks 10 join up to form
cosmology, including particles like pr()(ons and neutrons. They can never exist separately again.
dark maucr and dark t=i~ ~ H0 1 Matter and antimatter annihilate each other, leaving a small excess of
energy. velocily matter and huge numbers of photons (resulting in the cosmic background
• Know that the radiation lhal we observe today).
universe is made up This is only an estimate, since the universe probably hasn'L always
of dark eneri,>y, dark been expanding at the same rate. And. unfortuna tely, since no one knows the Aboul 100 seconds after the Big Bang - Temperature has L'OOled to
mauer and a small exact value of H0 we can only guess the universe's age. 1O'J K. The universe is similar to the interior of a star. Protons a re cool
percent.age of ordinary enough to fuse to form helium nuclei.
matter. Example -f*tj!tjifllij About 300 OOO years afle.r the Big Bang - Tempera ture has c<>oled
Specificatio n If H0 = 72 kms-1 Mpc-1, calculate the age of the universe. to aboul 3000 K. The universe is <.'001enough for elecirons {Lhat were
Reference 5.5.3 produced in the first millisecond) to combine with helium and hydrogen
The Hubble constant ts in kms-1Mpc-1, bot you need il ins •
lo get the time in s. nuclei to form atoms. The universe becomes transparent since there are
Multiplying by 10-' gives it in ms 1Mpc 1• Then, since 1Mpc=3.1 x 10'' m, no free charges for Lhe photons to interad \vilh. This process is called
d ividing by 3.1 x 1O'' gives it in ms 'm ', which is just s 1• recombination.
72 kms 'Mpc 1 = (72 x 10 ') .- (3.1 x 10'') s 1 =2.3 ... x 10 ••s-> About 14 billion years after the Big Bang (now) - Temperature has
cooled 10 about 2.7 K. Slight density fl uctuations in the un iverse mean
1 thal, over time, clumps of matter have been condensed by gravity into
Soc ff H0 ' ~ l.3 ... x io 6 : 4.305 ... x l O"s galactic clusters, galaxies and individual stars.
= 43 1 x1017 s
= 14 billion years (to 2 s.f.). This covers the basic milestones that cosmologists think the universe
must have gone through in order 10 bcconle the universe \Ve see today. Bui
a lot of ii is slill a mystery~ We can't be iully certain abou1 the timing or
Tip: The universe is The absolute size of the universe is unknown but there is a limit on mechanism of a ny of this yet, as there are s1ill parts of the universe whose
bigger than this sphere:, the size of the observable universe. This is simply a sphere {with Lhe Earth al behaviour we don't understand. Chief among these unknown parts of the
but it isn't observable 10 its centre) with a radius equal to Lhe maximum discance tha1 light can travel universe are dark matter and dark energy.
us, because we can only during the universe's existence. So if H0 = 72 kms 'Mpc- 1 then this sphere
see light that has had will have a radius of 14 billion light years. Ho\vever, when scientists take into
1ime to traw.1to us. acmunt the expansion of the universe (p.335), they find that it is likely to be
more like 46-47 billion ligh1 }'Cars. Dark matter
In the 1930s, the Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwidcy calculated the
mass of a cluster of galaxies (the COMA cluster) based on the velocity of its
The history of the universe outer galaxies and compa red Lhis figure 10 the mass of the cluster as estima ted
Before 1o·"' seconds after the Big Bang. 1hts is mainly guesswork. There are from its luminosity. The mass calculated from the velocity was much bigger,
plenty of Lhcorics a round, bul no! much experimental evidence to back them suggesting there was 'extra' mass in the cluster that couldn'1be seen.
up. The general <.'Onsensu.s al the moment goes something like 1his: In the 1970s, Vera Rubin observed that stars al the edges of galaxies
Big Bang to 1o-" seconds - Well, it's anybody's guess, really. ·were moving faster than they should given Lhe mass a nd dislfibution of stars in
Al this son of size and energy, even general relaLjvily stops working the galaxy. For Nevvton's laws to hold, there needed to be extra matter in the
properly. This is lhe "infinitely hot, infinitely small, infini1ely dense" b it. galaxies that hadn't been accounied for. Figure 1: The asuonomer
\tlfa Rubin, whose disc.ovcry
From 1o-" seconds to 1o-' seconds after the Big Bang - Al the start These observa1ions suggest there is something exlra in the universe,
of the 'galaxy rotation
of this period, there's no distinction between differe nt types of force - giving mass to galaxies. thaf we can't see. fNoblem' revolutionised
I.here's just one grand unified force. Then the universe expands and cools, This Lhcoretical substance has been called 'dark matter' . modem asttonorny and
and the unified force splits into gravity, strong nuclear, weak nuclear and Astrophysicists now estimate Lhat there is about five times as much dark matter cosmology.
electromagnetic forces. 1'Aany cosmologists believe the universe wenl as ordinary matter in the universe, and that dark maner makes up about 25o/o
through a rapid period of expan sion called inflation at about 10.34 s. of the universe in total.

Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Wkc M

Rgure 2: Some equipment
being used in an experiment
thal aims to dc-uecr signs of
WIMP dark matter.
Tip: There has been
a lot of oontrwcrsy
surrounding dart: energy
in th<! astrophysics
community - nobody
reaHy knows whal i1is~
or if it's even 1hcre -
bu1 it is now generally
accepted Lhat it does
exist
:.1.1 Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology
What is dark matter?
Physicists doo't kno\v for su re wha t dark matter is yet But there are a number
o r theories about what it could be, a nd experiments are constantly being run
to test 1hem.
One explanation is that dark matter is Olade up or MACHOs (Massive
Compacl Halo Objects). These are objecl5 made of normal mauer in a very
dense form that don'I give off lighl and so are hard 10 detect. e.g. black holes
(p.323) and brown dwarfs (stars thal aren't massive enough for nuclear fusion
to 1akc placcl. Astronomers looking for evidence or these kinds of objecis
have had some success, but it's unlikely 1ha1 MACHOs made of nom1al
mauer account for all the dark matter in the universe, as this would require
more protons and neutrons lo exist than is compatible wi1h our current
understanding of the Big Bang.
Another idea is thal darl< ma tier is made of WIMl's (Weakly
lnterac1ing Massive ~~ rtic l es). These are exotic panicles 1hat don't interact
with the eleclromagne1ic force, but do inleracl with gravily. As yet, though,
no panicle like this has ever been detected, and WIMPs are c urrenlly purely
theoretical.
There's also the possibility 1ha1 dark mailer doesn't really exisi al all,
and is an illusion caused by mistakes in other theories. Bui mosl scienlists
agree that it is there, even ir we don't know what it is yet.
Dark energy
Everything in the universe is a uracled to everything else by gravity.
This means the expansion of the universe should be slo\ving down.
Historic.ally, astronomers debated whe1her this would slow the expansion of
the universe enough lo cause it lo conlracl back in on itself {in a so called
'Big Crunch'}, or if the universe \vould go on expanding forever.
In the la te 1990s, astronomers discovered something entirely
unexpected. Rather lhan slowing down, the expansion of lhe universe
appears to be accelerating. Astronomers are trying to explain this acceleration
using darl< energy - a 1ype of energy 1ha1 fills the whole of space.
There are various theories of what this dark energy is, but it's really
hard 10 lest them. So like dart< matter, it's currently a mystery.
Based on current observations, dark energy makes up about 70o/o
of the universe. As dark matler nlakes up another 25o/u, this means th at only
about 5% of lhe universe is made up or ordinary mauer. Or to pu1 it another
way, we have very little idea what 95% of the universe is made up of.
Qt A student uses the equation l ~ H0 1 to calculate thal the universe is
approximately 13.7 billion years old.
a) Calculate the value ol H 0 used to calculate this age of the
universe. Give your answer in kms-'Mpc 1•
b) State I.he assumption that the student must have made to make this
c..ala.ilation.
I Arf4, t3:1 .. 11t:?1.t.l .µ 1.1:F.f.11ii
.iliili1111:i.i<.:f~!¥.o;...,111
11_ _ _ _ __ __
01 How can we estimate the age or the universe from the Hubble
constant?
Q2 Why can't we measure the absolute size of the universe?
Q3 State I.he temperature of the universe a nd describe one change
happening in it a1 each of 1he following limes after 1he Big Bang:
al 1o•s
bJ 300 OOO years
c) 14 b illion years
Q4 State two observalioos which could be explained by the exisience of
darl< mauer.
QS Whal does the acronym MACHO stand for?
Q6 Whal does the acronym WIMP stand for?
Q7 Whal observations might darl< energy explain? _J
Section Summary -
Make sure you know...
Whal is meanl by lhc universe, a galaxy, a solar syslenl, a planet, a planetary satellite and a comel
Ho\v to use d istances measured in astronomical unilS (AU), parsecs (pc) and light years Uy).
Thal stella r parallax is used lo measure d istances to nearby stars due to their apparent mocion in the
night sky against the distanl backgroond as the Eanh orbiis 1he Sun.
How to use the equa1ion p = ~ to make calcu(a1ions of parallax angle and disiancc,
Ho\v stars are formed from incerstellar dusl and gas drawn logether by gravily.
That stars are kept stable by a balance bet\veen OUl\Vards pressure (from radiation and gas) and
gravitational attraction.
The evolutionary stages of a low-mass star like our Sun, including the terms red gianl star, white
dwarf Siar and planetary nebula.
That a star may only form a white dw.uf s.lar if the mass or the star's core is less than the
Chandrasekhar limil (approximately 1.4 solar masses).
Thal a \vhite dwarf star is prevented from collapsing in on itself by the electron degeneracy pressure
\vithin the star.
The evolutionary stages of stars much more massive than the Sun, including the terms red super giant
and supernova, and that lhe star will become either a neutron star or a black hole.
Thal a neutron slar is a n incr<xlibly dense, very small star which rotates very fasl, a nd emils beams of
radio waves.
Thal a black ho le is an infinitely dense point, \Vith such a strong gravilational field that past a certain
poinl in 1he field the esope velocity exceeds 1hc speed of light.
Tha t Wien's displacement law states that >._ u ~,and how to use this to estima1e lhe peak surface
temperature of a star.
Thal the luminosity of a star is a measure of the tmal energy il emits per second and is given by
Stefan's law, L = 41rfo P , where n is Stefan's constant
'---------------------------------cont. .
Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology W!'
 How to use \iVien's d isplacement law a nd Stefan's law to estimale the radius of a ~ar.

That the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram is a luminosity-temperature plot of a range of stars. Exam-style Questions I
That there are d istinct areas on the HR diagram which correspond to main sequence stars, red gianl
stars, super red giant slars and white dwarf ~ars.
How a transmission d iffraction graling can be used to de termine the wavelength of light
That the fringes of the interference pattern produced by a diffraction grating are defined by the A star is reaching the end of the red giant stage of its life. The core of the star
has a mass of 2.17 x 10" kg. Given that the mass of the Sun is 1.99 • 1()30 kg,
equation dsin O= n>...
what is the next stage in this star's l~e cycle?
That electrons in isolated gas atoms exist in distinct e nergy levels.
That electron energy levels are considered to have negative energy values. A neutron star
That electrons can emit and absorb photons with specific energies by moving between discrete B super red giant
energy levels and ho\v this gives rise to I ine emission spectra and line absorption spectra. C white dwarf
That I.he energy change in an atomic electron is related to the frequency and wavelength of the
D black hole
emitted/absorbed photon by the equations t:>E= hfand t:>E =bf. ( 1 mark)
That the fac1thal different elements prcxlucc unique spectral lines in emission and absorption spectra
allo\VS us to use a nalysis of spectra to identify elements present in stars.
That the cosmological principle states that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic, and that the
laws o f physics arc the same everywhere in lhe universe.
That the Doppler effoct is a change in perceived frequency (and so wavelength) of a wave due to the 2 As a main sequence star evolves into a red giant star. it goes through four phases of
relative motioo between the source and the observer. nuclear fusion:
That the Doppler effect o f electromagnetic w-aves can r<.--sult in red shift or b lue shit't 1 shell helium fusion
2 core hydrogen fusion
That the observed Doppler shift of an electromagnetic wave can be quantified using lhe Doppler
3 core helium fusion
equation ¥ lij
~ ~ ~· where vis the speed of the source relative to the observer. 4 shell hydrogen fusion
That l igh1from nearly all other galaxies is observed to have been red shifted, indicating that galaxies Which is tile correct order in which these phases of fusion begin?
are moving away from each other, and that this supports the idea of an expanding univef1;e.
A 4, 2. 3, 1
That Hubble's law sta1es that the funher away a galaxy is, the faster it is receding, and is expressed as
v "' H0 d, where H0 i-s the Hubble constant B 3, 1,2,4
That the Hubble constant is a measure of the rate of expansion of the universe, a nd can be measured c 2. 3, 4, 1
in either kms ' Mpc 1 ors 1•
That the Big Bang theory states that the univer.;e started off very hot and very dense and has bt.>en D 2, 4. 3, 1
expanding ever since. ( 1 mark)
That the Btg Bang gave rise to the e xpansion o f space-time.
That the cosmic microwave background radiation is a continuous spectrum of EM rad iation
corresponding to a temperature of 2.7 K thal pervades throughout the universe a nd how this is
evidence in support of the Big Bang theory. 3 An electron in a hydrogen atom is in the -13.6 eV energy level. It absorbs
That the age of the universe can be estimated using the Hubble constant with the equation l ~ H 0 1• a photon with frequency 3.151 x 10" Hz, and moves to a higher energy level.
How the universe has evolved from lhe Big Bang to its present state. What is the energy value of this energy level?
That dart< ma ucr is a theoretical form of matter 1hat cannot be seen directly, but which could exp lain A 13.1 eV
inconsistencies between 1he velocities of galaxies in d usters_, or of stars in galaxies, and their apparen1
masses. B --0.54 eV
That dari< e nergy is a theoretical type of energy thal fills the universe, and drives the accelerated C -26.6 eV
expansion of the universe. D 13.6 eV
That the universe appears to be made up of dark energy, dark matter, and a small percentage of ( 1 mark)
ordinary, observable matter.

•E!lflll Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology
 4 Fig. 4.1 shows a set of axes for a Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram. 6 The static theory of the universe states that the universe is infinite in both space and
time and it has always been that way. This theory is now widely discredited in favour
Fig. 4.1 of the Big Bang theory.
(a) Describe how the universe began according to the Big Bang theory.
(1 mark)
Hubble observed that the recessional velocity of distant objects was proportional to
their distance from Earth. This observation led to Hubble's law:
v : H0d
(b) Explain how Hubble's law supports the Big Bang theory.
(1 mark)
(c) Assuming that H0 = 65 kms-'Mpc-'. estimate the age of the universe
in years using Hubble's law. (1 Mpc = 3.1 x 10"' m)
(3 marks)
55 OOO K Temperature (non-linear scale) 250 K ° (d) Red-shift data is only one piece of evidence supporting the Big Bang theory.
Describe another piece of evidence that supports the Big Bang theory
and explain how it supports the theory.
(a) Copy and oomplete the diagram. marking the main sequence stars,
whtte dwarfs, red giants and super red giants. (2 marks)
(3 marks)
(b) Star X has a surface temperature of around 39 OOO Kand a luminosity of
200 OOO solar luminosity units. Mark the position of Star X on your HR diagram.
7 A scientist is analysing the light from stars using diffraction gratings.
(1 mark)
(a) The scientist passes the light produced by a heated sample of hydrogen gas through
Tile mass of Star X is around 35 times that of the Sun.
a diffraction grating with a slit separation of 5.4 x 1Q-& m. She uses the second order
It will eventually beoome a black hole. fringe to produce an emission line spectrum of hydrogen. One of the lines from the
(c) Explain how Star X will evolve from its red super giant phase to become a black hole. emission spectrum makes an angle of 0.18 radians to the incident light.
(3 marks) Calculate the wavelength of the light which produced this line.
(2 marks)
(b) Calculate the energy carried by a photon of light with this wavelength.
5 Mu Cephei is a red super giant star in the constellation Cepheus. Give your answer in eV.
Anatysis of the radiation emitted by Mu Cephei gives the
(3 marks)
value of Its peak wavelength as ~- = 828.6 nm.
(a) Given that the Sun has a surface temperature of 5800 Kand a peak wavelength of (C) The scientist passes light from the Sun through the same diffraction grating.
approximatety 500.0 nm. estimate the surface temperature of Mu Cephei in kelvin. When she analyses the spectrum produced by this. she notices dark lines
in the spectrum that match the emission lines produced by hydrogen.
(2 marks)
Explain why this indicates that hydrogen is present in the Sun.
A scientist measures the luminosity of Mu Cephei as 1.083 x 10" W. (3 marks)
(b) Estimate the radius of Mu Cephei in metres. (d) The scientist compares this spectrum Fig. 7.1
(2 marks) from the Sun to one from a distant galaxy.
(c) The scientist measures the angle of parallax of Mu Cephei Parts of these spectra are shown in Fig. 7.1 . Sun I I
as 5.5 x 1CJ-' arcseconds to the Earth. The dark line corresponding to the hydrogen line
from part (a) in the galaxy's spectrum is displaced
AA=0.01~nm
Calculate the distance to Mu Cephei in light years.
(3 marks) towards the red end of the spectrum by an amount
equal to a change in wavelength of 0.019 nm.
I ___,I.__ _.
galaxy ...
(d) Mu Cephei is near the end of its l~e. tt will soon explode in a supernova.
Using your answer to part (a). calculate the recessional velocity of the galaxy.
Describe what occurs when a star explodes in a supernova.
(2 marks)
(2 marks)

•E!~tJll Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology Module 5: Section 4 Astrophysics and Cosmology
 Capaci1ance is measured in farads. 1 farad (F) is equal to 1 coulomb
Module 6 Section 1: Capacitors per volt (CV 1}. This is a huge amount of capacitance, so you'll usually see
capacitances given in microfarads, •lF (1 x 1o• F), nanofarads, nF (1 x 1O' F),
or piL-ofarads, pf (1 x 1O " H.

learning Objectives: 1. Capacitors Example -f$tj!lj! fl1d

• Know what is
A 100 µ F capacitor is charged to a potential difference of 12 V.
meam by Lile term Capacitors are devices that can score up charge .1nd energy. Tiie capacitance How much charge is stored by the capacitor!
'capacitance'. of a capacitor tells you how much charge ii can hold. Almosl all electrical C = ~ sobyrearranging.Q:Cx V: (lOO x 10 •) x 12 = 1.2 x 10 •c
• Be able to calculate products will contain one somewhere...
capacitance using the
equation C = i:?· What is a capacitor?
• Know that the unil
Capacitors arc electrical componenlS that can store electrical charge.
of capacitance is lhe
farad, F. They are made up of lwo electrical conducting plates separated by a gap or Charging and discharging
a dielectric (an electrically insulating material). The circuit symbol is two When a capacilor is connocled lo a d .c. power supply (e.g. a battery),
• Understand how
capacitors are charged
parallel lines - see Figure 1. a current flows in lhe circuit until the capacitor is fully charged, then slops.
and disdlargP.d, in The electrons flow from the negative terminal of the supply onto the
terms or electron llow. plate connected to it, so a negative charge builds up on that plate.
• Understand a At the same time. electrons flo\v from the other plate to the posi1ive
p.d.-chargo graph of a
capacimr. terminal of the supply, making lhat plate positive. These electrons a re repelled
Figure 1: Circuit by the negative charge on the negative plate and attracted to the posrtive
• Know that the area Figure 3: A disa.'5ef1Jblt'<i
symbol fot a apacitof. lcrminal of the supply.
under a p.d.-<:hargc capacitor, showing two
graph gives the energy The same number of electrons are repelled from the positive plate as s/K!Cts of aluminium foil wilh
When a capacitor is connected to a direct current (d.c.) power a re built up on the negative plate. This means an equal but opposite charge
stored by a capaci1or. paper betwt'en them. Jhe
• Be able to calculate
source, charge builds up on iLS plates - one plate becomes negalively builds up on t>.ach plate, causing the potential difference between the plates. !oil and paper am rolled up
charged and one becomes positively charged (there's more on this on the next like a big Swiss roll.
lhe o.oorgy $tOrl'<I by
page). The plates a rc separated by an elcclrical insulalor (which could jusl
a cap~citor usi ~ the
equa11ons: v.1--'lov, be air), so no charge can move between them. This means that a potential olecrrons na.v to the r G!ll r e/ecuons_ na.v from

--~c ~-o·~,
difference builds up between the plates of the capacitor. This creates a
IV ~ .w; and IV ~~V'C

·=~: : ~~t~,...
uniform electric field (p.372) between the two plates - see Figure 2. Tip: You can make your

v~-"~
• Know some uses of own simple capacitor
using lWO pieces of
capacitors for storing
onorgy.
I aluminium separated by
Specification
References 6.1.1
and 6.1.2
l_:_I If \ 1
a pi<>ce or paper.

e/ecuoo flow cause; plam 10

I
\_ become negatively charged
un;form
become positively charged c.apadtor
v.'ire ek.•ctrit: fw.ld
Rgure 4: Flow of electtons as a capadtor charges.
Figure 2: The uniform electric field formed between the plates ofa capacitor.

The ability of a capacitor to store charge is measured by its capacitance.
Tip: In the capacitance
equation, Q is 1.hc
charge s1ored on each
capacitor pla1e - 1hc
charge is just negative
on one plam and
positive on the 01.hcr.
Initially the current through the circuit is high. But, as charge builds
up on the plates, electrostatic repulsion makes it harder and harder for more
electrons to be deposited. When the p.d. across the capacitor is equal to the
The capacitance of a capacilor is lhe amounl of charge it
p.d . across lhc supply, lhc current falls 10 zero. The capaciior is fully charged. Tip: Afmr removing the
is able lo sLore per unit potenLial differe nce (p.d.) across iL
If the source of e.m.f. (in this case, a cell) is removed, and the circuit power supply, you need
is reconnected withouL it, Lhe capacitor will begin to discharge. The capacitor to reconnect lhe circuit
/ " Q = charge (in 0 then becomes the circuit's source of e.m.f. A current nows around the circuit to discharge a capacitor.
in the opposite direction 10 the charging current, as the electrons from the ir the <:apacitor isn't
C = capacira"°" (in FJ - C= ~ negalively charged plale drifl lowards the positively charged plale through lhe connected in a fu ll
circui1 ii will hold its
circuit
'....._ V = potential difference an VJ char~>e.

•E:~!lMI Module 6: Section 1 capacitors Module 6: Section 1 capacitors @1.f


Figure S: Storm clouds store
rrtassivc amoums of enCYgy
- forming /luge natural
capacitor plates. Particle
collisions cause elecuons to
be knocked off atoms, g;ving
Ille /Jott001 of rhe cloud
a char~. niis induces a
charge in lhe surface of the
Earth. The air in ben-.i.:en
aclS as the dielecuic, and if
the potential difference getS
big enough, the die/ecuic
breaks down and lightning
boles travel between the
cloud and rhe £a11J1.
•E:~!·J
· •I Module 6: Section 1 capacitors
Initially, the current is high, due to the strong forces between charges. ';:.. v ....................... .
There is a strong force of repulsion between the elecLrons on the negalivc
plate, which pushes lhem away from 1he negative plate. There fs also a strong
force of auraction from the posi1ive pla1c, pulling elec1rons through the circuit
towards the positive plate. But as the electrons reach the positive plate, the
potential difference decreases, and so the current decreases. The capacitor is w
completely discharged when the potential d ifference between the plates, a nd
so the charge on each plate, becomes zero. Q
charscl C
Rgure 7: A plot ofpotential difference against cllarge stored for a capacitor.
Energy stored by capacitors The shadt.?d area gives lire energy stOfed by the c,apadtor. Exam Tip
Remember that \Ytren a capacitor charges, one plate becomes negatively This formula is given in
charged while the other becomes positively charged. like charges repel, so The e nergy stored is given by the yellow triangle. The a rea of a triangle the data and formulae
when each plate of a capacitor becomes charged, the charges on that plate is equal lo •/ , x base x height, so the energy stored by the capacitor is: booltlct, but yoo l1<?C<l
are being forced together 'against their will'. This requires e nergy, which is to understand where
V = potential difference it comes from -
supplied by lhe po\ver source and stored as eleciric potential energy for as
long as the charges a re held. When the charges are released, the electric \11 = enet?Y Stored - w = 1QV / actoss capacilOf (in V) remember i1"s 1he area
/Jy CJpi1C//Of (In/) 2 -- unoor a V-Q sraph.
potential e nergy is released.
Q = chatge oo capaciwr (in CJ
Deriving the energy-stored equations
You can find the energy stored by a capacitor by using the graph of potential Example --f.'1
Mlli. .fllfi
difference against charge for the capacitor (.see Figure 6). A capacitor is fully charged to a potential difference of 12 V. When it is
The p.d. across a capacitor, of capacilance C, is directly proportional lully charged, it stores 0.1 S C of charge. Calculate the energy stored by iL
to the charge slored on i1, so the graph is a straight line through the origin W: !OV= ~ x0.15x 12 = 0.9 )
(since C = ~'page 346).
Consider a tiny increase in the c harge on the plates during the Using the capaci1ance equation C = ~ , you can derive t\vo
charging process. The electric potential energy stored is lhe work done to
more equations for lhe energy slored by a c:apacilOr. Simply rewangc lhe
move the extra charge onto the pla1cs against 1he potenti.al d ifference across capacitance equation for Q a nd V, and substitute them into the energy
the plates, given by W = VQ (Jrom Module 4: Section 1). let the small charge equation:
being moved be q. The average p.d. over 1hat step is v. So in that small step,
the energy stored is W = qv, which is given by the area of the red rectangle UsingQ:CV: Using V= ~:
in Figure 6. The a rea of 1he green trapezium in Figure 6 fs the area under the
graph over the charge d ifference q, and it is the same as the area of the red W= jV'C W= ¥t Rgure 8: Benjamin franklin
rectangle.
was one of the lirsi people
w store c/ecuicJJ C?netgy, in
Exan1ples -i$§ir$ i§ld the mid 1100s. He invm1ed
what he called a 'bauery'
A 900 µF capacitor is charged up to a potential difference of 240 V. by grouping wgelhef
Calculate the energy stored by the capacitor. many lt!yclcn jats (simple
capacitors).
Firsl, choose the best equation to use
- you've been given V and C, so you need W = ~ V'C.
Substi1ute the values in:
W = {V'C = { x 240' x(900 x lo ') = 25.9 )(to3s.f.)
'I char1;e IC
When capacitor X is fully charged, it stores 63 n1C of charge and
Figure 6: A potemial diffi~rence-c.harge graph showing lhe energy stored 1S I of electrical energy. Calculate the capacitance of capacitor X.
by a small increase in charge on the plaw:s ofa capacitor. You've been given Wand (2, and need to find C, so use the equation:
The total energy stored by the capacitor is the sum of all 1he energies W={ft
stored in each small step increase in charge, un1il 1he capacitor is fully Rearrange for C, and subs1itute in the values given:
charged. So it's just the a rea under the graph of p.d. against charge. Q' (63x104 1
C=i'W x1 =l.323xl O'F =l301d'(to2s.f.)
2 5
Module 6: Section 1 capacitors WI.GM
 Uses of capacitors
Capacitors are found in loads of electronic devices. They don't
@"""~
2. Capacitors in Circuits Learning Objectives:
• Know 1.hat Lile total
store much charge, so can't replace ba ueries, but lhey can discharge Capadtors are really useful in circuilS, buL the effect they have in the circuit capacitance of two
quid<er than batleries, which ma kes them very useful. What's more, the depends on hoiv r11ey are connected. You'll get a larger total capacitance or more capacitors in
amounl of charge that can be stored and I.he rate at which i1's relr-..ascd can be ~vhen thet're connected in parallel than \Vhen lhcy're in series.. parallel is given by:
controlled by selecting d ifferent 1ypes of capacitor. Some uses for them are: c:,
c = c, + + ...
Flash photography - when you lake a pic1Ure, 1he capacitor has Lo • Know tllat the tocal
d ischarge really quickly to give a short pulse o f high currenl to create Capacitors in parallel capacitance ol two
Figure 9: Some touch a brief, bright flas h. If you connect two or more capaci1ors in parallel wilh each <Nher, the or more capaci1ors in
screens use capaci1ms. The potential d ifference across each one is the same. So eadl capacil0< can series is gi\'cn by:
Back-up power supplies - these often use lots of large capacitors that I I 1
scrcrn contains a fa)'C't of can release charge for a short period if the power supply goes off - store the same amount of charge as it would if it was the only capacitor in (' - ~ + c, ·I
capacitive material tha1 holds the circuit. The total charge s.lored in the circuit is split between 1he t\VO • Be ablo 10 analyse
e.g. fOf keeping computer systems running if there's a brief power ou1age.
an elecuical charge. Since capacitors, since the charges can take either path.
Smoothing ou1 p.d. - when convening a n a.c. power supply 10 d.c. circuits containing
your body is an eJP.c:rrical
capacitors.
conductor, when your finger power, capacitors charge up during the peaks and disdlarge during
ioudH?S r/M? capacitive ktyt-Y, the troughs, helping to maintain a constant output. • Understand
i1 changes rJ1e charge at that techniques and
specific point, so the tooch procedures used 10
screm can 111vrk out exactly investigate capacitors
where you made conract. in bolh series and
Q l A 0.1 O F capacitor is used in a circuit as a back-up in case of a short parallel combinations
interruption in the mains power supply. The p.d. supplied to lhe using ammeters and
circuit is 230 V. Hmv much charge can the capadt()( store? vohmet1!15 (PAG9).
Figure 1: An ex.1mple ofa circuit Specification
Q2 A 40 mf capacilor is connecled 10 a 230 V power source. When fully
conJ.aining capacitors connected in parallel Reference 6.1.1
charged, how much energy will be stored by the capacitor?
Q 3 Expl<Jin why a capacilor wo uld not be a good source o f powe r for a So Lhe total capacitance of I.he circuit, C0 ;i1 is equal to:
portable media player.
Q 4 A capacilor is charged wilh 2.25 mC of charge. h slores 1.30 J o f c... ~ ~
energy while ho ld ing 1his charge. Calcula te its capaci1ancc.
=> C,..i = ¥
1:tm;.tS:l•tll:?itt.1.µ itmlti:Ifill => Cou1 =~ r ~
Q l Write d own the definitio n o f capacitance. => c._, =-Ca+ C,
Q2 Explain how a charge builds up on each plate of a capacitor when ii
is connected in a circ uit. So the total capacitance is just the sum of the individual capaci1ances:
Q3 How would you find the e nergy slored in a capaci1or from a graph of
p<nential difference againscc harge? c,cu1-= c, + c,+ ...
Q4 Wrile down lhree equations that can be used 10 calculale the energy
siored in a capacilor. Define all symbofs used. Examples--lf,§ilj"§iij
The total capacitance of the circuit shown below is 27 µ.f.
Calculate the capacitance or capacitor x.

x_L I I
Tyy
C""' = C, + C, + C,, so C, = c... - (C, + C).
= =
So, C,. 27 - (8 + 9) I o 11.F
A 12 µF capacitor is connected in parallel with the other capacitors
in the circuit above. Calculate the new total capacitance.
Ceca:i1 = C1 + C, + C1 + C,. = 27 + 12 =- 391.iF

•Ef~j~··· Module 6: Section 1 capacitors Module 6: Section 1 capacitors Wfi


Figure J: The red part of the
drcuit is disconnec1ed frotn
the resr of the drcuil by the
die/ecuics. so tlte drarge
can;r leave it.
Tip: You'll have met
series and parallel
relations like this
in Modu le 4 with
resi:stors. Don't get Lhem
confused though - 10tal
capacitance is bigger
when components arc
connected in parallel
lhan in series, while
1oial resiscanc:e is Lile
opposite.
Tip: You could be asked
10 sotve circuit problems
using the <!qUations ror
bolh series and parallel
capacitors. They'll
work for any number ot
capacitors.
•Ef~fl'I Module 6: Section 1 capacitors
Capacitors in series
When you connect capacitors in series, like in Figure 2, the po«cntial
difference is shared between them, but each capacitor stores the same charge.
Investigating capacitors in series
and in parallel
(= 9 ] Tip: Remember to carry
001 a risk assessment
before you start any
j
You can investigate the propef1ies or capacilots in series and in parallel experiment
ror yourself. Start by setting up the circuit shown in Figure 4, using three
identical capacitors.
111----'
Figure 1: M example ofa circuit
containing capa<:it0<s conncaod in series.
This is because, as a negative charge builds up on the left plate or
capacitor C,, an equal positive charge builds up on the right plate of c,.
This causes a negative charge to build up on tbe left p late of C, that is equal
in size to the charge on the right plate of C,. This happens because these
l\<\'O plates are disconnected from the rest of lhe circuit (see Figure 3), so the figure 4: An ex<1mple of a circuit thai can be used
electrons repelled from the right plate of C, have to end up on the left plate of to investigate capadtance in seties.
C,. This then produces an equal positive charge on the right plate of C,. All
the plates have 1he same charge, so each capacitor stores the same charge. 1. Set the variable resistor to a fairly high resistance value and record it,
So I.he tmal capacitance of the circ uit is: making sure there is plenty or room for you to decrease the resistance
during the experiment.
2. Close the switch. The capacitors will begin charging.
Record the initial value of the current in the circuit.
3. The data logger connected to the voltme1er can be used to record the
potential difference over time. Constantly adjust !he variable resistor to
keep lhe charging current constant for as long as you can (it1 ll be almost
impossible when the capacitor is nearly fully charged).
4. Once the capacitors a re fully charged (wben the current drops to zero),
open the swilch.
This means that you can find the total capacitance of capacitors connected in
Next, set up the circ uit shown in Figure 5, using anothe r three capacitors, Tip: You could
series using: identical to the first 1h ree. use the same three
capacitors from the first
experiment, bm if )'OU
do, make sure Liley have
all been fully disdlargcd
before you sta.n 1h is
Example --f$tjilj...zjfj C,
experiment
The diagram on the right shows
~H~H5
.l circuit contlining capacitors.
Calculate the total capacitance
of the circuit.
Figure S: An example of a circuit that can be used
I 1 1 1 . to investigate capadtanc:e in parallel.
c:; = c, +L, I L; J- .... so. 12 V
2:=11 1+11l =~ Repeal steps 1-4 for this circuil (making sure the variable resistor
slarts al the same resistance as it did for Lhe first experiment).
so C""" =j =0 .666... =0.67 1•F (to 2 s.f.) Once you have results for bo1h circuits, p lot a graph of currenl
againsl lime for each circuit. Use the const:anl value of current you kept
the circuit at, and use lhe lime value measured by the data logger when the
c urrent dropped to zero (the capacitors reached full charge).
Module 6: Section 1 capacitors •B·A
 Assuming each of your identical capacitors has a capacitance C a nd
could s1ore a maximum charge of Q, if they were the only capacitor in the I Arf4,tq:l•lil:?1.t.l •P Olii·ilf®.:.•u•11il$w.;·1i,.1•oi.l ij1. 1i'L'--------
circuit, your results should look something like those in Figure 6. o1 Two ide ntic.al capacitors a re connected in series in a c ircuit. II takes
2 minutes for !hem to become fully charged when !hey are supplied
uirrent I µA ':um-•11t I µJ\
with a const-ant curren t. Given thal one of the capacitors connected
on its own in the same circuit can slore a charge of 1.2 x 1Q...l C~
calculate the current used 10 charge the l\VO capacitors.
Q2 The diagram below shows the graph or charge against p.d. for a
number of identical capacitors connected in parallel in a circuit
parallel The capacitance of one of these capacitors is 1.5 x 1o-..t- F.
Q,
area = -
3

time ls

Figure 6: The rorreru..Umc graphs of three capadtotS connected in series (left)

and in parallel !right).

The a rea beneath a currenl-time graph is equal lo Ix .6t = .6Q, so

the area gives the total charge stored by the capacitors.
You can a lso plot a graph of c harge against potential difference p.d. /V
(or each circuit. Calculate the charge stored by the capacitors at each time
reading taken by !he data logger, using the equation Ll.Q = /!;.t. Your gra phs a) Calculate the total capacitance of the c ircuiL
should look something like those in Figure 8. b) How many capacitors were connected in the circuit?
The graphs are straight lines through the origin, so the gradienl or
!he graphs is equal to charge divided by potential difference at any point on
the line. So the gradient gives the total capacitance or the capacitors in the
1Qrt9H3:i•lli:(1U.l.f tt;l;i:Ifill
circuit. You should see that the gradient of your graph gives lhe same answer Ql Write down !he formula you would use !O find the total capacitance
for the total capacitance of your circuit as the equations on pages 351-352. of a circ uit conta ining a number or capacitors connected in series.
Q2 What value is given by the gradien! of a straight line graph of charge

Rgure 7: Some digiial

v -.
gr.ad.'JCOI - 30 3C against potential difference across a set of capacitors?

mul1imeters can be used

w measure capadtance
direedy.

potr.nlial diffc.vcnc.-e I V

Figure 8: A graph for cha1gc s!Ofod against p .d. for three capa<:ilOfs connected
in series and in parallel. rite gradient of the graph gives the total capacitance.

f!' Module 6: Section 1 capacitors Module 6: Section 1 capacitors Wf} A

 Leam ing Obj ectives:
• Understand the
effect or dlarging
and discharging a
capaci10< through a
resistor.
• Understand
1.edmiques and
procedures to
inves1igate lhe charge
and discharge o f a
capacitor using bolh
rooters and data
loggro (PAG9).
• Understand graphical
methods and
spreadsheet modelling
of the equation
ll.Q Q measummenis.
Tr = -rn fora
discharging capaci1or.
Specificatio n
Reference 6.1.3
Tip: As always, be
sure to carry out a
risk assessment before
you start any o f 1hc
invl!S1iga1ions in this
section.
Tip: Data Joggers
can be connected 10 a
computer whidl will
collect all your data for
you and plot all sons of
graphs of il
Tip: In Figure 2, 10 is
the initial cu11ent in
Lile circuit V0 and Oo
are the p.d. across and
charge stored by the
capacitor when it is fully
charged.
Tip: Current is the
odd one out here -
whik!. everything else
increases, cu.rrent
decreases as time
passes. j Figure 2: Graphs to show charging current against time (left); pot<.vw·a1
f!fl Module 6: Section 1 capacitors
3. Investigating Charging and
Discharging Capacitors
As SOCH'l as lhe switch is closed, a curren1 starts to flow. The potential
difference across lhe capacitor is zero al first, so there is no p.d. opposing
lhe current The potential difference of the power supply causes an initial
Tip: Remember, V = IR
sol= VIR.
I
relatively high currem of~ Lo flow (where V is 1he voltage of the power supply
Charging or disch<Jrging a capacitor ;through' a fixed resistor makes il easier a nd R is the resistan ce of the resistor).
As the capacitor charges, the p.d. across the capacilor gets bigger, the
Tip: You could also
to investigate.
do these experimcntS
p.d. across the resistor gets smaller, and the current drops. The charge (Q) on WilhoUI lhe data togger,
Investigating charging a capacitor lhe capacitor is proportional to lhe potenlial difference across i1, so the Q -1 by manually taking
As you'll have seen when trying lo keep the current constant graph is the same shape as the V-t graph. readings from I.he
ammeter and vohmcter
in the experiment on page 353, capacilors have an effect on the properties or a
at fixed 1imc intervals.
circuit (e.g. current in lhe circuit, potential difference across olher components,
elc). You need lo know· ho\\' to measure these effects, and explain how the
Investigating discharging a capacitor But you'll noed m use
You can carry oul a similar experimenl to investigate a discharging a flXed resismr with a
capacilor causes lhem.
capacitor. Simply open the switch, remove the power supply, u••<rt<M. ) very high resistance to
/\capacitor can charge (and discharge) fairly quickly, m<tking the
process difficult lo investigate. Includ ing a fixed resistor in ~·our test circuit
a nd then reconnecl the circuit as shown in Figure 3. =:"' 9 make sure Lhe c.apaci1or
charges and disdlargcs
and charging the capacilor 'through' the resislor is a good idea. The resistance slowly enough lor
in the circuit will slo\v down the rate at which lhe capacitor charges or you 10 take enough
discharges, whic.il makes the process much easier to inves1igate.
To investigate a charging capacitor, set up the test circuit in Figure 1.
lligh
re.'ib.·tancc
resistcK
Figure 4: Some capacitcm
ntust be connecmd the righi
Rgure J: A tl!SI circuit wltich CJn Ix! used
way round in the circuit. Jn
to investigate a drcuit containing a discharging ap;1eitor.
lhis phrno, the strip of minus
Tu Close the switch lo allo\V the capacilor lo begin discharging. signs indicatcS which pin
computer Let lhe capacilordischarge whilst lhe data logger records polential should be connected to the
negatJVe tetminal.
difference and c urrent over time.
Rgure 1: A test circuit which c.an be used When lhe currenl through lhe amme1er and the potemial difference Tip: V is proponiona I
to investig11re a drcuit containing a charging capadtor. across the plates fall lo zero, the capacitor is fully discharged. to Q <see page 34G), so
you always get 1.he same
You can once more ploc graphs of p.d .• charge and current against time
Close the swilch to allow the capacitor to begin charging. {see Figure 5). shape graph whether
Lei the capacilOf charge whilst the data logger records both the p.d. you use V or Q on the
venical axis.
(from the vohmeler) a nd the current {from the ammeter) over tinle.
~L:L~L
\!\!hen 1he currenl through the anlmeter is 0, lhe capacitor is fully charged.
Tip: Depending on
You can then use a computer lo plot a graph of curren~ p.d. or charge
your apparatus, you may
against Lime (remember Ll.Q = Ill.I) - see Figure 2.
r
S"' graphs like this:
1c
~L:·t=
0 t 0 t 0 t
Figure S: Graphs to sha.v disch;uging current against lime (left);
pmenlia.I diffelence against time (middle) and charge against time (righl)
for a capadtor disdtarging through a fixed resistof. Thi.sis because the
char!,'IC is flowing in the
0 t 0 I 0 t
The eleclrons (curre nt) ffO\v from lhe ncgaLivc pla1e to the positive opposi1c direction 10 the
plate. Initially, the current is high, but as the charge leaves the plates, the
charging current, so the
reading on your meters
difference against time (middle) and charge agains1 lime (right) '°'a potential d ifference across lhe plates decreases. So lhe electrostatic repulsion will ha\'e changed sign.
capadtof being ch.1rged through a fixed resistor. decreases, reducing the now of current.
Module 6: Section 1 capacitors WfJ
 Modelling a discharging capacitor @"""
j
Ll.I E.g. Ix 10 " s Tip: The graph you
You can predict roughly how the stored charge will change over ~ c would get from these
E.g. 3 x 1o " F
Lime for any disdlarging capacilor with capacitance C and initial initial values is plotted
charge Q, in a circuit \Vilh resistance R. You need 10 find the diange in R E.g. 12 n in Figure 8.
charge over a Liny time interval and repeat this process for a long pericx:I of Q.,. E.g. 6 x 10 , c
time. To do this, you'll need an equation which relates dQ and IJ.t.
A B c I
You know that I=~ and also that I=*· so:
I (s) Ll.Q(Q Q(Q 1 l\l in s ll:·l2
? Cln r 3E· ll

Tip: There's a minus

For capacitors, Q
Ml - v
Ll.t - R

=CV so V =g. Combine these and you get:

l 0 =0

t 1 =10 + ill -------

-
(t.Q), = 2RLl.1
Oo=Q.,.,
Q, =Oo + (C.Ql,
3
4 -
~
6
I
Rl.nu
i.nC

I irl S
ll
61'.-07

1.aQinC Oil'll(
6,_(l(l[.Q7
O.C0::-+00
sign here because 1hc t, ='-, + ll..t Ct.Ql, = -aLl.1 Q, =Q , + (Ll.Ql, 8 1.COC· ll ·L67t·D8 SJ0[- 07
charge is cir.creasing Ml Q 9 2.00C:·ll · 1.62(-(18. S.67t- 07
<Ner 1ime.
Ll.t = - 'CR 10 .l.OOC:· U -LS8E-08 Ulf-07
Rgure 6: An ex.ample of lhe formu/Js that can be used to create an ;tcrau\-e 11 <1.00C·U · 153[·08 S.36C--07
Finally, multiply bolh sides by C.1 to get: sprcadslteet of charge over time for a discharging capacitor. 1' s.ooc- u - l.49t-08 5.21[- 07
13 6.00E·ll · 1.4.-5£·08 5.07[~07

t.Q = - 8Ll.1 Charge I x 10-J C.

14 7.00f.12 · U1C-M
15 _,, .• .
4.931:--07

You can use this formula to plot a graph of Q against I, by worlcing 6.0 figure 7: A sample or !he
out how Q changes for each small change in L Graphical methods like 1his spreadsheet produced by the
5 .11 P.xample values in figure 6.
are really useful for modelling relationships, but they can take a long time 10
do by hand. So using a spreadsheet can be very helpful. Once )OU' vc filled ;n tows- 7
4./)
and 8, you can automatically
fill lhc rest of lhe rows using
Using a spreadsheet to model discharge :w the fomwlas in tow 8, if
You can use this equation in a spreadsheet to demonstrate how a capacitor you've written lhe formulas
Tip: There's z.o correctly.
gradually discharges over time.
another P.xample of
modelling exponential 1. Create a new spreadsheet, with columns for the time elapsed since the 1.0
Tip: To produce 1he
relationships with capaci10< began discharging. 1, the change in charge, Ll.Q, and the charge graph in i=igure 8, from
spreadsheets oo p.434. remaining on the capacitor, Q.
n lJ•.S /.(/ LS Z.5 .1.0 lime Ix IO "' s thed:na in Figure 7, ovcr
2. Choose an initial staning charge, Q1'*' for the capaci1or along with a value 200 rows of i1cr.uivc
Rgure 8: An =mple ofa charge-time graph ptoduced from a sprn•dshoot model dal'a were used.
f(){ the capacitance C and the resistance R of the resistor.
of a discharg;ng capacitOI, using dte values in ngures 6 aJtd 7.
3. Choose a sensible time in1erval C.1 that is significantly less 1han CR.
This will let you plot more precise graphs showing the relationship
betv. een charge and 1ime.
1

4. In the initial row, t0 = 0 and Q0 = Qw,· Q1 A fu ll y~hargcd 4.2 mF capacitor is connected in a circuit in series
Tip: Figure 6 Oil lhc leave .6Q blank in this row.
next page shows how an
wi1h a 5.5 x 101 n resistor. h discharges 85 nC of charge in the
S. In the next row: first 4.5 jLS. Calculate lhe charge on the capacitor when ii is fully
Lhis can be laid out
The new lime t1 = l" + ll..r. charged.
You can write a formula for the change in charge, ~Q, over the tin1c
Tip: This process is
called iteration -
inlerval by using lhe equa1ion t.Q = - ifRt.1 above. Le(s call it (C.Q),.
The new charge is Q, = Q0 + (Ll.Ql, so write a formula f0< that 100.
1 QM.tg!g,111:?1 n.1, b ..tffi
.......1.i.<~il1,...,.,.11..,111 ________
where you apply an
cquatioo repeatedly, Q1 Draw curves showing how the p.d. across the capaci1or and current
using the previous 6. Repeal this process of calculating 1he values in each ro\v from Q and r through the circuit vary With time when a capacitor is charged
result as the inpu1for in the row above. If you write lhe formulas correctly, you can use the through a fixed resistor.
the nexl calculation. spreadsheet program to automatically fill in as many rows as you want. Q2 How can you alter the circui1 used Lo charge a capacitor so that the
A spreadsheet that docs
1his is known as an
i1ern1ivc spreadshoot,
and its daia is known as
iterative dal'a.
7. Once you have enough poinls, plot a graph of charge against time - see
Figure 8. h should be similar to the graph for a djscharging capacitor
shown on page 357.
capacitor discharges?
Q3 Describe an experiment you could do to investigate a discharging
capacitor and plol graphs of current in the circuit and potential
difference across the capacitor against t.imc .
J
Module 6: Section 1 capacitors Module 6: Section 1 capacitors *F"*
 Leaming Obj ectives:
• Be able 10 .analyse
capacitor-resistor
circu its.
• Know and understand
equalions in Lile
form of x = x,,c ii
and X= "'ll- c ">
fo r capacitor-.resistor
circuits.
• Understand lhe
constam-ratio propeny
of expooomial decay
graphs.
• Know what is meant
by Lhe time constant
of a capaci1or-msis1or
circuit, .,. = CR.
Specification
References 6.1.1
and 6.1.3
Tip: Make sure you
don't miss a prefix -
capacitance is of1en
given in micro-, nano.
or picofarads.
•EJl:!i~·ll Module 6: Section 1 Gapacilors
4. Charging and Discharging The same is true for the potenlial difference and c urrent
Tip: VG is the potential
Calculations .
V == Voe Cil I =- Joe
_,_
CM
difference across the
capacitor when i1 is fully
charged, and 10 is Lhe
The shapes of the graphs that you pla1ted in the previous section are actually initial current rlowing
exponential graphs. There are exponential relationships between V, Q or I
through the circu it.
and time for charging and discharging cap;tcitors. Example-i$§H5;1§1lj
A 0.20 mf capacitor was charged to a potential difference
Equations for a charging capacitor of 12 V and then discharged through a fixed SO k!1 resistor.
Calculate the charge on the capacitor after 1 second.
The charge on a charging capacitor in a capacitor-resistor circuit after a
The question tells you C = 0.20 x 10.... F, V = 12 V,
given time I is given by:
Q11 -= charge of the capacitor R = 50 x 1 fr' H and I = 1.
in C when fully charged . . First you need to calculate the in ilia I charge.
\ t = ume since
Q = charge of the - - - . . 't ~harging began ins C = ~ so Q =CV, so the initial charge is:
capaci1or at time t, in C Q = QoO /" fil-- R =resrstance
. of
Q0 = CV: 0.20 x IO ' x 12 = 2.4x 10 ., C
Tip: There's somc help
- frxed resiswr in n Then use chc equation: wilh logarithms and
C -= capacuance
O = Q. eil exponentials on pages
of capacitor in r
472-473. There should
e ~CUOlf lO
1
= 2.4 X 10 l X 'i.<:11 >1; lOS)
The formula for calculating the voltage across a cha rging capacitor be a button on your
is of the same form, bul the formula for I.he charging curre nl is d ifferent- it = 2.4 x 1O l x e .,_, calculator for 'c' I.hat
decreases exponentially. The formulas ior both are: = 2.171... x 10 ' = 2 x 10 ' C (to l s.f.) you can use for this
calculation.
v, = poteruia/ diffaence across the
capadtor w/KYJ fully charged, in V '• = initial current, in A
I I Charging and discharging times
_,,,./ V = V.l1 e "'i / l ~ l,e 1'I The Lime taken for a capacitor to c harge .and discharge depends on t\vo factors:
The ca.paciiance of the capacitor ((). This affects the amount
V = potential diffm111ec I = current at
across the capacitor at tinrei, inA of charge that can be transferred at a given voltage.
timel, in V The resistance of the d rcui1 (R). This affects the currem in 1he circuit.
For given values of C a nd R, the quantily x in an exponential relationship o{ the
Example -tct§!lihfl!N iorm x = xoe Or always takes the same lime to halve, no matter what the ini1ial
When fully charged, a 3,00 µF capacitor holds 36,0 µC of charge. value of x is.
It is connected in series with a 56.0 k.n resistor. Calculate the charge on
the capacitor 0 .500 seconds after it begins charging.
This is b<.>cause, when x is halved, x =ix..
So:
Q = Q,(1 ""
e '"I = 36.0 X 10 '(1 - c >••" ~··
,~.,••1)
= 3.41 6 ... x 10 '= 34.2 11C(to 3s.f.)
Taking logs of bo1h s ides:
In(~) = ln{e a )
Equations for a discharging capacitor i = 2 ',and ln(A") = Bln(A), so:
The charge left on the plates of a capacitor discharging from run in a - ln(2) = fk
capacitor-resistor circuit is given by the equation: => I = ln (2)CR Tip: The same applies
Q 0 -= charge of the capadtor ..........._ t = ~me since . ln{2) is just a number, and lhe capacilance, C, and resistance, R, are fixed for a to potential difference
in C when fully charged -............ .L,,.----<fisc:hargmg began tn s
and current. ln a
given capacitor-resistor circuil, so: discharging capacitor
Q=Q,e~~ t =constant it will always take the
Q = chargeoflhc ~ C = capa.ota~ce
capa<.itor at time '· in C
/ . R = resistanceof
fixL)(} resistOI in a
So the lime 1aken to halve is a hvays Lhe same. In fact, for a given proportion same time for th<~ p.d. or
current to decrease by a
ii always takes the same time for 1hat proportion of the dlarge to be I~ - ir's given proportion.
of capaator 111 F
known as the constant-ratio property or cxponenlial rela1ionships.
Module 6: Section 1 capacitors W!j

Tip: .,- is Lhc Greek
letter 'tau'.
Tip: for a cllarging
capacitor, no maucr
what charge it starlS at,
afler the time constam
has elapsed Ille cllarge
on the capacitor will
be 63% closer IO fu lly
charged.
llp: Q is proponiolul to
v, so the time constant
is also the time taken
for the voltage to
decrease to about 37o/"'
of the initial voltage (or
increase to about &3%
of Ille S01Jrr.e voltage
while cllarging).
llp: You migh1 be
asked to find the time it
takes for a capacilor to
discharge (or charge) 10
a cenain percentage of
iis 10tal charge.
Tip: Mako sure that you
remember that Q I Q0
is the proponion of the
charge on the plates
no1 the proportion ol the
charge that's been Jost
•IEl~flll Module 6: Section 1 capacitors
Time constant Log-linear graphs
W hen the d ischarge time 1 is equal to CR the equa1ion for the charge left on a
discharging capacitor becomes:
Log-linear graphs are plols where o ne of the axes is logarithmic. Log-linear
a nd log-log plolS a re usefu l as they can often be used to produce a graph
Tip: Log-log plots am
where both axes arc
J
·which is a straight line when linear axes would give a curve. So they're logarithmic.
a nother good way of graphically displaying how charge, potential d ifference
So when t = CR:
a nd current vary over time for a disdiarging capaciLor.
Starting from the equa tion for charge on a discharging capacitor, the llp: Log graphs ooroo
natural logarithm is 1aken of both sides: up a fow 1imes in
The Lime r = CR is known as the time constant, r , and is the time Q - Q,e a physics - ""' p.484 for
taken for the charge on a discharging capacilor (Q) to fall to about 37o/o of Q 0 • how 10 deal w ith them.
ltS .also the time taken ror the charge oi a charging capacitor to rise to about ln (Q) - ln(Q,e tit}
63o/o of Q0 (Figure 1). ln(A x B) = In (A) .,. In (BJ, so this can be wriuen as:
h doesn't matter when you start looking at the charge on I.he
capacitor aflcr it has begun d ischarging (i.e. what value you take as QJ, it wi II ln(Q ) - ln(QJ + ln (e '2)
ah·vays have dropped to 37o/u of that value arter a period of time equal to lhe Another log rule is ln(e") =A, so:
Lime constant because of the <.'Onstanl-ratio properly or exponential decay. Tip: This equation is in
ln (Q J - (-~)1 I ln (QJ the: fonn y=mx+ c-
The larger the resistance in series with the c.apacitorf the longer it the equalion of a s1raigh1
takes to charge or d ischa rge. In practice, the time 1ake n for a capacitor to If you then plot a graph of ln(QJ against I, you w ill see it is a sllaight line.
charge or discharge fully is taken to be about SCR or S T. line (Figure 2). By comparing the equation fo r ln(Q ) lo the equation for a
stra ight line, you can see that the gradient is equal to - di = -~.
Q IC Q /(.
So you can fi nd the time constant from the log-linear graph by
Q., Q, dividing - 1 by the gradient of the line.
0.6.JQ. In((/)
Tip: The graph's
ln(Qol intercept w ith 1.he
.SCR vcnical axis is ln{QJ -
ifs llm c in y ~ mx+ c.
T 0 .,.
If s lls
dU·charging capadtnr d targinJ; capaeitor
from lull charge Q, from 7.f! rt) chafb>e
Rgure 1: Q.t graphs showing the time constant for discharging flcfl) ()
and charging (right) a capaci1or through a fiX«I resistor. II s
Figure 2: A pkn ofln(Q) against t. Tip: You can also plot
You can calculate the time constant directly using -r = CR or you C'..an
You could also plol ln(\I) or In{/) againsl time and (ind the l ime constant a graph like this for the
fi nd il from a graph. These may be graphs of Q against 1 (as shown above and
current in a charging
in the next example) or log-plolS of ln(Q) against '(see next page). in the same way, as V and I both have the same dependence on C and R. capacitor_ It's a b it more
complica1cd for charge
Example -1Jffillj;1§1
5 Example -f$!fft$ji!11N and potential difference
A capacitor was discharged from full through a 10 kf! resistor (to 2 s .f.). A student has done an experiment lo find out how the charge on a though.
The graph below shows how the charge on the capacitor changed over the discharging c.apacitor varies with time. She plots her results on a
first 2.0 seconds. Calculate the time constant and the capacitance. lnQ-t graph and draws a line of best fit. The graph is shown below.
The initial dlargc is 12 x 1o...i. C, and you wanl Use the graph to find the time constant of the circuit
lo find the time taken for Lhe charge to decrease 12
lnQ/ C
lo 37o/o of that. The gradient of a lnQ-r graph 2 .IJ
So 0.37 x (12 x 10-4) = 4.4 )( 10... c. .ts equa I to LR·
1 J.(,
Using the graph, the charge is 4 .4 x 10_, C when To find the time constant, r = CR,
1.2
the 1ime is 1.0 s, so the time constant, 'T, is 1.0 s. you divide - 1 by the gradient.
0 .8
T:CR, so,(:~ Gradient = J.~ -:_% = - 33.333 ...
6
2 0.4
C= -1_.o_ ,,. = 333\J ... = 0.030 s (lo 2 s.f.J
10 x 10' 0 l .ll z.o
=1.0 x 10 • F =0.10 mF (lo 2 s.fj tls
Module 6: Section 1 capacitors •ISM
 lfr@.t3:i•ii!:f1ji.},g@·!jtiirtf1,t.1,1
Tip: You'll need Q= CV
for this, w hich is given
in lhe data and formulae
book.
Figure 3: A circuit from a
burg/at alarm containing
capaciwr.;. 1hey can be
used with big rc-?Sistors to
create a time delay. Vilhcn
the door is opened the
capacitor begins to dis.charge
and when ii has lost a certain
amount ofifs char~ th<'
alarm goes off, giving you
time beforeh.1nd to enmt the
code.
1 µftg .tg:a, 11t:f1''·'·p11..m
Module 6: Section 1 capacitors
Q l A capacilor \vith capacitan<:c 0.601.t.F is ini1ially charged 10 15.0 V.
It is then connected across a resistor wilh rcsjstance 2.6 k!l.
Calculate the polenrial dirference across the capacitor 1.S ms af1er it
has begun to discharge.
Q2 Calculate the charge stored on a 15 nF capacitor, originally
charged to a polential difference of 230 V a nd then discharged for
0.01 seconds through a SO kfl resistor.
Q3 A capacitor d ischarged in series with a resistor can be used to create
a time delay function in electronics. In a partic ular burglar alarm, the
alarm goes off when a 1S 1<F capacitor discharged through a 400 kQ
resistor has lost 63% of its initial cha rge.
a) Calculate the time delay on lhe alarm.
The manufacturer wants to inc rease the capacilance or the capacitor
in order to make the time delay 60 seconds.
b) What capacitance would be needed for this time delay?
c) Explain why this might n04 be practical, and suggest what other
component they could replace instead.
Q4 A discharging capacitor loses 70o/o of its initial charge, CJor in
20.0 seconds. Find the time consa:an l of the capacitor-resistor circuit
QS A plot of In(\? against L is created for a discharging capacitor.
ln(ll)
2.708
1.00 1
0 I (µs)
a) Whal does lhe vertical intercept of the graph represent?
b) Calculate the ini1ial \/Ohage.
c) Calculate the tinlc constanl {or the capacitor.
......1..;11<.:rl, l•.i+•1ji11~-------
01 What is the equation for calculating the charge on a capacilOf
charging through a fixed resistor R, after a certain time l?
Q2 Write down the equation for the p.d. across a discharging capacitor.
Q3 What two factors do the charging and discharging time of a capacitor
d epend o n?
Q4 What is mean1 by the time constant when discharging a capacitor?
Section Summary ·
Make sure you know...
That a capacitor is an ele<.'lrical component that can store electric charge.
That capacitance is defined as the amount or charge stored per unit potential difference, and it can
be calculated using the equation C = ~-
That capacitance is measured in farads, F.
How the now of eleccrons causes an equal and opposite charge to build up on each plate of a
capacitor when lhc capaci1or is being charged.
How the now of eleccrons causes the charge on each plate of a capacitor to decrease when it is being
discharged.
Tha t the a rea underneath a graph or charge againsl p.d. is the energy stored by the capacitor.
The equations for e nergy stored by a c;ipacitor: W = ~QV = ~ V'C = ~~.
Some uses or capacimrs in the storage of electrical energy.
Tha t the total capacitance of l\YO or more capacitors in parallel is given by: C =- C1 + C1 +
That the total capaci1ance of l\YO or more capacitors in series is given by: =t t.; t;
1 1 ...
How to perform a n experiment to investigate 1he effect or conneding capacitors in series a nd in
parallel.
Understand that the rate at which a capacitor charges or d ischarges in a circuit can be slowed by
including a resistor in the circuit
How to perform a n experiment using a capacilor-resistor circuit to investigate the charging and
discharging of a capacitor, using both meters a nd data loggers 10 record data.
Ho'v the c urrent in a circuil changes as a capacitor charges and discharges, including a graph of
current againsl time.
Ho\v the potential difference across a capacitor changes as il charges and d ischarges, including a
gra ph of p.d. against time.
Ho'v the charge on a capacilor changes as it charges a nd d ischarges, including a graph of charge
against time.
Thal the cqualion ¥}- =-& c.an be used to predict the remaining charge on a d ischarging
capacitor after a given small period or lime.
How to use this equation to model a discharging capacitor using a spreadsheeL
For a charging capacitor in a capaci1or-resistance circuit, the charge on the capaci1or at lime r is
given by Q = Q, (1 - e c\r) and the potential difference across the capacitor at time t is given by
V - V.(1 e t'I) .
For a discharging capacitor in a capacitor-resistance circuil, lhe charge on the capacitor al time l is
given by Q = Q0 e rY and the potential difference across the capacilor a t time l is given by V = \{.e "6.
For a dlarging or d ischarging capacitor in a capacitor-resistance circuit, the current at time f is
given by I = /,e n .
The constant-ratio property of exponential functions, and how I.his applies to charging and
discharging capacitors.
Tha t the time constant is given by the product of the capacitance and resistance of the circuit, .,- =- CR.
That the Lime constant, ·T, of a capacitor-resistor circuit is lhe time taken for a capacitor to discharge
to 37% or its initial value.
Module 6: Section 1 capacitors WlffiA
 Exam-style Questions
When the switch Sin the circuit shown below is in position 1, the capacitor C is fully
charged by the battery through resistor R. The switch is then moved to position 2 and
the capacttor is allowed to discharge fully through the resistor.
4 A student investigating capacitance charges a capacttor from a 12 V d.c. supply
and uses a voltage sensor and a charge sensor connected to a data logger to
measure the potential difference across the capacitor at regular intervals of charge
stored by the capacttor. A computer is used to plot a graph of p.d. against charge.
(a) (I) Copy the axes below and sketch the graph obtained by the computer on the axes.

rn rn
s s

Position 1 Posffion 2
(1 mark)
Which graph correctly shows how the charge, O. on the capacttor varies with time. t.
during this process?
(Ii) State what quantity the area enclosed by the line and the holizontal axis represents.

~t:L. ~LL. LD. .b

(1 mark)
(b) When tile capacttor is fully charged, it has a charge of 1a 1,c.
Calculate the capacitance of the capacttor.
(2 marks)
A B C 0 The student then discharges the capacttor through a 29 kO resistor.
(1 mark) (C) What is the potential difference across the capacitor plates after 0.030 s?
(2 marks)
2 A capacttor discharging through a fixed 100 kll resistor loses 35% of tts charge in 1 s. (d) Sketch a graph showing how the current supplied to the resistor varies
What is the capacitance of the capacitor? over time as the capacttor discharges.
A 9.5 x 1Q-< F (1 mark)
(e) calculate the time taken for the current in the circuit to fall to 10% of tts initial value.
B 5.3 x 1C>-' F
(2 marks)
C 2.3 x 1C>-' F
0 2.2• 1Cl-" F
(1 mark)

5 A 3.0 x 1er> F capacitor was fulty charged to 50.0 V through a 2.0 k!l resistor.
3 The diagram on the right shows a circutt containing capacttors.
Three 20 µF capacitors are connected in series in the circutt. (a) calculate how much energy was stored by the capacttor.
A 12 11F is connected in parallel across these three capacttors. (2 marks)
What is the total capacitance of the circuit? (b) Show that the time constant of the circutt is 6 seconds.
(1 mark)
A 10.0 µF (c) Calculate the charge gained by the capacttor in 14 seconds.
B 18.7 11F (2 marks)
c 12.2 1.F (d) Sketch a graph of charge against time for the first 14 seconds of charging.
0 72.0 11F (1 mark)
(1 mark)

•Ei:;eJMI Module 6: Section 1 capacitors Module 6: Section 1 capacitors

--i Module 6
l earning Objectives:
• Understand lhe
concept of eloctric
fields as being one of
a number of forms of
field giving rise 10 a
force.
• Know I.hat electric
r!elds am due to
charges.
• Understand ho\.\1
electric field Ii oos are
used 10 map cloctric
fMllds.
• Know what ek!clric
ficld sarenglh is.
• Know how to USC Lhe
equation E b·
• Know that a uniformly
charged sphere can be
modelled as a poin1
charge a1 its ccmm.
• Know how to
calculate the force:
between mro poin1
charges using
Couk>mb's law,
F-
•Know how to
42?·
calculate electric
rte1d strmgth using
f
charge.
4~~? for a poim
Specification
References 6.2..1
and 6.2.2
Tip: Remember,
V<?Clor means it has
a magnitude awl a
direction.
Tip: Elearic field
sucngth can be
measured in Vm 'as
·we ll as NC ' ·
•EJl~1·J
. ll Module 6: Section 2 Electric Fields
Radial fields
Point charg6 have a radial electric field (see Figure 1). Remember, the field
lines show the direction in which a positive charge (shown by +q in Figure 1)
\vould feel a force when placed in the electric field. So for a positive point
j
c harge, +Q, the field lines poinl away from the point c harge, and for a
1. Electric Fields negative poinl charge. - Q, they point towards i1.
Tip: The charge +q in
£/ecuic fields are a /01 /ike gravirationa/ fields. Bui illihough the concepts arc Figure ·1 also has an
simil.lr, there are slil/ some subrle differences, so make sure you (ol/o\v carefully.
**
elecuic field - it just
hasn'1hem drawn here.
What are electric fields?
Figure 1: Elect1ic field fines for J posi1ive point
There are several fields that can cause iorces - for example you met
charge and a negative poim charge.
gravi1ational fields on p.297. Elecu ic fields can also give rise to a force, bul
electric fields can be auractive or reputsive, unlike gravi1.ational fields (which
Notice ho\v the field lines get further apart as you move fu rther from
are always auractive). h's all lo do with charge. Any object wilh charge has the charge - this shows that the elcclric field strength is geuing weaker.
an electric field around it - the region where il can attract or repel olhe r A unifomily charged sphere has its charge evenly dis1ribu1ed across
charges. its surface. You can treal this as if ii is a point charge wilh all o f its dlarge
Electric charge is measured in coulombs (Q and can be positive or concentrated at the centre of the sphere. Any body that behaves as if all its Figure 2: You can charge a
negative. Oppositely charged particles ataract each other, a nd like charges c harge is concentra1ed al the centre has a radial field. balloon by rubbing it against
repel each other. If a charged object is p laced in an electric field, then it will a ma1erial. The charge of the
experience a force.
Jus1 like wirh gravitational fields, electric fields can be reprcsemed by Coulomb's law
balloon cJtr then be treated
as a point charge ar !he
balloon's cc11ue (assuming
field lines. Electric field lines a rc drawn to show Lhe direclion oi the force tha1 You can calcula1e the force on a charged objec1 in a radial electric field using
Coulomb's law. It gives the force of a ttraction or repulsion between hvo the balloon is sphe.rical
would act on a positive charge - see p.369 and p.372. and rl'te charge is evc.¥1/y
point charges, Q an d q, in a vacuum: distributed ewer dte balloon~
surface).
Electric field strength r = force on the Q and q = charges of
objoo in N -- Q - - - - - the mu obfr'.cts in C
Electric field strength~ E, is defined as the force per unit positive c harge. F ~ -q-
It's the force that a charge of+1 C would experience if it was p laced in an e. = "epsilon.nought~ the 4,..-t.,r"- - - - - r =distance belwc..:.en
Q and q in m
elect r~c field. permittivity of fr.. space _ _ . - /
= 8 .85 x 10 11 c1N 1m·'
- F = force on the charged objectin N
E= electric iield - - -• f ~ F The force on Q is always equal and opposile to the force on q -
suength in NC ' Q t-- Q = charge of Ille object in C the direction depends on the charges.
Tip: h's the in1erac.1ion
beLwecn the electric
E is a vector poinling in the direction thal a JX>Sitive charge would fields of Q and q
move. The units of f are newtons per <.-oulomb (NC '). The field strength may that causes the force
between them.
depend on where you are in the field (see radial fields on page 370).
Be careful - in Lhis equation F is the force~ a charge Q
which is in 1he elec1ric field. Q .is..ru2l causing the elec1ric field. Don't If the charges are opposite then the If lhe charges are alike 1hen the force
force ;s attractive. F will be negative. is repulsive. F will be posilive.
confuse i1 with the Qin the electric field strength equation on page 370.
Figure 3: The direction of lire forces on two charged objocrs.
Example -i.~tji#;i§1N
Find the force acting on .tn electron in an electric field with a field strength Coulomb's fa,v is another case o f an inverse square law, so F u ~
of 5000 NC-'. The charge on an electron is - 1.60 • 1 ~" C. (page 299). The fu rther apart the charges, the weaker the force between them.
Just rearrange the equation fOf electric field strength and put in the numbers: The size of the force F also depends on the permittivity, c, of the material
between the two charges. For free space (a vacuum), the permiuivity is Tip: You can also give
f = b ~ f = f x Q = SOOOx( 1.60x1 0") = 8 x lO " N a0 = 8.85x 10 11 C'N·'m .,_. If the 1\vo charges weren't in a vacuum, you would the uniis of F.0 as Fm 1 •
replace r.-0 with the c ior lhe material they're in (see page 372 ior more on
permittivity).
Module 6 : Section 2 Elecllic Fields @ j,.,, M

Exam Tip
Atways assume lhc
charges are in a vacuum
if 1hc qucs1io n doesn't
say otherwise.
Tip: The acceleration
is neg:ati\'e because it's
tO\vards Lhe sphere.
Electric field strength in radial fields
Whe n the electric field is being genera1ed by a point charge, we call the
Tip: Q is the point
charge generating the field Q a nd redefine the charge experiencing the focce
as q (as in Figure 1 on p.369). In a radial field, f is equal to:
charge creating lhc
radial ft<!ld, w 1he
charge experiencing a
foroo inside the fie ld.
£,
free spaco in C'N· m ~
Tip: Remember - a
uniformly charged
sphere can be trea1ed as
Example -f,i,§idi.1§1ij , t: at the sur foc-c of
NC / ~ie chars'"xJ s.plx.::rt!.
E/NC' / Tip: Graphs of E agains.1
.....___, for a fXHnt charge, f
Find the acceleration experienced by a free electron 2.S.3 mm from the r usually only show
£ OO<:omes. jnfinjtf.>/y E, ........ . the magni1udc of E (so
centre of a sphere carrying a charge of +0.51 O µC. The charge of an
large as. r tc.>nds to 0. they're always positive).
electron is -1 .60 x 10-1• C and the mass of an electron is 9.11 x 1o--11 kg.
Bui if Ewas nega1ive,
(You may assume the sphere has a radius less than 2.83 mm.) Radius. of the the graph would jusl
The acceleration or an object is given by F-= ma :.:> a = ~ . be refk!cted in the
horizontal axis.
You know the mass, so find the force using Coulomb's law:
F- Qq _ (0.510 x 10 ') x ( 1.60 x 10 ")
- 41<<.T - 4,.., x (2.83 x 10 ,, ri m rim Tip: The graph olg
Rgure 4: Graphs of E against r for a poim charge (left} and a charged splH!fe (right). against r is 1.hc same
= - 9.161... x 10 11 N shape. but it's always
Then use this Lo find the acceleration: under the r axis as g is
You can also work oul the combined electric field s11ength for a point
d - :i - - 99.16111 ... X 13 II : - 1.00564 ... X 10'° that lies bcl\"'een l\vo different charges, Q, and Q,. Renlenlber, Eis a vector, always ncgative (p.301).
· x lo = - 1.01 x 10"' ms ' (to 3 s.f.) so you need to pick a positive direction.
Tip: This onty works
Example -f$§ft#ffi1N if the poim you're
interested in lies on the
Find the electric field strength at • point halfway between point charges
same line as the lwo
of Q, = +1.7 µC and Q, = +1.2 µC, separated by 2.4 • 1lt' m.
charges. Anywhere else
You're working with vectors, so n1jd poj 11r and )'OU have 10 start
choose a positive direction.
+/.2 µC ·----~-·· +l.71.C
! finding resultant veaors.
l.er's say to\vards Q, is positive. 2.4 x 10"' m
Both charges would repel a positive I
positive c/jn..>t;tion ~ I Tip: You can aJso
find the 101al force, F,
E = o/ecuic field - - - - - Q = poim charge in c charge, so f due to Q 1 is positive
strength in NC • - - f = _g_- a nd E due lo Q1 is negative. So 1hc electric field strength. f , is equal 10 E on a charge Lhat's
4m.:,f.._ due to Q,, minus f due to Q,: between two charges.
JI
= the permittivity of - - - - - - r = distance from the It's very similar 10 lhis
1 1 point charJll! in m E_ 1.2 x 1o ~ l .7 x 10 ' mmhod, since F= fq.
- 4.- x (8.85 x lo 1ix(l.2 x 10 1' - 4,.x (8.8Sx 10 1~ x(l .2x 10 ~I
1.2 xl0' - 1.7 xlO• - 0 .SxlO '
Tip: You could also
4.- x (885x 10 '?x(l.2 x 10 ?' 4w x (8.85 xl O 1? x(l.2 x 10 ?'
Example -f$§itjifl1 N have said Lhat towards
The elect.ric field strength 0. 15 m away from the centre of a charged = 3.1 22 ... x 10'=- 3.lx10' NC' (to2s.f.) Q, was poshive. You'd
sphere is 44 OOO NC-'. What's the charge on the sphe.re? gee a posi1ive anw.w,
showing tha1a positive
(You may assume the sphere has a radius less than 0.15 m.)
I W ·i!:l•iit:t1 ii.]·€ rt!ffl
.· tiffli.i.......t.illi••1...._______
·.......
• charge at lhc m id point

J
Q = (4'<c;'lf = 4,. x (8.85 x 10 " ) x 0.15 2 x 44 OOO would rnov<! towards et.
if all its charge acts a1its Q1 Two electrons a re fired tmvards each other and reach a separation o f
"""''° (p.369). = 1.10100 ... x 10 7
= 1.1 x10 ' C (to2s.f.)
5.22 x 10 um. Whal's the focce on each electron at this point?
Tip: The cllarge on
Q2 The electric field generated by a charged sphere with charge 4.15 µC an cloctron, - e, is
is measured as 15 OOO NC 1• How far -from the centre of the sphe re - 1.60x 10 ''C.
must the measuring instrument be?
This is anolhcr case of the inverse square law - E u ~- Field Q3 A particle wilh charge 5.0 x 1O 5 C is in an electric field and
strenglh decreases as you go fu rther away from Q. On a d iagram, the field experiences a force of 0.080 N. Calcula te the magnitude of the
lines of a radial field get further a part (see Figure 1 on p.369), and if you plot eleclric field strength.
the eleclric field strength against r you gel lhe same shape as for gravitational
field strength on page 301. If 1he charge isn't a point charge (e.g. if it's a
charged metal sphere), the n the eleciric field s1rcngth inside the object doesn't
have the same Eex_ ~ relalion (you don't need 10 worry whal the electric field Q l What's f a measure of?
is inside a charged object, it just doesn't follow an inverse square law). Q2 Draw the electric field generated by a positive point charge.
Q3 Give the equation of Coulomb's law.
Q4 Sketch a graph of f and r for a positive point charge, where r is the
discancc from the charge.

•Er~i~•ll Module 6: Section 2 Eleclric Fields Module 6 : Seclion 2 Elecllic Fields Wfi
 Leam ing Obj ectives:
• Know what a parallel
plate capacitor i:S.
• Know ho\v to
calculate uniform
electric fiefd strength
. E = (i·
usmg V
• Know what is meant
by the pemiittivi1y of a
material.
• Know and be able
lo use the equaiions
C = ":and C =~
where £ =- £,c0 .
• Be able 10 describe
lhc motion of chart,:.cd
panidcs in a uniform
electric field.
Specification
Reference 6.2.3
Tip: E can be in Vm 1
orNC •.
Figure 2: Elecrric fipJd fines
between two plates shown
by the afignment ofpepper
flakes in oil. The suaight
clecuic fteld lines between
rhe plates show the area with
the un;form cJecuK: rreld.
Tip: Remember,
capacitance is measured
in farads (F). This is a
large unit though, so
you'll often see nano- or
picofarad capacilors.
Tip: c, doesn'1have any
uni1s because i1's a ratio
o f 1hc size of the elccLric
field generated in lhc
material, compared to
if i1 was generated in a
vacuum.
•Er~;~ll Module 6: Section 2 Electric Fields
2. Uniform Electric Fields Example -f$§i!jjfl1d
A capacitor is n1ade up of lwo parallel plates, each with an area or 12 mm 2• Tip: You can assume
You've met radial clecuic (1e/ds, now it's time for unifonn electric fields. The plates are separated by a 0. 1O mm !hide piece or paper which has a that the paper fully fills
You ger uniform fields in parallel plate capacitors, which you met on p .346. relative permittivity of 2.7. Calculate the capacitance of this capacitor. the space bc1.wcen Lhc
Permittivityof paper = t: = €:,£0 : 2.7 x 8.85 x 10 u= 2.3895x10 u Fm· •
plales.
Electric field strength in uniform fields
A uniform electric field is one with lhe same electric field strength
everywhere. It can be produced by connecting two para I lei plates to the
opposite poles of a battery - see Figure 1. This is a parallel plate capacitor.
Then calculate the capacitance:
C = edA = 2.389Sx~O •;xl f x10 ' = 2.8674 x 10 "= 2.9 x 10" F (lo 2 s .f.)
0. Ox 0 Tip: You could also give
the answer as 2.9 pE
I
The field lines poinl from lhe plate with the more posilive potenlial to the
plate with the less positive potential. Charged particles in a uniform electric field
+400 V llcctrk; fkdd lines an~ A uniform electric field can be used to determine whether a particle is dlargcd
para//(~/ to eac:h other or not. The path of a charged particle moving through an electric field (at an
:~ - --- i·.---•-._-t·___·i~ and equally spaa.l(J.
angle to the field linc'S) will bend - the d irection depends on whether it's a
1
+30(} V ----
+ZOOV .....~·--·:.... ..... ..... ... l\w.as <Mththe samepw:ntial positive or negative charge.
+100 v · ·· ·~ •••.. _·····_·····_··· ··_•• __,,,,_.-- are parallel to the JNates, and A charged particle eniering an electric field at right angles to the
f"!rpendicular k' the fidd li1H::s. field (as in Figure 3) feels a constant force, equal to F = fQ, parallel to the
(/ v electric riefd lines. If Lhe pariicle is positively charged then the force acts on
it in the same direction as the field lines. If it's negatively charged, the force
figure 1: flecrric fKNd fines boti,\'00/J parallel plates.
Tip: Remember, lhe
is in the opposite d irection to the field lines. The \vork done on the particle equation for the kinetic
The field strength f is the same at all points between the two plates by this force (W = Fd) increases its kinetic energy and causes it to accelerate •netj,'Y or an object is
a nd is given by: a t a constant rate in the direction of the force (Ne\vton's second law). If the E, = 1hnr-?.
V = potential difference particle's velocity initially has a component al right angles lo lhe field lines,
~ f _ l:'. .-- - -
E = electric field - - - - -.... ooovero the plates in V this componenl will remain unchanged and the velocity in this direction will Tip: This motion is
suenglh in Vm ' d -- be uniform. That's Nc\vton's first law. The <..'OfObined effect of constan1
d = distance benveen lhe plates i11 m similar to a projeailc in
acceleration and <.."OOSSant velocity at right angles to one another is a rurved path. a unifonn gravitational
Nole thaLhere the potential difference bcl\veen the plates is the same
field, whidl you met in
j
as lhe potential of lhe top plate. This is because for this example the potential Initial : _;.-- Fi<!ld
Modulo3.
or the bottom plate is OV. This won't always be the case, so you might find it velocity : ; lines
easier to think of i1 as l!i V.
Acceleration Tip: An electron (which
Exan1ple -IJP1 !fl~fl1i
What's the electric field strength between two parallel plates 0.15 m apart
with a potential of +650 V and +200V respective.ly?
!
figure 3: Motion of a positron (which is positively charged) in a uniform elecuic field.
is negatively charged)
would acccleraie
upwards rat.her 1han
downwards in the
f = ~ = 6SOo.1ffOO = 3000Vm 1 ek!ctric field in figure J .
Practice Questions -Application
Ql Copy the diagram on the right and .....................> ..
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitors complete the path ol the electron ..................... > ...
as it travels through the electric field. •••"'"••0 •••••.J>oo
The capacitance (p.346] of a ~.a pacitor depends on the pem1ittivity of the Tip: li>r Q2, if the
material be1wcen the plates - ho\V easy it is to gencrale an electric field panicle isn't moving. lhc
in the material. It also depends on the dimensions of the capacitor. When Q2 An alpha particle with a charge of +2e and a mass ol 6.64 x 10.v kg upwards force from Lile
there's a vacuum between the plates, capacitance can be calculated by using: is suspended freely between two parallel plates. The top p la te has no electric field muSf equal
the downwards force
c = capacitance or .............._
a capadiot in f
,,;:--- E11 =- permittivity of free space in fm '
C = ~ ...__ A =- area oi the plates in m1
-.........._ d =- separJUon of me plates in m
charge and the bottom plate is charged to +5.00 nV. Ho\v far apart
are the p la1es if the alpha particle isn't moving?
Q3 A capacitor is made up of two parallel p lales, each wilh a
7.0x10" m'area. The vacuum gap between the pla tes is
8.S x 10 • m wide. Calculate the capacitance of lhe <'.apacitor.
J from gm•ity {Lhe weight,
IV:mg).
Tip: 1nV =1x 1o • v.
If the plates have a material in between them instead of a vacuum,
c0 is r~pl aced wilh permittivity, c:
1 Mr'9,cg:1 .. 111:i1u.1, ~m:
.:::1~;:<~:1+::~1~11[::::::::::::~---
£ = pennitlivity or ~ ,,......_ .
c -- 01 Give the equation lha1relates the permiuivity of a material to the
material in rm , u\ where t: is given by: c ::.. cr co e, =- telaw.t!
..•
([
permuuvuy
permiuivity of free space. Define all symbo ls.
Module 6: Section 2 Electlic Fields Wif A
 Leam ing Obj ectives: 3. Electric Potential Electric potential energy Tip: Yoo might soo
• Know lhat the electric You saw on the previous page that electric potential is the electric potential el«lric potemiaJ eoorgy
potential at a poinl in Just like 1he gravitaliona/ potenlial of a mass in a gravitational field, you can e nergy that a unit positive charge (+1 0 would have at a certain point. This labelled as f - doo't
an elcaric field is the find the e/cc.uic potential of a charge in an electric field. As elecuic forces can means you c.an find the e.lectric potential energy for any charge, q, al thal confuse this f with the E
work done in bringing be auraclivc or repulsive, electric poten1ia/ can be positive or negative. point in the electric field by multiplying the electric potential, V, by the for aJectric field strength
a unit posjtive charge 00 p.368.
w lue of the charge. So electric potential energy= Vq. By substituting in the
from infini1y to the
point
• Know that electric
potential is zero a1
infinity.
What is electric potential?
All points in an electric field have an electric potential, V. This is equal to
the work done bringing a unit positive charge (+1 C) from a point infinitely far
equation for V from the previous page, you get:

Q =- point charge aroiing

the electric field in C ~ ./
/ q = poim charge in
lhe elecrric fipJd in C
Tip: If the clmges
wcrcn'l in a vacuum,
then"• would jusLbe
j
away to that point in the electric field. This means lhal at infinity, the electric replaced with ,;: (sec
• Be able 10 use the potential will be zero. f = e/ecuic powmial- E= Vq = Qq p.372).
electric poteolial 4 'Xc.r...,__ r =distance between
So electric potenlial is the potential energy per unlt dlarge. In a energy in I
equation V = 4'KF..,
Q' radial field around a point charge, electric potential is given by: £, =permittivity of froo space in rm ' ___,J Q and q in m
at a distanoo r from a
Q =point charge crmling rite
point charge.
V = eloclfic - - n _.- e/ecuic field in C If you move a unit charge in a n electric field and c hange iLs electric
• Understand changes potential in V V= ~ potential energy, then work h<ls to be done by a fo rce. The work done is equal
in electric poU!nlial. 4 ""Lof .....- r =- distance from
to lhe change in lhe chargc's electric potential e nergy. Both e nergy a nd work
• Be able 10 use tlte poi.nt charge in m done are measured in joules (j) .
[:Vq=.Jfb The sign of V depends on the charge Q - V is positive when Q is For a radial field (e.g. of a point or spherical charge) you can pl<ll the
10 calculate electric posilive and the force is repulsive, and ncgalfve when Q is negative and the rorce applied 10 1he unil charge being moved. F, agains1 the distance, r, from
potential energy of a force is attractive. The absolute magnitude or Vis greatest on the surface of the charge producing the ele<.iric field. (f ex ~ - sec p.369.J The area under
point charge q at a the charge, and decreases as the distance from lhe charge increases. the graph between lwo points gives 1he work done, W, to move a unil charge
distance r from a point Figure 2: Static charge on
bet\veen 1hosc two points - see Figure 3. a c:omb doing wo1k against
charge Q.

·~
• Be able to sketch a
gravity !O Hfl a uick/e of WJl(Y.
force-distance graph
For a point or sp~rica l
charge and know that
work done to move a
""~ "l Tip: IF yuu're asked to
estimate W from a F- r
graph, you'll probably

charge is equal to the
area under the graph.
• Know and be able
10 use the equation
C = 4•F.,,R for the
capacitance of an
isolated sphere, and
be able to derive it.
Specificatio n
Reference 6.2.4
Tip: If you have more
than one charge creating
an electric field, you can
find lhe totaJctcctric
potemial at a single
point by adding the
electric pomm ia Is ;u
that point due 10 each
charge.
Tip: You can give
cleclric pomntial in V
or JC 1•
Lb lh
have to work out the
r area under the graph by
counling the number
V changing with r fo1 a positive V dtanging with r fot a negative
r, r, r Im R r, r, r/ m ol squares on tho graph
chatge frepulsive force}. charge (,1 1uacli'" force).
paper or by spliuing the
vis initially positive and wnds to Vis initially negative and umds to Figure 3: nte atea under a graph of F against r is used to find lhe work done, W, area up into trapeziums.
zeta as 1 inctcasc:s towards infinity. zero as r increases imv.u-ds infinit.y. to mOVP. a un;t charge between t 1 and r7 in lhe electric field of a point charge (left)
and of a unifoonfy charged sphere with radius R (right).
Figure 1: V changing wirh r for a posilillf! charge (lefl) JJld fol a negali\'O charge (tighl).
Tip: As with the E-r
graphs on p.371, you
If a charge is moved within a n ele<:tric field, it can experience a Exarnple -f$MUj.. fl1d don't neod 1.0 w orry
change in electric potcn1ial. For example, ir a poinl charge is moved away A +1.6 µC point charge is in a vacuum.
from or towards a spherical charge, or if a poin1 charge is moved from one about the forco, F, imilll:
A - 0.80 µC point charge is 0.072 m from the positive charge. a charged sphere, just
plate of a parallel plate capacitor to the other plate. a) C.>lculate the electric potential energy of the nega tive charge.
that ii dcx!sn't follCM' an
. . Qq (1 .6x10 ') x (- 0.80x10 ') inverse square law.
Example -f 1~Hitji§1d Elec:tnc po1en11aJ e nergy = 41fi.or = 4\lf x 8 .85x10 lr x 0.072
A positively charged particle is placed 0.035 m from the centre of a = -0.15985 ... = -0. 16) (to 2 s.f.)
sphere with a chJ.rge of +3.1 µC and radius 0.02 m. If the particle is
b) Calcula te the work done to move the negati.-e charge to be 0.0 15 m
then repelled by 0. 19 m, what change in potential does it experience! .away from the positive charge. Tip: There's a for<X!
of auraciion bcrween
Change in potenlial =final potential - inilial potential \.Vork done-= change in electric potential energy the lwo chafblCS in this
(3 .1 x 10 ') (3.1 x 10 ') -=final electric potential energy - initial electric potenlial e nergy examp le,. whidl is '''hy
4wc,(0.035 i O. l 9) 4wc. x 0.035 (1.6x10 '1 x (- 0 .80x10 '1 - (- 0.15985 ...) the \\'Ork done to move
= - 6.72529 ... x 10 5 = - 6.7 x 10' V (to 2 s.f.) 4or x 8.85x 10 "x 0.015 them closer together is
= - 0.6074... = -0.61 ) (to 2 s.f.J negative..

•Er~l~
· ll Module 6: Section 2 Electric Fields Module 6: Section 2 Electlic Fields Wif A
 Capacitance of a charged sphere 4. Comparing Electric and Leaming Objective:
Tip: For an 'isola ted' You can use the formula for the electric polenlial of a radiaJ field and lhe face • Know and understand
charged sphere, you can
assume lhC! sphere is
that Q = CY (p.346) for c.apacitors to derive an expression for the capacitance
of an isolated charged sphere. assuming the dlarge is evenly distributed.
Gravitational Fields 1hc similarities and
differences between
infinitely far away from lhc gravitational field
•II cxher charg<!S. As it is a charged sphere, you can assume all of its charge is at its You might have thought a lot of the iormulas from the last topic looked familiar
centre and treat ii like a point charge. - elccuic and gravi1ational fields arc more similar Lhan you might think... of a point mass -and
the electric field of a
Tip: \.Ve pui Ille radius Substitute V = ~ into V = .,.!L,,, where R is the radius of the sphere: The main similarities poinl charge.
\.. "f1t£':OI\
R for lhc distance, Specification
A Joi of the formulas used for electric fields are the same as those used for Reference 6.2.2
because we \V<lnt an Q_ Q
equation for the elcclric r. - <hr..R gravitational fields but with Q (or q) instead of M (or m) and 4; , , instead of G:
po1emial al the surface
of too sphere.
Cancel out the Q's: Gravitational field strength: g = t; Electric field stre ngth: E = 6
Newton1s law of
Tip: Yoo ne<>d to be Rearrange for C, which gives: gravitation: f = CMm
-;>
Coulomb's law: F = ,,/J!!...,
4m.;o(
Tip: The graphs of g
a.blc to derive 1his against r<p.30 II and V
equation from Q =CV {_ £, = petmiuivity of free space in Fm·' against r for gravita1iorfaJ
Gravitational iield strength Electric field stre ngth fields lp.3031 are also
and V = .,.Q.,,. for a radial field: E ~ ~
""'£oK c = 4;r<,f? .,_ . for a radial field: g = G~
r
Q
4wc.,
very simHar to the
c =- capacitance of __.,) R = radius of tf}c charged graphs of E against r
charged sphere in F sphere tn m <p.3711 and Vagainst r
Gravitational polential: 'Ix -= Electric potential: V =- .;;. , for clcc~ic fields (p.J74l.
4

Other similarities that a re useful to kno\V include:

Practice Question - Application
Gravitational field strength, g, is Electric field strength, f , is force per
Ql A small meial sphere is being force per unit mass. unit OCKitivc charge.
held stationary directly next
10 a dmged metal sphere, Newton's law of gravitation for lhe Coulomb's law for the electric force
as shown on the right. 5 . 19 cm force between two point masses is bet\veen two point charges is also an
a) What's the elec1ric potcnlial an inverse square law. F a l inverse square la w. F " l
r r
due to the larger sphere at
The electric field

~
Tip: The value "' 1 the centre of the smaller The gravitational
r..,isS.85x10 11 Fm • field lines for a lines for a negative
metal sphere?

I
*
poinL mass... point charge..
b) The smal!er sphere is released so thal it can move freely. and is
repelled by 12.9 cm before being stopped again. How mudl Tip: Doo't fClrgct - a
spherical mass acts
work is done in moving the sphe re by this distance? as a point ma:ss and a
c) The smaller sphere has a radius of 2.1 1 cm. Calculate its GravitaLional potential. v,.. is Electric potential~ V, is potenlial spherical ch3rge acts as
capacitance when it's in isolation. potential energy per unit mass energy per unit positive charge and a point charge.
and is zero at infinity. is zero al infinity.

1Pi@H3:k•ilt:?1U.i.p :ffli:t:fi.111 The main differences

Ql What is meant by the electric potential of a point!
Q2 Ske tch the graph of electric polential V against d istance r in a radial
field for:
a) a positive point charge.
b) a negative poinl charge.
QJ State the two equations needed to derive an equation for the
capacitance of a charged sphere in terms o f the radius of the sphere.
Although gravitational and electric fields are similar, they're not the same:
Gravitational forces are always attractive. Elec1ric forces can be either
attractive or repulsive.
Objros can be shielded from electric fields, but not gravitational fields.
The size of an electric force depends on the medium bchvecn the charges,
e.g. p lastic or air. For gravitatio nal iorces, 1his makes no d ifference.
1 µera. t3:1.-111:i1.1.1.g 1
m,.
...•.•lli<.,..i tr:iif.•11 1_______ _
11
Ql List three similarities bcl\vecn electric and gravitational fields.
Q2 Give 1wo differences bet\veen electric and gravitational fields.

•Er~iJMI Module 6: Section 2 Electric Fields Module 6: Section 2 Electlic Fields Wfc
 Section Summary
Make sure you know...
Exam-style Questions I
That an elccuic field is one type of field that gives rise to a force.
That you get electric fields around charges.
That the elec'Lric field strength, f , is defined as the force per unil posilive charge in a n electric field.
6
Ho\v to use the equation E = to calculate electric field strength.
That an electric field around a point charge is radial.
The diagram shows a {positively charged) alpha particle being fired in a straight
line belween charged parallel plates. travelling parallel to the plates.
Which of the following statements is correct?
How to represenl radial electric fields using field lines, where 1he d ire<.."tion of the field lines shovv the +f(}() v
direction in which a positive dlarge would move if ii was placed in the field.
That the further a part electric field lines are, the weaker the electric field al that point.
That a charged sphere can be treated as if all of ils cha rge is concen trated at the cenLre of the sphere,
and so has a radial electric field. +OV

How to use Coulomb's Jaw, F = Qq •• to find the force between two point charges in a vacuum. A The particle's path will be deffecled downwards.
. . . . 41ft.11r
That e0 1s the perm1H1vuy of free space. B The particle's path will be deffected upwards.
How Lo use the equation f = ..,.Q_., to calcula te the magnitude of f in a radial field. C The particle's path will not be deffected.
4.,..-e .. r
What a graph of f against r for a radial field looks like. o The particle will be forced back in the direction it came.
What is meant by a uniform electric field.
( 1 mark)
What a parallel plate capacitor is, and that it contains a uniform electric field when there is a

How lo use the equation E = *

potential difference across the pla1cs.
10 calculate the electric field strength of a uniform electric field.
That the cqua1ion used to calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is C = ~ when
2 Which of the following is true for an isolated charged sphere in a vacuum?
A
B
The capacitance of the sphere is only dependent on its mass.
The capacitance of the sphere is only dependent on its radius.
there is a vacuum between the two plates, and that the equation becomes C =
another material be1ween the two plates.
c;
\vhen there is C The capacitance of the sphere is only dependent on its charge.
o The capacitance of the sphere is only dependent on its charge and radius.
The equation,;: =c,c0 and how to use it to calculate the permittivity o f a material.
(1 mark)
That a charged particle follovvs a curved path when entering a n electric field at right angles.
What is meant by the electric potential al a point, and that electric potential becon1es zero at an 3 Which of the following graphs shows how the magnitude of the force, F. needed to move
infinite distance from a point charge. a point charge away from a charged sphere with radius R. varies with distance. r.

r------1 ')y-- ']~ '11 J

How to use the equation V = ~ to calculate the electric potential at a given point in a radial
electric field. 1fEof

That a charge can experience a change in electric potential when moving through a n elec1ric field.
How to use the formula Qq to calculate the elec1ric potential e nergy al any distance from a point
charge. 41rf..r
How to sketch a force-d istance graph for both a point a nd a spheric.al dlarge, and thal the a rea under
rl L-/ -U-----, ~' J-!L.,
A B c D
this graph between two distances \viii give 1he \.York done to move a unit charge behveen those two
d istances. (1 mark)
How to derive the cqua1ion C = 4wt-.rft and how to use it to calculate the capacila nce of an isolaled 4 Point A is exactly halfway belween a lithium nucleus (containing 3 protons and
charged sphere.
2 neutrons) and an electron. The electric field strength at point A is E.
The simila rities and diiferences behveen gravitational and electric fields.
One of the protons is then removed lrom the lithium nucleus. making it a helium nucleus.
What is the new electric field strength at point A?

A ¥ B t c ¥ D 2E
( 1 mark)

•Er~j-J
-11 Module 6: Section 2 Electric Fields Module 6: Section 2 Electlic Fields
 5 A charged sphere carrying a charge of -34.7 µC is fixed to tile bottom of a plastic Module 6
tube. Anotller sphere, with a charge of -92.5 µC, is dropped into tile tube and
allowed to move freely until It comes to a rest above tile fixed sphere. The force due
to gravity acting on tile top sphere is 1.99 N. This is shown in Fig 5.1 .
1. Magnetic Fields Leaming Objectives:
Fig 5.1 • Know lhal magnetic
You"ve met gravitational fields,. you've met electric fields,. and now itS time fields are due to
t for 1he final son - magnelic fields. moving charges or
permanent magn~s.
• Be able to USC
What is a magnetic field? magnetic field lines to
A magnetic field is similar lo a gravitational field (page 297) and an electric map magnetic fields.
field (page 368) - it's a region in which a force acts. In a magnetic field, • Be able to sketch 1hc
a force is exened on magnetic ma1erials (e.g. iron). magnetic field paucrns
plastic tube for a long straight
Magnetic fields exist around permanenl magnets and moving charges.
Magnetic fields can be represented (mapped) by field lines. Field lines go current-carrying
conduaor, a flat coil
from nooh to south. The closer the lines, the stronger the field. If the field and a long solenoid.
Fixed metal sphere lines arc equally spaced and in the same direction the field is uniform (i.e. lhe
• Be able: to use
same everywhere). Fk!ming's left-hand
At a neutral point magnet.le rule.
fields cancel out Specification
(a) Calculate the distance between the centres of the spheres when sphere A comes lo

~~~
Reference 6.3.1
rest. You can assume that tlley do not touch.
(2marks)
The top sphere is now placed on a smooth, horizontal plane between two parallel
plates, as shown (from above) in Fig 5.2.
Rgure 1: The magnelic fields creatt!d by biJr magnru.
Fig 5.2

+V
Magnetic fields around a wire
When current flo\vs in a wire Of any other long straight conductor, a magnetic
field is induced around the wire. The field lines are concentric circles centred
on the wire. The direction of a magnetic field around a current-carrying \Vire
-92.s,,c can be worked out with the right-hand rule:
Curl your right hand into a fist and stick your thumb up.
Po int )'"OUr thumb in the direction of the current through the wire.
Your curled fingers will then show lhc direction of the field.

(b) Describe the electric field produced between the two parallel plates.
(2 marks) Magnetic; fidd
(c) The electric field causes a force of 0.18 N to act on the sphere. Galculale the
electric potential of the top plate, V.
(3 marks)
(d) The capacitance of the two parallel plates is 34.5 pF. and the area of each plate is Rgure 2: A aurent.carrying
0.31 m'. Stale Whether the space between the plates is a vacuum or not. wire induces a circular
magnmic fic~ld around il
(2marks) - 1./le noodles of 1.he small
Rgure 3: Diagrarn ro show haw }OOf right hand can be used to show compasses fo/Jmv a circle
the dirc-x:tion of ntagnetic rtefd lines around a currenr-<arrying w;rc. around the wire.

•IEl~:!i~ll Module 6: Section 2 Electric Fields Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism

 Flat coils and solenoids Fleming's left-hand rule
Tip: The external
You can loop a current-carrying wire inlD a coil to get differe nt magnetic field You can use your left hand to find the direction of the current, the direction of magnetic field in
shapes. There are three types of coil you need to kno\.v: the single tum coil, the external magne tic field or the direction of the force on the wire (as long ncming's lcl1-hand
the fla t coil and the long solenoid (see Figure 4) . as you know the other l\VO) . Stretch your thumb, forefi nger and midd le finger rule doesn'11ake into
Tip: A solenoid is just a out, as sho\vn in Figure 8, and use the following rules: acc:ouni the fieJd around
coil with length. the wire as in Figure 7.
The f irst finger poinis in the d irection of the uni£onn magne1ic f ield.
It's just the field before
The st.~ond finger poinLS in the d irection of the conventional ~urrcn t. the currem was there.
Tip: The right-hand rule

al-so works for a coil.
Point your thumb in the
direction of the currem
and )'UU'll see tha1100
induced magnetic fi(-!ld
curls around the coil
like a doughnut.
doughnut shaped, while a solenoid fonns a field like a bar magnet (see Figure 5).
j
The thuMb points in the d irection o f the f0<ce (lhe direction of Motion).
- - fidd lincs Tip: C:onvcmional
~ <.umml in wiru current flows in lhc
F;gure 4: A single turn coU of area A (lef1J, a l/Jt coil of area A and N 1.ums - kJn.".e direction that a positive
where N > 1 (middle}, and a long solenoid of N wrns and length I (riglu). charge would Oow,
i.e. from posi1ivc to
The magnetic fieJd surrounding a single 1urn coil and a Oat coil is nega1ive.

!fi field lines

"":~
field Ii~
~<UffOOt
~ficld lin<!S
Rgure 8: Flm#ng's left.hand rule for a current..carryjng lvire in a magnetic r1ekl.

Example
A current-c-•u rying wire runs
Tip: As long as the
magnetic poks are
wide enough, you can
assume the magnetic
field between them is
between two magnets, as shown uniform.
on the righ L What direction will
Hgure S: The magnetic fields cre-ated try a current- the force on the wire be? Direa/M"'cu"''" ~
carrying wire ;n a flat coil (left) and a solenoid (rig/11) .

Rgure 6: Steel fiNngs show
the magneu·c field around a
sjngk?-rurn coil.
fxk.Ynal
Force on a current-carrying wire JuSl use Fleming's left-hand rule nragnerx:, ,,.___,.
to find the direction of the force.
rr you put a currenl-carrying wire into an external magnetic field (e.g. between freld Motkm
Remember, the magnetic field goes NtoS
two magnets), the field a round the wire and the field from the magnelli are from the north pole to the south pole, (fort~)
added 1oge1her. This causes a resultant field - lines closer togethe r show so the fon.-e on the wire acts upwards.
where the magnetic field is stronger. These bunched lines cause a 'pushing'
force on the \Vire. Figure 7 shows the rcsuhant field and force when a
c:urrenl-carrying wire is perpendicular to an external magnetic field.
Practice Questions -Application
wire with <-:Urrf!lll Q l A current-carrying wire is shown on lhe right wilh

;··~):C
the current 1ravellrng into the page. Copy the diagram
and sketch the magnetic field generated by the c urrent.
Figure 9: British physicist

a\~ I
Tip: A solid dot like
Q2 A section of wire with a direct c urrent John Ambrose Hemjng.
in Figure 7 <• >shows running through it is fixed a t two
current flowing out of points and placed in a uniform
the page (Of towards the magnetic field as sho\vn. In wha t
reader). A drcte with a direction will the force on the wire ac1?
cross (®) sho\vs current magoc>lit· field of wrre - tt~ultanl m agrn-!iic field dire<.1km al""'"'"'
going imo the page (or magneuc fickl of magnets '"wire and magnets
away from the reader). Practice Questions - Fact Recall
This nota1ion can also be Rgure 7: /JjctgranJS showing lire magnetic field ofa wjre in an C!Xtemal Q l Where are magnetic fields found?
used to show field lines magnetic fteld (left) and the resulldnt magn"-•tic freld and force produced (n'ghr).
going into or coming out Q2 In which direction do magnetic field lines poirn?
of th<! page. The size of the force depends on the component oi the magnetic Q3 Stale which aspect of a magnetic field is re presented by the closeness
field 1hat is perpendicular to the current The direclion or the force is always of magnetic field lines.
perpendicular to both the c urrent directjon and the magnetic field - it's given Q4 Which hand can you use 10 find the direccion o f the force acting on a
by Fleming's left-hand rule (see the next page). If the c urrent is parallel to current-carrying \Vire al a righl a ngle to a magnetic field? State \vhat
the field lines the size of the force is O N - there is no component of the each finger represents on this hand.
magnetic field perpendicular to the current.

i:f' Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism W!:kA

 Leaming Objectives: 2. Magnetic Flux Density c.urrunt
• Know what magnP.tic
flux density is, and Magnelic fields, as you might expect, can have differem field strengths.
that its uni1 is the The suength of a magnetic field is kno~vn as I.he n1agnelic flux density.
tesJa_
• Know hO\v to
calculate the force What is magnetic flux density?
aaing on a curren1. The iorce on a current-carrying \Vire at a right angle to an external magnetic
carrying conductor field is proponional Lo the magnetic flux density, B. Magnetic flux density is figure 1: Diagram showing a magnctk fteld, B, at an angle, b, to a
using f = B/Lsin O. sometimes called the strength of the magnetic field. It is defined as: current-carrying wire. The component of the magnet.ic (refd which is
• Know tcdmiques and perpendicular to lhe current-carrying wire is also shmvn (=- BsinOJ.
procedures used m
determine 1hc uniform The force on one metre of wire carrying a current of So, for a wire at an angle 0 to the field, the force acl'ing on lhe wire is given by:
magnetic nux density one amp at right angles to the magnetic field.
bct\...·ccn the poles Figure 2: Serbian-Nnefican
F = force on a current· ,,,.----__ J = rurrent through the wire in A
of a magnet using a GJJrying wire in N ~ ; . physicist Nikola T~sla,
currcm--carrying wire Magnetic flux density is a vector quantity with both a direction and a f = 8/L sinO ~o = ang/ebetwocn after whom the SI unit of
and a digitaJ balance. magnitude. h is measured in teslas, T. One tesla is equal to one newton per magnetic: flux densiry is
I \ wire and field

Specification
Reference 6.3.1
Tip: I! can help 10 think
of flux density as the
number of magnetic
fietd linC3 IX!r unit area.
Tip: One 1esla is also
cquivalem to 1 weber
per square metre.
Webers !\'lb) are the
uni1 of magnmic flux
!page 394).
J
amp per metre: named.
B = magnetic flux ___/ . .
densily ;n r L = length of the wrre mm
1 Lesia = 1 -J:k Tip: Remember,
sin90" =1 and
The sin 0 in the equation means tha1 when the wfre and magnetic field sincr = o.
are perpendicular to one another (0 = 90"), the force acting on the wire is at a
When a currenl-f'.arrying wire is at 90" to a magnetic field, the size of maximum (sin II= 1). When the c urrent a nd field are parallel (0 = 0°) there's
the force on the wire, f , is proponional to the current, I, the length of \Vire in no force acting on the wfre (sin 0 = 0)- see Figure 3. Exam Tip
the field, L, and the nux density, 8, of the e<lernal magnetic f1eld. This gives You'll !Jo given this
the equation: equation in the exam
----+ <:urrcnl dala and formulae
- - magnetic.: field
bool<l<!t, but noc F= BIL.
F~ fatce on a CUFrl!flt- , , , _ , - I= current through
carrying wire in N ~ f the wire in A Remember, F = BI/. is
just a spcciaJ case \.\'here
f : 81L-.__ . . sinO= sin9Cr = 1
B = magnetic nux _J L = length of lhe Wife rn n1 <soo Figure 3).
density in T

Tip: I mT (millitcsla) is
equal to I x IQ..JT.
= =
If 0 90°,f BIL If 0 = 300, f = 811. x 0.5 tf 0:0°, f =O
Exan1ple -i&.§!tj;1fl1 N
A section of wire carrying a current of S.2 A is placed al right angles Rgure 3: The force acting on a current.carrying wire
to a uniform magnetic field with a flux density of 19 mT. 1£ the wire in a uniform n1agnet.ic fleld at 90", JU' and <r.
experiences a force of 1.2 x 1o-2 N, what length of wire is inside the
magnetic field?
Example-ift§i!if§10
First rearrange the rormula f = 811. to make L the subject: A 0.7 1 m wire carrying a current of 4.1 A lies at 32° to a uniform
magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts a force of 0.17 N on the wire.
f : 8/L => l.= .fu
Calculate the magnetic flux density of the magnetic field,
Put in the numbers:
Rearrange f = 81LsinU 10 make 8 the subjecl, then plug in the numbers:
L 1.2x10' - o1'> 1 - ol>m (to >sf )
(19X1 0 ')X 5.2 - - - ... - - - - ..
F - 8/LsinO => 8-~ 8
ILSIOU

When a current-carrying wire is at any angle to the magnetic field, 8 0.17 0.1 10
the force acting on the wire is caused by the component of the magnetic field 4.1x0.71x sin32"
\Vhich is perpendicular to the wire - 8 sin 0, see Figure t. - o.1 1 T(to2s.f.)

Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Wt:C A


Tip: Remember to carry
ow a. full risk assessmcm
before )'OU do this
cxpe:riment
Tip: The 'slab' magnets
used in this cxpcrimen1
have poles on lheir
1arges1 faces.
Measuring magnetic flux density Convert your mass readings into force using F =mg, then plot your
data on a graph of force F against currcnl I. Draw a line of besl fit. You
You can use a digitaJ balance and Lhe seL-up shown in Figure 4 to investrgate
should find 1ha1 you get a graph through 1he origin showing that force is
Lhe uniform magnelic field bel\veen the poles of a magnet a nd obtain a value
propooional 10 c urrent. Because F = 8/L, the gradient ol the line of best fil is
for fl ux densi1y, 8, using F = 811..
equal lo BJ.. Because the lenglh is constant, you can d ivide the gradienl by
your value for L 10 get !he magnelic Oux density, 8.
length of wire perpendicular
to the magnetic 1/e/d, L
Example --f 1~!ftMh§ll
direction of
.._____ current in wire A student carries out the experiment described above to find the magnetic
flux density, 8. Complete the data table below and plot the results on a
. / n' " " - - - support for wire graph. Describe the relationship between force and current, and estimate
a value for B.

Convert the masses in g to kg by dividing them by 1OOO.

J
Then use F::: mg lo turn the masses into forces and draw the graph: Tip: Remember
g =9.81 Nkg...
This son of magnet is mean mass recorded
sometimes called a currem I A
on mass 00/ance I
'magnadur magnet'.
1.0 0.20 Tip: G ive the forr.es 10
2.0 0.41 0.0040 the lcas1number of sJ.
that the da1a is given 10 .
3.0 0.61 o.oow
Figure 4: Set.up lot an experiment to measure 17lilgneric flux density.
4.0 0.82 0.0080
Tip: Yoo ooly need
Lo measure Ille length Set up the experimenl sho\.vn in Figure 4. A square hoop of metal Longrh L = 0.050 m rhroughou<.
of wire shown on
the diagram. Even
wire is posilioned so !hat lhe lop of lhe hoop, length L, passes through the
magnetic field, and is perpendicular 10 it. When a curren1(lows, the length IO.O
. .
Lhough the vertical of wire in the magnetic field \Viii experience a downwards force (fleming's - -1-- ,_ ,_ ,, . --1--
8.11 -
pans of the hoop are left-hand rule), which will cause a reading on the mass balance.
-. . "' ..
-
perpcndia.ilar 10 1.he
- -t ,_. ,_ - - ~:::

- ..
field, the forces they feel ~

!--' ....
--..
d.c. f"Y'Vf!f supply 2 b.O
act horizontally, and
so don'1 affect the mm
+
'
~ 4.11 -- ,...,,.,. :;;
I-'
-- ,.
1
- -+-
reading on the balance.
magnet x ....
ma •rK.·
~
-
~ 2.11 -
i.-"'
.ammeter -!? I

.
J

.... I
/)
sqwre l>00p
Tip: It's imponan1 10 of wire /)
' I
I.II 2.(/ :w 4.0
zero the balance when
c urre.nt I I\
no curren1 is flowing so
that the mass reading
F;gure S: Circuit diagram for expcrimem to measure magnetic flux The graph is a straight line through the origin, so force is directly
is only due to Lile force density. fhe st.x:tion in n'<f is shown in J.lgure 4.
caused by thecurrem in proportional to current.
I.he magllC!tic field (and
The d .c. power supply should be connected to a variable resistor 8 L=gradienl= Ll.y = (8.0x 10'} -(2.0x 10')
not due to the mass oC
1he cquipmem}. so lhal you can alter the current Zero the d igital balance when there is no
iii a.o - 1.0
= 2.0 x 10--'
current through the wire. Turn on the d .c. power supply - if the mass reading
is negative, turn off Lhe d.c. power supply and s\vap the crocodile clips over 8 =gradien t ~ L = 2.0 x 1 O > ~0.050
Tip: A d.c. power so Lhal the mass is positive. =0.040 T
supply is used so 1ha1 Note the mass showing o n lhc digital balance and the current. Then
the direction of the force use Lhe variable resistor to c hange the currenl a nd record the new mass
is constant - if an a.c. reading. Repeal this umii you have tested a large range of curre nts, then do
supply was used, the the whole thing twice more so thal you have 3 mass readings for each current
d irection of the force
would koop changing. C.alculate the mean for each mass reading to improve the precision or the
resulL'i.

Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism WI:!

 lfr@.t3:i•ii!:f1ji.},g@·!jtiirtf1,t.1,1 3. Forces on Charged Particles Leaming Objectives:
Ql a) A 25 cm straight \Vire carrying a c urrent o f 4.0 A is p laced inlo a • Be able to use
Any charged particle in a magnelic field feels a force as long as its moving - F = BQv to calculate
magnetic field of magnetic flux density 0.20 T. The angle between you need to know how to calculate the size .1nd direclion of rhe force.
the magnetic field lines and the \Vire is 53°. Calculate the force the force on a charged
acting on the wire due to the field. paniclo llllvelling
at right angles to a
b) The wire is ro1a1ed so tha t it's parallel 10 the magnetic field lines. Charged particles in a magnetic field uniform magnetic
What is the force acting o n the wire now? A force aclS on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field. This is why a field.
Q2 The diagram below shows an experiment set-up to determine the current-carrying wire experiences a force in a magnetic field (page 382) • Unders1and the oflco
magnetic nux density of a uniform magnetic field between two slab - cleclric currcnl in a wire is the flow or negatively charged electrons. on a cha11,'Cd paniclc
magneL'>. A square wire hoop is placed such that the horizontal The force on a currem-carrying wire in a magnetic field perpendicular moving in a magnetic
length Lis perpendicular Lo 1he field between the magnets. The wire Lo 1he current is given by F = BI/. (J>age 384). field, and how this
can lead to circular
carries a c urrent of 3.0A. The hoop is connected to a d.c. power Sf,.
Electric current, I, is the flow of charge, Q, per unit time, r. So I= orbits o f charged
supply, a variable resistor and ammeter. A charged particle whidl moves a distance L in lime l has pariides.
a veloci1y, v =}. =
So L vt. • Know what happens
Putting all these equations together gives the force acting on a 10 charged particles
single charged particle moving through a magnetic field, where its velocity is moving in a region
perpendicular to the magnetic field: OCctJPicd by both
cteoric and magnc.'1.ic
fields, and how this
is used in a vcloci1y
selector.
SP4Cification

F = force in N - - -
F- B v
cc-Q = charge on the
p;11tidein C
Reference 6.3.2

B = magnetic flux $ - - - - r = w/oci1y O( the

a) Draw a circuil diagram of lhe sel-up described above. dens1ty m T particle in ms r
b) Explain why a variable resistor is used in the circuit.
Exam Tip
c) Explain why the vertical lengths of wire arc unimportant and only
Example --f$$BS1flld In many exam questions,
length Lis measured. An electron !rave.ls a t a V<'locity of 2.00 x 1CJ' ms- perpendicular lo a
0 Q is the size of the
d) The mass shown on the balance is recorded for a range of uniform magnetic field of strength 2.00 T. Whal is the magnitude of the char&"<? on the electron,
currents. Explain ho\v this inionnation can be used to detennine which rs 1.60 x10 "c.
force acting on the electron? (The magnitude of the charge on an e.lectron
the magnetic flux density. is 1.60 • 1o-" C.}
Just use the equation f = BQ v a nd put the correct numbers in:
lfr!NHS:l•llt~f1ii·lrb iMl:t:i4Hil f = BQv
Ql Give the condition needed 10 use the equation F = BIL Lo calculate = 2.00 • (l .60 x 10 "') • (2.00 x 1O')
the force on a c urrent-carrying wire in a magne1ic field. = 6.40xlO"N
Q2 Explain why the force acting on a wire due to an external magnetic
field is al a maximum when the wire and lhe magnetic field a re
perpendicular to one another.
The circular path of particles
Charged particles travelling perpendicular 10 a magnetic field Lravel in
a circular path - see Figure 2. By Fleming's left-hand rule the force on
a moving charge travelling perpendicular to a magnetic field is al\vays
perpendicular to its direction of travel. Mathematically, that is the condi1ion
for circular molion (page 277).
To use Fleming's left-hand rule (page 383) for charged particles, use Figure 1: Circular tracks
your second finger (normally current) as the direction of motion for a positive made by ch.1rged paniclc.-s
dlarge. If the particle carries a negative dlarge {i.e. an electron), point your in a cloud chamber with an
st.'Cond linger in the opposite direction to iis motion. applied magnelic field.

•Eil:!-J·ll Module 6: Section 3 Eleclromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism WI:" M

 This means that:
The radius of curvalure increases (i.e. the panicle is deflected less) if the
mass o r velocity of the particle increase.
The radius of curvalure decreases (i.e. the particle is deflected more} if lhe
strength of the magnetic field or the charge on the particle increase.
A1ab'netic Ueki
Tip: Yoo'll often need
10 draw JO situations
;n10 paf"!' (~)
Example --f3§1$'®'d
in 20 like 1his (or A proton travels through a magnetic field of flux density 6.0 m T Tip: Protons have a
in1crpm1 20 diagrams Rgure 1: A charged particle moving perpendicular lo at a velocity of 11O ms-•. The direction of travel of the proton is mass of Lh73 x 10 " kg
as a JO situaLion). Jusl a magnetic field follows a circular path. perpendicular to the magnetic field. Calculate the radius of the and a charge equal to
remember that a cross circular path of the proton. the elementary charge
always means "into lhe c= l .C.Ox I0 1' C.
This effec1 is used in particle accelerators such as cyclolrons and mv (1.673x10 ")xllO You'll ~ given lhese in
page• and a dot means t =1KJ (6 _ox1o
•oot ol the pagc•. synchrolrons, wtiidl use magnetic fields to accelerale particles to very high
ene rgies along circular paths.
It's also used in mass spectrometers to analyse chemical
@
®
1x!1.6ox1o

Exarnples -i3§ifti1§11
t') 1.916... xlO " = 0 .1 9mm(lo2s.f.)
your data and 'ormulae
booklet in lhe exam.

samples. Ions (charged particles) with the same velocity are made ~
to enter a magnetic field which deflects 1hem in a curved pa th towards
a detcc1or. The radius of curvature depends on the charge and mass of the
particles (see equation below). The identity of the ions reaching Lhe detector
can be deduced from their mass to charge ratio.
For each of the following, say which of the two particles would follow a
circular path with the snlJ.ller radius in a nlagnetic field of flux density 8.
a) A carbon-1 2 nucleus with velocity v, relative nlass of 12 and relative
charge of +6, and a carbon- 14 nucleus with velocity v, relative mass of
14 and relative charge of +6.
The radius of lhc circular path followed by the particles is given by:

~
( 7l'6
~
I ~ = BQvl In this case v, Band Qare identical for both panicles but m is larger for

.~
the carbon-14 nucleus. As r is directly proportional tom, the carbon-12
® nucleus wi II follow the circ ular path with the smaller radius.

j _} ®
® ® ®
b) A carboo-14 nucleus with velocity v, relative mass of 14 and relative
charge of +6, and a nitrogen-14 nucleus with velocity v, relative mass
of 14 and relative charge of +7.
m, v and 8 are identical for both particles but Q is larger for the
Figure 4: False-colour cloud
chamber image showing
the dif{(yent paths of a
prown (red) and an alpha
Figure 3: Diagrams showing the force acting on a particle in a circular nitrogen nucleus. As r is inversely proportional to Q, the nilrogen parrk/e !yellow) in lhe
orbit (/efrJ and the force acting on a partido in a magneli<: field (righrJ. nucleus will follow lhe circular path with the smaller radius. chamber's nragneUc fteld.

The radius of lhe circular path followed by charged particles in a

Tip: For more on magnetic field can be found by <.-ombining the equa1ions for the for<.-e on
circular mo1ion, sec a charged panicle in a magnetic field and for the force on a particle in a Velocity selectors
pages 273-279. circular orbit Velocity selectors are used to separate out charged particles of a certain
vclod1y from a slream of accelerated diarged particles moving al a range of
f = ":"' and F = BQv => m/ - BQv speeds. They do this by applying both a magnetic and an electric field at the
same time perpendicular to each other, while a stream o( particles is iired
This re.arranges to: perpendicularly to both fields at a device wi1h a narrow gap called a collimator. Tip: Negatively-chargcd
panick!s would
Particles fired into the velocity select°' experience opposing forces
r - - m = ntass of the particle in kg from the electric and magnetic fields (see Figure 5). So, for positively-charged experience these
r = radius of circular ~ forces in Lhe opposite
particles travelling through a n electric field that goes from top to bottom and a
path in m ----.._ r = ~.,.____ v = magnitude of the vek>dty magnetic field that goes straight into the page:
directions. Here, Lhe
Tip: A '\I is cancelled o"<'~ of rite particle in ms ' magnetic field would try
from the 1op and B = magnitude of 1he _/f " . . . The magnetic field tries to deflect the particles upwards - check this to denoct lhc panides
bouom in Lhe final magnetic flux dcnsi!y in f Q = Chart'l(I 00 the paruc/e In C with Fleming's left-hand rule. The force on each particle is F = BQ v (see downwards and 1hc
rearrangemen1here. page 389). elecuic field would try
to deflect Lhe panicies
The electric field rries to denect partides down·wards (opposite charges upwards.
attract, like charges repel). The force on the particle is F = EQ (see p.373).

•EJcl
· l~•ll Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Wp!
 1Qrf4,C3:i•lil:?1.t.J,pgr.j ti l l1!1,!l ,1'1!tfi"!11."!,J:[,:;:1;,,1-------
Tip: f-<>r the examples
on lhis page, tho
el«Lric fieldl E, goes
Lop to bouom {i.e.
down the page), and
J.1.--t-+--
force due lo
magnetic fiek/,
f= B()y
0 1 Why would a neutron moving through a magnetic field perpend icula r
to its dir<.--ction of motion not experience a force?
Q2 In which direction will the force d ue to the magnetic field act on the
electron in the diagram belO\v?
Tip: Neuuons., a1ong
with protons, are one:
ol the nucleons found
J
magnetic field __.. in atoms. They have a

• • • •
the magnetic fieldl B1
goes straight into the into paJ,ie mass of 1.675 x 10" leg
page. The particles are force due w and carry no chari,'<!.
- -->--+-- electric field,
positiv<ly-charged. e/ecuic field
~
• • • •
F =EQ
ila:ttun
Figure 5: .A charged pan.idc rra~elling lhrough an eit'Ctric field th.u goes Mag11etk: fHM
out "'paper reJ
from lOf' lo bottom and a magnetic field that goes suaighr inw the page.
11te pa11ide experiences opposing lotces irom the two fields.

~rticles will be deflected unless the forces balance (i.e. BQv = EQ).
Cancelling Qs a nd rearranging gives:
• • • •
QJ Find the force that acts on a particle with a charge of 32 x l <T" C
travelling a t a velocity of 5.S x 101 m> 1 perpendicular lo a magnelic
field with a fl ux density of 640 mT.
f ....-- f = ele<:lfic fteld suength in NC ' Q4 A charged particle is moving at right angles to both an electric
v =- velocity of the _ _ . . v =- 1i . . . field and a magnelic field, which are also perpendicular lo each
paru·c1a in ms ' ~ B =- magncuc flux denstty m 1 Ill her. The flux density of the magnelic field is 20.0 mT. Calculate
the magnitude of lhe electric field if the panide is moving at
i
So only panicles with velocity v = as given above will travel in a 5.2 x 10' ms- 1 in a straight line.
straight line 10 pass through the gap in the collimator. QS a) The size or the force needed Lo keep an object in circular motion
faster panicks defleczed is given by F = ~- Combine chis with F = BQv lo find an

masne•k r..Jd

;nro~
' \ + + + + + + + ~.~ ~: :.:
1/ n
upwards (BQv > EQ)

~l.-··LY~J;mator
expression for the magnetic nux density B needed co keep a
charged particle in circular moLion for a given radius rand orbital
speedv.
b) In a circ ular particle accelera1or with a radius o ( 5.49 m, protons
are acceleraled lo 1.99 x 107 ms 1• Find the magnetjc flux density
B that's required to keep the protons following the circular path
ol the accelera tor. m• = 1.673 x 10" kg and O,. = 1.60 x 10 " J.

Tip: The directions of

deflection are reversed
for negatjvety..chargcd
panicles.
..s.::- ·-----,~~~::~~f\o· eleduc fteld slower pattkles deflected
1 Pr'9, tq:1.. 111:i1u.1, .m
.tllil.1..;11<.~1.+•. 1_______
11 i1111..
Ql If an electron is travelling through a uniform magnetic field
do<wnwatds (EQ > BQv) peipendicular 10 its velocity. what shape will its path take?
(Assume il has infinite space to move into.)
Rgure 6: Diagram showing the possible paths ofpositivuly-charged
particles through a velocity se/ec1or.

You can select and vary the velocity of the particles that get through
the collimator b) changing the strenglh or the magnetic or electric fields.
1

Tip: A mass Veloci1y selectors arc often used in mass spectrometers 10 e nsure that the
spearomeier is a device accelerated particles enlering the magnetic field have the same velocity.
that identifies particles
by their mass to charge Example -f8tjilj1flll
ratio (See p.J90).
Calculate the magnetic nux density required in a velocity selector to
isolate charged particles tra..,lling through a 3.4 • 1o• NC- 1 electric field
at 2.1x 10s ms-1 •
Rearrange v =j a nd put 1he correct numbers in:
v = ~ => B = f =~ = 0.1 61 9 ... = 0.1&T<to2s.f.)

cfl Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Wp .kA

 Leaming Obj ectives:
• Know what magnP.tic
flux. <P. is and lhat it's
measured in wcbcrs.
• Know Whal magnetic
nux linkage is.
• Be able 10 caJculate
magnetic flux using
</>= l!AcosO.
Specification
Reference 6.3.3
Tip: Yoo can only use
100 equa1ion <f> = BA
if 8 is normal to A (sec
Figure I) - otherwise
Lhere's an extra term
in 1.hc equation, whidl
you'll sec on page 396.
Figure 2: German physicist
Wilhelm Eduard \'"'1Jcr
made major advances in the
fipJd of clecttomagnetism.
The unit of magnetic flux is
named after him.
•EJc~·}Jll Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism
4. Magnetic Flux and Flux Linkage Electromagnetic induction Tip: E.m.f. is another
If there is relative motion between a conducting rod and a magnc•ic field, lhe way ol saying voltage -
Magnetic flux and flux density are used 10 describe the magnetic field electrons in the rod w ill experience a force (see p389), which causes them to you saw it in Module 4
strcflgth (magnelic flux density) in .1 defined area. If I.he magnclic t1ux of accumula1e at one end of lhc rod. if you need a reminder.
See pages 398407 for
a field is cut by a conductor, an e.m.f. is induced in lhe conducror. This induces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) across the ends
more on induced e.m.f.
of lhe rod exactly as connecting a battery to it would - I.his is called
electromagnetic induction. If the rod is part or a complete circuit, then an
Magnetic flux induced current v.till now through ii.
You met magnetic flux density, B, on p.384 - it's a measure of the strength
oi a magnetic field (or you can think of it as 1he number of field lines per uniL
area). The total magnetic flux, </J, passing through an area, A, perpendicular to
a magnetic field, 8, is defin<..>d as: /\(.:cumulat<..td
ek<:trcHJs
. ____- B =magnetic flux
4> = magneuc flux - - . . . , dc1tsi1y in r
in Wb (webefs} ~ = BA ~
A =area inm'
Rgure J: A conducting rod moving through a magnetic field.
You can think of flux as the number of field lines. But remember thal
An e.m.L is induced when the conductor culS the magnetic flux. The
flux is continuous - field lines are ju.s! a way of drawing it. Figure 1 shows
conductor can move and the magnetic field stay still or the other way round -
magnetic nux inside a single loop coil. The flux inside the coil is q, = BA,
where A =are.a of coil. you get an e.m.f. either w-ay.
You can induce an e.m.f. in a flat coil or solenoid in the same way.
In either case, the e.m.f. is caused by the magnetic field {or 'magnetic flux') Figure 4: flecrromagnetic
tmiform magnetic field, 8 induction is used ro charge
lhal passes through the coil changing (sec Figure 5). If the coil is part of elecuic: 1oothbruslres,
area, A.. of coil a complete circuit, an induced current \Vii i flQIA/ through it. avoiding lhe need /<Jr
exposed wires.
Tip: Th<> o.m.r. can
either be positive or
single loop coil ncga1ive- i1 depends
perpendic11/a1 to 8 field on the direction of
movement and 1.hc way
you conooa lhe wires.
If lhe wires are l~ft
right angle
connected in the same
way, the e.m.f. \v iii
Figure 1: Diagram showing a single loop coil which has an JieaA alternate as lhe magnet
perpendicular to a magnetic field of magnetic flux density B. Figure S: Current and e.m.f. induced when a moves back and ronh.
magnet is m<Ned lO\Vdlds and away from a coil.
Example -i3rj!$i§il
A square with sides of length 4.5 cm is placed in a magnetic field, normal
Magnetic flux linkage
to the field's direction. find the magnetic flux passing through the square When a wire coil is moved in a magnetic field, the size of the e.m.f. induced
if the magnetic flux density is 0.92 T. depends on 1he magnelic flux passing th rough the coil, I/>, and the number of
turns on the coil culling the Oux (p.398). The product of these is called the
Sran by finding the area of the square, remembering to convert the uniLo;: magnetic flux linkage (0< just flux linkage), N</>. Rlr a coil of N turns normal
A= (4.5 x 1(}') x (4.5 x 10 ') = 2.025 x 10-1 m' to B, the Oux linkage is given by:
Then just pu1 the numbers into the equation above: </> = magnetic flux in Wb
ef, = BA = 0.92 x (2.025x10 1) = 1.863 x 10-1 rtux linkage - FI . k _N /
= I. 9 x 1O 1 \l'Jb (lo 2 s.f.) in INb ux 1in age -L,_- N = number of turns on
tlie coil cuuing the flux
You saw on the las1 page Lha1 magnetic flux, I/>, is equal to BA, so it
follows that magne1ic flux linkage, N</J, is equal to BAN.
Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism W§ LA
 Example -i1~ffi$ffi1N And for a coil with N turns, you can find the flux linkage with the equalioo:
The flux linkage of a coil with a cross-sectional area of 0.33 m2 Exam Tip
B = magnetic flux density in T " \ , , - - A = arc."1 of the coil in m' You won·1be given lhis
normal to a magnetic field of flux density 0.15 T is 4.0 Wb. How
many turns are in the coil? in the data and formulae
Flux linkage= N </> = BANcosO - o : anglebem'OOn bookk>t, buc you will
Tip: Oon'1 be templed
Jusi rearrange lhe equation for nux linkage to make N the subjecl / / the normal to the begi""n 4> = 81\cosO,
10 cancel down Lhe 'Ws and 1hen put the numbers in: N<f> = Flux ~ = numbP.r of turns 011 plane of rhe coil and so you just need to
the mJgneUc field in ° remember that nux
here - consider the flux
linkage, N,P, as a
[N,PJ = BAN=> N = 1il11 linkage in Wb the coil cutting the flux
linkage= N9.
Sland.alonc 1erm.
o.1 s4~00.33 = 80.808 ... = 8 11ums (to2s.f.) Example -f!,ffi!Mh®IN
A rectangular coil of wire with exactly 200 turns and sides of leogth
5.00 cm and 6.51 cm is rotating in a magnetic field with B = 8.56 x 1o-> T.
Flux linkage at an angle Find the flux linkage of the coil when the oormal lo the area of the coil is
Whe n lhe magnetic nux isn't perpendicular 10 the a rea you're in1crested in at 12.6° to the magnetic field, as shown below.
(e.g. Figure 6 ), you need to use trigonometry to resolve the magnetic field
vector into componenls lhat are parallel and perpendicular to the area.

Top-down rlow coil of 30 view uniform

magootic
____....,....____,.. ......
~Jz.r,o
_
(t<!/d

First find the area or the coil:

Area= (5.00 x 10 ') x (6.51 x 10-'J = 3.255 x 10 4 m'
Theo jusl put the numbers into lhe equation:
N.p = BANcosO
= (8.56 x IO ''l x (.3.255 x 10·' ) x 200 x cos12.6° = 5.438 ... x 10·'
Tip: Pulling 100 coil Figure 6: ii coil ar .m angle 10 a uniform magnclic liold. :5.44 x 10 1 Wb (Lo3 s.i.)
in Figure C. out of the
magnetic field would
To find the magnecic flux passing through a coil, you're interested in
induce an e.m.f.
1he componenl of the magnetic field pecpcndicular to the area of the coil. By IQrtg,tg:l•lil:?1U.l.fQ·)ffiif$•t.1,I
trigonometry, this is equal to Bcos O- sec Figure 7. Ql A student sets up an experiment to measure the strength of the Eanh's
magnetic field, B. He does this by measuring the fl ux linkage of a
rectangular wire coil.
Tip: Remember
SOCCAH TOA: a) Explain why the flux linkage of the coil changes when he rotates
cos 0= adjacen1+ the coil.
hypotenuse b) The studeot finds the highesl value of fl u< linkage to be
1.3 x 10_. Wb. If he used a coil with an area of
See page 487 for more.
25 cm' and e<acdy 10 turns, find the 10<'.al v.ilue of B.
Q2 A coil of wire \vith 355 turns and an area of 145 cm 2 is placed in a
Figure 7: For a coil at an angle to a nragnetic rreld, lhe component of lhe 2.06 ml magnetic field. Calculate what angle the normal to the plane
freld perpendicular to the area of lhe coil is BcosO, where 0 is the angle of the coil would need to be at 10 the field in order for the coil Lo have
between the field and the normJl to the plane of the ccHI. a magnetic flux linkage ol 10.0 x 1O" Wb.

So ror a single loop o( \Vire when B is nol perpendicular 10

area, you can find the magnelic nux using this equation:
I Ur t;.t3:1.111:~1 u.1.µ ,.m.,
...1.:.<.a.w.,..,.11111________
Q l What are the units of magnetic flu<?
. 0 = angle between tJw normal
</> = m.agnooc flux - - - ~ w the plane of the coil and Q2 Whal is induced when a magnetic field through a conductor cha ngesr
m Wb 4> = BA cos 0 the magnetic rleld in o Q3 What must 4> be multip lied by IO calculate magoetic fl u< linkage?
B = magnetic Rux density in r ~A = area ofthe <.vii in m1

•EJc~
·!JMI Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Wfi

Leaming Objectives:
• Know Faraday's law
of e lectromagnetic
induction.
• Know Lha1
e.m.f. = - ratC! of
change of magneo1ic
Oux linkage, and
be able to calculam
induced e.m.f. using
l!.(N4>)
£ --xr·
• Know tC!chniqoos and
procedures used 10
investiga10 magnetic
nux using search roils.
• Know Lenz's law.
Specification
Reference 6.3.3
Tip: The minus sign
is l.cnz's law - see
pagc401.
Tip: An electromagnet
is an electrical magne'
that can be turood on
and off, and its field
strength can also be
varied.
Tip: In this first
example, it's the
changing magnetic
flux densily (8) 1ha1
causes the change in
Oux linkage. In this
second cxampk?, it's the
changing area (A) that
causes the change in
flux linkage.
Tip: There'<only I
'tum' in a conducting
rod, so you can ignore
the N in f.araday's law.
•ll"~-l-J
-11 Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism
Faraday's equation can be used to find the e.m.f. in terms of a rod's
5. Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law velocity through a magnetic fie ld. Exam Tip
You could be asked 10
more e/ccuonMgnelic induclion coming up for you to sink your
1bere~,. Exan1p1e ~ft§ifi.,§11 find 1he e.m.f. induced
Leeth into.
In this topic, you'll see ho\v Faraday and J.enz tried to explain the on somclhing other Lhan
phenon1enon beuer lvilh che invenlively named Faraday's lav.- and lenZ:s J.11v. The diagram below shows a conducting rod of length L moving through a a rod, e.g. the Earth's
perpendicular unifornl nlagnetic field, 8, at a constant velocity, v. magnetic field across
Faraday's law
Faraday's law links the rate of change of flux linkage with e.m.f.:
Induced e.m.f. is dirc-ctly proportional
to the rate of change ol flux linkage.
& -
<&
&
@L
} ·-rl
Show that e.m.f. induced in the rod is equal to - BLv.
.,
magnetic field
mtopage
the wingspan ol a plane.
Just think of it as a
moving rod and use 1.he
equation as usual.
It can be wriucn as:
& G G
L1(Nt/>) = change ;n ..,.--- N = nu_mber.olturns on Displacement of rod is s = v.6.t (displacement= velocity x time). Area of flux
flux linkage in Wb '"'"" ' the ml cutung the flux it cuts, A = L x s = l.vlit. TOia i magnetic flux cut through, li<I> = BA = Bl.vli1
li (N t/>) Nli (J
< = induced em.r. in V - " =- ~ =- c;:J - - il<f> = change in
Faraday's law gives c = lil.N<i>l
lit
= - li<I> {since N = 1)
lit
L1t = tinre takM for flux _.JI magnetic fJux in Wb . d ed e.m ..
(, t = lit/> _ _ BLvlit _ BLv
• the in uc
So CJ - -zs:r - -
h'nkagc to change in s
For a coil, induced e.m.f. depends on the number of lums and how
fast nux through Lhe coil is changing. The unit of flux, the weber (\<\lb), is Electromagnetic induction graphs
defined in terms of the e.m.f. induced:
The e.m.f. induced in a conductor by a changing external magnetic field is Figure 1: British physicist
equal to the negative of the gradient of a graph ol flux linkage {N</>) against Michael Faraday.
A c hange in nux linkage of one weber per second will time. The area under a graph of e.m.f. against time gives the negative of lhe
induce an eleclronlotivc force of 1 volt in a loop of wire. change in flux linkage - see Figure 2.
Example -IHfflllj1zjlj e.mJ.
A coil with 75 turns and an area of 12 is placed bet·ween l\\'O
cm2
electromagnets. The flux de,nsity or the magnetic field between the
electromagnets is then uniformly incre.ased from 0.15 T to l.5 T over
0.20 seconds. II the plane of the coil is perpendicular lo the magnetic
field lines of the field, calculate the e.m.f. induced across the coil.
ome
Convert area tom2 : 12 cm1 = 12x 10 ..t .: 0.0012 m2
Figure 1: Graphs of flux finkage against time (left) and e.m.f. against time (right)
'"""
Then start with Faraday's law: c = - t!.~t/>) for a conducfO! in a changing ex~nal magnetk r1-ek1.
You saw on page 395 that N.p = BAN, so: Exan1ple -l!,§!lj7§1d
c = _ li(BAN) =- (1 .5 0.15)x0.001 2 x 75 = _ 0 6075 A coil is pla.ced into J uniform magnetic field. The magnetic field density
----z;:;- 6·20 = - 0:61V (to2 s.fJ of the magnetic field is then steadily increased over tin1e. The graph below
shows the flux linkage of the coil against time. Calcula.te the nlJ.gnitude of
When using the formu la above for a conducting rod, think of the e.m.f. induced in the coil.
flux change as field lines being 'cut' as the rod moves. Remember that
N~ / Wb
magnetic flux ef, = BA {see p.394) - here, think of A as the area of flux cut 11.7 ~ ~ magnitude of e.m.f.
in a certain time.
0.(, = magnitude of gradient
o..s
Exan1ple -f$§!$ 1§ij change in y
A copper bar in a uniform magnetic field of 0. 11 T is moved perpendicular 0.4 change in x
to the field for 0.63 seconds. The total area that is covered by the bar in this (/J (0.6 - 0 .0)
time is 42 cnt1. Calculate the e.m.f. induced across the bar. (0.75 0.0)
0.2
~ o.av
• = - li(N<f>) and </> = BA, so: 0.1
lit
c =- li(BAN)
----e;,- = 0.11x0(42x _
10 i -_ _733
. . . x 1 O_. = - 0.73 m V (to 2 s..
f) (I.II
63 (/.(/ 11.2 ().4 0.(, O.IJ time Is
Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Wp"M

Tip: Rcme~r to carry
ou1 a risk assessment
before starting Lhis
experiment.
- The induced e.m.f. is always in sudt a dirce1jon
Tip: This se1-up uses
magneis with poles on
Lheir largest races again
- as on p.386.
Tip: You can also use
lhis method to find the
magnetic flux densi1y, B.
between the magnets.
Flux linkage = ll/\N
(p.395), so just divide
the flux linkage by AN,
where A is 1.hc area of
1he search coil.
Tip: Remember, you
can estimate 1hc area
under a graph by
counting the number
of squares under the
graph 1.hen multiplying
by the value ol ooe
square (see p.4 78).
+.r.r.w Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism
Investigating magnetic flux Lenz's law
You can find the magnetic Oux. if,, passing through an area bet\veen f\vo bar The direction of an induced e.m.f. (and curren1) arc given by lenz's law: Tip: This is why
there's a minus sign in
magnets using lhe set-up in Figure 3.
Faraday's Law.
as to oppose the dlangc that c-.auscd it.
A changing magnetic field induces an e.m.f. in a coil (see page 395).
Tip: Remember, a
current is only induced
if the conductor is pan
tr the coil is pan of a complete circuit, a current is induced in the same of a complete circuit -
d irection as the induced e.m.f. The induced current then produces its own if it isn't an e.m.f. will be
magnetic field {p.381 ). Lenz's law says: induced but no current
Will llo\Y.
If the original magnetic field is getting stronger. the current \Viii be
induced in the d irection that generates a magne1ic field in the opposite
data
recorder d irection Lo the external field, lo try Lo weaken it.
If the original magnetic field is getting weaker (collapsing}, the current
Fig ure 3: Set.up for experiment to inVC'stigare magnetic flllX. \viii tX! induced in the direction that generates a magnc1ic field in the
same d irection as I.he external field, to 1ry to maintain ii.
Place two bar magnets a small d istance apart with opposite poles
faci ng each other - they should be fa r enough apart not to snap together, but Example - -
otherwise as close as possible to give a uniform field. The area of a flat coil is perpendicular to a magnetic field as it collapses
Gel a search coil- this is a small coil of \Vire with a known number by SO'l'o as shown below. What will be the direction of the current
of turns (N) and a known area CA). Connect it to a data reco<der and set induced in the loop?
the recorder to measure the induced e.m.f. \.Vith a very smalI time interval
between readings.
Place the search coil in the middle of the magnetic field so that
the area of the coil is parallel to the surface of the magnets. Start the data
recorder. Keeping the coil in the same orientation, immediately move the coil
o ut of the field. An e.m.f. will be induced due to the magnetic flux linkage
t.hrough the coil changing from maximum, N41, to zero as you remove the coil
from the field.
-field
ro/Llps!JS
Rgure S: A magnedc weight
(right} takes longer w fall
do1.Yn a coppe< tube than a
non-magnetic weight (lefr)
due to Faraday'S and Lenz~
lam. Jhe falling magnet
induced induces a current in !he tube
Use your data or the data recorder to plot a graph of induced e.m.f. magnetic rteld that generates a magneUc
against time. Using Faraday's taw, estimating the area under the graph of (te/d which opposes the
e.m.f. against time and taking the negative gives you an estimate for the total A collapsing field means the field is getting weaker and the field lines are magneUc ftekl of the nlagnet,
flux linkage change (p.399). The final flux linkage is zero since the magnetic getting further apart {p.381). So by Lenz's law the current induced in the slowing it down.
flux density. 8, is zero aVi.iay from the magnelS, so the change in flux linkage is coil will induce a magnetic field in the same d irection as the collapsing
equal to the flux linkage in the uniform magnetic field. Flux linkage= N<!J, so field to try to maintain the original field. Use the right-hand rule (p.381) to
to find ~ in area A, d ivide the total flux linkage change by the number of turns find the d irection of the induced current.
on the search coil (NJ.
Repeal this experimenl several limes and find the mean of your
values for </J.
The induced field is to the lefl, so the induced current is clock\visc when
lime viewed from the right.
Figure 4: An example of J graph of e.nr.f. against u·me
obtained by moving a coU OUl of a magnetic field.
Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism CM
 Example - - - - - - - - - - 6. Uses of Electromagnetic Learning Objectives:
Lenz's law says tha1 1he induced e.mJ. \Viii produce a iorce lhal opposes 1he • Know how a simple
motion of Lhe conductor - in o lher words a resistance. Picture a straight
conductor being moved down through a perpendicular magnetic field.
Induction a.c. gencra1or works.
• Know how a simple
EJectrontagnetic induction allows elecuicity to be produced on a large scale. laminated iron-cored
You'll need co knolv ho~v ilS is used in genetators and transfomK!rs. 1ransformcr works.
• Be able to use
Induced e.m.f. in a rotating coil 11. ~ !t fOI an
The movement of a conductor n, \1' I.
Tip: If yoo\•c forso11cn ideal transformer.
in a magnetic field is uS<.-'d to
which finger is which, Using Fleming's leit-hand rule {sec p.383), point your thumb in the • Know 1echniqucs
hcre?'s a reminder:
generate electrici1y. When a
direction of the force of resistance - which is in the opposile direction to coil such as that in Figure 1 and procedures
8 used to investigate

k /ie/d the motion of the conductor. Point your first finger in the direction of the
field. Your second finger will no\v give you the direction of the induced
e.m.f.
rotates unifonnly (at a steady
speed} in a magnetic field,
Lhe coil cuts the flux and an
uansJormers.
Specification
~C..urmnt forw ;u.1S upwards, alternating e.m.f. is induced.
Reference 6.3.3
(+to I
prcwiding a ntsi'>tam:e The amoun1 of nux cut by
Rgure 1: T/ie value of Ochanges
Tip: Note Lhc axis of
~~
the coil (flux linkage) is given by as the coil ror;ues.
/)in:c;tkNl of jncJucECJ N4> = BANcosO (see page 397). rmation is perpendicular
e.m.f. (and current) to the magnetic field.
As the roil rota1es, O changes so lhe flux linkage varies sinusoidal ly
If the conductor is connected as part oi a circuit, a current will be between +BAN and - BAN. Because the Oux linkage is varying sinusoidally
induced in the same direction as the induced e.m.i. (see Figure 2), the rate of change of flux linkage is always changing, so the Tip: Figure I is a
induced e.m.f., r., is also changing (due to Faraday's law, p.398). You saw top-down view of the
on p.399 Lhal the induced e.m.f. is equal to the negative of the gradient of a coil, as in Figure 6 on
graph of Ntj> against time. So the e.m.f. also varies sinusoidally - ii is al a p.396.
Ql Explain how an e.m.f. can be induced aero.,; the wings of a plane maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to the lines of flux, and is zero
as it is flown. when the coil i.s perpendicular to the lines or flux - see Figure 2. Tip: 'Sinusoidally'
Q2 A \Vire coil wilh exactly 50 turns and an area of 0.24 m' is placed means it follO\vs lhc
perpendicular to a magnetic field with flux density 1.5 T. A few same paucrn as a sin
minutes later the magnetic field is switched off. Calculal.e the (or cos) curve.
magnitude or the e.m.f. induced in the coil if the magnelic nux
density decreased to OT in 0.32 s.
QJ The diagram on the right shows
a 1.2 m long copper \Vire moving
upvvards at a velocity or 0.50 ms 1
o..SOms I Tip: You don'• need
to know these graphs,
they're jus1 here to
j
through a pccpendicular magnetic help you undernand
field or nux density 5.4 mT. generators (see next
page).
a) The wire is pan or a complete circuit State lhe direction of the
current induced in the wire.
b) Calcula1e the magniludc of the e.m.f. induced in the wire.

•@HH:i•t•t@"·"k
Ql What's Faraday's law?
.m....1.;.<!
111jj+..-w11,.,1________
c•NI i.-. perp<utdic;u/ar
'" rhe magnt.'lic field ..•

Figure 1: The sinusoidal graplls produced by pkming flux 5nkage and

J
Q2 What is the gradient of a graph of flux linkage against Lime equal to? induced emJ. against time for a rotaling coil in a uniform magnetic field.
()3 A student places a search coil, with area A, connected lo a data The e.m.f. induced can be altered by changing the speed ol rotation
re<.'Order between two bar magnets. Keeping the area or the coil or the size of the magnetic iield: Tip: 111<! frequency of
the rotation of lhc coil,
parallel LO the surfaces of the magnets, he pulls the coil OUl of the Increasing the speed of rotation will increase the frequency or rotation. f, is related 10 the period
field. The data recorder plots a graph o f the e.m.f. induced in the coil This in turn causes an increase in the rate of change of flux linkage, a nd of the coll, T, by Ille
against time. Explain ho\v the student can use this graph to work out
the magnetic flux passing through area A bet\veen the two magnets.
therefore increases the maximum e.m.f.. equarion r = f. You
Increasing the magnetic nux density B will increase the maximum e.m.f., saw this on p.275.
Q4 What's Lenz's law? but will have no effect on the frequency of rotation.

C !tkA
* ·"f' Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism
 Generators
Genera Lors, or dynamos, conven kinetic energy into e lec1.rical ene rgy -
they induce a n elecuic current by rotating a coi I in a magnetic field.
Power loss in transformers
Real-life transformers aren't lOOo/o efficient - some power is a lways lost. The
n1etallic core is being cut by the continuously changing flux, which induces
an e.m.f. in the core. In a continuous core this causes currents called eddy

J
Rgure 4 shows a simple a lternator - a generator of a herna ting currents, which cause it to he.at up and energy to be lost.
current {a.c.). h has slip rings and brushes to connect the coil to an external
circuit. The output vollage and current change direction with every ha ir Eddy currents are looping currems induced by 1he changing magnetic
rotation of the <."Oil, producing an alternaling currenL flux in the core. They c reate a magnetic field that acts against the field that
induced them, reducing the field strength. They a lso d issipate energy by Tip: There's more
Figure 3: The Cramme on power loss in
generatjng heat. The effect of eddy currents can be reduced by laminating the
dynamo was one of Ille first transformers on
eJecuic genera1ro used to core - thfs involves having layers of the core separated out by thin layers of
insulator,. so a current can't flow. page407.
deliver power for indusuy.

Calculating the e,mJ. induced in

transformer coils
From Faraday's law (page 398), the induced e.m.f.s in both the primary (p) a nd
secondary (s) coils can be calculated:
Figure 4: A simple alternamr.
v, = voltage across p\mary evil in V / %1 = rate of change of flu\ in Wb s '
What's a transformer?
Transformers a re devices that make use of electromagnetic induction ro
Primary coil: V,. = f'ti"' Secondary/ V. = -r~/
change lhe size of the voltage for an a lternating current. They cons ist of two n -= numbeJ of WfflS V. = voltage across n. = number of turns
'on primary coil secondary coil in V on secondary coil
coils of \Vire wrapped a round an iron <."Ore - see Figure 5.
Ideal tran sformers are 100% efficient, so power in equals the power Tip: In an ideal
Mas11e1ic fic'tld in out. lbwer is current x voltage, so for an ideal transformer /PVP = /)V'/ or: transfllfm<:r, the nux
the ircm core through the secondary
~-\I, coil is the: same as the
Is - Vp
flux throogh the primary
This can be combined \Vith the equations for induced e.m.f. in eadl coil: coil and no energy is
lost in lhe transfer.

.~xxmda.ry c:oil
I _ V. _ - n,Ztf
t -~- llJif
- n,z;
Rgure 5: The basic svuaure ofa (step-up) transfonner.
Which gives the trnn.sfonner equation:
An alternating current flowing in the primary (or input) coil produces v. =- vohage across
n. =-number of wms / secondary coil in V
an alternating magnetic fie ld, causing the core 10 magnetise, demagnel'i se and on secondary coil '-......._ . Exam Tip
remagnetise continuously in opposile directions. The changing magnelic field V. 1
..........._. n, It =- curreryt.m This is how the equation
is passed through the iron core 10 the secondary {or outpul) coil, where the n =-- number of rums ---~ n = V.: =- f. pnmary cot/ tn A will appear in your data
rapidly changing Owe linkage through the coil induces an alternating voltage " on prirnary coil ~' • ""---- . and formulae booklet.
(e.m.f.) due 10 Faraday's law - see page 398. The e.m.f. produced is of the / - - - -, =- current m
V,. =- I/Oft.age aaoss scc:Onctary coil in A
same frequency as the input voltage. primary coil in V
Rgure 6: An early version of
a uansfotmct. The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is proportional to the change in
flux linkage, /l (N~), so the size of the e.m.i. induced in the secondary coil Example --f 1~$1$ilfilfl
is determined by the ratio of the number of turns on each coil a long with the What is the output voltage for a transforn1er with a primary coil of
voltage across Lhe primary coil. Step-up transfom1ers increase the vohage 120 turns, a secondary coil of 350 turns and an input voltage of 230 YI
by having more turns on the secondary coil than the primary. Step-down
Just use the equation for an ideal transformer and rearrange it to make
transfonners reduce the vohagc by having fewer turns on the secondary coil.
the output voltage (V) the subject:

-Ii; _ ~ => V. = ~~· - 2301 ~0350 = 670 .83... - 670 V (lo 2 s.f.)

M .lo}I Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism CH A

 Exan1ple -I,, tjifi1filhl
The secondary coil of a step-up transformer has 95 turns. Calculate the
Transformers in the national grid
Transformers a re a n importanl part of the national grid. Electrici1y
@
~
Tip: You saw ~ = P_R in
Module 4: Sec1ron ~
I
number of turns on the primary coil if the current a cross the transformer from power s-la lions is senl round the country in the national grid w~
decreases from 22 A to 4.0 A. al the lowest possible current. This is because a high current causes
grcaler energy losses due to heating in lhc cables. The power losses due
Rearra nge lhe ideal lransformer equalion 10 make nP the subject to the resistance of the cables is equal to P =PR - so if you double the Tip: Although some
energy is lost inside lhe
~ = f. => n, = ¥, = ~ = 17.27 ... = 17tums(lo2s.f.)
lransmitled current, you quadruple the po\ver lost. Using cables wilh the
lowest possible resistance can also reduce energy loss. transformers aLeach
end, it's nmvhere near
Since power = currenl x voltage, a low currenl means a high voltage as mudl as the energy
ror the same amoum or power transmitted. Transrormcrs allow us to step up 1hat would be rose if
Investigating transformers lhe voltage to around 4 00 OOO V for transmission lhrough the naliooal grid. Lhe e lectricity were
You can investigate the relalionship belween the number of turns and the High vohages raise safety and insulation issues, so the voltage has to 1ransmiued at 230V.
vollagcs across the coils of a transformer by setting up the equipment as be stepped bad< down to a safer 230 Vat foe.al substations before it can be
Tip: Make sum you shown in Figure 7. used in homes.
carry out a risk: Pul two (-<.'Ores logelher and wrap \Vire around each lo make lhe
assessmen1before coils. Begin with 5 lums in the primary coil and 10 in the secondary coil (a Other uses of transfonners
carrying out any Transformers are used in many household devices. Lots of electronic devices
ratio of 1 :2). Turn on the a.c. supply to the primary coil. Use a low voltage
experiment. like laplops, mobiles, n1onitors and sp<>.akers f'..an't function using a standard
- remember transformers increase vollage, so make sure you keep it al a safe
level. Record the voltage across each coil. 230 V mains supply - they need a much lower voltage (and usually a d.c.
supply too).
Keeping VP the same so it's a fair test, repeat the experiment with
d ifferent ratios of turns. Try 1 :1 and 2:1. Divide n, by n,and V, by v.- The chargers for these devices contain transformers to adjusl the Figure 9: Plugs can contain
voltage - they're contained in the plug or a box in the cable. uansformets to reduce !he
You should find that for each ratio of turns, ff- = ~. voltage taken from lhc mains.
' '
Tip: The resistor is
connected to the
IQrtg.t§:l•iit:t1U.J.f ·fffflf!iit.h1
secondary ooil 10 stop Q1 a) The primary coil of a transformer has 250 turns. The secondary
large currents rrom low voltage a.c. coil has 420 turns. If the voltage across the primary coil is 190V,
being gencra1ed in lhe supply " ' C'.alculate the voltage across the st.>condary coil.
circuit. b) There is a c urrent o f 13 A in the secondary coil of a different
"' transfocmer. The volLage across Lhe primary coil is 120 V and the
vollage across lhc secondary coil is 75 V. Calculate the current in
the primary coil.
Figure 7: Cxperimenta/ SCt·Up for invesligating the telatk>nship
between the number of turns and volt.ages in ttansformers.
Q2 l.ap<op charger.; contain a tra nsformer that cha nges the voltage from
the mains supply. Mains electricily in the UK supplies 230 V.
To inv~igate the relationship between c urrent a nd voltage of the a} Low resistance wires can be used to increase lhe efficiency of
lransformer coils for a given number of turns in I.he coil you can use the same a transforme r. State one other way in which the e.frlciency of a
equipmenl as before, but add a variable resistor to the primary coil circuit and transformer can be improved.
an ammeter to both circuits as shown in Figure 8. b) The laptop requires a voltage o f 19 V.
Turn on the power supply and record the current through and voltage (i) Does lhe charger use a siep-up or sleJ>.(fovm transformer?
across each coiI. Leaving the number of turns constant, adjust the variable (ii) The primary coil in the transformer has 11O Lurns.
resislor lo change the input current Rt.'Cord the current and voltage for each Calculate ihe number of turns in the secondaiy coil to the
Tip: These formulas coil, Lhen repeat this process for a range of input c urrents. nearest whole number.
You should find that for each current, 1J' = ~ = •
1
won't quite work in your
investigation because " v,.
f.•
real transformers aren't IM ~ tS:l•ilt:?lU.1 .4 fGlsi4ffiill l
100% efficient.
Ql Describe how a simple generator produces an alternating c urrent
Q2 How does a transformer change the voltage of a n electricity supply?
Q3 Wire can be wrapped around two C-cores to lll<lke a transformer.
This transfonner can then be used to investigate the relationship
between the ratio of turns on the primary and se<.'Ondary coils a nd the
outpul voltage. This is done by varying the number of secondary coils
whilsl keeping Lhe number of primary coils the same. State one other
Figure 8: Sm-.up for investigating the re/a1ionship factor which should be kept t.'Onstant in th is experiment.
bet~'OO'l cu((ent Jlld voltage in a 1.1ansformer.

fi.ifi Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Cl.,

 Section Summary
Make sure you know...
Exam-style Questions I
That magnelic fields exist around permanent magneLS and moving charges.
That magne1ic field lines poinl from north to soulh, and the closer the field lines the stronger the field.
How 10 find Lhe direction or a magnetic field around a curren1-canying wire with the right-hand rule.
A 33 cm long conducting rod moves perpendicular to a magnetic field of
The shape and direction of the magnetic fields around a long straight current-carrying wire, a flat coil magnetic flux density 21 mT. An e.m.f. of 4.5 mV is generated across tts length.
and a long solenoid. Al whal velocity is the bar moving?
How to use Fleming's left-hand rule to find the direction of the c urrent, the d ireciion or the external
magnetic field or the direction or the force o n a wire, provided the other two a re given. A 0.071 ms-•
That magnetic nux densi1y is the force on one metre of \Vire carrying a c urrent of one amp at r igh1 B 14.1 ms-•
angles to a magnetic field. c 0.65 ms-•
That the unit fo r magnetic fl ux density is the tcsla, T, and that one Lesla is equal Lo one newton per
amp per metre. D 1.5ms-'
How to calculate the force acting on a current-carrying conductor at an a ngle 0 to a magnetic field (1 mark)
using f : B/LsinO.
2 In a velocity seleclor, electrons are lravelling perpendicularly through an elecllic field and
How 1he uniform magnetic flux density belwcen the poles of a magnet can be measured using a a magnetic field, which are al right angles lo each other. The veloctty selector is used lo
current-carrying wire and a digital balance. select eleclrons moving with a veloctty of 42 kms-• by varying the magnetic flux density,
How to calculate the force acting on a single charged particle moving through a magnetic field, so only eleclrons travelling at this speed will travel in a straight line and pass through a
where ils velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field, using F = BQv. hole in a collimator. The fiefd strength of the eleclric field is 37 x 10' Ne- •. What is the
That the force on a moving charge travelling perpendicular to a magnetic field is always perpendicular magnetic flux density of the magnetic field?
to its direction of travel, so charged particles in a uniform magnetic field can move in circular orbits. A O.SS T
How electric and magnetic fields are used in velocity selectors to separate out particJes of a cet1ain B 1.1 T
velocity from a stream of accelerated charged particles moving a t a range of speeds.
C 8.8x102T
That the total magnetic fl ux, t/>, passing through an area that is perpendicular to a magnetic field is
equal 10 !he area muhiplied by the magnelic flux densi1y. D 1.1x 104 T
That magnetic nux is measured in webers. (1 mark)
That the magnetic flux linkage of a coil in a magnelic field is the product of the magnetic nux passing
3 An electron is fired into a uniform magnetic field wtth a flux denstty of 0.93 T
through the coil multiplied by the number of turns in the coil.
at a speed of 8.1 x1 0' m, as Fig 3.1 shows.
How to calcula te the magnc1ic flux through a n area that is not perpendicular to a magnetic field
(a) What shape will the electron's path take? You can assume that the electron's
using 4> = BA cosO.
veloctty is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
That faraday's law states that induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux
(1 mark)
linkage, and be able to calculate induced e.m.f. using c= .t.~<l>l .
That the gradient ol a graph of flux linkage against time is equal to the negative of the induced e.m.f.. 181
181~ 181 181 Uniform magm>tic
field into paper.
That the area under a graph of induced e.m.f. againSl time is equal lo - ll(N4>J.
181 181 £h«:trrHJ181 ® 181
How a search coil connec1ed to a data recorder can be used to investigate magnetic rtux between two
bar magnets by moving the coil out oi the field and plotting a graph of induced e.m.f. against time.
That Lenz'"s law states that the induced e.m.f. is atways in such a direction as to oppose the change 181 181 181 ® 181
that caused iL Fig 3.1
Hovi a simple a.c. generator converLS kinetic energy into electrical energy by rotating a coil in a
magnetic field. (b) Calculate the magnitude of the force the electron will experience. and state its
direction.
Hovi simple laminated iron-cored tra nsformers work, a nd how the size of the voltage induced in the
secondary coil is determined by the ratio of the number of turns on each coil and the voltage across (2 marks)
the primary coil. (C) An alpha particle of charge +2e is fired into the same magnetic field as the electron
How to use the equation 7f: =-v.V. =r'" for an ideal transformer. at the same speed. State the magnitude and direction of the force experienced by
' r • the alpha particle.
How to investigate the relationship bet\veen voltage, current and lhe number of turns in a transforme r.
(2 marks)

M .lo!:I Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism

'"
 4 An experiment is set up as shown in Fig 4.1 to measure the flux density between
two magnets. A stiff metal wire is clamped in place so that it passes through a metal
Module 6 Jii1![.]·CIM1fa1¥1f!,[.f@@IH·d1[fj
cradle resting on a top pan balance. A magnet is attached to either side of the metal
cradle, with opposite sides facing each other so that there is a uniform magnetic field
between them. Crocodile clips connect the stiff metal wire to a circuit containing an 1. Atomic Structure Leaming Objectives:
ammeter and a variable d.c. power supply. The balance is zeroed before the power • llndersrand lhe alpha-
supply is switched on. ()ur ideas about rlre suuclure of the atom h;n'e changed a lot over the years. panicle scattering
But we began 1.0 setlle on our current model .1r I.he start of tlte last century. experiment and how
Thick, stiff wire It's 1h,wks 10 some clever folks called Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden... this provided eviden<X!

@ of the atom comaining

a small, charged
The development of the atomic model nudeus.
Following his discovery oi the eleccron in the late I 9th century, @ • Understand Lhe simple
).). Thomson proposed the Thomson model oi the atom, also known ~ nuclear model of
as lhe 'plum pudding' model. This model said that atoms were made the atom, including
Wtre clamped ----r"--tt"" up of a globule of positive charge, wi1h negalively charged electrons sp<inkled protons, neulrons and
in place in il, like fruit in a plum pudding. It was \videly accepted a1 the time, until the el«Lrons.
Rulheriord alpha-scattering experiment of 1909. • lJndersrand what is
meant by I.he proton
The Rutherford alpha-scattering experiment number and nudoon
number of a nudeus.
In Rulherford's laboratory, Hans Geiger and Emesc Marsden s1udied 1he
Direction of scattering of alpha particles by thin metal ioils - sre Figure 1. • Undersland 1.he 'X
notation for Lhe
cuffent in wire A S4ream of alpha particles from a radioactive source was fired at very representation of
Flg4.1 thin gold foil, \Vhich was surrounded by a circular fluorescent screen. When nuclei.
alpha particles from a radioactive source strike a nuoresc:cnt screen, a liny • Know what is meant
(a) State the direction of the force acting on the metal cradle due to the current in the wire. visible fiash of light is produced. Geiger and Marsden rc'<:orded chese fuis hes, by an isotope.
(1 marl<) and coumed the number ol alpha paniclcs scattered at differem angles. S~cification
(b) Explain how the set-up shown in Fig 4.1 could be used to Reference 6.4.1
determine the magnetic flux density of the magnetic field between
the magnets, while keeping the length of wire constant. Tip: The cirrular
(4 marlcs) Ouorescmt screen
k!acl b/0<:1< extends almost all lhe
(c) A 52 cm long current-carrying wire is in a uniform magnetic field with a flux density <:tHltai11ing
of 44 mT. The wire is perpendicular to the lines of magnetic flux. If the wire way around the O!hcr
SOUUP.
equipment.
experiences a force of 68 mN, calculate the current passing through the wire.
(2 marlcs)

5 The voltage across the primary coil of a step-down transformer is 230 v and the Rgure 1: The experimental se.-up for detec1ing
voltage across the secondary coil is 7 v. the defloctioo ofalpha particles by thin gold foil.
(a) Suggest why the transformer won't work if the current supplied to the primary coil
is a direct current. If the Thomson model was right, all lhe flashes should have been
seen within a small angle of the beam, as shown in Figure 3. However,
(2 marlcs) this wasn't what they saw.
(b) Tile sum of the turns in the primary and secondary coils around the iron core Figure 2: Hans Geiger and
equals 250. Calculate the number of turns of the secondary coil around the core. Enrest Rutherford,. pk:wred
in their lab with some
(2 marlcs)
equipment they used to
(c)* Describe an experiment that can be used to investigate the relationship between the detca alpha particles.
current and voltage of transformer coils. Include a labelled diagram of the apparatus
used and suggest how the accuracy of the experiment could be improved.
(6 marlcs) Figure 3: The expecred scarrering of alpha partides
• The quality of your response will 00 assessed in this question. from the Thornson nKXlel of the atom.

+ .! !11 Module 6: Section 3 Electromagnetism Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
 Geiger a nd Marsden obsC<Ved that most alpha particles went straight Proton and nucleon number
through the foil, but a fei.v scattered at angles greater than 90°, sending them The proton number of an atom is the number of protons in its nucleus. It is
bade the \'\'3Y they came. These results led Rutherford to some important sometimes called the a tomic number, and has Lhe symbol Z. h's the prolon
conclusions: number that defines the elemenl - no lwo different clemenl'i Vitill have the Tip: A neutral a1om
Most of the alpha particles went straight through the foil. same number of protons. mus.t have the same
So the atom is mainly empty space. In a neutral alom, the number of electrons equals the number of number of protons and
Some of the a lpha particles were deflected through large a ngles, so the protons. The element's reactions and chemical behaviour depend on the electrons so that the
centre of the a tom must have a highly positive charge to repel them. number of electrons. So the proton number tells you a 101 aboul its chemical positive and negative
Tip: The idea of mosc charges cancel each
of 1hc mass lx!ing in Ru1herford named this Lhe nucleus. properties. other out.
the nudeus migtu be Very few particles were de·tlected by angles greater than 90<>, so the The nucleon number is also called the mass number, and has the
easier 10 visualise with nucleus must be tiny. symbol A. It tells you how many protons and neutrons are in the nucleus.
larger objects. f-or Most of Lhe mass must be in the nucleus, since the fast alpha parricles Tip: Protons and
example, imagine firing Each prolon or neutron in a nucleus has a mass of approxima tely
{\vi1h htgh momentum} were deflecled back\vards by the nucleus. 1 unified atomic mass unit(= 1.661 x 10" kg, see p.427). The mass of an nemrons have slightly
a golf ball at a bowling different masses wtien
ball - the golf ball So mos1 of the mass and the positive charge in a n aLom must be con1ained electron compared with a nucleon is virtually nolhing, so the number of they am in a nucleus
would just bounce wilhin a tiny, ccnlral nucleus. This led to lhe nuclear model of the atonl. nucleons is about the same as the atom's mass {in atomic mass units). compared to when
suaight backwards, they are isolated
and the bowling ball Standard notation <s<>c page 442). The
v.'Ould barely move a1 The simple nuclear model of the atom Standard notation summa rises all the informa1ion aboul an element's atomic mass unit is the
all, because Lhc mass of Inside every atom, there's a positive nucleus containing neutrons (whic.'h have average nucleon mass,
Lhe bow-ling ball is so nucleus. Figure 6 shows 1hc standard n01ation for an cleme nt X, with
no dlarge) and positively charged protons. l' rotons and ne utrons are both calculated from lilt? mass
much bigger Lhan the nucleon number A and prOlon number Z: ot a carbon-12 nucleus,
mass ot the golf ba IL
..
known as nucleons. Orbiting this core are the negatively c harged electrons.
divided by 12.

x--
h's the same wilh firing Nucleon number
an alpha panide at a The nucleus containing
nucleus - the alpha ~ prot0ns and neutrons. (Mass number) - - A
panide is dcflc.icted Element symbol
straight bade because
Lhe mass of Lilt? nucleus Pra<on number _ . Z
is so large. / ".
The clccuons in orbit
• (Atomic number)
Figure 6: Standard OOtdtion.
around the nucleus.
Tip: The prolon and Example

c
neutron masses given Rgure 4: An oxygen atom,
A carbon-12 atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
in Figure 5 are for when with eight prowns, eight neuuons and eight electtons.
lhey're in isolation The nucleon number -
i.e. when they're 001 The panicles in an atom have different charges and masses, shmvn
in Figure 5. Charge is measured in coulombs {0 and mass is measured in
there are a total of I Z . - . _
prowns and neutrons m a
12 The symbol for Ille
pan of a nucleus. Once ._--- c.'/ement carbon.
parl of a nudeus, kilograms (kg). carlxJn./2 atom.
lheir masses dlange
(See p.442). The proton number - -- 6
there die 6 protons in a
carbon atom.
Exam Tip Proton +1.60 x JO" 1.673 x 10-"
You'll be given the Neutron 0 1.675 x 10"
masses (in kg) of all
three particles and Ille Elearon - 1.GOxlO J9 9.11 x IO:JI
elemen1ary cllarg<>, o, Isotopes
in the data and formufae Rgure S: Masses and charges of atomic particles. Atoms wilh the same number of protons but differe nt numbers of neutrons
bookies in the exam. a re called isotopes. Changing the number of neutrons doesn't affed the
1.60 x 10 "C is the elementary charge, e. The charge on a n a tom's chemical propenies. The number of neulroos affects the stabili1y of the
electron, - e, is equal a nd opposite 10 the charge on a proton, +e. nucleus though. Too few or too many neu1rons can make a nucleus uns-table.
The nucleus only makes up a 1iny propo11ion of an atom - it's only Unstable nuclei may be radioactive .and decay to make themselves more
about one 1O OOOth of the diameter of the \vhole a tom. The electrons orbit al stable (See page 427).
relatively vast dislances from the nucleus, so most of the atom is empty space. Isotopes are often named using their nucleon number, e.g. carbon's
The proton and neutron are roughly 2000 times more massive than isotopes include carbon-12 and <'..arbon.1 3. Some isotopes of elements have
the electron, so the nucleus makes up nearly all of the mass of 1he atom. special names e.g. hydrogen's isotopes. include deuterium and tritium.

* ·'f' Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics *IeA
 .v. • Example - - - - - - - - - - - 2. The Nucleus Learning Objectives:
•
: ,-_. ,
• I "l-.
Hydrogen has three isotopes - protium, deuterium and tritium.

0
The nucleus may be tiny, but it conlilins most of the mass of rhe atom.
II takes a /01 10 hold ii all togerher in such a small space...
• Know 1.he relative
sizes of the atom and
the nudeus.
• Know lhat lhc radius
of Lhe nudcus can be
The size of the nucleus and atom calculated using the
r.fgure 7: Tritium can By probing atoms using scauering and diffraction methods, we know that the equation R = r,/t.IJl,
be used 10 illuminaic ProUum has I fNotOn Deutetium has I proron Tritium has I proton d iameter of an atom is about 0.1 nm (1 x 1O 10 m) and the diameter of the where r0 is a constant
fire exii signs and watch and Oneuuons. and I neuuon. and 2 neutrons. and A is the nucleon
faces without the need ior smallest nucleus is a few fm (1 rm =- 1 x 10 15 m). So nuclei are really, re.ally
tiny compared with the size of the whole atom. number.
elocuicily.
• Know how to
To make this easier to visualise, try imagining a large Ferris wheel
calculate the mean
as the size of an atom. If you then put a grain of rice in the cenire, this would densities of atoms
Practice Questions -Application I be a pproximately the size of the aLom's nucleus. and nuclei.
Ql An atom of oxygen, 0, has 8 protons and 8 neutrons. Molecules are jusc a number of atoms joined together. As a rough • Know v.'hac is mr..am
a) What is the proton number of this atom? guide, the size of a molecule equals the number or atoms in it multiplied by by the strong nuclear
the size of one a tom. force.
b) What is the nucleon number of this atom?
• Understand lh<1 shon-
c) Write this information in standard notation. rangc nature of 1he
Nuclear radius
Q2 Element X has 21 protons and 24 neutro ns. As you know from p.412, the particles that make up the nucleus (i.e. protons strong nudear force.
a) Write this in sa:andard notation. a nd neutrons) are called nucleons. The number of nucleons in an atom is • Know tlla1 the strong
b) Suggest the standard notation for a differenL isotope of element X. called the nucleon (or mass) number, A . Unsurprtsingly, as more nucleons a re nuclear force is
repulsive al distances
added lo the nucleus, it geLS bigger.
Q3 Helium is "vritten in standard notation as: 1He below aboUI 0.S fm,
You can measure the size of a nucleus by firing particles at it. If you and attraetive up
a) How many protons does a n atom of helium have~
.
plot the radius of the nucleus, R, against the nucleon number, you get a graph to a distance o(
An isotope of helium has a nucleon number of 3. like the one shown in Figure 1. about 3 rm.
b) How many protons does this isotope have?
-- .. ,_--
Specification
·- ,_,.
Reference 6.4.1

-- - . ,_,_ ,.,_ r::~-

, :w;. ca:1.. 1• t:GB·"A .m.-...•.i.<:il1.4...jj""'-------

Q1 Expl<Jin the conclusions about the structure oi the atom that could be
,"'
,,!-< ,~ t:
,_H•
,_ -
-- ... ,,,_ ,_--
·-1-

'_,_ .,.. -. .. . ,. "- ,.. ,.

,.,___
drawn from lhe results or the alpha-partide scanering experiment. ~ ~

Q2 Describe the simple nuclear model of the atom.

Q3 What is the proton number of an atom? nm.."i.'<m nurrh!r (II.)
Q4 What is Lhe nucleon number of an atom?
Rgure 1: A graph of nuclear radius, R, against nucfoon number, A.
QS What are isotopes?
In facl, nuclear radius increases roughly as the cube root of the
nucleon number. You can see Lhis by plotting nuclear radius against the cube
root of the nucleon number - as in Figure 2.

,_,_ ... -- ~
,_---
--
--
i i
(m.x:lum 11umlx.¥ {/\))m

Figure 2: J\ graph of nudror radius. R, against the rube tool of nucleon numbet,1t

•.,,. Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics CIF A
 The fact that this graph is a straight line through the origin shoW'S that
nuclear radius is dire<:tly proportional to the cube root of the nucleon number.
This rela1ionship can be written as: Ru Alll.
Tip: )'bu don't need lo
By introducing a consta nt, rO' we can make this into an equation:
Forces in the nucleus
There are several d ifferen t forces acting on the nucleons in a nucleus.
The electrostatic force causes the positively charged prolons in lhe nucleus to
repel each other (p.369). The gravitational force causes all the nucleons in the

learn the value ol r0•
If you're asked to do
calculations like 1his
in 1.he exam, you'll be
given all Lile. information
you ooed 10 answer the
question.
whilst olhers can give slightly different values.
--A
:
nucleus to attract each 01her due to their mass (p.297).
However, the repulsion from the eleclrostatic force is much, much
R= nuclear radius ~ R = rrft 113
nucleon number bigger 1han the gravilational auraction. If these were I.he only forces acting in
the nucleus, the nucleons 'WOUid fly apart. So there must be a nother altractive
Some current experimental results sugges1 that r0 is about 1.4 fm, force that holds the nucleus together - c.allcd the strong nuclear force.

Tip: Since A is just a

number, with no units,
1he units ol R w ill
depend on what units
you use fou,. If you
plug in 'o in rm. your
answer for R will be
infm too.
Tip: The symbol fc~
density, p, is the Greek
letter 'rho'. hs unit is
kgm '.
Tip: Be careful of units
if you're calculating
densities - lengths
need to be in metres
and masses need to be
in kilograms.
Tip: You can find
1.he atomic density in
Lhe same way as you
find 1.hc densi1y of the
Example -l$ffllj1flli
An a tom of rubidium has a nucleon number of 85.
Calculate the ra.dius of its nucleus. r 0 = 1.4 fnl.
R = r.,A'"
= 1.4 x 10 u x 85 111
= 6.1555 ... x 10 " m = 6.2 fm (to 2 s.f.)
Density of the nucleus
To calculate the mean density o f a nucleus you need 10 knO\v the mass and
volume of the nucleus - and the equation for density:
Ii you're asked to estima te mean nuclear density, you might have to
work out the volume of lhe nucleus from its radius. Assume Lhe nucleus is a
sphere and subs1i1u1e the radius inlo the equation:
V=!orr'
Nuclear density is pretty much lhe same, regardless of lhe element -
roughly 10 17 kg m 3• Nuclear density is much higher than a1omic density.
Thfs suggests 1hat
Mo5' of a n alom's mass is in its nucleus.
The nucleus is small compared to the atom.
The strong nuclear force
To hold the nucleus together, the strong nuclear iorcc must be an anrac.1ive
force that overcomes lhe elcctroslatic force. Experiments have shown thal lhe
slrong nuclear force bet'veen nucleons has a short range. h c.an only hold
nucleons together when they are separated by up to a few femtometres - lhe
size of a nucleus. The strenglh of lhe strong nuclear force between nucleons
quickly falls be)'Ond this distance.
Experiments also show that the strong nuclear iorce \VOrks equally
between all nucleons. This means that the size of the force is the same
whether for proton-proton, neutron-neutron or proton-neutron interactions.
At very sm.a II separations, the strong nuclear force must be repulsive
- othen vise there would be nothing to stop it crushing lhe nucleus to a point.
Tip: The gravitation.al
Comparing strong nuclear and electrostatic forces anrac1ion in lhc nucleus
is so small compared to
Figure 3 shows how the slrong nuclear force changes wilh lhe distance 1he Olher forces, you can
be1ween nucleons. II also ~ hows how the ele<.1r0Slatic force cha nges so that
just ignore it.
you can see the relationship between lhese tw<> forces (although only protons
feel the electrostatic force).
Rf?.pulsion
+}---,..:; ;;;;:;;;;;;====-.. Nuck~
separation

nucleus. just use the
radius of Lhc atom
instead of the radius of
I.he nudeus. You can
assume 1.hc cledron
mass is negligible for
density calculations,
so Lhc mass will be
the same in both
calculations.
An alorn must contain a lot of empty space.
AU.ract.ion
Examples -1$§ilj"flll O.$fm
A carbon atom has a mass of 2.00 >< 1()-.11' kg, an a tomic radius
of 7.0 x 10- 11 m, and a nuclear radius of 3.2 >< 1o-u nl. Figure 3: A gra-ph w show how the sttong nuclear and
electrOStatic forces vary with nudoon separation.
Ctlculate its mean atomic density.
V = i.,,r' = ix" x (7.0 x 10"l' = 1.436... x l O'° nt' The graph shows that:
- 3 3 2" Rgure 4: The Large Hadron
The strong nuclear force is repulsive for very small separations of nucleons
I' =¥Jso1>= 2.00xlO JO = l.392 ... xl O'
(below about 0.5 fm). Col/ider JI CERN collides
·- l.436···x l0 = 1.4 x 10' kgm 3 (to 2 s.f.) lead ions w tty to 17nd out
As nucleon separation increases past about O.S fm, the strong nuclear more aboot the suong
Calculate its me.a n nuclear density. force becomes attracLive. It reaches a maximum attracl'ivc value and 1hen nuclear force.
VIM:los =jw-rl =- j x .,.- x (3.2x 1 0 15>3=-1 .372 ... x 10...u m 3 fal Is rapidly to zero. After about 3 Im it can no longer hold nucleons
together.
11~=v sop =- 2.00 x lO 2' = 1.457 ... x 1011
l.3?2 ... xl O -0= 1.5 x 1017 kgm_, (to 2 s.f.) The electrostatic repulsive force extends over a much larger range
(indefinitely, actually).

* ·''fl Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6 : Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics CIf
 lfr@.t3:i•ii!:f1ji.},g@·!jtiirtf1,t.1,1 3. Particles and Antiparticles Learning Objectives:
Tip: You can as-sume Ql l1'le nucleus of an alom of a n element has a radius of 7.0 fm and • Know that all pan.ides
Particles come in llvo types - n1.1rter and antimal!er. Anlimauer can be classified as hadrons
r, = 1.4 Im for Q1. contains 73 neulrons. Find the number of protons in ihe nucleus.
produced in pairs ~vith its corresponding matter, but if rhe two conJe into are subject to both the
Q2 Explain how the strong nuclear force acts bel\VCen nucleons that are: conwct, they desuoy each Olher. sarong nuclear force and
a) 0.4 fm apan. the weak nudcar force.
b) 1.5 fm apan. • Know that protons and
c) 4.2 fm apan. Hadrons ooutrons are examples
Not all particles can feel 1hc strong nuclear force - the ones that can arc of hadrons.
Q3 A vanadium a tom has a mass of approximately 8.5 x 10,. kg, • Know 1hat all panides
called hadrons. Hadrons also feel the weak nuclear force. Hadrons aren'L
and an alomic densiLy of 8.4 x 104 kgm-..l. classified as lep1ons
lundamental particles. They're made up of smaller panicles called quarks
a) Calculate the radius of the vanadium atom. (see page 424). are subject to the
b) The vanadium nucleus has a radius of approximately 5.2 x 10 ism. v.-eak nuclear force_
Protons and neutrons are hadrons. This is why they can make atomic but not the strong
Calculate the nuclear density of the van adium atom. nuclei - the nucleus of a n atom is made up from protons and neulrons held nuclear force.
logether by the strong nuclear force (p.417). As well as prrnons and neutrons. • Know 1.hat electrons
there are other hadrons that you don't get in normal ma«er:. like sigmas (L) and neutrinos are
Practice Questions - Fact Recall a nd mesons - luckily you don't need to know a lot about them. examples al leptons.
Q1 Give the approximate diameters of an atom and a small nucleus. • Know what paniclcs
The decay of hadrons and antipanick!s are,
Q2 State how the nuclear radius changes with nucleon number. Most hadrons will eventually decay into other particles. including the pairs
Q3 State the shape that a nucleus is assumed to be, and give the equation The exception is protons - most physicists think that protons don't decay. elccuun-positron,
I.hat can be used 10 calculate its volume. The neutron is an unstable particle that decays into a prolan (along proton-antiproton,
Q4 a) Sketch a graph to show how Lhe strong nuclear force changes \\'ith wi1h a n electron and an antineutrino}. The decay of a neutron is really just an neutron-anti neutron
and neutrino-
nucleon separation, marking on any key separation distances. example of~ decay (see p.427). which is caused by the weak nuclea r force. antineutrino.
b) State the range in which the strong nuclear force is repulsive. • Knc>v that particles and
nrouon ~ ___,.. antineuuino (S<!e page 420)
c) State the range in which the strong nuclear force is attractive and lheir coocsponding
can hold nucleons together. n >p+e+li..,--- antiparticlt'.3 have I.he
same mass.
ptmon / ' clec1ton
• Know that an eleclion
and a pos.iu-on have
Free neutrons (i.e. ones not in a nucleus) have a half-life of about opposite dlargcs
15 minutes. (The neutron is much more stable when il is part of a nucleus.) and that protons and
amiprotons ha\!e
opposite charges.
Leptons • Know £instein's
Leptons are fundamental particles and they don't feel lhe s1rong nuclear iorce. mass-energy equation
They interact with other particles vi.a the weak nuclear force and gravity (and M.: 6mi'.
the electrostatic force if they're charged). • Understand the
creation and
There are two types of lepton you need 10 knmv aboul - annihilation of
electrons (e }, which should be familiar. and neutrinos 1..).
par1icle-amipaniclc
Neu1rinos have zero (or almost zero) mass and zero cle<:lfic charge - pairs.
so they don'l do much. Neutrinos only take part in weak inleractions Specification
(see p.425). In fact, a neultino can pass right 1hrough the Eanh without References 6.4.2
anything happening 10 it. and 6.4.4

Tip: Relative charge is

the charge of the: panicle
expressed a multiple of
the elementary charge, o.
Figure 1: The symbols and relative cha.rgesof 1wolcptons you need to know - A panida with relative
the elecuon a.nd me neu1rino. char~>e - 1 has a charge
ol - 1.60x 10 19 C.

f i.if:I Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics CIp M
 Antimatter You c."ln use Lhis equaLion to calculate the energy of a particle at resi
with a given m::ass. This is just how much ene rgy would be released if all 1he
Fndi p:iniclc lypc has a corresponding antiparticle with the same mass
bu1 wi1h opposile charge. Antiparticles were predicted before they were ma.;s was convened 10 energy.
discover<'<l. When ~ul Dirac wrote down an equa1ion obeyed by electtons,
he found 3 kind of mirror image solution. It predicted the existence of a
Example -f4Hifi7 fl1d
The m.>ss ol • pro Ion •I resl is 1.673 x 1(}"' kg. Calculate lhc energy Iha!
p.•niclc like the eloctron bu1 wilh opposi1e eledric charge - the positron. Tip: In this oxompl<',
would be rele•sed ii lhis proton were completely com.,,rted into energy.
The ~iuon 1umcd up later in a cosmic ray experiment F\:>sitrons have Am It"" cha"g<' in mass)
idcnucal mass 10 electrons bu1 lhey carry a positive charge. h is lhc anlimauer =
Af Amc' is jUS< '"" IOIOI moss
venion ol 1hc •lcctron. =
=
1.673 x 10 11 x(J.00x10')'
1.5057 x 10 ••
ol lh<>""*"'' •• k~
all bl.'ing (00\'<'fU'd 10
figure J shows 1he rela1;.,, charges ol 1he pro1on, neulrOn, eleclron,
ncu1rino and 1hc1r an1ip;utides.
=1.51 x I0,.)(10Js.IJ """lll'·
Rgur• 2: Pdul /Jir.Jc,
the lngfsh ptry>idst "'"" 11.Ul:M
ptediCled the eUslMO' of ,....tide/Anliportide Syqbol
a.u-g..
lest MZ<; (kg) Pair production
anti'n.JtttV. II you fire two protons at each olhe< at high speed lhcn you'll end up wilh a
Tip: AO panidos ate
proion p +1
1.673• 10"
lot olenergy•• 1he point ol impact. This energy might be converted into more Tip: Plolons ,.,,... ~
~nuprocon p 1 paniclcs. Ollll'r, SO ii Uicos a lot
known as matter, 2nd
31ltipanidos ar•
lcnown
neutron n
\'Vhm energy is convened inlo mass you get equal amoonts ol matter
ond onlirnane<. So ii an exlra prolOn is lonned then there will always be an
of """'SY IO molo> Ihm!
oollide. The t'l1C'fgY
as antimatter. 1.675 x10 17
0 suppli<'d Is rolo:ost'd
~nUnt'\Jtron n on1iproton 10 go wi1h 11. ll's called p.iir production.
Wlll'n lllf>y COllido, SO
Tip: The oppositt> ol a cl«tron 1 Jl'OIOO-j>l'QIOl1 OOlllslons
e
z«o charge is just 7cm. 9.11 xlo-'' rcl<':l5" a k• ol """'llY·
So lhc? antipanidc of any positron e• +1
neutral paniclc will also
neutrino v
be neutral.
.in1incu1rino ,, 0 0

Tip: Mos1 amipaniclcs

have the same symbol Figure J: llL'/Jtivo t hil'll"S and rcs1 masses orparlicles and d!Br
as their corresponding corresponding aruiparticles. tlsure 4: Pair product.ion two protons cotNding
panicle, but wilh a line> and produdng a proron-Jlltiproton pair.
over Lhc! mp. i.e. %. The The masses in Figure 3 are all resLmasses the mass of the pa nicle
excep1ions to this arc when it's nol moving. This is bcc.luse the massc.~ of objects change when You <·an nlso get pair production from a photon. This only happens
charged lopullls, lilco 1hcy'rc moving"' very high spc-cds, bul you don't need to know abou1 that. if one phocoo h:i~ enough energy 10 produce that much mass (e.g. a gamma
1hc rnooron. Thcso lf'nd rny pho1on, "ll· II olso tends to happen near a nucleus, which helps conserve
In the exam, you'll be given the masses of protons, neutrons and Figure &: A 1-,.·1lr produnlon
10 have their panick!s momcn1um. You usually gel cloctron-positron pairs produced (rather lhan any
marked wilh a minus electrons. Jus1 remember that the mass of an antiparticle is the same as 1he rvmt in a b11bbk' wnk. A
ochcr p.1it) because they have a relatively low mass.
sign, e.g. c, 10 indicatP m:1ss of it~ cont.'S{X>Oding particle. You need to learn I.he relative c harges gamma ray photon h;u con~
their ncgaLivc charge, on each 1ypc ol paniclc 1hough (lhesc are all relative 10 e = 1.60 x 1 O "Q. from th<> rlgh1 (but ~ lnvislbk>
whik! their amipanick!s Neutrinos have 1cro ch.1rge and (almosc) zero mass. hN<I. Ill< spiral /lJtllHl1oov
haYo a plus sign, •.g. O', 100 mo;ion of ;m l'IPcuon
since they haYt'! a posiuon p.llr afKY ;Mr
positive dtargo. ptodualon from 111< plroron.
lh< st1alght<'< path Is ,Jnot/N'f
Einstein's mass-energy equation partick> , , , _ ...
You'"" pmb,1bly heard abou1 the equivalence of ene<gy and mass. It all by-produa but )CCI don'•
comes OUI ol finstcin's ;periil lheory of rela1ivi1y. Energy can rum into mass nr«J 10 tna.v ,., hat Wt ff
and m.1ss can 1um in10 energy, as described by 1he f.mtistic and rather fumous Rgwe S: l'iJir produC1ion an deatoo?JSitton
lonnub, Einstein's mass-energy equation: pa1r prodJc"'1 from a ganJITlil nty pho«Jn. Tip: - ndcs •r•
tvnc'.-- :
CU\1'd .. •hen>'s usually
c : speed of fgflt in ms 1 The minimum ;amount of energy the photon must ha\.oe is the a ""'&""'i< llMd Jl't'S<'l1I
M dlanfll' m MC<fY - M J.00 x 111' ms' combined energy ol 1he two particles at rest (i.e. assuming 1ha1 lhc panides
In I in '"""'""""' Th<y
CUM! in opposilo
ha\'C neghg1blc kinetic energy). Remember, you can frnd the energy equal
10 a panide at rest using Af = Amc'. So you can calcula1e lhc minimum <flR'Cllons l><'oUSI' o1
lhl!ir opposill' dloigcs
energy, E., ol lhc photon.
- <ttp.389.

•K:;*~·~
· ll Modute 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle P~ysics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Partida Physics
 A parlicle and its a n1ipa 11icle have 1he s.ame resl mass (m}, \vhich means that jusl like wilh pa ir production, you can calculate the m inimum energy
of each photon produced (i.e. assuming that the pa nicles have negligible Tip: just like w ith
pair production, you
2mc'..--- c = speed of Hght in ms ' kinetic energy). The combined energy of the photons w il I be e<JUal to the
f -r = minimum ~nergr-.. E can use lhe equation
ofphoton m J ., combined energy of the particles, so 2£7 =- 2mc2 an d so:
s:,
= hf = !if
10 find 1he
~ m = resr mass ofone of lhe f = minjmum energy ~ c = speed of fig/Jt jn ms' minimum frequcocy, or
f"'ir-procluccd f"'rtic/es in kg ~fonephotonjn/ ~ E,= mC maximum wavelength,
at the pholons emiucd
You can go further and find the maximum wavelength, A,.,., or ~ m = rest mass ofone of the by annihilation evems.
minimum frequency, (miff of the pholon using the equation for 1he energy of a annihilated partic.k?.s in kg
photon (see page 232):
Example -l$M!$ izj15
, . / f = frequoocy ofphoro11 in Hz A neutron and antineutron collide and annihilate.
E = en1Ygyofp/!Olon - E =he =hf Y Calculate the m inimum ene rgy of one or the photons produced.
, in} " >. " , . . The mass of a neutron is 1.675 x 1O v kg.
A = wavelength ofphcnon in m / h = Plancks constant rn Js
So, E, =me
= 1.675 x 1O-'' x (3.00 x Hl8 )'
Just pu1lhese two equations for E., together and rearrange to find >.nm or r....: = 1.5075 x 10 "J
= 1.51 x 10 10 J(Lo 3 s.fJ (= 942 MeVJ

Tip: Energies in p.ani cl~
physics are ofien given
in MeV. Toconven jto
MeV, divide the value by
I.&x 10 "<tochangc)
in10 eV) and then divide
it by 10' (to change the
eVto McV).
f -~
-- h
IArt3.t3:1.-t1t:?iii·i.€ ·ffftiflih·h' Exam Tip
Don't worry if you're
Q l A collision bet\veen protons can release enough energy to creale a
Exan1ple -l.\tj!lj1flll p<oton-.an1ipro1on pair. \t\fhal is the m inimum energy in J given a question about
Calculate the m inimum energy a photon must have to produce a panide you're not
required for this pair productio n 10 lake place? familiar wilh in the
an electron-positron pair. Q2 A A' particle is a hadron w ith a mass of 1.98.3 x 10" kg. exam. You'll be given
The mass of an electron (a nd so positron) is 9.1 1 x 10 31 kg. a) Calculate the minimum energy of a photon produced when a A0 all the information you
need in order 10 answer
So, f ,= 2mc' particle annihilates w ith its antiparticle.
= 2 x 9.11 x 10" x (3 x 1O')' the question.
b) Calculate the minimum frequency and maximum wavelength
= 1.6398x 10" = 1.04x10 "J (10 3 s.f.) (= 1.02 MeV) of !his photon.
Calculate the m inimum frequency of this pho ton. Q3 A muon is a type of lepton, w ith a mass of 1.88 x 1O-" kg.
E
E,= hf,sof= fj Calculate the m inimum frequency a photon must have to
pair-produce a muon--antimuon pair.
f= 1:.!j~j~~," 2.4733 ... x 10"'=2.47x10'0 Hz (lo3s.f.)

1Qft§.t§:l•lii!?1,J.l,p ffll;i:t+.qi
Q l State the type of pa rticle that is affected by the strong nuclear force.
Q2 Name one force through which a n electron can interact v1tith olher
Annihilation particles.
When a pa rticle meets its anLiparticle the resull is annihilation.
All the mass of 1he panide a nd antiparticle gets converted 10 energy, in the QJ Give the relative charge a nd relative mass of a neutrino, and state
form of a pair of photons. Aniiparticles can usually only exist for a fraction of whe lher it is a hadron or lepton.
a second beiore this happen s, so you don't gel them in ord inary mauer. Q4 a) How docs a n a ntipan ide differ from its corresponding particle?
Tip: The two photons b) Ho\v is it the same?
produced in annihil:ation
QS Name 1he electron's anlipanicle.
arc aJways cmiued in
opposite directions 10 Q 6 Write down the relative charge o f an:
conserve momentum. a) -antiproton b) antineutron c) antineuLrino
Q7 State Einstein's mass-energy e<JUalion. Define all symbo ls used.
Rgure 7: Electron-positron annih#a1ion. Q 8 Describe the process of pair production.
Q9 Whal is produced in the annihilation of a particle and its a ntipa rticle?

• ·ff' Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics C ?'.!!A
 Leaming Objectives:
• Understand the
simple quark model
of hadrons in terms ot
up (u), down (d) and
strange (s) quarks and
Lheir respective
anti-quarks.
• Know the charges ol
the up (u), down (d),
strange (SJ, ;!_nti-up (ti),
ami-Oown (d) and
anti-strange© quarks,
as fraaions of 1.hc
elementary cnarge e.
• Know I.he quark
model of the promn
(uud) and ol tho
neutron (udd).
• Understand the decay
of particles in terms of
the quarlc model.
• Understand bc<a-
minus (ft) decay in
Lcrms of the quark
model.
d - u + ~e+ii
• Understand bc<a-plus
(jl') oo:ay in tenns or
the quarlc model.
u - d + .~e + v
• Be able 10 balance
quark transformation
equa1ions in terms of
charge.
Specificatio n
Reference 6.4.2
Tip: Yoo only need
10 know the quark
composition ot protons
and neutrons for your
exam. If you're given
any other hadrons,
you'll be given their
quark oomposi1ion.
M-f?i Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
4. Quarks and Anti-quarks Quark confinement
h1s not possible to get a quark by ilSClr - this is called quark confinement.
Quarks are fundamental parUc/es - they're I.he smallest a.mount of maucr If you blasted a proton with a 101 of energy, a single quark would n<>l be
that you can get that interacts with lhc suong nuclc.11 force. removed. The energy that you supplied would just gel changed into a
quark-anti-quark pair.
The simple quark model
Quarks are the building blod<s for hadrons like protons and neutrons. In total, . d~ Tip: Figure 3 just
~I~
shows an example of
there are 6 1ypcs of quart<. Bui at A-level, we can limit ourselves to looking a t pair production <see
only three types of quark - the up quark (u), the down quark (d), the strange page421). In this
quark (s) and their a ntiparticles, known as a nti-quarks (see Figure 1). The When enough roergy is supplied, example, a meson
proton. fnergy supplied 10
ami-quarks have opposite charges to the quarks. Antipanicles of hadrons {like A a u and ii pair is produced and <quark ami-quark pair) is
ren'IOVC u quark. 4
anliprotons and antineutrons) can be made with anti-quarks. 1/'tc u quark stays in the proton. created.
figure J: Quark con1t11et1Jent - the energy used uy;ng to remove a
N"'11e Symbol 01.uge u quark onty aeateS a u and npair in a pair produaion.
up u +Z/3e anti-up 1l - Z/Je
Weak nuclear force
down d 113 e an.ti-down +113 e Hadrons can decay into other particles via the weak nuclear force (p.419}.
This is the only thing that can change one lype of quark into another. A qua rk
suange - 113 e anli~sttange +113 e
c hanging into a nother quark is known as changing a quark's flavour. In any
Rgure I : Properties of up, down and suange quarks (loft/, and their an Ii-quarks (righl).
other kind of interaction, the number o f quarks of any type muSl be the same
before the interaction as after it In all interactions, charge must be conserved.
You'll be given the charges of the quarks in the data and formulae
booklet in the exam. You \von't be given 1he charges or the anti-quarks, but Beta-minus decay
Beta-minus Ui ) decay is a type of weak interaction. In ri decay a neutron Tip: A fi panicle is jus1
remember - the charge on an anti-quark is lhc same size as the charge on its
is cha nged into a proton - in other words udd changes into uud. II means an electron~ p.42n.
quark, but with the opposite sign.
turning a d quark into a u quark.
Slrange quarks and down quarks may look prelly similar;. but there
are other propenies of quarks not given here that distinguish them from each Beta-minus decay in tenns of quarks: d u + le + v Tip: You' ll notice that
olher. Luckily, you don't need to know aboul these other properties. charge is conserved
Beta-minus decay in terms of charge: (- }1) , (+Y,) + (- 1} + o in ooh o/ ~ and ~·
interactions - the 101al
Quark composition of hadrons ii charge: on tha left cM the
llwk arrrn¥ equals the 1.mal
~
Evidence for quarks c.ame from hining prolons with high energy electrons.
The \vay the electrons scattered showed that there \Ve re three concenlrations interaction charI,'ll? on the right
of cha rge (quarks) inside the proton. The properties of a particle depend on NeuuOll
the propenies of the quarks that make it up. A proton has a charge of+1
because the quarks 1hat make ii up have an overall charge of+1.
Protons are made or L\VO up quarks and one down quark (uud}. Figure 4: A quark changing flavour in fi decay.
Tip: Remember, .~e
The total charge of a proton is 213 + 213 + (- 113) = +1. Beta-plus decay and ~· are bo<h symb<~s
Neutrons a re made up of one up quark and two down quarks (udd). Some unstable isotopes like carbon-1 1 decay by beta-plus (fl') emission. for a posiLron.
i~ · is anolher type of weak interaction. W decay just means a positron
The total charge of a neutron is 213 + (- 1!.l} + (- 1/3) = 0.
{a fl• particle) is emitted. In this case a proton changes to a neutron,
so a u quark changes toad quark. Tip: Ooo'1 get conrusro
belwC<!n the equations
Beta-plus decay in terms of quarks: u ,. d .,.. .~ e + v
ror beta-plus and
beta-minus decay.
Beta-plus decay in terms of charge: t+X> • !- X l + !+1l + o
There should always be
e'.....__ __.,... v one panic le and one
Rgure 1: 1he quark composition of nudoons.
amipartide emitted
l\l:!ilk
Antiprrnons are UUO and antineutrons are lidO. Nrn all hadrons interaction
- so if an electron is
have three quarks though. Pro1ons and neutrons are a type of hadron called cmiued, an amineuuino
Neutron
baryons, which are made up of th ree quarks. There are also hadrons made up is also emiucd, and if
or a quark and an anti-quark, called mesons. You don't need to know anything a positron is emitted, a
neutrino is also emiued.
mOfe about Lhem, but don't be surprised if you see one pop up in a question. Rgure S: t\ quark changing flavour in fi• decay.
Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Panicte Physics C ff A
 Conservation of charge
In any particle reaction, the total charge after 1hc reaction must equal the
5. Radioactive Decay Learning Objectives:
total charge before the reac1ion. You can use this rule to balance quark • Know wh.at is meant
Sorne nuclei are unst..1ble, and decay lo a more stable stale by emiuing by rad ioactive decay.
transformation equations. nuclear radialion. 11tere are four different types of nuclear radiation, and
• Understand lhe
Example --f§ffl11ihfllft each has different properties. spontaneous and
random na1ure of
i;· and ,... particles are both hadrons. A i:· particle can decay to produce
a ft* particle and another particle A. Unstable nuclei radioactive decay.
The nucleus is under the influence of the strong nuclear force holding il • Know tlla1 n.-panicles,
l:' ., A + n ' JI.particles and -y-rays
together and the electrostatic force pushing the protons apart. h's a very are types of nuclear
uus > ?dd + ud delicate balance, and it's easy for a nucleus to be<.'Ome unstable. radia1ion.
By considering the charge on each quark, identify the missing quark If a nucleus is uns1.able, it will break dmvn to become more slable. • LJnders(and I.he
(labelled '!') in this reaction, and hence state the name of particle A. Its inSlability could be caused by: na1ure, pC!flelralion
\Nrite down lhe relative c harge on each quark a nd then find the total charge too many neutrons and range of
Tip: Remember, relative on each particle. ...-.parlides~ j.\.-paniclcs
charge is lhe dla.rge too few neutrons and-y-rays.
on a particle expressed u u d d + u a too many nucleons in tolal {i1's too heavy) • Unders1and
as a muhip lc or the +Yi +Yi -X X -X + +Yi +X too much energy in the noc leus techniques and
elementary dlargc e, +1 (? ~) + +1 procedures thal can
1.60 x 10 •~ c . The nucleus decays by releasing energy ancVor particles (nuclear be used 10 investigate
For charge to be conserved, the missing quark must have a relative c harge radiation}, until it reaches a stable form - this is called radioactive dec.J.y. Ill<! absorption ol
of +_M. This means it must be an up quark. An individual radioactive decay is spontaneous and random - the decay n-particles, fj-paniclcs
happens of its own accord (nothing triggers it) and it can't be predicted. and -r·rays by
This means particle A ts made up o f the quarks udd, so ii is a neutron.
Although you can't predict the decay of a n individual nucleus, if you appropriaie materials
take a very large number of nuclei, 1heir overall behaviour shows a patlem. (PllG7l.
Any sample of a particula r isotope (p.413) has the same rate of decay, Specification
iktffi.C9:141ii!:?1li.l,pQ.$$it.J,I i.e. the same propooion of nuclei will decay in a given time (p.433). Ref erence 6.4.3

Q l Calculate the charge of the following quark compositions.

a) UU b) UUS c) dss d) SSS
Types of nuclear radiation
Q2 A sigma-minus particle l." is a hadron vvith - 1 charge. h rontains There are four types or nuclear radiation - alpha.. beta-minus, beta-plus a nd
o ne strange quark. a nd two other quarks. Using u and/or d quarks, gamma. They are listed in Figure 1. The masses here have been given in
write down its quark composilion. unified atomic mass units {u) - one unified a tomic mass unit = 1.661 x 1On kg.
Q3 A Xi-minus particle, : , undergoes the following decay. The quark a nd is about the .same as the mass of a proton or neutron {see page 41 2).
compositions of the particies are shown, with an unknown quark
marked X. Relali.,,
bc!Ution Symbol Constituenl ~ (u)
.... • A'+ n a.a.....
dss , Xds + du
Using conservation of charge, work out the ide ntily o f quark X. Alpha .. A helium nucleus -
2 protons & 2 neutrons +2 4

Beta-minus
I~ or II Electron -1 (negligib le)
i@M.t3:i•il!:iitt·h€ i@l;<:ifill (Beta)

Q l State the names and symbols of three quarks and three anti.quarks in Beta.plus w Positron +1 (negligib le)
the simple q uark model. Short.wavelength,
Q2 State the charges of three anti.quarks in the simple quark model. Gamma "! high-frequency 0 0 Tip: k>nisa1ion can be
QJ State the quark composition of a proton and a neutron. electromagnetic wave. harmful. If it occurs
in the cells of a living
Q4 Explain beta.minus decay in terms of the quark model. Rgure 1: Types of nudcar radiation. organism, it can do
QS Copy and complete the quark transformation equation fo r beta.plus When radiation h ils an atom it can knod: o ff electrons, creating a n serious damage to it
This is wh.a.1 makes
decay: u > d +0 +0 ion - so, radioactive emissions are also known as ionising radiation. The nuclear radiation so
Q6 Whic h q uantity is always conserved in all particle interactio ns? d ifferent types of radialion have different ionising powers as well as differenl dallj,l9rous.
speeds and penetrating po\vcrs - these a re summarised in Figure 2.

*BM Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Cfi

Tip: Gamma radialion
isn'1 made up ol charged
panides, so it won'l be
deflected by a magootic
field.
Tip: Any material lha1
stops beta radi.alion
will also stop alpha
radiaLion, and any
material lhat stops
gamma radiation will
also srop alpha and
beta radiatio n.
Rgure 4: lhe components
inside a .smoke alarm,
induding a source of alpha
radiation. AlphiJ radiation's
k.nv penetrating potver
means il is easily absorbed
by smoke particles,, and so
can be usod to detect smoke.
Figure S: RadioactiVR
isotopes in granite rock
conrritxue to bockgrormd
radiation.
Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
Radiation Symbol
Ionising
Speed
Penetrating
Affected by
magnetic
Investigating radiation (~ 7 ]
Power power You can investiga1e the penetration of different kinds of
field radiation by using different radioactive sources. These can
AbSOfbedby be dangerous if you don't use them properly:
Tip: lead will ab' . : J
Alpha a S1rong Slow paper or a fc\\' Yes Radioactive sources should be kept in a lead-lined box all lyp<..is of ionising
cm of air when they're no1 being used. radiation if it's thick
enough.
AbSOfbedby They should only be pid<ed up using long-handled tongs or forceps.
Beta-minus Take care nol to point them at anyone, and a lways keep a safe dista nce
~- or ~ Weak Fast - 3 mm of Yes
(Bela)
a luminium from them.
Tip: Any experimen1s
Beta-plus jl' Annihilated by electron - so virtua lly zero range involving radiation can
Measuring count rate be dangerous if done
AbSOfbedby To begin, set up the equipmen1 shown in Figure 6. A Geiger-MUiier lube incorrec1ly. As always,
Gamma , Very
weak
Speed
of
light
many cm of lead,
or several m of
No produces a 'cou nt ~ in lhc form of a n electrical pulse each time radiation enters
it The Geiger counter measures the total number of counts over a period of
a full risk assessment
mus1be carri<..id out
concrete beforehand.
lime. The count rate (counts per second) can be calculated by dividing the
Lota) number of counlS re<.-orded by the time (in S<.~-onds) over which this was
Figure 2: A summary of the propertios of the lour lypes of nuclear radiation.
measured.
-·
The stronger the ionising power of radiation, the n1ore energy it loses
in a given distance, so the shoner the range oi the radiation. As you can see Tip: Wcor gloves
from Figure 2,. the more penetrating the type of radiation, the thicke r or denser when pcrtorming this
a material needs to be to a bsorb it - see Figure 3.
~i~-'-"'-U~alK
_·_N_I~~~- experimem, 10 help
protocl your hands from
rac/iaac:Jivc radia1ion.
A r~v mm ofa/11minium stops beta radiau·on.
Sf>Urc :c
alpha l/t Rgure 6: The !!xpe<imC11tal set.up used ro in1,-esligate radiaUon.
Tip: Voum()l
beta background radfatk>n on
gamma To measure the count rate of the radioactive source: the previous page.
1. First of all, without the source present, measure the background counts.
Radioactive decay is random, so to get an accurate .and precise reading,
Tip: Repeating your
SP.Veta/ cm of food stops the background counts need 10 be measured over a long enough time count measuremem and
gamma radiation. interval. For most experiments in the lab, around 30 seconds should do. taking an average helps
Figure 3: fxamp/es of mJterials lha1 stop each iypc of nuclear radiation. Do this three timt.'S, and fi nd the mean number of counts in this make your resuhs more
time interval. precise.
Both the thid<ness and the density of a material affect whether 2. Divide your counts by the number of seconds in the time interval to get
radiation \viii penetrate it - a veiy thick p iece or a luminium could stop the background counl rate. You only need 10 do this once during a given Tip: You could instead
gamma radiation. experiment. attach the Geiger-MUiier
3. Place 1he source in from of the Geiger-MUiier 1ube, as shown in Figure 6, tube 10 a data*logger
making sure that i1 is close enough that the counler records a high number and a computer to
of counts (compared to the background counts). reduce human error.
This may be able 1.0
Background radiation 4. Calculate the rounl rate of the radioactive source, using the same method
calculate the count-rate
Background radiation is I.he low level of radiation that surrounds us a t a ll you used for lhe background count rate. Again, take three sets of count fOf you straight away.
times. It is made up of radiation from many different sources - 1hese include measure me nts for three JO se<..·ond time intervals, and find the mean Or you could connoci
nalurally occurring isotopes in the environment, cos.mic radiation from space, before you divide by the 30 seconds to fi nd the count rate. the tube to a ratcmeter,
and man-made sources from indusirial and medical radiation use. You'll need 5. Subtract I.he bad<ground coun1 rate from this value 10 fi nd the coun1rate which measures the
to take background radiation in10 account when you're investigating rndia1ion coum rate directly. ln
of the source.
(see the next page and page 438). either case, measure the
coum rate three 1imes,.
and lhcn average the
resuhs.
Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics C?..,M
 Tip: If you're comparing
Investigating penetration properties
To investigate the penetration or radiation 1hrough different materials_, place
6. Nuclear Decay Equations Learning Objectives:
penetration through • Be abl11 to balance
different materials, a material between the source and the Geiger-MUiier tube. Measure the
count rate of the source both wilh and without the material. If the count In any nuclear interaction, charge and nucleon nun1ber are al\vays nuclear trans.forma1io n
you should make sure conserved. You need to use this fact to balance nuclear decay equalions. equations.
th41y aII have the same rate remains about the same regardless or \Vh~her the mater~I is present,
1hickness. Thickness is a then the radiation can penetrate the material. If the count rate: drops by a • Understand and be
control variable here. able'° write nuclear
large amount, then some of the radiation is being absorbed and blocked by
the material. lr the count rate drops to zero (after the background count rate
Representing nuclear decay decay equations for
We can wrile equalions to see exactly wh~n's going on with a nucleus when alpha. beia.minus and
is subuadcd), the radia tion is being completely absorbed. Repeat this for it emits radiation. These equations are called nuclear decay equations (or beta-plus decays.
different materials and plot your results on a bar graph (since your resuhs are Specification
nuclear transformation equations). To do this, \Ve write the par1icles in
categoric data). standard nOlation (see page 413). This leis us clearly see how the numbers of Reference 6.4.3
You can also do this experiment with d ifferent sources to compare protons and neutrons a re changing.
how d ifferent kinds o( radiation are blocked by different materials.
Nuclear decay equations need to be balanced - in every nuclear
You'll probably need to change the d islance bei\Veen the source and the reaction, including fission a nd fusion (p.445-448), charge and nucleon Tip: If you write ou1
Geiger.MUiier tube for Lhis, as different kinds of radiation have different an cqua1ion for an
number must be conserved.
pme1ra1ing powers in air (sec Figure 2 on p.428). interaction and the
You could also adjust this experiment to investigate how the count - Example proton and nuck!on
Figure 7: A Ceiger-Miiller rate for a particular source is aff<.>ctcd by the thickness of a panicular material The nuclear decay equation for Lhe decay of americium.241 to numbers don't balanoo,
tube auac/ted lo a Geiger that interaction cannot
- e.g. by using sheets of aluminium for beta radiation or different thid<nesscs neptunium-237 by emission of an alpha particle is:
counter. happen.
of lead ior gamma radiation. Or you could investigate how the count ra1e
changes with distance between the source and the Geiger-Muller tube. For
2
;~ Am-.. ~:Np + ;u:
these variations, you can plot a scatler graph of your resulls as thickness and There are 241 nucleons before lhc decay (in lhe americium-241 a1om), and
Tip: Romember,
distance are con1inuous variables. This will allow you to see any trends in 241 nucleons after the decay (237 in the neptunium-237 atonl and 4 in the
neutrons have no
your results. alpha particle), so nucleon number is conserved. chart,:.e, so we jus1 look
You can see that charge is conserved by looking at the proton number (the at proton number for
Practice Question -Application blue numbers) - there are 95 protons before the decay and 95 after it. charge conservation.
Ql A radioactive source emits one unknown type of radiation. Using a
Geiger.MUiier tube placed in fron1 oi the source, a high coont rate Mass isn't conserved in nuclear reactions - the mass oi an alpha
was measured. There was no decrease in the count rate rec<>rded particle is less than the individual masses of two protons and two neutrons.
when a few sheets of paper were placed between the source a nd The difference in mass is called the mass defect (p.442), and the energy
Geiger.MUiier tube. The count rate dropped to almost zero when the released \vhen lhe nucleons bond 1ogether to iorm the alpha particle accounls
sheets of paper were replaced with a thin sheet of aluminium. ior the missing mass. Once you have taken the conversion of mass to energy
a) Identify 1he type of radiation being emiued by the source. into account, then you can see that 'mass-energy' and momentum are
conserved in all nuclear reaclions. There's more on this on pages 442-444.
b) The aluminium is replaced with a thick sheet of lead. The counL
rate is measured again. Explain why the count rate does not drop You need to know how to write balanct'CI nuclear decay equa1ions
for the main types of radioactive decay.
all the way to zero.

Practice Questions - Fact Recall • Alpha emission

Alpha emission only happens in very heavy atoms, like uranium and radium.
Ql What is radioactive decay? The nuclei of Lhese atoms a re too massive to be stable. When an alpha
Q2 State the type of nuclear radia tion thal consists of: particle is emiued, Lhe proton number decreases by t·wo, and the nucleon
a) 2 pr<>fons and 2 neutrons number decreases by four.
b) a high frequen<.yelectromagnetic wave Example - - - -
c) an electron Uranium-238 decays 10 thorium-234 by cmiuing an alpha 1>3rlicle: Tip: An alpha panicle is
the nucleus or a helium
QJ 1.ist all the types of nuclear radiation which could be b locked by a 2J8 = 234+ 4 atom, so you may sec
nuck.YHl numbe~ balance
thick sheet of lead. an alpha panicte written
with 1.he symbol 11le.
l)2 = YO + 2 proton numlx:rs balaIH:e,
.so charge is cxN&"fvt!d

fi.51.1 Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics CH
 Beta-minus emission
Beta.minus decay happens in isolopes that are oculron.rich (i.e. have many
7. Exponential Law of Decay Learning Objectives:
• Understand what is
more neutrons than protons in their nucleus). During beta-minus decay, one The number of unstable nuclei that dec.1y each second in a radioacrive meant by the ac1ivity
of the neutrons in the nucleus decays into a proton and ejects a beta-minus sample depends on ho~v many unswb/e nuc/e; are Jell in the sample. of a radioactiV<!
particle and an anlineutrino. The proton number increases by o ne, and the souroo.
nucleon number stays the same. Beta-minus particles have a negative c harge, • Know v.'h:at is mr..am
so lhey are written ·with a nega1ive proton number {~~). The rate of radioactive decay by the decay ronsta n~
Radioactive decay is completely random - you can'l predict \'Vflich atom's .>., of an isoiopc.
Exarnple - - nucleus will decay when. But although you can'1predict !he decay o f an
Tip: /\ ~ paniclc is an • Be a bltt to use the
Rhenium-188 decays to osmium-1 88 by emiujng a bela-minus particle: individual nucleus, if you take a very farge number of nuclei, lheir overall
el«lron, so you may see equation A =-AN.
nudenn numhr.r sta)'S the sa.tnf' 188--188+0+0 behaviour shows a pattern and you can predict hmv many nuclei will decay
i1 wriLtcn in equations \ - nudeun numbers balarn:c
• Understand graphir.al
as ~e. in a given amount or time. Any sample of a particular isolopc has Lhe same methods and
~Re- :os+_~B + ::V
1
rate of decay - i.e. the same proportion of atomic nuclei \viii decay in a spreadsheet modelling
r.
prot.1.Hl number mcrcascs by I
75 = 7b - I + 0 pro/Im numbers balance,
n> dJa11,oc is 1:onscrved
given time. Each uns1able nucleus within the isotope will also have a constanl of the equation
decay probability.
~7 = AN lor
radioactive decay.
The decay constant and activity • Be abltt to use the
Beta-plus emission The activity, A, of a sample is che number of nuclei tha t deca)' each second. equation N = Noe"'
Beta-plus decay happens in isotopes thal are proton-rich (i.e. have a high It is proportional to the number of undccayed nuclei in the sample, N. For a where N is the!
proton to neuLron ratio). A proton in the nucleus changes into a neutron, given isotope, a sample hvice as big \VOuld give twice the number of decays numbor of undccayed
releasing a bela-plus particle and a neutrino. The proton number decreases nuclei.
per second. The decay constant, >., is 1he constant of proportionality. It is the
by one, and the nucleon number stays the same. probab ility of a specific nucleus decaying per unit lime, and is a measure of • Understand Ille
simulation al
Example how quiclcly an isolope will decay - the bigger the value of A, 1he faster 1he radioactive decay
Tip: A fl• panicle is a rale of decay. The decay constant has units s ' and the activily is measured in using d ice.
Sodium-22 decays lo neon-22 by emitting a beta.plus particle: becquerels (1 Bq = 1 nucleus decaying per second).
posilron. You may st."e • Be able to use the
nlJ(:k>cNJ numb4·r stay... the lalnf! 22-.22+0+0
ii wriuen as .~e. equation A = A.e •
\ - nudenn numbers balance
where A is the activity.
~~Na ....,..: Ne+.~~ + :v A= acuvity in 11q - A: >.N ....- N = numoo1 or undocay!ld
Specification
11 = 10 + 1 + 0 - proton numfH.~rs bafana:,
r " nuclei in sample Reference 6.4.3
SO chatb'f! is (:QnSCfvt:d
proton number ch.TI•ascs by 1 A = decay coostant in s '
Example ---
~~*!§~i#~
'l'~ifi~.~151----------.....'.. Tip: Don'1 get the
A sample of a radioacti\·e isotope contains 5.0 )( 1o-5 mol of decay constan1 confused
Gamma emission undecayed nuclei. Its activity is measured to be 2..4 )( 1on Bq. with wavelength - they
Even after a decay, 1he nucleus often has excess e nergy - it's in an excited Calculate the isotope's decay constant. both use the symbol A.
N: number of mol )( N,...::5.0 )( 10 ..s x 6.02 )( 10"-= 3.01 x1019

J
state. This energy is los:t by emining a gamma ray. This oflen happens after
1
an alpha or beta decay has occurred. During gamma emission, lhere is no ) A -- >.fJ 10 grve
Rearrange . A -- N 2.4 xX 10 '., -- 7.973- ... X 10 • s I
A -- J.Ol
change 10 lhe nuclear constituents - the nucleus just loses excess energy. 10 Tip: Remember tha1
I mol coniains
We don't often write nuclear decay equatio ns for just gamma decay, because = 8.0 x 10 ' s 1 (102s.i.) 6.02 x 1O'' nuclei
the nuclear constituents don't dlange, but gamma ray pholons may appear in (lrom Avogadro~
equatio ns sho\ving other types of decay. The symbol for a gamma ray photon Because the activity, A, is Lhe number of nuclei that decay eac:h constant, N" - sec
is }y. second, you can write it as the change in the number of undccayed nuclei, p.262).

, :m;ua:1.11iw,1.1.µg11....m
Tip: Rcmornber, Z
is lhe prmon number
of a nucleus - see
page 413.
........m
....;w,......______ l:!.N. during a given time (in seconds) D..t.~
A =- C>N
C.l
Q 1 Comple1e the following nuclear decay equalion for the beta-minus
d ecay of caesium-1 37: 1~Cs , ~Ba + ? + ? There's a minus sign in lhis equation because 6 N is always a Tip: The minus sign
Q2 Write out 1he nuclear decay equation for the alpha decay of decrease. Combining these two equalions for the activi1y then gives the ra1c has just b<?cn taken over
to the olhcr side by
asraiine-211 (Z = 85) to a n isotope of bismuth. (The dtemical of change of the number of undecaycd nuclei:
symbols of as1a1ine and bismuth are Al and Bi respectively.) muhiplying both sides
N = numberol by - 1 here. This is how
Q3 Write out the nuclear decay equation for the beta-plus decay of ~ = rare ofchange ofnumber of -.. AN ~ndocayr.d nuclei you'll ge. this equation
aluminium-26 fl = 13) to a n isotope of magnesium. (The dtemical L1 undocaycd nuclei ;n S" 1 Tt = - AN in sample in your data and
symbols of aluminium and magnesium are Al and Mg respt.'Ctivcly.) formulae booklet.
' A=decayconstam ins--'

M-Sfl Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics CS•A
 Example -f1
'1§itij§ii
The decay equation
A radioactive isotope has a decay constant of 1.2 x 104 s--1•
Tip: So N is curremly The graph produced by the spreaclshect model (see Figure 2) shows that
What is the rate of change of N for a sample containing 7 .5 x 1o:tt nuclei?
decreasing by9.0 x 101• radioaaive decay is a form oi exponential decay - Lhe number of undecayed
nuclei per socond. ~~ = - J..N = (1 .2 x 10 'l x (7.5 x 10"'1 = 9.0 x 10" s 1 nuclei decreases exponentially \ Vilh Lime.
his known that the number or undecayed nuclei remaining, N,
depends on the number originally prescn~ N., the decay constant, A, and how
Modelling radioactive decay ~ much time has passed, r. This is described by the equation:
Radioactive decay is a n iterative process (the number of nudei 1ha1 ~ N =the numbet of undccayed N• =- the original number of
decay in one Lime period delermines the number tllat are available Lo / undec:'yed nuclei
nuclei remaining ~
decay in the next). You can use the formula on 1he last page to plot a graph
of N against l, by working oul how N changes for each small change in L
N-= N,e .a. .....,___ t = umems Tip: Remember to
The easiest way to do lhis is to use a spreadsheet Lo model how a sample of ~ atways round your final
A =the decay cotrsram in s ' answer to the same no.
an iso1opc will decay i( you knmv the decay constant, A, and the number of
undecayed nuclei in the inilial sample, N0 : Exan1ple --fb§lfi.. ifi!j ()(significant figures
(S.f.) as the least precise
Se1 up a spreadsheet with column headings for tolal time (l)., a N and N, A sample of the radioactive isotope u N contains 5.00 x 10' nuclei. data you use in your
and a data inpul cell ior each of ti.1, J.. a nd N0 • The decay constant for this isotope is 1.16 x 1o-3 s-1 • calculation. Here Lhe
Decide on a value of 6 ! LhaLyou wanl to use - this is the lime interval How many nuclei of l l N will remain after exactly 800 seconds? 800 scoonds is an exact
between the values of N tha1 the spreadsheet will calculate. value. and the other
N = N0e N = (S.00 x 106') x e - (1.IGx 1o-J)xaoo pieces of data are to
The most sensible time interval will depend on your decay constant
= 1.976... " 1O' 3 s.f. - so 1.he answer 10
You c.an lhen enter fonnulas into the spreadsheet to calcula te the number = 1 .98 >< 10 6 nuclei (to 3 s.f.) this calculation should
of undecaycd nudei left in the sample after each Lime inlerval. You'll be given to J sJ.

Tip: Yoo could also
do 1his by hand, using
1he same equations
shown in figure 1.
However~ this can rake
a long time, so using a
spreadsheet is usually
much faster.
Tip: If you write lhe
formulas properly,
the spreadsheet can
automatically fill 1hcm
in for as many rcw.•s
{i1era1ions) as )UU wanL
Tip: You may have to
fiddle with your value
for at to get a graph
with a nice shape.
Tip: Make sure you
iterate enough times, so
that you have enough
data points to form a
graph with a clear curve.
l
need to use 6.N = - A x N x lit {rearranged from 1he equation on the Plotting the nalural log (In) of the number of undeca)'cd nuclei (or the activity,
previous page). see next page) against time gives a straigh1-line graph (see Figure 3).
Tip: Taking natural
lnN~
log or both sides of
E.g. lOOs N = N,e .a. and using
/nN!)
E.§. 1_x10_. s 1 1ho log rules on p .472
gradient = -~
E.g. 7" 10" gives lnN =- lnN0 - >.t.
Comparing this to the
straight-line graph
t(s) llN N
equation y =- mx +c.
you can sec that a plot
I
Rgure 3: A graph showing the natural log of rho numb<.Y of ()( lnN against L will be
t, = 10 + ti.r {ti./11) 1 = - -1 x N0 x ill N, = N0 + (ti./11)1 undecayed nuclei against time. a straight line with a
y-imcr<X!pt of lnN11 and
t, = r, + ti.i (ti./11)1 = - J.. x N, x ill N, = N, + (ti./11), a gr.idiom or -~ (sec
Dice simulation of radioactive decay p.484).
Figure 1; An example of I.lie f0tmulas that can be used to create an iteralive Radioactive decay is a random process where there is a constanl
spreads/loot or the number of undeca)'t-?d nuclei CM?r time in a radioactive sample. probability lhat an uncle<-.ayed nucleus w ill decay. The probability
is given by the dec.ay constant The result of rolling a fair 6-sided dice is
Plot a graph of the number of undecayed nuclei against time - see Figure 2.
also random with a constant probability - the probability of rolling any one
number is 1/6. These similarities mean that you can simulate radioactive
decay using dice, where each dice represents an undecayed nucleus.
You need al least 100 dice for a good simulation of Lhe undecaycd
nuclei in a small radioactive sample. Roll all the dic:e and counl ho\Y many
of them landed on a 6 - these d ice represent Lhe nuclei tha t have decay<.->d.
Record the total number of dice rolled a nd the number of d ice that have
'decayed' in a table. Remove the 'deca~ro d ice' and roll the remaining d ice Figure 4: l>\lloden cubes
again. being used to simulate
radioaaivc <kcay. F..ach
Repeat this process until a ll of the dice have 'decayed'. Each roll
cube represents an
Ume Ix HJ" s counts as 1 unit of time passing in the 'lifespa n' of chc radioactive sample. undecayro nucleus rhat
Figure 2: A graph of N against 1for an iscnope with a decay constant of If you plot a graph of the number o f dice rolled each time (i.e. the number of 'd<Kilys' ..vhen it lands
Ix t04s that originaflycomained 7 x l(Yl undecayed nuclei. Ploued
1 undecayed nuclei lefl in the sample, M against time. then you'll see the same with me. bl.1ck side facing
from an iterative spre,l<lsheer using a time interval of 100 s. exponential relationship as sho\vn in Figure 2 for radioactive dc<:ay. upwards.

* ·UM Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics C Sf A
 Activity and the decay equation
The number of unstable nuclei decaying per second (the activity) is
proportional 10 Lhc number of nuclei remaining. As a sample decays, its
activity goes down - there's an equation for that too:
time ls
Rgure S: Graph sho~;ng
the exponential dOGJy of the
activity against time.
1:qr; .tg:1-111~ti!'·'·€Ai®® ' t.1 . 1
Tip: Remember, in
all the equations for
radioactivity the time
needs 10 be in seconds.
*-flM Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
8. Half-life and Radioactive Dating Learning Objectives:
• Know v.'hac is mr..am
The Lime it takes the number of unstable nuclei in a sample ro halve is by the half-life or an
constant for a given subs1ance. This quantiry is called half.life, .1nd you need isotope.
A0 =the origiflill activity to be able to calculate it. .. • Understand
A = lhe acilvity of the / of the sample in Hq techniques and
sample at time r in Bq ............_ procedures used 10
........ A = A,e 1r1 ,.---- t = rime ins Half-life of radioactive isotopes determine the half-life
t
>.. = rl'te decay constant ins r The half-life (t,.) of an isotope is the average time it takes
of an isotope such as
protactinium CVACn.
• Be able to calculate
for the number or undecayed n ucl~i 10 halve. the half-life ol an
Exan1ple -i*.ij!fti1§1
5 isotope using lhe
The isotope radon-220 has a decay constant of 1.25 x 1o-2s- • 1
equatioo >.i,, = ln(2J.
How long will it take for !he activity of a sample of radon-220 to Measuring the number or unslable nuclei isn'Lthe easiest job in
the world. In practice, half-life isn't measured by counting nuclei, but by • Know how isocopes
fall from 85 Bq to 55 Bql c.an be used in
measuring the time it takes the .activi1y to halve. The longer Lhe hair-life or an radioactive dating,
Firs.Lrearrange A= A 0e .\I to make I Lhe subjec1.
isotope, the longer it takes for the radioactivity level to fall. e.g. carbon-dating.
Divide by A 0 , take the natural log (In) ol both sides then divide by -~
Specification
lnfA.\ Calculating half.fife from decay curves Reference 6.4.3
~.=eM=> ln(J.)= -AI =>t=~ You can calculate the half-life of an isotope from a decay curve - see Figure 1.
Nmv jusl plug lhe numbers in and solve fort. Tip: M.akc sure you
check your units
1 ~~~~
1 carefully whotl you're
1= lnt}) = , = 34.825.. = 35 s (to 2 sJ.) calculating half.me.
The hJff.lifc stays the same-?. It takes
me sarne amount of time for half of the
undCGlyed nuclei 10 decay regardless of
the numbet of nuclei you start witfl.
Ql A sample conLains 4.5 x 10 1• aloms or a radioactive isotope. If iL has
a decay conslanl o f 1.1 x 1O n s 1, wh.at is the activity or the sample? The number of u1Kleca)'t.)(f
Q2 A sample of a radioac1ive isotope has an activiiy of 3.2 kBq. If the nuclei approaches zero.
isotope has a decay constanl of 1.3 x 10....1 s- 1, what will the sample's
acliviLy be 6.5 hours later?
4 ,. time, t I.'>
g11,~
()3 An isotope or profactinium has a decay consrant of 9.87 x 1O 3 s 1• 0
If a sample initially contains 2.5 x 1o•s unstable nuclei, how many Rgure 1: A graph showing tha.t the time taken for die number of 'G-
will there be after 35 minulcs? :~
'h.Ao •
undecil}'ed nuclei remaining ro halve is aAvays equal to the half.Jife.
~ '/41\) ···+····
' .'
Read off the value for the number of unstable nuclei when L = 0. 0 t,. 2t. :Jt. 4t.
Go 10 half the original number of uns.lable nuclei on the y-axis. tin'lf:/j·
Draw a horizontal line 10 the curve, then a vertical line down 10 the Rgure 2: A graph of activity
b) Whal is meanl by the aclivity of a radioactive sample? against time. The activity
x-axis. Read orf the half-life where the line crosses the x-axis.
()2 a) Write down an equation for Lhe rate of change in the number of halvP.s .1fter each half-life t 15•
unstable nuclei in a radioadivc sample. Define all s.ymbols used. h's always a good idea 10 check your ansv{er - repeat lhese steps for a
quaner of the original value and divide your answer by lwo. Thal will also
b)Staie one method you could use to model the decay of an isotope give you the hali-life. You can do the same for an eighth of the original Tip: Be careful - th<>
over time using the rormula for rate or change given in part a). value (divide the time by 3). and a sixteenth of the original value. Check count rate is the number
Q3 Sketch a graph to show how the number of undecaycd nuclei in a that you gel 1he same answer eadl time. ol decays detected per
radioactive sample changes over time. second, but activi1y
You can calculale hair-life from an activily-iime or counl rate-time is the total number or
Q4 A studen1 rolls a number or ordinary dice. She records ho\Y many graph in exacLly Lhe same way, see Figure 2. N, A and counl rate for an decays per second.
dice show a 6, removes I.hose shmving 6, and rolls the remaining dice isotope will halve in Lhe same amounl of time, giving lhe half-life. (You mel So the count ra1eofa
again. She repeats the process until she has removed all of the d ice. counl rate on page 429 - it's the number of decays detected by a detector in source will always be
Explain why this process is used 10 demonstrate radioactive decay. 1 second.) lower Lhan che activi1y.
Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics C5i
 Example -13§1$ 1§11
The graph on the right
shows the activity.time graph
of a sample or a radioisotope. 0- l(J()
Calculate the half-life of the ~ 11()
isotope. 1~ 60
The slarting activi1y of the ~ 4() C"'-~igt-!f Miil/er Lube
sample is 120 Bq. So to find Figure 5: The experimental sec.up for an investigaUon
the half-life, read off the time into the half..Jife ofptotaetinium.2.14.
at lhe point when lhe activily
has dropped 10 half this value. 2. Shake the protactinium generalor to mix the solvenls together, then place Tip: Make sure 1he
120.,. 2 = 60. \<\/hen the activity is 60 Bq, time = 10 hours. il back in its position shown in Figure S. Wait for the liquids to separalc. Geiger-MUiier tube is
Check this by finding lhc time iaken for the activity 10 fall to a quarter o f its 3. As soon as the liquids separate, record the count rate of the djrectcd at the top layer
ini1ial value and halving it. When the activily is 30 Bq, time= 20 hours. protactinium.234 in the top layer (e.g. how many counts you gel in 10 or the protactinium
seconds, divided by 10}. Measure the coun1 rate at sensible intervals generator, and Lhat it
20.,. 2 = 1O hours. So. the half-life is 1O hours.
{e.g. every 30 seconds} for at leasl 5 minutes. is close enough 1hat it
records a large number
4. Sub1rac1 your background count rate from each of your result-;, then plot a ol counis.
Tip: Make sure you Investigating half-life · ~ 1] graph of coun1 rate against time. ll should look like the graph in Figure 6.
do a risk asses.smem You can determine the half-life of an isotope for yourself by You can use this graph 10 find the half-life in exactly the same way as in
before carrying out lhi:S measuring how the oounl rate detected from a sample decreases wilh Figure 1. In this case the half-life is the time taken for the count ra1e (or
experiment Lime. You're mosl likely to do this using lhe isotope protactinium.234. ac1ivi1y) 10 halve.
Protactinium.234 is formed when uranium decays {via another isotope).
You can measure protaclinium-234's decay rate using a protactinium Tip: If you haV<! enough
generalor - a boule containing a uranium salt and two solvents, which data, calculmc the
separate out into layers, as shown in Figure 3. The uranium salt is only soluble half-life from the time
in the bottom layer. The uranium sall decays into proladinium.-234 taken for the count rate
(as well as some other isotopes, but you don't nei!d to worry about thoscl. to drop to a quaner, and
an eighth of the original
When the generator is shaken, Lhe solvents are mixed. Only the count rate, as shown
protactinium.234 can form a solution with the lop layer solvenl, so when the in ngure I. Take an
layers in the bottle are allowed to separate, lhc top layer \Viii only contain the aV(!rage of Lhese vaJues
protactinium.234 in solution, while the uranium sail and olher decay products to get your final half-life
are still left in the bottom layer. 0 rime / s result.
Rgure 6: J\ graph of coum rate Jgainst rime for a decaying sarnple
of proractinium.234.

"'""''"' layer c:<mraining

ptotac:linium-234
The half-life equation
You can derive an equation for half-life fronl the formula N = N0 e »on p.435.
Rgure 4: Uranyl nitrate, S(J/\'t?nt layer ':untaining
a uranium sall. It can be uranium s.alr When t ='•·
the number or undec.ayed nuclei has halved, so N =~N0.
dissolved in wawr and used Substituting these values into the equation for N: -
Figure 3: A ptot.aetiniunt generator.
in protactinium generators. 1
2 No -- Noe "''
Tip: The uranium in 1he
salt is always dec'..aying
in10 p rotaain ium.234,
so you can reuse lhe
protactinium generator
by shaking the bottle
So if a Geiger-Muller tube is directed towards the lop layer only, the
activi1y of protaccinium.234 can be monitored \Vilhout confusing its e<xants
wilh those from oLher decaying isotopes.
1. Start by selling up the cquipmcnl shown in Figure 5. Don't shake 1he
protactinium generator yet Find the background counls by measuring Lhe
Cancelling N0 and taking the natural log o f both sides:

i =2 1
so lnG ) 1
)
In@ = -Af.
=ln(2 =- ln(2) using the rules on page 472. So:
Tip: You'U need to
use the power law
~ = a · here.
J
number of counts detected over a time period (at least 30 s). Repeal this ~-= lhedecayc011siani.. r' ---+- Ar'fS. = ln(2)

again 10 di:SSOIV(! more
p rotaciin ium. 234 in Lhe
top layer.
'
two more times, find the mean or your three results, and divide the mean
counts by 1he number of seconds. This is the background coun1 rate you
will need lo subtrad from your future results. t, = the ha/f.ltle, s
.

Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics CkcM
 Tip: Here it's fine
10 give the half.fife
in seconds. Some
isolopes have much
longer half-lives though,
which are mOfe sensible
to give in years.
Figure 7: The GJrbon-14
in living tissue decays
alter an organ;snt dies.
By ntoo.Suring hmv much
c.Jrbon. J4 remains in
dead tissue, lfm age ofa
sample can be estimated.
Tip: You'll need to USC
1he equations for N back
on pages 433 and 435
to answer lhis question.
Tip: In (O'J = a, which
is why In (e "') becomes
- >.i wl1<>n you're
rearranging to find i . r:or
more h<>lp on logs, skip
on <Net 10 page 472.
+. ~!11 Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
Example -f1t§!$1§1N I Arf4,t3:1.. 11t:?1.t.l.µ@"·!®"
·~·l'!!!tfill!ll!
."•"li;;
. 1;:,1,- - - - - - -
A radioactive isotope has a decay constant of 1.16 x 1o-3 s-1 • 0 1 The activity of a radioactive sample fell from 2400 Bq to 75 Bq over a
What is the hall-lile for this isotope? period ol 24 hours. How long is the isotope's half-life?
j
Divide both sides ol >.i.• = ln(2) by A. and subs1itute in the values. Q2 An iSOlope has a half-life of 483 seconds. What is ilS decay consianl?
Q3 A sample of carbon atoms from an ancienl hone has an activity of
'• =~ =1.1 6X1
A
ln (2)
0'
_ 597.54 ... =598 s (10 3 s.I.) 0.45 Bq. The same number of carbon atoms irom a piece of living
Tip: You'll nood
to use the aaivi1y
tissue has a n a<1ivity of 1.2 Bq. Given that the half-life of carbon-14 equation from page 436
is 5730 years, how old is the bone? to answer QJ.
Radioactive dating
~
@"""
The radioactive isotope carbon. 14 is used in radioactive elating. Practice Questions - Fact Recall
l iving plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as part of
Q l What is the half-life of an isotope?
pholosynthesis, including some molecules containing the radioactive isotope
carbon-14. Animals 1hen rake this carbon-14 in when lhey eat the plants. All Q2 Describe how you would find an isotope's half-life from a graph
living Lhings contain the same percentage of carbon-14. shmving its activity against time.
When they d ie, and so stop taking in any more carbon-14, the QJ Nobelium-255 is a r,.dioactive alpha-<>mitter with a half-life of a lew
aclivity of carbon-14 in the plant or a nimal stans to fall, wilh a half-life of minutes. Describe an experiment you could perform to find the
around 5730 years. Archaeological finds of once-living material (like wood or half-liie ol a sample of Nobelium-255.
animal hone) can be teste<t to find the current amount of carbon.14 in them. Q4 Give an example of an isotope used in radioactive dating.
This <'.an be used to calculate how long the organism has been dead, and so
how o ld the material is.
Example -i$@5h§1
N
A s..imple of 6.S )( 10" carbon atoms is taken fronl a spear, and found
to have an activity of 0.052 Bq. The ratio of radioactive carbon.14 to
stable carbon-12 in living wood is 1 : 1.4 x 10 11, and the half-life of
cJrbon~14 is 5730 yem. How old is lhe wood the spear is made from!
The half-life of carbon-14 in seconds is
= =
r,,, 5730 x (365 x 24 x 3600) 1.8070... x 1011 s
1
So the decay constant, A= ~,? = l.S07 ~~x lo" = 3.8358 .. x 10 12 s 1
Rearrange and use the equation for activity to find the number of
c.arbon.1 4 nuclei in the wood:
N =~ =0.052-. (3.8358... x 10 ") =1.3556... x 10"
Use the ratio given in the question to calculate the expected number of
carbon-14 nuclei in a sample ol 6.5 x 1O" carbon aroms from living wood:
N, = (1 -. (1.4 x lO")) x 6.5 x 10,, =4.6428 .. . x 1011
N and N0 are related by N = N.c ". You can rearrange this by dividing
by N, and taking the na tural log (In) of bo1h sides to maker the subject
and find the age of the wood:
N = N,c • => ~. = e • => In{~) = ln(c ")=> In(~) = - .>J
Sot= ! x ln( N) = 1 xln( 1.3556... xl O"11 )
A N. 3.8358 ... xlo 6 4.6428 ... xlo
= 9.2121 ... x l<l" s
= 29 OOO years (lo 2 s.f.)
Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics W'·'
 Leam ing Objectives:
• Know what is meant
by lhe mass dcfeci. The binding energy is a measure of how strongly a nudeus is held togelher
- the gre.1ter the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the nucleus.
• Know what is meant
by the binding energy
of a nucleus.
• Be able 10 caJculate
lhc binding energy
of nuclei using the
equa1ion M = WK"
and the masses of
nuclei.
• Be able to calculaie
the binding energy per
nucleon for a nucleus.
• Know ll1<> shape of the
curve for the graph
or binding energy
per nucleon against
nuc1eon nurnlx!r.
Specification
Reference 6.4.4
Tip: You've already
met this equation on
pagc420.
is convened into energy and released. You can calculale 1his energy using
to use to do it \vould be the same as the e nergy released when the nucleus
formed. The energy needed to separaLe all of the nucleons in a nucleus is
Tip: Remember -
I u = 1.66 1 x10" 7 kg.
You'll be given this in
lhe data and formulae
booklet in the exams.
Tip: To CORV<!rt from J
to eV, you divide by the
magni1ude of the charge
on an electron,
e= 1.60 x ·10 ' C. Then
1
10 conven to M.eV you
just divide by 10'. Using 1he fact that 1 u = 1.66 l x 1o -» kg:
M-ffl Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
9. Binding Energy This means lhal a mass defecl or 1 u is equivalent lo about 930 MeV of
bind ing energy.
1 u •930 M eV
Example -f3§1$ i fuli Tip: This is good for
checking }'Olff answers,
Mass defect and binding energy Using the binding energy per unit mass defect, the bind ing energy in M eV
or making estimates, but
of lithium-6 from the last example on the previous page is:
The mass of a nucleus is less than the mass of its constituent nucleons - the i1's n<>1 very accurate.
difference is called the mass defect. t;.£ • 0.0343 x 930 = 31.899 MeV = 32 M eV (10 2 s.f.) 1r you'm asked to find
the binding energy, you
Example -i.~!'i!t5;1§1N should always use
M =ll.mc'.
The mass of a nucleus of potassium, 1:K, is 39.9536 u. The mass
of a proton i.s t .00728 u and the mass of a neutron is 1.00867 u. Binding energy per nucleon
Calculate the mass defecl of the nucleus in u. A useful way or comparing the binding energies of different nuclei is to look at
Number of protons = 1 9, number of neutrons= (40 - 19) = 21 the binding energy per nucleon.
Mass of nucleon s = (19 x 1.00728 u) + (21 x 1.00867 u) = 40.32039 u
. . Binding energy (8)
So mass defect = mass of nucleons - mass of nucleus Binding energy per nucleon - N u cleon number (A)
= 40.32039 u - 39.9536 u = 0.36679 u
Ein.s1ein's equa tion says that mass a nd energy are equivalent: Exan1ple -13ffll$ i§ll
What is the binding energy per nucleon for .i ili nucleus?
You know from th e second example on the previou s page that
E=energy in I - t;.E = D.mC' - c = rile speed of light in
binding energy= 32 .046... MeV. Nucleon number= A = 6
' a vacuum in ms '
m =- mass ;n kg Binding energy per n ucleon = f = 32.046 ..• ~6 = 5.341...
= 5.34 MeV (to 3 s.f.)
As nucleons join together, the total mass decreases - lhis "lost' mass
lhe cquaLion above. The amount of energy released is equivalent to the If you plot a graph of binding energy per nucleon againsi nucleon
mass defect. number, for all elements, Lhe line of beSf fit is a curve - see Figure 2.
A high binding energy per nucleon means that more energy is needed to
If you pulled 1he nucleus comple1ely apart, the energy you'd have remove nucleons from the nucleus. In other words 1he most stable nuclei Rgure 1: Somo blocks oi
occur around the maximum point on the graph - which is at nucleon pure iron. Iron has the most
n umber 56 (i.e. iron, Fe). sr.able nucleus ofJI/ the
called the binding energy (measured in MeV), and ii is equ ivalent to the elements.
mass defe<.1.
Example -i?1M!f5.,§1N Exam Tip
C•lculale lhe binding energy in MeV of the nucleus of a li lhium-6
1V.ake sure you know the
Jtom, ~Li, given that its mass defect is 0.0343 u. shape of this graph, as
Convert the mass defect into kg: well as. Lhe axes labels
Mass defect = 0.0343 x (l.661 x 1O ") = 5.697 .. x 1O" kg - )'00 could be asked
to sketch it in an e-xam.
Use t;.E = D.mc' 10 calcula te the binding energy:
D.£= (5.697... x 10 ">
x (3.oo x 10•) 1 = 5.127 ... x 10 " I
Convert to MeV:
t;.E = ((5.127 ... x 10 " ) ~ (1.60 x 10 1')) ~ 10•= 32.046... = 32.0 MeV (to 3 s.f.)
Tip: You can use Lhis j
graph 10 find the
The binding energy per unit of mass defect can also be calculated. Nucleon numhf.?r
energy released in
nuclear reactions -
Rgure 2: Graph s/ia.ving bow the binding energy per nuc/oon varies with soo page447.
t;.E = D.mc' = 1 .661 x 1(}" x (3 x lO'l' nucleon number. The red line shows the line of best fit
= 1.4949 x 10 "J
• 930 McV (to 2 s.f.J
Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Pallicfe Physics CI.kA
 Tip: f-<>r a reminder on 10. Nuclear Fission and Fusion Learning Objectives:
standard noca1ion, see • Understand what is
Ql The mass defect of a carbon-12 nucleus is 0.0989 u.
page 413. Radioactive decay isn't rhe only \vay lhal nuclei can change - they can also meant by induced
Calculate the binding energy of the nucleus in Mell.
splil into two smaller nuclei, or fuse with orhcr nuclei to form larger ones. nuclear fission.
Q2 Calculate the mass defect of a nucleus of ':Cl (mass= 15.994915 u)
Tip: The mass of a in alomic units, u. • Understand what is
proton is 1.00728 u, and meant by nuclear
100 mass of a neutron is QJ The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus of iron-56 is 8.79 MeV. Nuclear fission fusion.
1.00867 u. Whal is its mass defect in u? Heavy nuclei {e.g. uranium) are unstable, and some c.an randomly splil into • Know w hy fusion
Q4 A student finds a graph of binding energy per nucleoo against nucleoo lwo smaller nuclei - lhis is called nudear fission. This process is called reactions require very
number in her lextbook. A section of the graph is sho\vn below. spontaneous if it just happens by itself, or induced if we encourage it to high tempera1ure:s.
happen. When nuclear fission occurs, in addilion to the lwo smaller nuclei, • Be able: to bal-anoo

~~~1 1:1 11 1ur11 1 .

a large amounl of energy is released, along with a number or free neutrons. nuclear transformation
equations.
Example - - - - - - - -
• Be abl~ to use the
Fission can be induced by making a neutron enter a mu nucleus, causing graph of binding
il 10 become very unstable. ()nly low-energy neutrons can be caplured in energy per nucleon
lhis way. A low-energy neutron is called a thermal neutron. against nucleon
.so '"' 70 80 90 /()() 110 120
Nucleon numlx:v number to caJculate
energy changes in
a) Using the graph, find the binding energy per nucleoo of a
rnolybdeoum-1 00, 1:tv\o, nucleus. ~ ::Kr reaaions.
• Be able to calculate
neuuon ClltefS lhC

~@
u ~'&i~~
A
b) Calculate the tolal binding energy of a molybdenum-100 nucleus. uranium nucleus. Ill<! en•ri,'Y releast'<f (or
absorbed) in simple
+ o !n ,

*
!n nuctear reactions.
l@MHS:l•iit:f1U.l.p i.+=i:t:Il.iil o------• ~0- 0 ·" Specification

Ql What is meant by the binding energy of a nucleus?

1heuramumnucleu.s <~energy Reference 6.4.4
fisstons mto two sm.1/Jer ~
Q2 Sketch lhe graph of the bind ing energy per nucleon against nucleon nuclei and a few neuuons~ wlla
number. Label the positions of ' H and '*Fe on the curve. It a/so re/roses eovrgy. ~
Tip: Heavy nuclei
don't always fission 10
Figure 1: A possible fission of.a uranium-135 nuck..'US. form the same daughter
nuclei - 1l$"U can split
Energy is released during nuclear fission because lhe new, smaller into lotS of different pairs
nuclei have a higher ave-rage bind ing energy per nucleon (see page 443}. The ot nuclei (wi1h nucleon
larger the nucleus, lhe more unslable il will be - so large nuclei are more numbers around 90 and
140).
likely to spontaneously fission. This means lhat spontaneous fission limilS I.he
number of nucleons lhat a nucleus can contain - in 04her words, it limils lhe
number of possible elements.

Nuclear fusion
Two ligh1 nuclei can combine to create a larger nucleus. This is called
nuclear fusion.
Example - -
In the Sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse in a series of reactions lo form helium.
Tip : )usllike decay
equations, equations
showing nuclear fission
j
O ne oi the reactions is: lH + :H ,_ ~He + energy. and fusion need to
;11 ~ ~ N e11crgy be balanced - see
page 431.
fus1w 1N v

'11 ~
'
°'
-...... r.y ,'11.
Rgure 2: J\vo ismopes of hydrogen fuse to form helium.

* ·HI Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Ci.C A
 Nuclei can only ruse if lhey arc moving very fast, and so have enough
energy to overcome Lhc electrostatic (Coulomb} repulsion between them
Energy released by fission and fusion Tip: Energetically
You can lcll whether it is energetically favou rable for an element to undergo favourable means that
(p.369) and get close enough for the strong interaction to bind them. This the fusion or fission
fission or fusion by looking at the graph of binding energy per nucleon against
means fusion reactions require much higher temperatures than fission, as well will give out energy.
nucleon number. Only elemen1s to the right of 50Fe can release energy
as high pressures (or high densities). Under such conditions, generally only Reaaions that aren't
through nuclear fission. Similarly only elements 10 the left of St.Fe can release
found inside stars, mauer turns inlo a stale called a plasma. energetically favourable
energy through nuclear fusion. This is because energy is only released when
Tip: The mong lDw-energy nuclei are deflecmd High--ooergy nuclei o-.'elconie clecuostatk: repulsion take in energy rather
the binding ene rgy per nucleon increases. than release it.
interaction can only by eJecuostatic repulsion. and are attraaed by ~ strong imeracVon.
auract nucleons together

-*~ ~-~
when they're less than a
few femtomctres apan
<see p.41n - so 111e
fusing nuclei must have
enough energy 10 got
Figure 3: Nuclei must ove1coote their mutual electrostatic repulsion to fuse together.
very close 10 each other.
A lot of energy is released during nuclear fusion because the new~
heavier nucleus has a much higher binding e nergy per nucleon (and so a
lower tolal mass, see p.443). The energy released helps to maintain the high OO 50 UK> 150 2lK> 150 Tip: R>r a reminder on
temperatures needed for further fusion reactions. Nudc.lf:m nundx~r this graph, take a look
Figure 4: Graph showing the regions where fusion and back at page 443.
11ssion reactions are onetgetically favourable.
Nuclear equations
JuS1 like other nuclear transformalions (see p.431 -432), we can express The change in binding energy gives the e nergy released. The bind ing
nuclear fission and fusion reactions as nuclear equations. Just like all e nergy per nucleon graph can be used to estimate the energy released in
equations though, we have 10 make sure lhcse balance, since charge must be nuclear reactions.
conserved. The total nucleon number a nd proton number on each side must
be equal.
Example --1$@$. .fllij
Tip: 2 ~n just meallS two
free neutrons. Calculate the energy released through the fusion of ' H and ' H into 'He.
Examples - - /(J

Tip: You can often get
another small particle
produced in nuclear
fusion, a longside the
main fusion product.
This is usually a proton
or neutron. 1r you're
fusing larger nuclei (e.g.
carbon, oxygen, etO you
1113)' even get a Sl113 II
nucleus, like a hydrogen fission and fusion equations in your exam.
or helium isotope.
Tip: Cs is the chemical
symbol for caesium.
The nucle:ir equation for the spontaneous fission of californium-238 into Binding energy of
c..admium-115 and tin-1 21 is: ~'n ..... - ' He= 4 x 6.8 = 27.2 MeV
J - ·- ·- --· Binding energy of 'H and
' H = (2x 1.1) + tJ x 2.6)
The nuclear equa1ion for the fusion of lithium-6 and deulerium into = 10.0MeV
betyllium-7 is: ·11 ...... ~ 2.f>MeV
Therefore to ta I e nergy
,,.,..._ i"'l.1M~V released= 27.2 - 10.0
Tip: There would be
J
'
.10 llX> 150 200 2.SO = 17.2 some free neutrons
Nudco11 number = 17 McV (to 2 s.f.) produood in these
You may be expected to solve problems involving balancing nuclear interactions as \.\ICU,
but you don't nocd to
Example -fft§!lj.. .fl1d include them in b ind ing
Example -f$§ilj...zjfj
Calculate the energy released in the induced nuclear fission of nsu encrt,'Y calculations. The
The nuclear equation below shows the induced fission into 92 Rb and '""Cs. binding energy of a free
of a uranium-235 nucleus. ncuuon is O MeV.
10 IJ.8Mt:!V -,~,-,-----,,---..---, Binding energy of '-"U
'
...t.
8 • ••••••••••
I 'Rb ~('s =235x7.4= 1739 MeV
Find the nucleon number, A, and proton number, ~ of the Cs nucleus.
it:.. t:_··n····· ....... T ... ..""n!LJ Binding energy of "Rb
i;i~ f> 81Mt~V 1
a nd'"'Cs
To find 1hc nucleon number, subuact lhe 1otal nucleon number on the righ1 1b' 7.4 MeV = (92 x 8.8) + (1 40 x 8.2)
from the total on the left. ~ g 4 tt---1---+--+ --+---i
.~~ = 1957.6MeV
A= (235+1) - (96 +(3 x 1)) =236 - 99=137 "'t> ~ 2tt---1---+--+--+---i
~~ So the total energy
Do the same for proton number. released= 1957.6 - 1739
11u·,,___J
"·1
""1--=1-!:
rJ0"""-1".s!o=--::
': 2~<X=1--2::'!
50
Z= (92 +0) - 07 + 0) =92 - 37 =55 = 218.6
So the Cs nucleus has a nucleon number of 137 and a proton number or 55. Nuck!tJO numlx!r = 220 MeV (lo 2 s.f.)

• ·t:tfl Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Ci.f
 The e nergy released per reaction is gen~lfy lower in nuclear fusion than
fission. But the nuclei used in fusion have a lower mass, so one mole of 1he 11. Fission Reactors Leaming Objectives:
readants in a fusion reaction weighs less tNn one moJe of the reac1an1s in a • UndCJ'stand 'Whal is
fisslon reaction. Gram for gram, fusion can release more energy than ftssion. You need ID know abour 1hc diffe<rot bits dlld pieces that make up a lis.sion
""""'by•dlain
reactor. as 1vel as 1hc poirobal <nv1tonmental problems tha1 come from them. re~.
In both fission and lusion reX<1ons, lhe total mass decreases, but
mass-energy is conseM>d. So you can calculate lhe """'ID' released during • Know ""'basic
a fission or fusion reaction using lhe equation M = t:.mc', ,men, 6111 is the structure ol .:a f1SSion
total difference in mass bc<Wttn the reactants and products.
Structure of fission reactors re~.

We can harness the Ct'ICfln' re?lcased during nuclear fission reacrions in a • Know and be able
NU<ittKI
M.111< (U> Example -1$!HS~ fii5 thermal fission reacto< (see Figure I ), but it's impooant !hat these reactions to explain lhc roles
P:anld<' are very carefully controlled. of componmcs of
Calculate lhe energy relea<ed (in MoV) by the fol lowing fission rea ction
11'-U 234.99333 J fiss ion reactor,
using the data in Figure S: "!iU -t- !o - : Kr + ';!Ba. + J!n
"Kr 88.89783 including fuel rods,
•.wna 14).892 1<; 6Jn =me_.,+ m~ •-« + .lmn tn11 n, 1n" romrol rods and the
l l'ff(I 13 8.90(, 1) = 88.89783+ 143.89215 +(3. 1.00867) 234.99333 - 1.00867 modcra1or.
"fr 93.88431 = -0.18601 u r.== :!;:::;!-o -St f>iUJI • Understand 1he
' II L 0 135S = (- 0 .18601 x 1.661 • 10 ") kg =
3.0896... x 10,. kg
(to turhim-s)
rnvimnmcntal impao
PlOIOO 1.00728 M =tune'= 3.0896 ... x 10" x (3.00 x 10'J' or nuck.'3r wasce.
ooutron I 00867 = -2.7806 ...• 10 "J Specification
l'Vl!Citmn = {(-2.7806... x 10 11)+ (1 .60 x 10 ")).,.10'MeV RofO«Hlce 6.4.4
0.00055
nctJIMO 0 = 173.79... MeV
= - 174 MeV (lo 3 s.fJ rip: In ng""' 1,""'
So the fission reaction role•S<'S I 74 MeV of energy. moderator atso aas as a
cooYnt Uc<> page 450).
In OJCtreme conditions, nuclo1 can undergo tr.msfonnations whidl
are not energetically fOYOOrnblc. For OJ<ample, lhe lalJ:C amount of energy
released in supernovae allows iron 1n ;m expkxfing star to fuse into bigger Tip: Maia! sure you're
Tip: llwC"s moro e.g.wa~
on supornov.io on nuclei, absorbing some of tlut cn«gy. S<:icntiSIS think this is how almost all pump famili.u wilh the basic
pagc322. naturally occurring elements heavier th;in iron came to exist. structure and fcr.nures of
You can calculate the energy absorbed by an energetically figure I : '"" key kJ1un'S of a lh<Ymal frssioo rroaor. a fission reactor.
unravourable reaction using the s..imc method as in che example above. In
this case the binding energy per nyck'On decreases during the transformation, Chain reactions
so the total mass increases, :tncl you yet a posilive values ror ll.m and llf. Fission reactors use rods of umnium 1ha1 are rich in 7 ..uu
(or somclim~
This indicates thal energy was absotbcd instead of emitted. plutonium rods rich in 11"1'u} ns 'fuel' for fission reactions. ffhe rods also Tip: The fuel rods are
Tip: Tllo 1><'3k of th(> con1ain other isoLopes, bu1 1hcy don'l undergo fission.) placed into t.hc reactor
b inding m<'IJ,'Y I"" Practice Questions - Application romotcly. which kcq>S
nudoon ag;iinst nuclC!Oll
These fission reaccions producc neulfons which then induce other wortccrs as far away from
numb<r gr.iph Is at a Ql For each of the nuclei below, sldte whether it is more energetically nuclei to fission, which produce more neutrons which go on to induce more the radiation as possibte.
noclron numb« ol 5~. favourable for them 10 undergo nuclear fission or nuck!ar fusion: fission. This is called a ct~in reaction. The neutrons will only cause a ch.1in
a) l:Si b) ':Ac cJ ;:er dJ '::Te reaction if lhey are slowed down, whidl allows them ID be absorbed by the
Q2 A deuterium nodcus, 1H, fuses wf!h a tritium nucleus, ~. to form uranium nuclei these slowed down neutrons are called thennal nrotrons
(see page 445).
• helit.m-4 nucleus, ;H<', •nd another particle, X. Write a balanced
nuclear oquation for this reaaton and identify particle X. If the chain rextion in .:a ftSSIOn reactor is left to con1jnue unchedccd,
rip: R.....,.,,_, ii Q3 Using the data in Figure 5, calculate the """'ID' (in MeV) released laige amounts of energy are rclca'<!d in a ""'¥ short time. Many new ftSSion
)'llfR! using {l} • llmc', reactions will follow C3Ch ftsst0n, causmg a runaway reaction wnidl could
during lhe fusion of two Jl<Olons: ~ ~ • lH t te + :-.
)00 ~ IO >ctCUnl lor lead to an explosion. This is what luppcns in a nuclear fission bomb.
all the! panlcles th:n yuu Q4 Using the data in Figure 5, colculate the energy (in MeV) released
started whh, and all lhc when a 1.uu nucleus is h11 by :i neutron and fissions into ~-zr and 11'f'fc
paniclos prc•rucod and a number o( ncutrom. Moderator
Fuel rods need to be placed in ~1 nlode rator {for example, water) to slow down figure 2: Fuel rods being
ancVor absorb neulrons. You ne<."CI to choose a moderator that \Viii slow down /0t.\'Cfcd imo the reactor at a
some ne ulrons cnoogh so they c:m cause further fission, keeping 1hc rc:ic1ion nuc/tu1 pont.v si.uk>n. fhe
cor~ is surrounded by water,
going at a s1eady r.uc. wl1ich acts as J moderator.
Wha t is nuclear rusionr
Explain why light nuclei require high temperatures to fuse togclher.

•llt~lJ
. 11 ModUle 6 Secbol1 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Par1ide Physics • rn•

Figur~ 3: Cooling u~vers
at a nucfe..11 fJO\Yef plant.
The stootn used to drive. the
turbines is passed through
the cooling tower to cool
it duivn.
Tip: When we say
'nuclear power station',
we mean a p<>\'-'Cf
station wflich geoora1cs
el«Lricity using a fission
reactor.
Tip: Fission doesn't
produce any grcenhoolc
gases, but pans of
lh<1 procoss do, e.g.
1.ransponing uranium
fue l rods to a power
Station.
Tip: Alpha radiation is
panicularly dangerous
inside the body, as its
shon penetration range
{see p.428) ""'ans il
will almos:t certajnly be
abSO<bed by cells, v.11ich
can damage them.
Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
Control rods
You want the chain reaction to continue on ilS own at a steady rate, where
one fission rollows anolher. The a mount of ' fuel' you need to do this is called
the critical mass - any less than 1he critical mass (sub-critical mass} and the
reaction \viii just peter out Fission reactors use a supercritical mass or fuel
(i.e. more tha n the cri1ical mass, so thal several new fissions normally follow
each fission} and control the rate of fission using control rods.
Control rods conlrol the chain reaction by limiting the number of
neutrons in the reactor. They absorb neutrons so that lhe rate of fission is
controlled. Control rods are made up of a material that absorbs neutrons
(e.g. boron), and they can be inserted by var)'ing amounts to control 1he
reaction rate. In an emergenc.y, the reactor ·will be shut down automatically
by the release of the conlrol rods into the reactor, which will stop the reaction
as quickly as possible.
Coolant
A coolant is a substance wtiich transfers heat in a reactor. The material used
should be a liquid or gas al room tempt.'1'3tore, so that it can be pumped
around lhe reactor, and be efficient al transferring heat. The moderator
can serve as a primary coolant, which transfers the h<".al produced by
fission lo another coolant (the secondary coolant), such as water, which is
converted to steam as it's heated. This steam then passes through and pmvers
electricity-generating turbines.
Environmental impact of fission reactors
Deciding \Vhether or nol to build a nuclear power station
(and if so, where to build it} is a tricky business.
@ ~
Nuclear fission doesn't produce carbon dioxide, unlike ~ Thal isotopes are forms of an element with different numbers of neutrons.
burning fossil rucls, so i1 doesn't contribute lo global \'\'arming. h also provides
a continuous energy supply, unlike many renewable sources (e.g. wind/solar}.
Ho\vever, some of the wasle producls of nuclear fission are highly
radioadive and difficult to ha ndle and store. When material is removed from
lhe reactor, it is ini1ially very hot, so it is placed in cooling ponds until the
ten1peralure falls to a safe level. The radioactive waste is then stored in sealed
containers in spccialisr facilities. These facilities often have to be built deep
underground. Digging into the ground to build these facililies can have a
significanl eifect on lhe local landscape and environment, and damage local
wildlife habitats. The waste is kepl lhere until its activity has fallen sufficiently
for it 10 be considered safe. This can lake many years_, and there's a risk 1ha1
material could escape from these containers.
A leak of radioactive material could be harmful to 1he environme nl
and local huma n populations both now and in the futu re, panicularly if
the material contaminated water supplies. This would allow the isotopes
to contaminale plants a nd animals, and so enter the food chain, exposing
organisms (including humans) to radiation. Radiatjon sources are very
dangerous Lo living cells - if radiation reaches a cell it can ionise atoms inside
it. This can kill the cell, immcdia1ely harming the organism. Ionisation can
also cause a mutation in the cell's ONA,. which can resuh in cancer in animals,
o r produce a harmful genetic muta1ion which could be passed on 10 offspring.
Accidents or natural disasrcrs pose a risk to fission reactors. In 2011
an earthquake a nd subsequent Lsunami in Japan caused a meltdmvn at the
Fukushima nuclear power planL Over 100 OOO people were evacuated from
the area, and many tonnes of contaminated water leaked into the sea.
The perceived risk of this kind of d isaster leads many people to
oppose the construction of nuclear power plants near their homes. Because Tip: Scientists are
trying to develop fusion
of all oi the necessary safety precautions, building and decommissioning reactors so tha 1 we
nuclear power plants is very time-consuming and expensive. can gcnt>ratc nuclear
clcclricily without the
Practice Questions - Fact Recall wasm you gel from
Ql Describe a fission chain reaction. fission reactors, but lhcy
Q2 State why neutrons need to be slowed down by a moderator in a haven't )'Ct succeeded in
creating one that mak<:s
fission reactor. more elcclrici1y than it
QJ How are control rods used to control I.he rate of reaction in a fission uses.
re.actor? Give an example of a material used to make control rods.
Q4 What properties does 1he ma1erial used for the coolant in a fission
reactor need to have? Give an example of a ma1erial that could be
used as a coolant
QS Give one way that nuclear waste c.an impact the e nvironmenL
Section Summary
1\.lake sure you kno\v...
Ho\V the alpha-particle scancring experiment disproved the Thomson model of the a tom, and
provided evidence for the atom having a small, charged nucleus.
Tha t the nuclear model of the a1om 51ates that the atom consists of a small_, positively-charged
nucleus, made up of protons a nd neutrons, ocbiled by negalively-charged electrons.
What the proton number, z. a nd nucleon number, A, or a nucleus are.
Ho\v to represent an a1om using standard notation, ,X, where X is the element's chemical symbol.
Thal aloms have a diameter or around 1 x 1 O 10 m and a nucleus has a typical diameter of a few fm.
Hmv to use the equation R = tcf\lfl to calculate the radius of a nucleus, R, where r0 is constant
Ho\v to calculate the mean densities of a toms and nuclei by a pproximating them as spheres.
That the srrong nuclear force is responsible for holding nuclei tog~her, and its nature at different ranges.
Thal hadrons, sudl as protons and neutrons, a re particles that feel the strong nuclear rorce.
Thal leplons, sudt as electrons a nd neutrinos, are fundamental particles that do not feel the sLrong
nuclear force bu1 are subject to the weak nuclear force.
Thal every particle has an equivalent antiparticle 'vhich has the same mass but opposite charge.
Thal the anliparticles of the electron, proton, neulroo and neutrino a re the positron, anliproton.
anlineutron a nd antineutrino respectively.
Thal Einstein's mass-energy equa1ion, Llf = llmc2, states that mass and energy are equivalent.
Thal pair production is when energy changes into mauer in the form of a particle-antiparticle pair.
Thal when a particle comes into contact with iis corresponding antiparticle, they annihilate and form
a pair of photons.
How to use Einstein's mass-energy equation 10 make calculations ior pair production a nd annihilation.
Tha t hadrons are made up of fundamental panicles called quarl<s.
The basic properties of the up quark, u~ the dovm quark~ d, and the strange quark, s. as well as their
respective anti-quarks.
Thal a proton is made of two up quarks and a down quark, uud, and a neutron is made of o ne up
quark and l\vo down quarks, udd.
How to describe the decay of panicles in tenns of the quarl< model. cont ...
Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Wfj
 That in beta-minus decay, a d quark 1ums inlo au quark and emits a n electron and a n a ntineutrino.
That in beta-plus decay, a u quark turns into ad quark and emits a positron and a neutrino. Exam-style Questions I
That in any particle interadion c harge must be conserved, and how to use charge conservation to
balance particle inleraclion equa tions.
That unstable nuclei v1till undergo radioactive decay Lo become more sta ble by emilting a particle or
energy, a nd that this process is spontan eous and random. At what range does the strong nuclear force lead to the greatest attraction between
The four types of nuclear radiation: alpha panicles (helium nuclei), beta-minus particles {elecnons), nucleons?
beta-p lus particles (positrons) a nd gamma rays, and their range and penetration properties. A Less than 0.5 fm.
How 10 perform techniques a nd procedures to investigate the absorplion o f alpha particles, beta B Between 0.5 fm and 3 Im.
particles and gamma rays by different materials.
How 10 write a nd balance nuclear decay equa tions for alpha. beta-minus and beta-plus decays. C Between 3 and 6 Im.
That the activity of a radioactive source is the number of nuclei in the source that decay each second. D More than 6 fm.
That the de<-.ay constant, A, or a radioactive isotope is a measure of the rate of decay of an isotope. ( 1 mark)
How to use the equation A= >.N to calculate the activity of a sample o f a radioactive isotope, whe re 2 Which of the following interactions is possible?
N is the number of nuclei of thal isotope in the sample.
A e· . e- + v
How to use the equation tt;_• =-AN to calculate the rate of change of the number of undecayed
B p . n + e.- + v
nuclei o f an isotope at a given time, and model radioactive decay using a spreadsheet.
How to calcula te the number oi undccayed nuclei or an isotope a t time l using the equation C n . p + e· + p
N = N0e·"" , where N0 is the inilial number of undec..ayed nuclei. D p • n+e· +v
How to use dice to simulate radioactive decay.
(1 mark)
How to calcula te the activity of a source at time t using the equalion A = A0e », where A0 is the
initial activity of the source. 3 A sample contains 8.04 • HY' atoms of the radioisotope '°Co. It takes 10.4 years
for the number of "Co atoms remaining in the sample to fall to 2.01 x 10".
That the half-life, i,,,, of an isotope is the average Lime taken for the number of undecayed nuclei of What is the decay constant of " Co?
the isotope in a sample to halve, and how to find the half-life of an isotope from its decay graph.
A 4.23 x 10-0 s-•
How to perform techniques a nd procedures to determine the half-life of proLactinium.
How to calculate the half-life of an isotope using lhe equation >J...,, = ln(2). B 2.11 x 10-0 s-•
How radioactive isotopes such as carbon-14 can be used in radioactive daling. c 2.36 x 10' s-•
That the 'mass defect' is the difference bet\veen the mass of a nucleus and the t04al mass of its D 1.64 x 10' s-•
constituent nucleons.
( 1 mark)
That the binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required lo separate all the nucleons in a nucleus,
and is equivalent 10 its mass defect converted into e nergy. 4 Subatomic particles can be classified into categories such as hadrons and leptons.
How to calculate the binding en ergy of a nucleus from its mass defect using llE= illnc', and how to (a) Give one similarity and one difference between hadrons and leptons.
calculate the binding e nergy per nucleon for a given nucleus. (2 marks)
The shape of the graph of binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number. The e. - particle is a hadron. It has a charge of +2e, and a mass ol 2.19 x 1047 kg.
That nuclear fission is when a large nucleus splits into 1\VO smaller nuclei Vltith a h igher binding (b) The quark composition of the e.- particle is uux.
energy per nucleon, and that Lhi-s process releases energy and free neutrons. Identify quark x.
That induced nuclear fission is when fission is caused by the absorption of a low energy neutron. (1 mark)
That nuclear fusion is vdten two nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus with higher binding energy (C) All particles have a corresponding antiparticle.
per nucleon, and that this process releases energy, but requires very high temperatures and pressures. State the mass and charge of the antiparticle of the e.-- particle.
Hovi to write a nd balance nuclear equations for ftsSion and fusion reactions. (1 mark)
How to calculate the energy released (or absorbed) in nuclear reactions from the binding energy per (d) Quarks cannot be found in isolation. When energy is supplied to a hadron to
nucleon again:sl nucleon number graph a nd by using 6.£ = 6.mc2. remove a quark. tt instead pair-produces a quark-anti-quark pair. Given that the
lhat a chain reaction is where neutrons produced by a fission reaction induce more fissio n reactions. mass of a strange quark is approximately 1.71 • 1D-2' kg, calculate the minimum
The basic structure of a fission reactor, includ ing details of the moderator, control rods, fuel rods energy, in MeV, required to produce a strange-anti-strange pair.
and coolant. (3 marks)
The e nvironmental impact of nuclear waste.

f!'I Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
 5 A plutonium isotope can be represented by': Pu. 7 "P is an isotope of phosphorus.
(a) State how many neutrons and protons are in the nucleus of an atom of': Pu. (a) calculate the radius of a nucleus of ''P. Use the value r0 = 1.4 x 10-" m.
(1 mark) (2marks)
(b) Name the force that stabilises an atomic nucleus by acting against the repulsive (b) A nucleus of " P has a mass of 32.97 u. Calculate the nuclear density of " P.
electrostatic force between the protons. You may assume the nucleus is spherical.
(1 mark) (3 marks)
(c) ':Pu decays by" decay to form an element with symbcl U. "P emtts ~- radiation as it decays to an isotope of sulfur.
Write an equation for this decay using standard notation. "P has a hatt-life of 25.4 days, and a proton number of 15.
(2 marks) (c) Write the nuclear equation for the decay of " P. (The chemical symbcl of suttur is S.)
Another isotope of plutonium. with nucleon number 241, decays by emitting 11 and (2marks)
fr particles in stages (a decay chain), eventually forming ':;TI. (d) Calculate the decay conslanl of " P.
(d) There are nine u decays in the decay chain from the plutonium isotope to ':;TI. (2 marks)
Calculate the number of ti- decays in the decay chain. (e) A sample of "P contains 1.6 x 10" undecayed atoms. How long will ii take for the
(2 marks) number of undecayed atoms to fall to 7.0 x 10"? Give your answer in days.
(e) Oesclibe the process of ~- decay in terms of quark ftavour change. (2 marks)
(2 marks)
8 This question is about binding energy.
(a) What is meant by the term binding energy?
(1 mark)
6 Fig. 6.1 shows the activity-time graph for a sample of a radioactive isotope. (b) Copy the axes in Flg 8.1 and sketch the graph of binding energy per nucleon
against nucleon number. Indicate which nucleus is found at the peak of the graph.
Fig. 6.1
Fig. 8.1
n11f"!'"liimr"lilml""'im-T11cmi"!TrITi'iin
711~8i!fltt-4ff!tHH1ntt+
u1..P\"fiiH+.,;ifffi;1f-,,;iff.t
g so
.....
.~ 411.fr4.ffil~lfl++'-'1l+:fH~f!k-!!!1iliiT:-J
~ .10+.;;ffmf~l+ti:~;;.!lifl+i-!H nucleon number
(2marks)
211+8i!H+"1ifit't-!Hf.ii-+1'~--it!i+c;;:.i
(CJ Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of zinc-66, given that tt has a mass defect
111
!J!trt:=l'.1'.t~tt~lt~±1
;/()
of 0.62065 u. Give your answer in MeV.
(2mark)
10 311 40
timelmins After absorbing a neutron, "'U can fission into ..Sr and " 0Xe, along with a number
of neutrons:
(a) Find the hatt-life of the isotope in minutes.
(1 mark) (d) Calculate the proton number of ..Sr, a. and the number of neutrons produced, b.
(b) Calculate the number of undecayed nuclei in the sample after 17 minutes. (2 marks)
(3marks) (e) Explain how the fission of a heavy nucleus releases energy.
When the isotope decays, the nucleus emits a positron and a neutrino. (2marks)
(C) The posttron goes on lo annihilate with an electron. Calculate lhe minimum (f) Calculate the energy released by the above reaction in MeV.
frequency of one of the photons produced in this annihilation. (Nuclear masses: "'U = 234.99333 u, ..Sr= 93.89446 u.
" Xe = 139.89194 U, •n = 1.00867 U.)
0
(3marks)
(3marks)

M f! I Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics Module 6: Section 4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
--i Module 6 So, ii a potential difference o f 50 kV is used in the tube, the
maximum X-ray energy will be 50 ke\I.
On average, only about lo/o of chc electrons' kinetic energy is
converted into X-rays, while the rest is converted into heat To avoid
overheating, the lungs ten anode is rotated at about 3000 rpm (revolutions per
learning Objectives: 1. X-ray Imaging minute) co spread heat generated around the whole anode. The anode is also
mounted on copper - this conducLS the heat away effectively.
• Know the basic
structure of an X-ray Non-invasive medical imaging rechniques lel doctors s<.-"e ~vhat's going 011
tube a nd Lh.at its (or going 'Wrong) inside lhe body;, so they vvon't need to resort 1.0 surgery lo
Exarnple-f8fflifiii4tld
componcnis include have a look. X ray imaging is one of these lechniques.
4 Electrons hitting an anode in an X-ray tube produce X-ray photons
a heater (ca.lhodej, an whose maximunl energy corresponds to a wave-length of 5.0 x 1o-0 m.
anode, a targeLmetal X-ray tubes The tube volrage is then halved but all other factors are kept the same. Figure 2: WiJJ;am David
and a high voltage The X-rays used for diagnostic imaging are produced in X-ray tubes. An Calculate the wa..,lenglh of the most energetic X-ray photons produced Coo/Klge, AmeticJn physicist,
supply. X-ray tube is a glass tube containing an electrical circuit, wilh a cathode where at I.his lower voltage. holding an early ~<ersion of
• llnders1and how X-ray electrons are emitted, and an anode {called the target metal) that the electrons The maximum energy of the elecuons produced in the X-ray 1ube is the. X-ray tube he invented.
phmons arc produced are directed towards. X-ray tubes arc surrounded by a lead housing (to keep E =ex V. Halving the voltage would halve the maximum energy of the
from an X-ray 1ut>e. the X-rays contained), which has a small windmv in it through which X-rays can electrons and hence halve the maximum energy of the X-ray photons.
• Know what is meant pass. To prevent efniued electrons from colliding with gas panides v.ihile still in
by the aucnuation of the tube, the X-ray tube is evacuated (i.e. the air is removed). Since the energy of a photon (f) is given by E= h.{ (where hand care
X-rays and oo able to Tip: The X-ray photon is
constant), halving the energy would mean the wavelength is doubled. released wht'fl the omer
calculate the intensity
So the ne-..v wavelength of the most energetic photons is: electron moves into a
of an X-ray beam
using I= lcP "", wh~e 2x s.o x 1a 11 = 1.0 x 1o 10 m lower energy level, not
µ ts the auenuaiion when the inner electron
(abs<lrption) is cjoc1ed. Thts means
X-rays arc also produced when beam electrons knod< out electrons these photons can
coefficient from the inner shells of the tungsten atoms. Electrons in the atoms' ou1er only be emitted with
• Know that the shells fall into the vacancies in the inner energy levels, and release energy in very specific energies
X-ray attenuation (which depend on th<!
mechanisms are
1he form of X-ray photons - see Figure 3.
Qoorgies of 1he slmlls lilt!
simpJe scatter, electron moves bc.icween
photoelectric effect, I>incom ing elet:;tron 2) inner 'tungsten' ehx:l.ron is f!.JL~:tt~J
- SOC! p.3291"' more
Compton cliect and .1) outet eled.run tnl'JVC:\ information) .
pair produc1ion. to loWfc.v..energy
• Explain h<M• barium shell "' mt the gap
and iodine can be X·rays Tip: Because X-rays arc
used as contras! media ~ 4) X ray photon is emiued hannful, the in1ensity o f

@
4

Rgure I: An X-ray wbe.

in X-ray imaging. medir.al X-rays needs to
• Knowwhat Al the cathode, electrons arc emitted (boiled olO by the hot filament. Figure 3: X-rats Jie emitted when outer clec.t1ons move be carefully
computerised axial This filament is healed by passing a current through it - this current is w inner energy shells to fill vacancies in w ngsten atoms. controlled - ~
tomography <CATI separate from the current that is no\ving to the anode. The cathode filament you need the ~
scanning is, and lhat is usually contained in cup-shaped housing, which focuses the beam of lowest possible
intensity that w ilJ give
the cornponcms of a elecuons onto the target melal. Varying beam intensity a dear image.
CAT scanner indudc
a rotating X-tubc The target metal (tungsten) acts as the anode of the circuit The high The intensity of an X-ray beam is the energy per second thal passes through
producing a thin
potential difference across the tube (the 'tube voltage') causes the electrons a unit area at right angles to the beam. There are hvo ways Lo increase the
to accelerate towards it When the electrons smash into the anode, they intensity of the X-ray beam: Tip: Currenl is a
ran-shaped beam, a
decelerale and some of their kinetic energy is converted into electromagnetic measure ol the number
ring of decec:tors, and Increase the tube voltage. Increasing the potential difference belwecn
computer soltwarc energy, in the form of X-ray photons. Wha1ever energy is lost by the electron ot electrons passing
the ca1hode and anode gives the electrons more kinetic encrgy - a point, not of Lheir
and display. is gained by the photon - the result is that the tungsten anode emils a meaning they have more energy available to be converted into photons energy. So increasing
• Know advantages of continuous spectrum of X-ray radiation. on deceleration. Higher energy electrons can also knock out electrons the current flowing
a CAT scan over an The maximum kinetic energy of lhc electrons (and therefore chc from shells deeper within lhc tungsten atoms. Both these factors lead to through the filamen1
X-ray image. maximum energy of the X-ray photoos) is equal to the potential difference of h igher energy X-ray photons being produced. increases the number or
Specification the X-ray tube multiplied by the charge of an eleclron: X-ray photons produced,
Reference 6.5.1 Increase the current sopplied to the filamenL This liberates more but doesn't change
. . . rT e = charge of an e/ecuon in C electrons per second from the cathode, which then produce more X-ray the maximum photon
E =- maximum kmeuc_ ----+ E = eV v =-pmenu.11difference photons per second. Individual photons have the same energy as befOfc. energy.
energy of the elecuons tn J of the X-ray tube in v

.cs:w Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging Cfz

Tip: You might also
see Lhe attenuation
coetficient given in m 1•
In Lhis case you'll need
10 either oonvcn the
auenuatfon coerficien1
10 cm 1 or make sure
th<! penetration depth is
in m before doing any
calculations.
Tip: ·1n' is the natural
logarithm and you
can use it to get rid of
exponentials because
lnC"=X. Youmigh1 see
'In' wri11cn as 'le~.; .
There's more on this
on page472.
Tip: Yoo learnt aboo1
1he photoelectric effro
on pages 237-240.
Figure 4: An X-1ay image of
a human skull. nie white
parts of the image are whore
rite film bohind rho subjocr
has """'1 exposed to X-rays
of k.nver intensity due to
their auenuau·on as they pass
through the suf>iect~ body.
The mote imense an X-ray
beam is when it hhs the iilm,,
the darker rhilt part of !he
film will be.
Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging
X-ray attenuation
When X-rays pass through matter (e.g. a palien~s body), they a re absorbed
and scauered, which leads to a fall in their intensity. The intensity or the
X-ray beam decreases (auenuates) exponentially as they travel deeper into
the material - the intensi1y at a depth of x cm depends on the m,aterial's
attenuation (absorption) coefficient:
I = intensity of tl~ auenuaced , , - - - - /-£ = the mmeti.lt"s attenuation
x.ray OOlm m Wm '
X·ray beam in Wm 1
~
/ :
10 = incident intcnsiiyof lhe__.Jf
/0e"'Y coeflkient in cm '
x = the depth to which the
beam has peneuated in cm
Exan1ple -f~§!S;flli
The attenuation coefficient of a patient's body tissue is 0.2 cm-•.
At what depth inside the tissue will an X-ray be attenuated to
40% of the intensity of the incident beam?
You know· that the intensity is 40o/o of the original intensity, so:
f::: 0.4 => e "* = 0 .4
Take 1he natural logarilhm of both sides and rearrange to make x the subject:
- µx = ln 0.4 => x ~ ~ = - 1W = 4.58... = 5cm (to l s.f.)
X-rays a re attenualed as they pass through a material in four main \\'ays:
Simple scauering - al low energies a photon may be denected by a toms
in the maler~I. but wi1houl losing e nergy (i.e. it's elastically scattered).
The photoelectric effect - a photon with around 30 keV of e nergy can be
absofbed by an electron - the electron i:s lhen ejeded from its a tom.
The gap in the electron shell is the n filled by a nother electron, which
results in a photon being emitted.
The Compton effect - a photon with around 0.5-5 MeV of energy loses
some of its energy as it inleracts \Vith an electron in an a tom. 1lle electron
is knocked out of the a tom and the photon is deflected (i.e. scattered).
Pair production - a high (> 1.1 MeV} energy photon decays into
an elecrron and a positron {i.e. pholon energy is converted to mass) -
sec page 421.
O ne factor thal affects the amount of energy absorbed by a material
is the a tomic number of atoms \Vithin it So different tissues (e.g. soft tissue
and bone) containing atoms wilh different atomic numbers will appear
different in an X-ray image because they're absorbing different a mounts or
energy. For example, X-rays a re absorbed more by bone than sofl tissue, so
bones show up more brightly.
If Lhe tissues in the region of interest have similar altenuatioo
coefficienlS then artificial contrast media can be used so these different tissues
appear more d istinct in an X-ray image. Iodine and barium are both relatively
harmless a nd have high atomic numbers, so they show up clearly in X-ray
images. They can also be followed as they move through a patien~s body. For
example, a barium meal can be swallowed and its palh through the digestive
system imaged, while iodine is usually injected into blood vessels or tissues so
that they can be viewed more clearly.
CAT scanning
Computed axial tomography (CT or CAn scans produce an image of a
two-dimensional slice th rough the body. The patient lies on a tab le, \vhich
slides in and out of a ring conlaining a rotating X-ray tube (or X-tube} and
X-ray de tectors.
A thin X-ray beam in the shape of a fa n is emiued by the X-ray
tube, and the tube is rotated around the body. This beam is picked up by the
detectors. Computer software w'Orks out how much attenuation has been
caused by each part of the body, and converts this informa tion inlo a high
quality image of Lhe patient's tissues. CAT scans produce more detailed
images than regular X-rays, especially for soft tissue. The data r.an also be
ma nipu lated to genera te a JD image.
Rgure S: A patient
undOfgoing an upper-body
X-rays detected CAT scan.
on other .'tide.
Rotating X-ray tu~
emits hcam of X rays
in a fan shape.
Rgure 6: Diagram shatving how a CAT scan works.
1µpt4.t3:1.-t1i~?1 .t.1 .g11 .t®®"·hl
Q I In an X-ray tube, elec1rons are accelerated through a potential
difference or 85.0 kV towards a n a node. What's the maxin1um energy
an emiued X-ray photon could have in joules?
Q2 X-rays a re used to image a bone in a patient's leg. The X-rays have a n
intensity of 30.0 Wn1 1 when incident on the bone. The a ttenuation
coefficiem of bone Vil is given byµ= 2.5 an 1• Find the intensity of
the X-rays at a depth o f 0.69 cm beneath the surface of the bone.
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
Q l al Draw and label a diagram of an X-ray tube.
b} Explain why the anode in the X-ray tube rotates.
Q2 State the names of foo r mech<lnisms by which X-rays can be
auenuated.
QJ Explain how a barium meal can help 10 improve the contrast between
tissues in an X-ray image of the d iges1ive tracl
Describe how a CAT scanner works.
QS Give two advantages or CAT scans over slandard X-ray images.
J
Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging CbM
 Leam ing Obj ectives: 2. Medical Uses of Nuclear Gamma cameras consist of five main parts (see Rgure 1):
Lead shield - this surrounds most of Lhe c.amera and slops radiation from
• Know hO\v medical Tip : The scimillator
lracers, including
1.e dmetium-99m and
Radiation other sources being detected.
Lead collimator - a piece of lead wilh thousands of venical holes in it,
turns the energy o f a
gamma photon into a
ftuorine-18, are used. Medical tracers move rhrough lhe patient~ body to rhe region of interest and wflich only gamma rays travelling parallel to the holes can pass through. large number at visible
• Know hO\v a gamma emit radiation. This radiation can be detected \Vhh a gamma camera or a PET Scin1illa Lor - a sodium iodide crystal that emits a flash oi light light photons, which are
camera can be used 10 scanner to ntap and study the function and suuc1ure of Lissues or organs. {scin1illates) whenever a gamma ray hils iL easier to detcc1.
aid diagnosis.
• Be ab~ 10 describe
Lhe components of
a gamma camera
and their functions,
Medical tracers
Many types of imaging. e.g. X-rays (pages 458-459), only show the structure
Photomultiplier tubes - these detect the flashes of light from the
scintjflator and tum them into pulses of elec1rici1y.
Electronic circuil - this <.'O llects the signals from 1he pholomuhiplier
tubes and sends them to a compulcr for processing into an image.
Tip :Photomultiplier
tubes are also used
in PET scanners (see
j
including Lhe of organs. Medical tracers (Of radiolracers) are radioactive subslanccs that are below).
collimator, sdntillator, used 10 shO\v the function, as well as 1he structure, of tissues or organs.
photomultiplier tubes, Medical tracers usually consist of a radioactive isotope (e.g.
computer and display. fl uorine-1 8 or technetium-99m) bound to a substance that is used by the body [le<:llcHJic:
• Be able to describe (e.g. glucose or water). The traca is injected into o r swallO\ved by Lhe patienl d rc;uil
how an image is and then moves chrough the body to the region of interest. Where the tracer
formed in a gamma goes depends on the substance the isotope is bound to - i.e. it goes a nywhere
camera. that the substance would normally go as it's used by the body. The radiation
• Know I.hat a positron emiucd due to the isotope is detected (e.g. by a gamma camera or PET scanner,
emission tom0graphy see below and page 461) and used to produce an image oi inside the palient.
(PET) scanner relies
This can be useful in differenl areas - ror example:
on the annihilation
of positron-electron Tracers can show areas of damaged tissue in the hean by indicating areas
with decreased blood flo,v. This can reveal coronary artery disease and Figure 1: The components of a gamma camera.
pairs, and describe
how an image is damaged or dead hean muscle caused by hean anacks.
ronned. They can help identify active cancer tumours. Cane.er cells have a much The computer maps the spatial distribution and the frequency
• Know how PIT higher melabolism than healthy cells bec;iuse they're growing fast, so they of gamma ray emissions de1ec1ed by the gamma camera to make a
scanning can be used take up more tracer. lWO-dimensional image, effectively forming a snapshol of regions where the
to aid diagnosis. Tracers can sho\v blood ftovv and activity in lhc brain. This helps to medical Lracer has been taken up. The gamma camera is often roi:atcd lo take
Specification research and treat neurological conditions such as Parkinson's, Alzheimcr's mulliple images from differenL angles to provide different perspectives of the
Reference 6.5.2 disease, epilepsy and depr,,.sion. a rea.
Tedlnetium-99rn is v.tidely used in medical tracers because the gamma Gamma cameras are useful in helping to diagnose patients without
Tip: Don't worry, you radiation it emilS can easily pass out of the body to reach the delcctor, and iL the need for surgery. They are cheaper than a PET scanner but are still fairly
don't need to know what has a half-life ol 6 hours (long enough for data to be recorded, but short enough expensive, and they also require a patienl 10 be exposed to ionising radiation,
the 'm' at 1he end ot to limit the radiation to which the patienl is exposed to an acceptable level). which is bad for you - see the next page.
technetium-99m means. h also decays to a much more slable (less radioactive) i.sotope.
Ruorine-18 is used in PET scans as it usually undergoes beta-plus
Tip: The beta-plus decay (wflich is necessary f0< a PET scan). It also has a short half-life (110 PET scans
docayof ftoorine-18 in minutes), meaning Lhe palient's exposure to dangerous radioaclivity is kept as Positron Emission To1nography (PET) ts a nother medical imaging technique
a PIT scan produces low as possible. lh.at allo\vs patients lo be diagnosed wilhout having lo have surgery. PET
positrons. These
scans involve injecting a patient with a substance used by the body, Tip : Because
annihilate with electrons (e.g. glucose} that is bound to a positron-emiuing radiolracer with a short
in th<> body, producing annihilation produces
high.energy gamma rays Gamma cameras half-life, (e.g. uN, lS() or 18f). The patienl is lef1 for a Lime lo allo\v the two gamma photons
- seethe next page. The gamma rays emitted by some medical tracers in a patient's body a re radiotracer to move lhrough the body to the organs that need to be examined. in opposiie directions,
detected using a gamma camera. Once the medical tracer has had time to The positrons emitted by the radioisotope collide with electrons in the organs, the PET scanner can
a nd annihilate. This annihilation results in two high-energy gamma rays: being locate exactly where the
move lo the fjssue of interest in the paticnl, a reas where the tracer has been
e mitted in opposite directions (see page 422}. annihilation took place,
taken up will emit gamma radiation. The patienl can then lie on a table and a by measuring how soon
gamma camera positioned above"' below the body can be used to detect the Detectors all around the body detect and record lhese gamma rays one photon arrives a1
emincd gamma rays. (sec Figure 2). The detc<:lors Lhen send the information to a computer, which one side of the scanner
builds up a map ol the radioactivi1y in the body - this m rresponds to the compared to the other
concentralion of radiotracers in different pans of 1he body. phoron arriving at the
opposite side.

*·'~·· Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging CM

 3. Medical Uses of Ultrasound Learning Objectives:
• Know 1.hat uhrasound
You'll have heard of ultrasound from ir.s lVidc use in prenat.11 scans. The is a longi1udinal wave
n1ain reason for ilS use is Lhat it's the safest iJJJd cheapest form of non-invasive with a frequency
Po.<itr~
imaging we have - but unfortunately it comes with its dO\vnsides. greater than 20 kHz.
.umihil.uion • Be able to calculate
the acoustic
7"fii)'S detected
What is ultrasound? impedance ot a
Rgure 2: o;agr.1m showing how a PET scanner wotks. Ultrasound waves arc longitudinal waves with higher frequencies than medium using Z = pe.
humans can hear {> 20 OOO Hz, or 20 kHz). Ultrasound waves travel at the • Know that ultra.sound
If radioaclive glucose is used as a radiotracer, the djstributio n o r is rcllectcd at
Rgure3: lmageofa radioactivity will correspond to metabolic activity in different parts of the body. speed of sound. boundaries, and
IKMlthy brain front a When an ultrasou nd wave mcelS a boun dary between lwo d ifferent how 10 calcula1e
This is because more of the radioadive glucose is taken up and used by cells
Pl.T scannef. 1.lx! fraction ot
that a re doing more \York, i.e. cells with a higher metabolism. materials, it is partially reflected and partia lly transmiued (undergoing
refraction if the angle of inc idence is not 0°j. The reflected waves can be wave intensity I.hat
By looking at which cells a re do ing more work, doctor.; can help is reflocled using
Tip: Other substances
diagnose illnesses in patients - for example, cancer cells have a higher level of detected by an ultrasound scanner and used to generate an image.
can also be labelled t~ _ {.b - l~ 1
with medical tracers to activity than healthy cells. Another advantage of PET scans is that brain activity Ultrasound scanning is a rela1ively sare medical imaging tedmique, 7,; - TT,:j:"ll' .
investigate: funclions can be investigated, which can be d ifficult with other non-invasive methods. a nd is particularly useful for viewing soft tissue. The most common • Know what the
such as b lood flow and PET scan radiotracers have a short half-life, so the patient is exposed to frequencies used for medical purposes are usually from I to 1S MHL pie1.oelectric effect is.
oxygen use. radia tion for only a short time. However, this short time period means there is • Know that an
only a limited time when a pat.ierit can be scanned - unlike with gamma cameras, uItrasound transducer
Acoustic impedance is a device that
\vhere the tracer used takes much longer to decay. PET scanners are also incredibly emits and receives
expensive, meaning not many hospitals have one. This means doctors may The amount of reflection an ultrasound wave experiences al a boundary ultrasound.
have to balance the benefits of their patients having PET scans against the <.'OStS, between differenl materials depends on the difference in acoustic impedance, • Understand Lhe
inconvenience and Lime needed to send ill patients to a hospital \vith a PET scanner. Z, bel\veen them. The acoustic impedance of a material is defined as: importance of
impedance <acoustic)
The risks of using ionising radiation z =- acoustic impedance , - ; - - p =- density ofmamrial in kgm 3 matching.. and how
inkgm 's-' ---.. Z =pe+- c =speedofsoundin it can be achieved
X-rays, ,..rays, and tx a nd (i part.ides are alI types o f ionising radiation®~ the medium in ms ' using a special gel in
They interact with atomsor molecules to fonn ions - usually by ~ ultrasound scanning.
Tip: See page 427 removing a n electron. This can damage cells, and can lead to: ~ • Know what is meant
for l110fe abou I ,..rays, • Cell mutalions a nd cancerous tumours,
Exan1ple -i$§!$1Jfili by an ultrasound
n panicles and if the cells DNA is damaged or altered. At 20 •c the density of air is approximately 1.2 kgm-' and the speed A-scan and B-sc.an.
~ panicles. of sound in air is 340 ms-1• Find the Jcoustic impedance of air at 20°C. • Understand how the
Cell sterility - i.e. the cell may no longer be able to reproduce. Doppler elfea can
Cell death - i.e. the cell could be destroyed completely. Z =/IC= 1.2 x 340 = 408 = 410 kgm-'s 1 (to 2 s.f.) bC! used in uluasound
The macroscopic effects of ionising radiation (i.e. the effects on to find 1he speed of
the paLient as a whole) can include tumours, skin bums, sterility, radiation blood in a patient.
Suppose an ullrasound wave with an intensity of /0 travels lhrough
sickness, hair loss and death. The resuh is that radiation is only used in the a material wi1h acoustic impedance Z1• It hilS the boundary belween lhis • Be ablQ to use
diagnosis and treatmem of d isease when absolutely necessary - i.e. when material and another material \Vith acoustic impedance z,. If the l\VO M = ~ IO
r c
the benefits to the patient ou1weigh the risks. Even then, radiation doses are materials have a large difference in acoustic impedance, then most of the determine the speed,
limited to the minimum possible. energy is reflected, a nd the intensity of the reflected wave /r will be high - v, of bk>Od in a
see Figure 1. If the acoustic impedance of the two materials is the same then patient.
I frMHS:l.-Jlt:fuH.l.p ..,..l i,.<.
.ttalli
11
:t.,f•.oi11 1________
11
there is no reflection. Specification
Reference 6.5.3

-E
Ql Describe how medical tracers are used to investigate body tissues and incident Wit\1?
organ function.
C)2 Name a gamma-<!mining isotope often used as a medical tracer.
Describe the properties that make il suitable for •his use.
Q3 Which medical imaging technique is fluorine-18 generally used in?
Q4 Name the main components of a gamma camera and describe wha t
each of 1hem does. L= L,. L -= L , L=L,
C)S A tissue's rate o f metabolic activity is linked to its rate of uptake Rgure 1: When a wave travelling through a material ofacoustic
of glucose. Describe how a PET scanner prcxiuces an image of irnpedance Z 1 (lefV hies a boundary wi1h a m<ueria/ of a very difierent
metabolic activity in d ifferenl parts of the body. acoustic impedance z, most of the energy is reflcctt!d (right).

* ·'t' Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging CF• A
 The equation for the fraction of wave intensity that is reflected is: The uhrasound waves produced by a n ultrasound transducer have a
wavelength equal to twice the thickness of the PZT crystals inside. Ultrasound Tip: The vibrations ol
Exam Tip the crystal are greatest
'rt>u don't need 10 I, =- imensity of rellcaed ---, ,_---zr= acouslic impedance of with this wavelength will ma ke the ciy-stals resonate (see p.290) and produce when Ille lrcquenq al
understand where this wave in Wm 1 lr Cl "? z,y firsr material in kgm 's ' a large signal. This means the ultrasound transducer only receives large the potential difference
equation comes from. li ~ (L';T'Zy signals from \vaves o f 1he same wavelength that it produces, reducing

And it'll be given in
your data and formulae
bookie~ so you don't
need to remember it -
just make sure you know
how to use it.
l
equals the namral
10 =- intensily ofinc.ideru ~ )t.__~----Z, =- acoustic impedance of unwanted interference from other sources. frequency al the crysia Is
1
wave ;n Wnt second material in kgm-1s ' (""' page 290).
The resolution of the ultrasound transducer increases as the length
The fraction of wave intensity that is reflected has no unilS - it's just o f each ultrasound pulse decreases, so the vibrations of the PZT crystal a re
a ratio. To calculate the fraction of wave intensi1y that is transmined, subtract reduced v.rith damping ma terial to produce short pulses.
Tip: Resolution
this reflected fraclion from 1. describes the ability of
a device to distinguish
Example --f*®lhfli§I Coupling media r.vo points that are close
Soft tissue has a very different acoustic impedance from air, so almost all together.
An ullrasound wave meets a boundary between lwo materials with acoustic
impedances Of Z1 : 1,,34 >C 10' kgm-ls'"I and Z1 : 2.57 X 10 6 kgm4 s-t, the ultrasound energy is reflected from the surface of the body if lhere is
Find the fraction of the wave's intensity that is reflected. air between the transducer and a patient's body. To avoid this, you need a

I _ !2'- ji•l'iY -_
fa - _, +
(2.57 X 10' - 1.34 X lO'f
(2.57 x 1o• + 134 x I o•y
coupling medium bet'\veen the transducer and the body - this displaces the
air and has an impedance much closer to 1ha1 of body tissue. The coupling
medium is usually an oil or gel that is smeared onto the skin. The use of
= 0 .09895 ... coupling media is an example of impedance {acoustic) matching.
= 0.0990 (lo 3 s.i.)

Using ultrasound in medical scans @·~

The piezoelectric effect
Ultrasound images are produced using the piezoelectric effect This describes
the ability of certain ma terials, such as piezoelectric crystals, to produce
a potential difference across them when they a re deformed (squashed or
stretched).
The panicles inside p iezoelectric crys1.1ls have one end that is more
positively-charged, a nd one end !hat is more negatively-charged. Nonnally
these pa rticles a re randomly oriented, bu1when stress is applied to the crystal,
it shifls the orienlation of their eledric charges. Some particles move so
that lheir charged e nds line up in one d ireclion - this generates a potential
differe nce across the crystal (see Figure 2).
luns1FP.SSedl )squaM I I sue:chedl
Advantages ~
There are no known ha1.ards or side effects {unlike \Vith X-rays,
where the patie nl is exposed to ionising radiation, see page 462).
Real-time images can be obtained.
Ultrasound devices a re relatively cheap and portable.
The procedure is rela tively c.-omfortable for a patient, and they arc
allowed to move d uring the scan.
Disadvantages
Ultrasound can' t penetrate bone, since the d ifference in acoustic
impedance between bone and the surrounding tissue is very large.
So ultrasound can't be used to detect fractures or examine the brain.
The large difference in acoustic impedance between air and body Tip: Remember, most

~ tissues also means most of an ultrasound wa ve's energy is renected al the energy lrom
when it meets air spaces in the body. This means uluasound can't be uJtrasound waves is

~
reflected at boundaries
used 10 produce images from behind the lungs. belVl<ecn materials with
Pif>.zoelecuic crystal Ultrasound images are lo\v resolution (i.e. 1hcy're q uite 'grainy'), so large differences in
Figure 2: When a piezoelecuic crystal is doformed, one end becomes positively you ca n ~t see fine detail. acoustic impedance
charged and one cmd becomes negatively charged. resulting in a p.d. across lhe crystal. Ultrasound can be used 10 identify solid masses, but ii doesn't - this includes where
bone mceis other
provide much information about their composition. tissues.
Similarly, when you apply a p.d. across a piezoelectric crystal, the
crystal defonns to rebalance the charge across it. If the p.d . is alternating,
then the cryslal vibrates at the same frequenc:y. Types of ultrasound scan
Ultrasound waves are generated and detected by a device called There are two 1ypes oi ultrasound scan you need to know about. A-scans are
an ultrasound transducer. UILrasound transducers convert ultrasound into mostly used for measuring distances, while B-scans are used to form images.
electrical signals, and vice versa. They contain lead zirconate titana te (PZTI
crystals, which exhibit the piezoelectric effect. Inside the transducer, an The A-scan
Figure 3: An U/lfJSOUIKi
alternating potential d ifference is a pp lied to the PZT crystals, which vibrate to An a mplitude scan (A-scan) sends a short pulse of ullrasound into !he body
ptobe containing an array of
ultrasound t1ansducers.
create a n ultrasound wave. When the wave is reflected and returns, i1 causes as a n electron beam inside a calhode ray oscilloscope (CRO) starts 10 sweep
the crystals to vibrate, which in tum creates a n alternating po1ential d ifference across its screen. The receiver detects reflected ultrasound pulses. which are
that is detected in a n adjoining circuit displayed as peaks on the CRO screen.

* ·'%' Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging Wik A

Tip: lk!cause the
images in a B-scan are
obtained in real 1ime
and the scan docsn'1
require anaesthesia,
the patiem can watch
Lile images as they are
fomlod.
Figure S; An ull!asound
scan ofa fetus at 13 weeks.
Tip: The change in
frequency will be
positive if the blood is
Lravelling to"ivards the
receiver, and negative
if 1.he blood is travelling
a\o\'3Y rrom the receiver.
Tip: This technique
is often used in
conjunction with B-scan
ullrasound. The B-scan
provides an image of
lhe area being studied,
making it easier for the
technician (O target the
Doppler beom correctly
and adjus1the angle ot
the remiver.
*BM Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging
Example -f$§i!jjfl1d
An ultrasound transducer directs longitudinal waves at a frequency of
8.5 MHz a t an a rtery. The waves reflect off blood cells in the artery
and are detected at an angle of 45° to the direction of blood Row.
The change in frequency of the waves due lo the Doppler effect is
3. 1 kHz. If the speed of sound in the observed a.-ea is 1550 ms-1, calculate
the speed at w hich the blood cells in the artery are moving.
Uhrasound lr.onsducoer~
Figure 4: The set-up ofan anrpfiwde scan.
...{~~.o·
The horizontal positions of the reflecled pulses ind icale the time 1he
'echo' took to return, and are used to wod< out distances between structures in
the body (e.g. the distance between the front and bad< of an eyeball). Weaker ) •. l )
pulses (that have travelled further in the body and arTive later) are amplified
more than lhe stronger, earlier pulses lo avoid Lhe los-s of valuable data - f =85 MHz and Ll.f =3-1 kHz, so:
this process is c.alled lime-gain compensation (TGC). A stream of pulses can v cLl.f 1550 x 3.1x10' 0 3997 ... =- 0 ·Oms
4 ' (to Zs. f·)
2fcos0 2 x 85x10"xcos45 .. =- ··
produce the appearance of steady peaks on the screen, a lthough modern
CROs can store a d igital image of the peaks after just one pulse.
The B-scan
In a brightness scan (B-scan), the amplitude of the reflected pulses is Q I a) The de nsity of water at 20°( is 1000 kgm ' (to 2 s.f.) and its
dis played as the brightness of a spot on a screen. You can use a linear acoustic impedance is 1.S x 1Cl kgm-l s ~• . What is the speed of
array of transducers (i.e. lo1s of tra nsducers arranged in a line) to produce a sound, c, in water a t this temperature?
two-dimensional image, such as in the prena1al scanning of a fetus. b) A sound wave travels from bone (Z = 8.0 x 1ot. kgm 1s 1) Lo water.
Whal \Viii the intensity of the re nected wave be- as a percen tage of
The Doppler effect the intensity of the incid ent wave?
U ltrasound w aves renecred at an angle off moving cells undergo a change of Q2 An ullrasound Lransducer is used to direct longitudinal waves at a
frequency (or wavelength). This is caused by the Doppler effect (p-333). This frequency of 12 MHz al an anery. The figure below shows the waves
change of frequency (known as the 'beat frequency') can a llow doctors lo renecting back to the Lransducer at a n a ngle of 34° to the d irection of
fi nd the speed al which those ccll.s are moving (for example, blood cells in an blood Row.
artery). You can calculale the change in frequency as a fraction of the initia l Ultrasound transd~~
frequency using this equation:
ll.f = change in frequency
of the u/1rasound ---.... f.
v = speed of lhe
moving cell in ms ' ) ···{
. ...''J4: \ ) O.J l ms-4
lbro1 frequency} in Hz M~ lv ~osO '--.,
f = initial frcquc.v:icy of
---- r ! 0 = angle /Je1ween Ille
ult1a~und rcc~ and
The blood cells arc moving at a speed of 0-31 ms 1 in the artery,
and the speed of sound in the area is 1550 ms'- Calculate the
the ulttasound rn Hz c =spt.'00 of sound in the line along whteh the change in frequency of the wave you would expect to see due to
the medium in ms 1 cell is moving in ° the Doppler effect.
O r:
v ~ cLl.f
Practice Questions - Fact Recall
2fcos0 Q 1 Whal is ultrasound?
Q2 Give the equation for calcula1ing lhe acoustic impedance of a material.
Defi ne all the symbols used and give the units of each quantity.
Q3 What's the piezoelectric effeci?
Q4 Explain ho\Van ultrasound wave is generated and detected.
Q5 Why is a coup ling medium needed to obtain a clear
ultrasound image of body tissue?
---4---l~;_.::...t.~-- Direction of
blood flow Q 6 a) Brie11y describe \'\'hat a n A-scan is . G ive one use of an A-scan.
Figure 6: lhe ultrasound uansducer d(.;>(ecis uluasound waves at b) Briefly describe wha1 a 8-scan is. G ive one use of a 8 -SC'..an.
an anglo o ro the line tllong which the blood cells arc moving.
Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging Cl:r
 Section Summary i
Make sure you know... Exam-style Question~
The SlrUdure or an X-ray lube ond the lunc1ion or ilS components, including the healer (calhode),
anode (l3rge1 me1al) and high vo113ge supply.
How X-ray phOlons can be produtt<I using •n X-ray 1ube.
Thai the ancnua1ion {absorption) coc(facu~n1, µ, of a ma1erial is a measure of how mudl the intensiry Cslculale Ille fraction of wave intensity that is retlected When Ultrasound waves are
of an X-ray beam decreases as ii pcnctr:11os deeper inio 11>c ma1eriaL passing from soil lissue to muscle. The acoustic impedance of soft tissue Is
1.58 • 1Cl' kgm..>s-• and the acoustic impedance of muscle is 1.70 • 1Cl' kgm->s-•.
Thai the in1ensi1y o( an aucnualed X-ray beam can be calcula1ed using I= 1.e "'·
Thai X-ray anenua1ion mechanisms include simple scalier, 11>c photoelectric effect. the Compton A 0.929
effect and pair production. 8 0.0731
Thai the high a1omic numb«s o( b:lrium and oodine cal.ISe them lo show up very differendy in X-ray c 0.0366
images compared 10 body 1issucs, making them useful as contraSI media in X-ray imaging.
How a compulerised axial 1omography !CAn scanner Y.-.rls, including the roles o( the rOlating X-ray 0 0.00134
ttbe, the ring o( detectors, 11>c compu1er solrware and the display. (1 mat1I)
Thai CAT scans produce more detailed images than regular X-rays, especially for soil tissue.
That the dua from CAT scans can be manipulated 10 gencra1e a JO image. 2 Tile 1nlens<ty of an X-ray beam is reduced by 95% after passing through 4.5 cm of a
How radiooctive substances such •s 1Cdlnctium-99m and nuorine-18 can be used as medicol lraeerS malenai. calculate the attenuation coefficient of the material.
to show the structure and function ol organs. A 0.011 cm-•
How a gamma camer:t works, including the roles of the collimator, scin1illa1or, photomultiplier tubes, 8 0.36cm-'
computer and display, ond ore able 10 describe 1hc way an image is formed.
That a gamma camera c.1n be used 10 help dingnosc a patient without the need for surgery.
c 0.57 cm-•
That a positron cmiss;on tomography (PET) scanner relies on the annihilation of positron~lectron pairs.. D 0.67 cm-•
That the posirrons needed for :a Prf scanner arc produced by a suitable radiotracer. 11 mark)
That the dctcctol5 in a l'ET scanner dewc1 and record the gamma rays produced by positroo-clcctron
annihila1ion and send 1hc infonnacion to a computer, which builds up a map of the radioactivily in 3 A doctor wants lo use a non-invasive medical imaging technique lo study the uptake Of
the body. glucose in the lung cells of a patient. Which of the following techniques would be lhe
That the dis1ribu1ion ol radioactivity in a PFT scan corresponds to the distribution of the medical tracer mosl suitable?
in the body, and knowledge of 1his ran aid doctors when diagnosing disease. A CAT scan
That ultrasound is a longi1udinal wave wi1h a frequ~ncy gr~ter than 20 kHz.
B PET scan
How to calw lalc 1hc acoustic impcdanct' or a mc..'l(iium using Z =JC.
Thal uluasound is pani::illy rcncctcd :u boundnrit'S, and how to calculate the fraction of wave intensity
c Ultrasound scan

'· ~.
IhaI is rcncctcd using r. 0 X·ray imaging
• V- 1 I ; ~·
( 1 mark)
Thai the pie10clcctric effect i< when a po1ential difference is produced by piezoelectric cryscals when
they're deformed, or vice ver>a.
4 Gamma cameras can be used to hefp diagnose patients without the need
That an ultrasound transducer is a device Lha1 emits and receives ultrasound. lor surgery.
That soft 1issue has 3 very diffcrcn1 :icoust1c 1mpeclolnce from air. so almost all the ultrasound energy is (aJ Describe how gamma rays incident on a gamma camera are converted into pulses
renccted from ll>c suriace o( ll>c body .r there is air between ii and the transducer.
of eledJicity.
The imponancc o( impcd3ncc (>COUsud mou:hing in ullla50Und scanning. and how it can be achieved
(3 mat1CS)
by using a special gel as a coupling medium.
(b)" wtlte blood eels are produced by the body to target and fight infections.
Thal an ultr:asoond amplilUdc scan <A..anJ rs used to measure disuncos and cfiameters and an
Technebum-99m is one raaioactive isotope that can be used to label White blood cellS.
ullrasound brigh1ness scan 18-scanl can be used 10 produce a two-dimensional image o( a patient's
body. Use I/is information to discuss how a medical !racer cotJd be used to Identify
Thai uhrasoond wa..,. relkcted o(( movrng C<'lls at an angle 10 their line o( mcwemen1undergo a
areas of infection in the body. Explain Wily lechneWm-99m is su~able lor use In
medical tracers.
change o( frequency ciJc 10 •he Doppler effect, and how the speed o( blood in a patient can be
determined using o/ 2 • "{" 8 . • The quaty d your response wil be assessed in this question.
(6 marlcs)

•lll~
"J
:ll Modute 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging Modute6 Sectt0n 5 Medical Imaging I\ M
 5 An X-ray tube can be used to generate X-rays for medical purposes.
(a) The power supply in an X-ray tube provides a potential difference of 31 kV
across the circuit. calculate the minimum wavelength of the X-rays produced
by the X-ray tube.
(3 marlcs) 1. Calculations
(b) As the X-rays pass through body tissues, they are attenuated. Besides simple Sometimes lhe numbers you use in Physics are just plain .1wk\vard - rhey're
scattering, suggest one attenuation mechanism that may cause this. eilher too big, roo small or go on forever. The next t"e\v pages sho..v ltmv
(1 marlc) numbers can be written in diff'erenl \vays to make calculations a lot easier.
(c) Iodine is often injected into the blood of a patient before X-rays of their blood vessels
are taken. Explain why this is done.
(2 marlcs)
Standard form Tip: If you don'Lwrite
When you are doing a calculation, it's sometimes easier 10 give your answer a numlx!r in standard
in standard iorm - or you might be given values in standard form. Standard form, it's known as
6 Ultrasound transducers can be used to image soft tissue. form is used for wri1ing very big or very small numbers in a more convenient decimal form - e.g.
(a) Explain how an A-scan can be used to measure the depth of an eyeball. way. Standard form must always look like this: 0.00012 Of 34 500.
(3 marlcs)
(b) At 15 •cat sea level, the densily of air is 1.23 kgm-'and the speed of sound in air is ~ 'n' is the number of
340 ms-•. Calculate the acoustic impedance of air at this temperature and height. ; places the decimal po;nt
This number must always--e...A x 1Qn moves. Tip: Standard rorm is
(1 marlc) be between I and 10. a great way to show
(c) Explain why it is difficult to use ultrasound to produce images trom behind the lungs. significam figures
<see page 473). For
(2 marks} P.xamplc, the numb<?r
An ultrasound operator wants to measure the speed of blood in an artery. Examples -f3§!fti1§iijj 230 is ambiguous,
He uses a transducer to direct pulses with a frequency of 8. 1 MHz at the artery. Here's how to write 3 SOO OOO in standard form. it could Ix! to 2 or 3
The transducer is held at different angles to the direction of blood now, and these First, move the decimal poim uniil the number you've got is bclwcen significam figures.
angles are measured using B-scan ultrasound. The difference in frequency between Writing it as 2.30 x 101
I and 10. In this example, the number is 3.S.
the incident wave and the reflected wave is recorded for each angle. Flg 6.1 shows makes ii clear lhat it is
Then coun1 how many places lhe decimal point has moved to 1hc left. to 3 significanl figures.
the change in frequency plotted against the cosine of the angle between the receiver
This number sits to the top right of the 10.
and the direction of blood now. A line of best fit has been drawn.
6.f/x 10l llz
6 54 321
:i.o l""'-r-- -~ ~-

3 Wb\OOb' = 3.s x 10 6

Et voi13 .. 1hat's 3 500 OOO \vrinen in standard form.

2.0
Here are some more examples.
You can \vrite 450 OOO as 4.S x 1 ~.
1.0
The number 0.000056 is 5.6 x 10 s in standard form - then is negative
because the decimal point has moved to the right instead of the left.
().() You can \vrite 0.003456 as 3.456 x 10 3•
() 0.2 0.4 O.t. 0.8 1.0
costJ
Fig 6.1
There's a special button on your calculator for using standard form in
(d) Show that the gradient of the line of best fit in Fig 6.1 is equal to 2~f. a calculation - it's 1he 'Exp' button. So if, for example, you wanted lo type in Figure 1: fhc 'Exp' or 'x 10"
2 x 1O'. you'd only need to type in: '2' 'Exp' '7'. Some calculator.; may have a button is used lO input
( 1 marl<)
different buuon that does the same job, for example it could ""Y 'EE' a< 'x10'' standard form on calculators.
(e) Assuming the speed of sound is 1550 ms-'. calculate the speed of the blood cells. Don't confuse it wjth lhe
instead of 'Exp' - see Figure 1.
(3 marks} power lx.Jltons x1or x",.
which arc used for raising
numbers to a power.

M fiil Module 6: Section 5 Medical Imaging Maths Skills

 Cl••
Orders of magnitude and logarithms Significant figures
O rders of magnitude can be used to roughly compare the size of two (or You've already seen LhaLyou should al\rVays give your ans\ver lo the

~- more) numbers. If L\VO numbers are roughly the same size, they \Viii have lhe lowest number of significant figures (s.f.) used in the calculation (p.9). Tip: You should l'IC\<er

~~ ""' same order of magnitude. Usually, the order of magnitude of a number is the So, in exam questions )'OU can use the number of round before you get
••J ··J power that 10 would be raised to if the number were written in standard form. significant figures given in lhe queslion as a guide for hov\f many
to your final answer.
It will introduce
51 ;.l ··J c.J @@ They are mostly used for approximate comparison. Lo give in the answer. It's always good to write down lhe full rounding errors and
-U...;, ..,, •i ;.., ~ unrounded answ'er, followed by your rounded answer. you may end up wiLh
Exan1ple -1$tjilj...flf5
1
• ' ' •~• I ' ,. 1¥
You should wri1e dmvn the number of significanl the wrong answer.
•n) rt~ tl I f ""eJ -..,
figures you've rounded to after your ans\\rer 100 - ii shows the

4
7 a
5
g
6
~

x
..
·eii._' ·~c J
+ ,.
12 340 = 1.234 x 104 , so ils order oi magnitude is 4.

0.000321 = 3.21 x 10', so its order of magnitude is-4.

examiner you really know what you're talking about

2 3 + - I So 12 340 is 8 orders of magnitude (1o• times) larger than 0.000321. Examples-f$§i$7flld

.. ·O
0 JC10.
Figure 2: There are bultons
on yovr ca/culawr fOf log
(log base 10) ;md In.
If you press shift or 'second
Aru = In this question the data given to you is a good indication of how many
Scales that use orders of magnitude are known as logarithmic. significant figures you should gNe your answer to:
They allow data that ranges over many orders of magni1ude lo be displayed
a) Calculate lhe extension measured by the student in m.
and inrerprcled easily, because instead of going up in equal amounls, each
step on the sale is 'so many times bigger' than 1he last (e .g. 1O times bigger). (The force conslant of the metal is 1.24 x 10' Nm-' .)

10• °',..
function' first, your/I get the
functions, the
in\lerse funclions of Jog and
A logarithm base 10 (log, 0 or lg) of a number is defined as the power
lo which ten must be raised in order 10 get lhaL number:
The data in Lhe question is given lo 3 s.f. so it makes sense to give your
answer lo 3 s.f. too. BuLsometimes it isn't as clear as that:
fn. There's also a buuoo for
the constaru c.
log,,x = y means 1 or= x Exam Tip
2 b) A force of 48 N is applied to a steel girder with a cross-sectional In your exam, you
area of 0.519 m2. Calculate the tensile stress in the girder. mighL Lose a mark on
an otherwise correct
There are 1wo types of data in this question, force data and cross-sectional allS\.\'er if it's not given to
You can have bases other than 10. The other common base in an appropriate numOOr
area data. The force data is given lo 2 s.i. and the cross-sectional area
physics is the cons1an1 'e'. c is equal to 2.71828... - it's stored in your data is given to 3 s.f. You should give your answer to Lhe lowest number ot significant figures.
calculator (see Figure 2). log. is known as the natural logarithm, or ' In'. Nbke sure you always
of significanl figures given - in this case that's lo 2 s.f. The answer is
92.48 ... Nm' so the answer rounded correctly would be 92 Nm ' (to 2 s.I.). round your answers
to the correct number
lnx =y means er= x ot significant figures.

Unfortunately il's not so simple \vhen you're working with logarithms and
There are a fev1t log rules that \vork for both log and In that you need to kno\v: raising to powers. There are a few more rules that you need Lo know:
Tip: These rules will be
given in the da1a -and If you're taking a logarithm, lhe value of the result is accurate
formulae booklet in ll'M? logAB = logA + log8 log~ = logA - log 8 logx'=nlogx to the same number of decimal places as there arc significant
exams. figures in the number you're taking a logarithm of.

Exan1ple -f$ffi#'" §liji

If you're raising Lo a pmver, the value of Lhe resull is
Tip: Jn and e are Show lhal if lny = ln(ke-"), the graph of In y againsl x is a slraiglltline.
accurate to the same number of significant figures as
inverse func1ions, so Lhere are decimal places in Lhe power.
ln c•=c"'= x. If ii is a siraighL line, it can be expressed in the form In y = mx +c.
lny =ln(ke") = Ink+ lne~ = Ink - a lne' =lnk - ax
Tip: Remember, = - ax+ln k
c~=(O'J•.
So plouing In y against x gives a straighL line \vilh gradient -a and intercept Ink.

fi·f;I Maths Skills Maths Skills I .if A

 Examples -i$tjifi'" § 5 Example --f '§lfi~ ¥1N
The number o( undt'ca~ nuclei in • ..mp1e of a radioactive isotope is The length of • desk is me~ed >< t.62 m with• ruler Tip: Sec J>3&" 16 lcr
=
given by N N.r', where N. is the original number of undeca~ nude, that ""5 • scale ..i!h 5 mm increments. Calrulate the more on unccruincy
I is the time elapsed and A is the d<c•y constanL pttcent,.ge uncttlllinty for the measurement. - measuring lcngltos.
C<1lcula1e N after exactly 2 minutes in a sample of an isotope with decay When measuring \vith a ruler you get an uncenainty from
conslanl 3.40 x to->>' that originally had 4.28 x tO" undecayed nuclei. bo1h ends, the O end and lhc end you're reading from.
N = N0c M
=4.28 >< 1O'" x e PA0•,0 ">• 9 •t.et
5 mm =0.005 m, so the unccnain1y on c:ich end is 0
-~ 5 = 0.0025.
=4.28 ><1 O'" )( c Ul9 So 1hc absolute uncef1•inty is 0.0025 + 0.0025 = 0.0-05.
= 7.236 ... x tO'' l'l'<centage uncertainty= (0.005 ~ t .62) x too
4.03 h•s 2 docimal places, so the c • bn can be :OJ036•.. 'l'e
given 10 2 s.I. and N. is given 10 3 s.f. = 0.31% Ito 2 s.fJ
The leuc number ol s.1. is 2, so the"""'"' is N = 7.2 x tO" (to 2 s.1.1
Probabilities are likelihoods that somcching will happen.
Calculate the time taken for the number of undec0>-ed nuclei to drop from Probabilities arc often expressed as lractions, percentages or ratios.
4.28 x tO" to 2. t4 x t O".
Rearrnngc the equation fort:
Example --i$ffil5H§l5
Alpha parlicles are being fired al a thin sheet of gold foil. A scientist Tip : Th<> probability lhat
1 _ 1n (NJ ln(N) ln(4.28x10"J ln(2.14xl0") 56.7159 p?202
- 3.40 x lo 1 3.40x o calculated that the probability of an alpha particle being denected by the an alpha particle will be
= 88. 10977 ... s gold foil (i.e. not passing straight through) is 1.2% . dcfl<!clro is 1.2% -
I.e.
1.2 001ol IOOarc hkofy
4.28 x 10'' and 2.14 x tO" are both given 10 3 s.f. So lhc logari1hms are Write the ratio of !he number ol particles Iha! are likely to be denec:ted to tobc-.
accurate 10 3 decimal places, which is equivalent 10 5 s.i. lor these numbers the number of particles that • re likely to poss straight lhroogh.
(i.e. 56.716 and SJ.702). A is given to 3 s.f., which is the least numb« ol 1.2 = t2 >< • IracltOn.
·
s.r. so 1he answer should be given to 3 s.f. 100. So 1 = 88. t s (to 3 s.fJ t .2% ·IS equaI 10 loo
1000 Tip: R....,,,_ that
So the first part ol the ratio is 12 the number ol particles (out of 1OOOJ the n<mCYOtor >rod
denomin»or in frxuons
that arc likely 10 be dellecled. shoold be whole
The second part is 1OOO - 12 = 988 the number ol particles (ou1 of t 000) numbers.
Ratios, fractions and percentages Some calrula1ors will
Ra1ios, (mc1ions and percentages arc all w:iys of expressing proportions. 1hat arc likely to pass straigh1 throush.
do this for you -
They're often used 10 show rela1ionships in Physics, and you'll be e<pocll'<l lo 1ype 0.005" in10 your
lhc rn1io is 1hen written as 12: 988,. which simplifies to 3: 247. TIT
convert between 1hcm effortJessly. Here's a quick reminder: calculator and press '•'
Hey prcs!O, Ille fr>ClioC'I
. . 1
lkki lhe paltS "' k""' the nwnetatCK
0.'VKJr
bylhetknt>minatot
It returns JS m·
dw> denaminata and
Tip: Slmplil)T« • ralio put !he /irsc part an tvp. """mulliply by 100. If OOO. )00 can •lw>ys do
an bc dono in the same Showing your working ii the dd lash-vay.
W7f as StlTf>lifying a In all C3lcula1ion questions, ""1edlcr you >re C00\"'1ing units (pJ2), sw11ching
between frae1ions and decimals or roarrnnging equations (see next pal!"), You can use your
lraoioC'I. h\ just lh•• calculator 10 SI mpl i fy
inste:ad of thiP numbcfs you ~need 10 show your worlcing. the ratio IOO by cntorlng
being on top of cacl1 This is imponant because there nrc sometimes marks available for it as a fraction.
ot~r1 lhr'y'r<' IV!xt 10 intermediate steps in a calcula1ion t1ucs1ion so even if you gel the ~nswcr
C3Ch Ol~r.
wrong. you might get some credit i( you've shown your working. You arc :ilso
more likely 10 spol any acciden1al miS1akes if you can see !he Slcps you took
in your worlcing - particularly useful if you have some spare lime al the end
~"'!he petcer><agt:
of the CJOlm.
llw- numetala Urns the fin•
patt.. Subtract the numa~ot numbtv as a fracl.ion ow.Y
ln1ttt thedenominala ta rmd 100 and ,.,,,,,ily.
!he w.cond pan.
flg<K• 1: Convening bcn»1rn wio>, lracdoru and percemagcs.

•K~ilCll MathS Skills

Maths StullS ii?A
 2. Algebra Substituting into equations
O nce you've rearranged your equation, you'll probably need 10 subs.tilute
Physics involves a for of rearranging formulas and substituting values into values into the equation to find your answer. Pretty easy stuff - make sure
equations. Easy srufl but it's also easy lo make sin1p/e mistakes. you avoid the common mistakes by pulling values in the right units and
putting numbers in standard form before you subs1itute.
Algebra symbols
Here's a reminder of some of the symbols that you will come across: Exan1ple -f8§i$~fl1d
Symbol M<Vllh/: A proton is accelerated to a speed ol 3.00 kn..-'.
= equalto _ The proton will diffract ir it interacts with an object of about the
< less than same size as its de Broglie wavelength, A.
Tip: An c~xamplc of ~ Jess than or equal 10 Use the equations p = n1v and A = ~ to work out its
using~ can be found on de Broglie wavelength.
« much less than
page 193. Exam Tip
> greater than h =the Planck con<tant = 6.63 x 10" Js The values of hand m
greater lhan or equal to m = 1.673 x 1O" kg
Tip: ii is the Greek »" ----
much greater lhan h and mare in the right units but vis not, so you need to <..-onvert il to ms- 1 •
are given in your <tua
and formulae! booklet.
,,..
.
capital letter 'della'. An directly ptop<Nlional ro v == 3.00 kms 1 == 3.00 x 103 ms- 1
example of using 6 can
be found on page SG. roughly eq1tJI to So p = mv = 1.673 x 10 27 x 3.00 x 10 3 = 5.019 x to 2 .t kg ms 1
6 change in (a quantity)

- I: sum of Substitute this into de BroglieS equation:

Rearranging equations
Being able to rearrange equations is a must in Physics - you'll often need
to make a differenl quan1ity the subject in an equalion. Just remember the
golden rule - whatever you do to one side of the equation, you must do 10
1he other side of lhe equation.
Figure 1: fl cJn be rosy w
make a mistake rearranging
equations when )OU're
suessed in an exam. It's a
good idea w double check
rearrangements, especially
ifit's a tricky one where
you've had to combine and
rearran1,-e equations.
Tip: Taking a valoo
ouiside a bracket is
known as faciorising.
You often need to
factoriSQ 10 solve
quadratic equations
like this one. Just write
Lhe value 10 the Jefl of
lhe brac:kel and write
each term, divick!d by
the number )OO've
taken outside, inside the
brackeis. You should
have dooe this at GCSE.
>. - l!.- 6.63x l O
- P - S.019x1 0"
M
Tip: Be careful when
using numbers in
standard form in your
= 1.320... x 10 "m = 1.32x 10 "m (to 3 s.lj
calculator. Double-
check you'v.> typed it
rtght and make sure your
answE!f SE*lms a sansible
Exan1ple -.f$§!$ 1§1
5 ordC!r of magnitude
(page 34).
A train pulls out of a station and is initi~1H y travelling at 2.0 cnls-1•
Example -i1~Fi!tih@1N The train accelerates with a cons.tant acceleration over a distance of
The equation for the volume of a sphere is V = 1itrl. 74 km. At this distance, the train reaches a final velocity of 150 kmh- 1•
Calculate the acceleration of the train.
Rearrange the equation to maker the s.ubject.
All given values are in different units, so you need to convert them.
V: j~r' Tip: Convertjng all the
.ll:'. = ,, ) Multiply by 3 and divide by 41t
= =
u 2.0 ems 1 2.0 x (1 x 10 1) ms ' = 0.020 ms- 1 values into the correct
units~puuing
s =74km =74 x 1 x10'm=74000m
4 them imo lhC! equation
?r - ) Take the cube rooL v = 1so kmh ' = 1 so x 1 x 1o• mh ' = 1so ooo mh '
.;~ =t = lSO OOO-. 3600 ms ' = 41.66 .. ms'
helps )00 avoid making
silly mistakes.
Rearrange 1he equation of motion v1 == ti + 2as 10 make a the subject
Example --f$@$1fllij a =~
v' u'
J
Tip: This equation
One of the equations of motion is s = ut + ~at 1 • When t = O, s = O. 41.6& .. .' - 0.020' is on page 49.
Find an expression for tat another point where s = 0.
2x74000
=0.0117 ... ms '
If s= 0, the equation can be written as: ur + ! at == O 1
= 0.012 ms ' (to 2 s.I.)
Taker outside 1he bracket: i(u 1-~ai) = O
Two lhings multiplied together 10 give 0 means one of I.hem must be 0,
sol = 0 or (u i i at) = 0
We're interested in the non-zero solution, which can be rearranged to give.:
f= 2:

f i·i'fl Maths Skills Maths Skills I .fc

 Negative areas
3. Graphs You can end up with negative areas \vhen the quantity oo the vertical axis is a
You can get a lot of information from a graph - you'll need lo kno\v vvhal vector. For example, on a graph of velocity against time, the area between the
the area unde.r a graph and I.he gradient represent, il/Jd be able lo skeu:h and c urve and the horizontal axis is displacemenl. The velocity can be negative, so
recognise silnple graphs, given an equation. the area enclosed by the negative part of the curve and lhe horizontal axis is
the 'negative area'. So displacement is negative (i.e. in the negative direction).
Area under a graph Example --f$§!#1§19
1\Aany quantities in A.level physics can be iound from Lhe area between a
Tip: You'll need to curve or line a nd the horizontal axis of a graph. Here are a few examples: The velocity-tinle graph ior a model train is shown below. The displacement
remember all lhc of the train can be worked out from the area under lhe graph. The blue area
The work done to move an object from one point Lo another in a radial indicates the 'positive area' and the red a rea indicates the 'ncgaLive area'.
examples )'OU've seen in
this book. gravitational field is the area under a graph of gravitational iorce againsl Vekx.ity I ms., Tip: To find the area
radial d isiance (sec p.305). bc1woon the line and
.J ~--- the horizomal axis, you
Energy stored by a capacitor is the area under a graph of V against Q 2 could USQ the formula
(p.348-349). I for a trapezium and a
To find an area under a graph, you'll eilher need Lo work it out 01-':-!:""?:""~~~-::-~-::--!' triangle, or split it up
-I 10 llme/s
exactly or estima te the a rea - it depends on the graph's shape. You' ll need to into a square and two
estima te the area if the graph is not made up of straight lines. -2 triangles. The formulas
for calcula1ing the areas
Blue area= 13.5 m, red a rea= -4 rn of common shapes are
Exan1ple -f3tj!$jzjiij So Lhe total displacemenl {i.e. the displacement of the 1rain from its starting over on page 486.
Tip: This is a straight· A capacitor is charged and the p.d.-charge graph is shown below. = =
posilion) 13.5 - 4 9.5 m.
lino graph, which Use the graph to find the energy stored by the capacilor when the p.d.
you've soon before on across it reaches 12 V.
page 13. Remember,
they h:ivo ioo form
P.d. IV Rates of change
y =- ntx + c, where m 7 A graph is a p lol of how one variable changes with another. The rate o f
is the gradient and c 6
c hange of Lhe variable on the venical axis \vith respect 10 lhe varlable on the
is the y·intercept (the .s
4 horizomal axis al any poinl is given by the gradien1 of the graph.
value of y when x =- 0).
3
. t.y .
2 Ra1e of change of y wllh x = ilX' =gradient of a y-x graph.

Tip: The dlarge is 0.2 '1.4 0.(, O.B 1.l> 1.2 Charge!mC O ften, the gradient represents a useful rate of dlange that you want to
g iven in me, but you Energy slored (work done) =area under graph. The art'<l is a triangle, work out For examplel the gradient of a velocily-time gra ph is rate of dlange
llC!Cd it in C to be able
10calculate the energy.
!
so lhe energy siored = x base x height=~ x (1 .2 x 10 ') x 7 of veloci1y, which is accerera tion.
So the change in charge =4.2 x JO..l J For a linear graph, 1he gradiem can jus1 be found by calculating 1he
is 0.7 x 10.J C. c hange in y over the cha nge in x between any two points.

Tip: There's more on
gravi1a1ional forces on
pages 297-307.
Tip: Draw a dot or a
cross inside every square
you cou n ~ 10 help you
keep track of them.
Exan1ple -f.i.§!ffii.1fl!N
Exan1ple -f.\5ifi'; $1
5 Tip: Don't forget to
The gradienl of a force-extension graph for a spring obeying Hooke's Jaw is check the units of
The graph shows how the gravitational force on an object changes with
distance from a point mass.. Find the work done to move an object from equal lo the spring constanl of the spring. the axas before you
fort:el N calcula.m the gradient
1 x 10 5 nl to 4 x 1OS m away from the nlass.
.'i.O In this caseJ the
(IN
4.0 extension is given in
For a curved graph, you <'.an estimate the area
by counting the number or squares under 1he 30 .J.O mm, so 1he dlange in x
2.0 is 8 x 1O...J, not just 8.
graph, which is approxirnaiely 8.
20 1.0
The area of one square IS
= =
s N x 0.5 x 1o• m 2.5 x 1O' J. 10
Z.lJ (,.o B.O [xrensi<m I mm
So the work done ~ 2.5 x 10' x 8 5 t. Y = B.O5~0 .s = 625
. o f th.1s graph .t-s equa I to: 6X
The gra d1ent
=2x1 o•J 10
So the spring conslant of this spring= 625 Nm 1•

M ·fi:I Maths Skills Maths Skills I .if H

 Gradients of curved graphs Example --f&.ffi5}$1N
For a curved graph, the gradico~ and so 1he r.11e of change, is always The graph shows a dispi=mcot-time graph r"' an object falling from a
changing. So if )'OU use the method on the previous page to calculate the Tip: The gradi<>nl "'
height lrom rest. Its acceleration is due 10 gravity. You can use this graph to • displac«nom-time
gradient of a curved graph, you gee the :M!f:lge gradien~ and so the """"'&" find the value for acceler:mon due 10 grnvity, g - you just need to find the gi>ph ... panirutat
ra1e of change. rate or change of the gradient. polnl is ...... ., Ille
To find the insL1ntaneous ra1e or change t u a poinO, draw a l.mgenl ~YJl / m
. . , . . _ , . \..todty ..
10 1he curve a1 the point where you want 10 know the gra<f1e<11 and find the th31 poirL Finding the
gradien1 of 1he langenL 100 dUng<> in the gradi<n

Example -ftffi$)$1 ij
8(1 .:: <M'f time is the same as
finding 100 dlange in

..'.
lhP \1!4<:>city O\U time
- which is acccleraLion
The velocity-time graph or 3 cyclist is shown below. w (""' pog<- 55).
Tip: Wh<'n drawing a) find the acrelerotion or the cyclist >t 70 s.
'
a Lanbi.cnt, it helps 10
m:aakc ii tong it will
be easier to dr.:aw, :ind
Velocity I m.s '
-~
411

Lhc tanb"cnt Ii ~ will ~
roorc likely 10 in~!CI
some grid lin<'S, m•klng
the Sf'ldicnl NS~ LO
c:ilcu....,.
YOu should aim K> m:au
the hypotmus<' "' the
ui.lngfe you ""' ..
Cllcublc lhe pti<N at
..,.,. ...~ .. long•••he
lino oo the graph.
b) Find the average •ccelention of the cycli.s t over the 120 s.
111
..''
4
1
j
............:
II 1 :I 4 5 1111lf!/s
JO 4() IJJ BO 100 110 Time Is The gra<fient (velocity) at 1 = 0 is 0 because the object
was dropped from reSI.
A iangent 10 the curve at 70 s is drawn on the graph with a gradient of:
At 3 s, the gradient is found by drawing a tangent
~ = ....LL .l.. = O.OJJJJ ... = 0.03 (to I s.f.) Tip: The 3Cl\lat v.ilue
~x 100 40 IMl
So the acceleration at 70 s =0.03 ms' Gradient at 3 s = ll (.6 : §/ =29333... otgis9.81ms'. kis
lound., bo 9.777... ms'
=
Rate of change of gradient betwccn 1 0 s and t =3 s: her1' bocausc reading
olf a graph is OOI 35
change in gradient 2'!.lll... O _ 29.333 ... _ 9 777 :accuram as calcula1ing
14.ioc:ity I tm ' changemt - J 0 -~: l O(to·;·s.f.) '""value ol g dircoly.
5
So the value or 8 • 10 ms' (10 1 s.f.).
)
2
Modelling rates of change Tip: Make sure you're
familiar with your
.J.O .f(} fi(J BO I ()(J I zo Time Is You can use equa1ions involving r:Hcs of change to model quanti1ies with an spreadsheet program
iterative spreadsheet. If you know the r.uc of change of something, you cin b<'fom you stan irying
Over the 120 '· the average r31C or chnngc is: plot a graph for how it changes over time. io model any"1 ing.
*=1~0 00 tiii = 0.0416... = 0.04(101 s.f.) For example, accclcr::u1on "' = ir.- so 6.v -= aill, i.vhcre v is vclocicy
"IOO'll OO?d to lcnow
how IO "'°""1ce
So the average acceleration over 120 s = 0.04 ms' and 1 is time. Consider the s11u•tion in which an object is fired venially •nd do calculations
upwards with a known initiol velocity, v_. The acceleration is g (it's slowing lnYolving<ll!!ls.

'
figure I : At.kl>_,. you
US<!• rNl/y sharp pmdl
Rate of change of a gradient
down), so 6

varies.
v = g t>L Sinoe '""know •- we can pidc a small value of 61
and see how v changes over ume. You can also see how <frsplacement ($)
Tip: oa.. input ce11s
Jn!' the cclts in \\tlich
The gradient is alre.-idy a 'rate or change of something', so 1he rate of change Sec up a spreadshee1 'vi1h column headings ror 1, v and s, as \Yell as a you write ~variables
and•ruk<"~ of a gradient is the 'rate of change or 1he rate of change'. Sometimes these single daia input cell ror c•ch or 61, •,..and 6v. 6• is calculated using that aren'1 changi ~
you're drJ"1n9 graphs •nd
rangtvus.
represent useful quantilies 100. the equation above, 6 • = g6t. P.g. initial vc1ocily, time
A common example of this is on a d isp1accme n1-time graph. The r.uc Decide on a 6.r that you w:in1to use, e.g. 0.1 s this is the time in1erval intf'rval, etc. Make sure
lh<' n1fcrcnccs to tMm in
of change o f its gradicnl is equal 10 1hc nccclcra1ion. between the values or v (3nd s) 1hnt 1hc spreadsheet will calcula te.
your formulas are fixed
You can then en1cr formulas into the spreadsheet to calculate the new wtiro you au1ofill 1hc
velocity aflcr each 1imc interval. The d isplacement for each time in1crvnl rows (itcr.uions) later.
is just the average velocity during the time interval, multiplied by lhc 1imc
interval !1t

•11:•~:;~··· Maths SkJllS

Ma11ls Skills
 Tip: If you write lhc
formulas properly,
Ille spreadshr.et can
automatically fill 1hem
in for as many rows
(iterations) as )'OU wam.
15
.!: 2
"se IS
10
-"!
Q.
·'1
..., o.i-~~~~~•
{] 2 3 4 capacitor is proponional to the amount o f charge left on the capacitor:
time Is
Figure 2: A graph ofs
against 1, for an objro fired
\'fYlicalty with an initial
velocity or 20 ms'·
Sketching graphs
There are some graph shafl"S that crop up in Physics all the time. The
following graphs arc examples of the types of graphs you need to know how
to recognise and sketdl. k is constant in all cases.
Tip: R ~ oo p .156
is an example of an
equation ol the form
Y = ~,wh<>rcy=R,
X=Aandk=pl.
Tip: The X·t, V·t and
a~t graphs for simple
harmonic motion on
page 2B1 arc 5'n and
cos graphs, e.g.:
X=AOOS(c..'t).
The V<!loci ty and
acceleration graphs can
bo1h be calcula1cd from
the displacement graph.
Tip: The graph for
kinetic enerb'Y of
an objoc1in simpla
harmonic mo1ion against
time on p.283 has
Lile same shape as the
y = cos'x graph.
M):fi Maths Skills
ll.t 0.1 s 4. Exponential and Log Graphs
E.g. 20ms'
There are quile a fe~v exponential relationships in A·level Physics, and you
ll.v - 9.81 x Ill need to know what they'll look like as a graph. You also need 10 know how
you can use logarithms co plot a seemingly complicau->d . relationship as a nice
ti'>s vinm.-' siJm suaight line. Re.1d on...
t,,=O vo= vt111 s0 =0
Exponential graphs
= 10 + lil v1 -= v0 + liv s1 =s0 + (Vr j v•x ru) A fair few of the relationships you need to know about are exponential -
...
l
1
s, = s, + ('' 1Vz x £;/)
where the rate of change of a quantity is propon ional to the amounl of the
- i, = t, + C.1 v,.= v1 +.6v quan1ity left. Here are a iew that crop up in the A-level course {if they don'I
·r- ring a bell, go have a quick read about them) ...
Rgure 3: An example of the formulas that can be used w Charge on a capacitor (p.360) - the rate of decay of charge on a d ischarging
cre.1te an iwr.u.ivc spreadsheet of velocity m<er time for an
Tip: Don't forgeit, e
is a oonstant equal 10
objecl widt constant acceleration due to gravity.
2.718... - it'll be stored
You can 1hen plo1a graph of either v against t or in your calwlator.
You can ra isc 4? to a
s against r - see Figure 2.
power using the buuon
There are also exponential rela1ionships for I and V, and for e* or O' (see page 472).
charging capacitO<S (sec pages 360-361).
Radioactive decay (p.435) - the rate of decay of a radioactive sample
is proportional to lhe nun1ber of undccayed nuclei in the sample:
Tip: These equations
r=~ y=~
J
y:kx' are all examples of
y y exponential decay -
sec Figure 2.
x
_)L x
The activity of a radioactive sample behaves in lhe same way.
X-ray attenuation (p.458) - the reduction of intensity of x.rays over
distance is proportional to their intensity:
Because 1he rate of change is proponional to the amoonl,
exponential growth gels faster and faster as the amount gets bigger.
y=kx y= sin x y = cosx Exponenlial decay is ju.s.t lhe opj.X)si1e of exponential growth - ii
y y y
gets slmver and slower as the amount geis smaller. Because of lhis.
exponential graphs have a characteristic shape 1hat you need to be able Figure 1: fhe growth of
bacteria is a classic example
to recognise and sketch:
of somet/1ing thal can be
modelled with exponential
gro.vth. The more bacteria
fhere are, the faster the tale
ofgro.vth lx.:J(:Ofrte5.
Tip: You should
y= sin'x y = <.Wx recognise the decay
+.¥
time,t lime, t graph from the sections
on capacitors (p-157)
Figure 2: (l.elt) The characterislic graph of exponential growth. The rate of and nuclear decay
grmvth gets fastet and faster. (Right) The characteristic graph ofexponemia/ (p.437).
dt.)Qy. The ra1e of dt.)Qy b~.otS slower and skxver, never reaching zero.
Maths Skills 1.f:k#
 Tip: Romember th<!
log rules Crom p.472 -
you'll need them here.
Tip: Graphs with the
natural logarithm ol a
function on one or Lhc.
axes are called log-
linear graphs. There arc
examples of how they
can be used on pages
J&J and 435.
Tip: This rela1ionship
is called a power law
relationship.
Tip: Look back at pages
415-4 16f()(moreon
nuclear radius.
Tip: If a= log,,b. then I So, reading from 1he graph. the vertical intercept is aboul - 14.9.
b= HI'. _j
++*' Maths Skills
Log-linear graphs 5. Geometry and Trigonometry
You can plot an exponential relationship as a straight line using the natural
log. In. For lhe relationship y = ke-, if you take the natural log of both sides You'll ofcen find 1ha1 you need 10 deal with different 20 and 30 shapes
of the equation you get: in Physics. Sometimes you''// need to resolve forces, \Vhich could mean
In y = In (ke-''l= Ink+ In (e") so In y = lnk - ax using .11/ sons of angle rules, as we// as Pythagoras and trigono"wuy.
Here's a recap on t11e basics.
Then all you need to do is plot (In y) against x. You get a straight-line
graph with (In kl as the vertical intercept, and -a as the gradient.
In y Geometry basics
Angle rules
These a ngle rules should be fam iliar - make sure you're happy with them.
When two p.1rallel lines
)Q(. ~
are ;ntercepted by the
same line:
x Tip: Remember, Lhe
" arrows on the lines in
~
figure 3: Tho funclioo y = k.,- ploued on a /og-linmr graph of In y against x. Angles on a suaigltt
Bneaddup ID llJOO. Angf<ls around a point the diagram mean that
add up io J00°. they're parallel.
Log-log graphs
You can use logs 10 p lot a straight-line graph for other rela1ionships too.
Say the relationship between lwo variables x and y is:
y=kx"
Vertically opposite
A
Angles in a uiangle
add up 10 llJOO.
0
Angles in a quadrilateral
add up ro J00°.
angles are equal, and Tip: You'll nood to use
Take the log {base 1OJ of both sides to get: radians wMn Y.'Orking
a+b = /80° a+b +- C= /IJOO a+ b .._ c +d = 360"
wilh circular motion
logy= logk+ n logx and simple harmonic
So, if you plot log y against log x, log k will be they-intercept a nd motion.
Angles can be measured in degrees or radians - make sure you know how to
n will be the gradient of the graph. converl between them:
Example -f.~Hitji§1d To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by rfo;- Exam Tip
Don't forgc1to put your
A physicist carries out an experiment to determine the nuclear radius, R
(i n m), of various elements with various nucleon numbers, A. She plots To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 1~o· . calculator imo eiLher
degrees or radians mc>de
a line of best fit for her results on a graph of log R against log A. Part of depending on Whal
the graph is shown. Using the equation R = '• A'n, find the vJlue of the you're working in. It's
constant r0 from the grJph. Circumference and arc length a common misaake that
could cost you marks.
o You may need 10 calculate the distance around the edge of a circle (or part of iU.
First take logs of both sides: 020040060080 JOO
log R = log (r A'n) =log r0 + log A"' ,_ li>s
0 1
= logr, + 1ogA
3
- 14.6 _.... [...
I-
>' ""'~
-
Comparing this to the cqualion of a - 14.8 • ·-1-
suaighl line (in the form y = mx + c).
- 15.0
you can see that the gradient of the
j
graph is a nd the vertical in1ercept k>8 R r Exam Tip
is log r0 • You'll be given 1hese in
Circumference, C = 2wr Arc length, I= rO, 0 in radians the data and formulae
booklet. just remember
that Dis in radians.
log r, = - 14.9, so r, = 10 ''"' = 1.258... x 10 u = 1.3 fm (to 2 s.f.)
Maths Skills i .f:CA

Exam Tip
You'll be given the
formulae for the area of
a circle and the area of
a 1rnpczium in the data
and formulae booklet.
Exam Tip
The curved surface area
of a cylinder is given in
lhe data and formulae
booklet. This is lhc
surface area of a hoflo\l\1
cylinder, i.e. with no
ends. II you ne<d to
calculate a closed
cylinder, you'll need to
add the areas of 1.h e t\'\'O
circular ends (2 x .,.,?).
Exam Tip
You'll be given the
volume of a sphere and
a cylinder in the data
and formulae booklet -
hoorah.
++F' Maths Skills
Areas of shapes Exan1ple -f3ffi!fj5fi1ij
Make sure you remember how to calcula1e the areas of these shapes: Estimate the density of a nucleus.
Trimgle Circle Rectangle Trapezium Protons and neutrons have nearly 1he same mass, mllldeun ~ 1.7 x 10 71 kg.
·!~ G ·ID LJ1.
A nucleus with a nucleon number A has mass A x mnuc:imi.
Assuming nuclei are spherical, 1he volume or a nucleus Tip: r0 is a constanl,
is given by V = ~7fRi. The radius of a nucleus, R, is given by R = rgA w roughly equal to 1.4 fm
- see pagc 416.
b +---;--+ a Density= mass+ volume, so:
A:~xbxh A =h x A= lx (a I b)><h p = ~ = ~ = A xm-....., = ~= ~
\Y
2 volume jKR' j~<r.A"'l' jKr:A 4...,.
1 .4 xl1~:~,
3 "i .7><
= 4w x 1.47 ... x 10 =1 .Sx 10 11 kgm '(to2s.f.)
11
Surface areas
lr ~·ou need to work out lhe surface area of a 30 shape, you just need to add
up the areas of all the 20 faces of the shape. The exception to I.his is a sphere,
where the suriace area is given by A = 4""a"t2 - this will be given to you in the Trigonometry basics
data and formulae booklet. Right-angled triangles
You can use Pythagoras' theorem ror all right-angled triangles - the square of
Exan1ple -f.\§ii$ 1§1d
A piece of wire has the shape of a cylinder. ~
II has radius 2.0 mm and length 0.020 m .
the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares oi the two smaller sides.
"' ,. (I)- ....-
Calculate the surface area of the wire.
r
a'=b1-+c' • .
~
c
The surface or a cylinder i.s made oi t\YO circles (the ends of the wire) and
... "
+
a rectangle wlth a width equal to the circumference or one of those circles
To work ou1a length or angle within a righ1-angled triangle,
(which is rolled to make the length of the wire).
remember SOH [AH TOA (covered on page 42). There arc plenty of examples
Surface area = (2 x area of the circle) + (area of the rectangle) 0 ·~
of this being used to resolve vectors over on page 43. Just remember:
= (2 x wr') + (2wr x h)
= (2 x .. x (2.0" 10 ')') + (2 x .. x (2.0 x 10 'J x 0.020) Rgure 1: You can iind the
=2.7646... x 10 • =2.8 x 10~ m' (to 2 s.f.) sin (J = QPp<>Site cosO = adjacent buuons for sine (sin) cosine
bypotenuse hpotcnuse (cos) and tangenr (t.an) on
your calcu/awr as well as
lheir inverse functions
(sin •, cos 1 andt.an •).
J
Small-angle approximations
Volumes of shapes For really small angles in radians, you can make the rollowing assumptions ror
Make sure you remember how to calculate the volumes the values of sin, L'OS and tan:
of a cuboid, a sphere and a cylinder: ExamTip
You'll be given
these small.angle
(~
sinO = 0 tan O~ 0 coso . . 1 approximations in the
z:
a G
dal'a and formulae
h] This is really useful in Physics as the angles are often small (see pages 2 17,
boolclct.
w 221, 317 and 328).
V=w x hxd V= jwr' V= nr'h
Maths Skills I .fa

Tip: These rules work
on any triangle.
Tip: )'bu c.an use any
1wo bitS of the sioe
rule 10 make a normal
~uat ion w ilh just one = a, band care the Jenglhs
sign. The sine rule also
worlcs if you flip aII the
rractions upside down:
si~A = ~= si~C.
Tip: \bu' ll olten bo
required 10 represent
JD problems in 2D (e.g.
with a force diagram)
and solve them using
these Lrigonometry rules.
Tip: When working out
angles, remember that
the angles on a line must
add up to 180' and 1.hc
angles around a point
must add up to 360°.
Tip: You could have
al-so re.labelled the
triangle so that C was
A instead, and used lhc
cosine rule again.
Tip: The anglo from
nonh is (,6° + 17° = 83°.
fi){I Maths Skills
Sine and cosine rules
If a triangle is nol right angled, you ne<.<>d lo use the sine and cosine rules to
work ou1angles and side lengths.
The sine rule: The cosine rule:
a b c
SiiiA = Siri11 = SlnL a1 ' = b' t c' - 2bccosA Exam Structure and Technique
Passing ex.1ms isn ~t all about revision - il really flefps if you kno. .v ho~v lhe
exam is struc1ured .1nd have gol your exam technique nailed so I.hat you pick
of lhesides up every mark you can.
A, Band Care the
angles opposite lhe sidos Rgure 1: nie Room of
ivith the same letters Course structure Doom awaits you. But don't
(so angle C ;s opposite side cJ. OCR A A-Level Physics is split into six modules, a ll of which are covered panic - prepare properly
and there's no re.a.son }OU
in this book:
can't ace the exam.
Module 1 - Development of practical skills in physics
Which rule you can use depends on which sides a nd angles you already know.
Module 2 - Foundations o f physics
Module 3 - Forces a nd motion
41K!N
Module 4 - Electrons, \¥aves and photons
6<6~
A cart is pulled by lwo horses, bolh pulling Module 5 - Newtonian world a nd astrophysics
at different angles and with different fo rces, Module 6 - ~rticles and medical physics
~---··
as shown. Cilculate the mag11itude and
direction of the resultant force.
150N
Exam structure
Draw a vector triangle and For OCRA A-Level Physics you're gonna have to sit through three exams at
work out any angles 1ha1you the end of your course:
can \Vilh angle rules. Exam Tip
,\<\alee sure you have a
fu per 1 - Modelling rhysics - 3 7%of the A Level
good read th rough this
fuper 2 Exploring rhysics - 37% of the A Level exam slructure. It might
not seem important now
You can use the cosine rule, so label lhe angle that you know A. fu per 3 - Unific'CI l'hysics - 26% of the A Level
bu1you don't wanl 10
get any nasty surprises a1
~pcrs 1 and 2 are both 2 hours and 15 m inutes long. ~per J is 1 hour and the start of an exam.
30 minutes long. The exams will cover material from both years of your
A-Level course, so you need to lf'..arn everything from Year 1 as well as Year 2.
~ pcrs 1 and 2 are worth 100 marks each, and l~per 3 is worth 70 marks.
!~per 1 coveo; material from Modules 1, 2, 3 and 5. l ~s split up into Exam Tip
The cosine rule gives: a = lb' I c ' - 2bccosA t\vo sections. Section A has 15 marks' wonh of multiple choice questions. It can be easy to lose
= ./r
4-0-
0~'1
_2_5
_0~,--
2-><_
4_00
_ x_2_5_
0_x
_c_os
~ l-
3~6•
Section B has 85 marks• worth of short and extended ans\vc:r questions. tract: or time in long
exams. Make sure
= 605.28 ... = 6 10N (to 2s.f.) ~per 2 covers material from Modules 1, 2, 4 and 6. It's splil up into to ration your time
sections. Section A has 15 marks' wmth of multiple choice questions. between qucs1ions
You can now use the sine rule in the form si~C si~A to find C. l\VO
=
Section B has 85 marks' worth of short a nd extended ansW'C:r questions. (p.49 1) and check the
clock as you go 10 make
C = sin '(~a x c) = sin (~
1
605.28 ... x 2so) ~per 3 covers content from all six modules. h has 70 mark.-;' wonh of sure you're not surprised
~ 16.673 ... = 17" (to 2s.f.) short and extended a nS\vcr questions. at lhc end of Lhc exam.
So the rcsuhanl force is 610 N (10 2 s.f.) at a bearing of 083° (to 2 s.f.).
Command words
It sounds obvious, but it's really important you read each question carefully,
a nd give an answer that fits. Look for command words in the question -
they'll give you an idea of the kind of answer you should write.
Exam Help l .b.:M
 Some command words, like calculate, draw a nd complete a rc pretty sclf- Time management
Exam Tip explanatory. But command \vords for written questions c..an be a b it trickier.
Make sure you read Common command wOfds for lhese questions a re: This is one oi the most imponan1 exam skills 10 have. How long you spend
the whole question on each question is really important in an exam - it could make all the
caretully. Someiimes State - give a definition, example or fact. d ifference 10 your grade.
lhey specify the details ldentiiy - pick out information from data provided in the question, o r say Everyone has their mvn method of getting through the exam. Some
(or lhe level or <Iota iI}
1hey want you to include whal something is. people find it easier to go through the paper question by queslion and some Exam Tip
people like to do the questions they find easiest first. The nlost imporcant N\ake sure you read the
in your answer. FOr Describe - don't waste time exp la ining~ a process ha ppens - that's rest of the information
example, 1hey may not what the quesiion is after. II just wanlS 10 know illJal happens. thing is to find out 1he way that suits you best before the exam - and that
ask something like means doing all the practice exams you can before the big day. given on the front ol
'"Describe how the Explain - give reasons for why something happens~ not just a description. the exam papar before
Check out the exam timings given by OCR that can be fou nd on you st1n. 11'11 help
apparatus can be used Suggest/Predicl - use your scientific knowledge to work out what the page 489 and on the front of your exam paper. These timings give you just make sure you're ,ven
10 accurately and answer might be. over 1 minute per ma rk. prepared.
safely dcteimine the
1-V characteristic of a Compare - ma ke sure you relale the things you're comparing to each However, some questions \·viii require lolS of wori< for only a fe,v
filament lamp."' Make other. h's no good just listing details about each one, you need 10 say ma rks and other questions will be much quicker. So don't spend ages
sure you talk about how these 1hings are similar or differe nt. ~~~ ~~~~~areon~-h am•d~ - -on Exam Tip
~and~to You can come back to them later when you've bagged loads of other marks Don't forget to go back
get all or the marlcs. Discuss - you' ll need lo include more detail. Depending on the elsewhere. and do any questions
question you could need Lo cover wha1happens, what the effects are, tha 1 you left the firs1 1i me
It's worth keeping in mind that the multiple choice questions in round - you don'1want
and perhaps include a brief exp lanation of why it happens. Paper 1 and fllpcr 2 a re all only worth 1 mark, even though some of them to miss out on marks
Justify - show or prove that something is correct could be quite tricky and t ime~nsum ing. Don't make the mistake oi because you forgo< 10 do
Evaluate - Give the arguments both for and against an issue, or the spending too much time on these. If )'OU're s1ruggling " 'ith some or them, a question.
advantages a nd disadvantages of something. You also need 10 give an move on to lhe written answer questions where 1here are more marks
overall judgement available and then go back to the harder multiple choice questions later.
Ii you find tha1 you're running out of time, go through the remaining Exam Tip
questions and joL down \vhat you can - for some oi them you may get a mark When you're doing
practice papers, set
Exam Tip
Quality of extended responses for recalling the correct equation, or stating a det'inilion. And if you've left any yourself a time limil
For some extended a nswer questions, you'll be marked on the 'quality multiple choice questions, wi1h only minutes to go, just make your best guess
Questions wllem yoo'm so you ge1 U'.Sed 10 the
marked on the quality of of your extended response' . These questions are designed to test how - you've got a 1 in 4 chance of gelling an extra mark. exam 1imings.
your extended response well you can put together a well structured and logical line of reasoning.
are marked with an They'll often require you to give a long ans\ver in full written English, Strange questions
as1orisk (°)by 1hc e.g. to explain, analyse or discuss something. To get top marks, you You may get some weird questions that seem to have nothing to do with
question. need to make sure that: a nything you've learnt. DON'T PANIC. Every question will be something you
can a nswer using physics you know, it just may be in a new context.
you anSV\'er the question a nd all the information you give
Exam Tip Ch<.'Ck the question for any key words ~al ~ou recognise. For
is relevant to lhe question you've been asked,
Don'1worry too example, if a question lalks about acceleration, think about the rules and
much about quali1y you back up your points wilh clear evidence using equations you kno\v, and whether any of them apply to the situatio n in the
of extended response the data given 10 you in the question, question. Sometimes you might have to pull together ideas from different
ques1ions. Really, you
should be looking 10 you organise your answer clearly, cohere ntly and in a sensible order, parts of physics - read the question and try to think about what physics is
give full and coherent you use specialis1scientific vocabulary where it's appropria1e. being used. That way you can list any equations or facts you know to do with
explanations for C!Very 1hat topic and 1ry 10 use them to answer the ques1ion.
question. These ques1ions could also involve other tasks. like a calculation
o r having to draw an experimental set-up. like a circuit. Make sure any Exam data and formulae booklet Exam Tip
Exam Tip drawings a rc clear and use correct symbols \vherc appropriate. When doing When you sit your exams, you'll be given a data a nd fonnulae booklet as an II you're siudc on a
\<Vhils1thiese questions calculations, make sure your working is laid out logically and it's clear how insert within the exam paper. On it you'll find a lot or equations from the question. have a quiet
don't test your you've reached your an s\'\rer. Thal includes making sure any estimates a nd course, but not all of ~em. Make sure you know which equations you'll be look 1hroogh the da1a
h'1ndwriting. spelling assumptions you've made in your \.VOri<ing are clearly stated, e.g. assuming given, and which you need to learn off by heart for 1he exam. There's also and foimulae booklet
or grammar, if the air resis1ance is negligible. some useful data in the booklet to help you with your exam, including... - you may find an
examiner carit read There's usually a lot to think about with th is type of question, and equation tha1helps.
what you've wriuen or the Pla nck constant, h
understand the point ii can be easy to write down a lot of great and relevanl physics but forget
to ans\ver a ll parlS of the question. h-'s always a good idea to double check the gravitational constant, G
you're trying to make, the length of a light year in metres, m
ii will lose you marks. you've done everyfhiog a question has asked you to do before moving on.
Constants lhat you'll be given in the exam are lis1ed on page 572.

• ·£;·• Exam Help Exam Hefp i .ti


Module 1
Development of Practical Skills
1. Planning an Experiment
P>ge 8 - Appliotion Question
QI~.....,,_.,.--
°""""""' -
bf An( orefsom: e.g. fte cilliln rt. uollf)' nvds I dw
;...... .-.,.d......,..
5. Evaluating and Orawtng Conclusions c) How'° gr.ade your :mswer(pict the cleoipci<>n tl\:31 b8
malehes your answer•:
Pogo 20 - Application Questions O malts: There is no releV".lnl inrormotlion.
QI llJ .zO. I C t-2 marks: At Sease one poinc rrom ev•lu.&IKln and on~
b) (0.1 +SO)• 100 -=' o.2% poiN from improvements h""'1! been inc'lucX!cJ in Che
Ql '1 •0.0S A answer. Answer is bit1IC <Ind h.as t..dc ot wuctunt.
ftlCOJf'Ta'IC.le(/«rl ID 2 fitgnllY:MJt. ~SO the~
lnformalion is m&ing .and there "'" few bM:kM up
~·h.ltfol0. 1A
Page I O - Fact Recall Questions b) 0.4 +3.6 •4.0+3.9+3.6)~5 =3.7V
argumen~
QI Cha with a numericid v.alue.
Ql it) The '6UitJ Me nol Y.ilid ~the temperaMe changed
3-..:J nurb:: Point I or 2 <1fld poml l, 4 or S l'tom
Q2 A resull that doesn't fie in with lhe rest d lhe resuhs and & evaluations is included in the answ«. N. UC rwo po.nu
Wnna11w~ from ~IS tloM! been indudt!d in lM otMWff.
likety '°be Wl'Oftl.
~ Nfr rwo from:: ft.C. "ke more- repe4115 rot Nd! length I /vrsW« has some s&n.ldlJl'e. Mid iNomwtJOn IS pA"'Sfft'fd
...U JNdiro om a l'ft'liff rarce ol wire tencctis I keep wich • dNt fined reoon1ng. WCh ~ dw ~
... _....... ........ _ ll>l!eo<perirnent/
3. Presenting Results
_,.dtt~~ Pag• 12 - Application Ques00n .........
UM mGft' ~~US. m measutethedamaer ol
pan;ally .-ed up.
->-4 mart£ ftllnl I or 2, po1n1 l or 4 .and potnC S ' °"'
... r...1.-..y
d ""'""
QI
ev.dmtims is included in 1tw M1S'\U. POina 1 oc 2 ltld
.ttkiiasloneodlerponrrom~hlw'f'~

--
Page 20 - Fact Recall Questions ~in the oamws. The MSWW IS wf!ll llNClumf.
QI ThPuncwu*"l)'dwnilS~~olche~ These is• deM and ~ line of NOClll'IW'C. wctt
Q2 M'f ""'°
flCll'I: •.a. by u.Dlc more repeaa/by ~ mDR!: iniornulion ;and~ tfwl on...,.,,..~ up.
Page 8 - Fact Recall~ _ _ ... """""'c""""''"" ..... """" Here .re .some poliF'b }'Ol.ll ~ nyY indYdf':
QI TomdeMRNilisonlylhe~~dmlS
.-ec:ti~ the dependenl v•~ Olfwwttt ~ mulu 'M:ln'I
IO.O
Ql PmdJM.'11'1 ....
~on ... ~-
"°"' ....._ o1,...vatue.
ol spead
ft MnOUnl of )'OUf" daG:
~
l.She-•W,..._d _ _ ......

Q2 M
beVillid.
expenmm1 N is amec1 out wrc me Nl'nf «aulf)tnfn•
be.fore lhe nYI e.xperunmt. fl is UM!d 90 rouatl"Y wort OIJl
lheeffea !NI <Nnsina h inOOplr'ldfnl ~Nblit ""111..........,
on1he~ v.a~ M1d 10 ~d'looiie~tf'
ooils. uir...,eillnd .nc:remmtsd~.
QJ /vry three ITom; ~ d'le ~l ceAJ wt\.tl II W<U
meant to~ I ir lhe method t) d&ar MOugh few ICJll'nl'IOnC':
else kl follow /whether •II c:onfrol Y.ariilt:Jko) •"' coi,_ IO bf'
tepc. oonst;;inl I whelhef the lilppil,.rut .-nd 1echniqual; Jll'
appfopr\ate (of lhe mvesl1g;1tion I if the mMhod gl'-U pt«:~
results /Iha! the expenllll"nl rs going kl be'! a NiOO OUI l'af('ly.
2. Recording and Processing Data
Page 10 -Application Que>lions
QI a) 4.SJ x l.142 = 14.ll3l& • 14.2 (to J -.r.)
Ov::m.unt.lcrwlth the bwtst ~offJfgf1lt\c:lnt. ~n:e In
thsWllc:t.llatt.111194.~.wtXhlf)t.O;j&lgrtl'ami.ftgurot.
thcan5WCI" musti.1190 be io;, f.9llblt. ~
b) 0.315 ~0.025=12.6s 1 J (lo? 11.f.)
rhcrunt.icr tot.he k1wc&t.ru!Wof ~t'1r.tlnt. ftf.lrc.1n tilli
GillculaU0111!!10D2~. whc:hl&k> 2. Mgnll'c'4ilnt l\fU"'I*.
Q2 Extension al weight ol 2 .O N:
Mean= (2.9 + 3.2 + 3.1) "° 3 • .'J.066••• • J.I cm {lo 2 'I.)
Extemion at weight ol 4.0 tot
Meiln = (5.8 + 5.9) + 2 .s. 5.&S • S.9 on (to 21.U
Ex&ension at weeght ol 6.0 N:
Meiln =-CS.of+ 8.4 + 8.5) + 3 • 8..43J,_ • 1..4 cm Oo 2 "U
rhel"C5C.A.fortNl 2all.t-c"4DN~fl9an~and
~shod:lk~~«~~~~~~~M~
.mswcrs~ bc!fKrl W2 s.f M Ll'w:(bUI -~ c.o?. •L
1~ 1on~-"-lf"'.1+~-+-"-l'-'--l---l ~u
mNft ll!kltts..
IO 1hfo UUt"
Aconq is how close )QJf" OJneni'111 ~~·~hey COakubitc!
• more precise mean.
2. lhe se: ofcurrml ,,..alues for eiKtt wa111 ~h.lm
~ .,-e all qUtte dose IO lhe me.an., wtum ~ IN! ~
~ Exam-style Questions - Page 22 results are quite precise(repNt.ll>k.
I 0(1 ....... l. One ljrMaion IS INt the poff'nla.ll di~ d IN
10.0 2 a) Abiolu~ ~1nry =- • 0.5 ~ power supply may nol be the JMnf .u .... poaen1..-1
/U I ~Jlll:f' of 90: difference across lhe thenn1stor, on tl'M?ro ~II bl! ~
<O.S +90) • 100 ~ o.sss._ =•·'""(lo
1 s.fJ
(1 m.wh ((II lht> C'Ofr «f MSWl'!f; 04hentise 1 mart f<K
resrsttnce in the ammeter .ind lhe wires.. Thi$ ~~
their cak:ulalJOnS d Che res~o11nce will be ln.1CCUr.1rW
gh'lng lM ~bit..tlute UMW1ainly) there will be a s)'Slem<llic mor i.n lhe A!lulb..
5 .0 1().() 15.0 b) M o.1n ol Chf' eurrenc: 4 . The experiment does not ~m-wei lh<! oni:in.il ~ion
Tumls 2.8 A h. :an :anoouly, Jnd so $hotJkin'1 be iocludm in 1he of how the ri!:S61Jna of the tlwmlSIOf' Vilrif!S W11h
c:1lcul ~oon. 1emperature as lhe potenti<1I difhenm ~rou ll'lie
(1 ,9+ l.8+2.0+2.0+2.1).:.5= L96=-2.0A(to2sJJ 1hermiseor was not mon11or<!d or <:onlrollf!C'L
Poge I 2 - Fact Recall Questions R<tn~f10fv111 Ul"Sa2, I l.8=-0.)A 5. The intervals belv.-een the lem~ture ur~ Cfi.11IC l ar&~.
Q I You can presen1ca1egoric da1a in a pie chart I bar chart.
Ql The indept>ndenl variable. So chfl vnc:m:1ln1y = 0. 1s A and lhe studenl has not in\•~1igu llod .t 1.1rgc enou'1h
So chc me.an c:urrl'nc=- 2.0 :i: 0.1S A range of temperatures. So ii v.nuld llOI tN! l>Dllllibkl
So (.) 1m1rA1.s f<N' lbf. cr.w-rf!rd answet, Olhent'ise 1 m.lfk for 10 del(.orminc lhe type or m.ithem.11k;.1I 1cl.111on5hir•
4. Analyslng Results uJ/ft# lhl! rorrt:a t!flWlion lo cakul.ate the mun and betv.-een resist.Ince and fiempt_"l"J lura c~.g. hnc.tr or
t m•rk for umw '~range of values lo cakulate the non+linear)~
Poge 15 -Application Question Ul>t'N/l/nly) l mmqygqpil)
QI a} Negative correlacion. I. To monimr <11nd <:onlrol lhe potenta.tl diff<!tMCI! .w__-mu
b) RE!arrange lhe equation IO 1n.11ch y =-nu+ c. lhe thermislOr, ~ vul tmeer could be CORtl(!('.l«l In
=
V rl + ..... so, )"-inten:ept, c =- t: parallel to the themllslUr, and .. vdfi.ibl<! rt51!1110f could
50,.t- = 16V be connected in series wrth 1he thermttaof lh1s would
Q V =- rl + f, so gracienc,, m =- - r give~ more accuraE c.01icul.aoon of r~n.ince.
gr.l(iE!nt =- ~ =~ =- - 0.8 0 2. The s«udenl should take more re.ad~ for
len'lper<lCures between SO "'C olnd 90 "C, •.a. 411 S "C
r= m= (-0.8): 0.1 0
intel'Vdlb.
l. The SNdent could use ,jl1\ ~ with a h~
~Don to reduce &he unc:erl.linry in Nd'I
"""""""'L
4. /\ lhe:iiMidb wtfl •higher l'eo9ub0n couki btuwd_
or a digilal lhenoometer ., mcll.la! .n; hYrNn «TOI in
h...mig,..

Answers Answers * PSM

 3. Errors and UncertalnUes
Module2 Page 38 - Applic•lion Questioos
5. Scalars and Vectors
Pdge 4S -Application Questions
Foundations of Physics QI ff=ll= 125• 2J2. •l40ms ..
Theun<HUonJ)' "-by~"""""".,._
Qt " lfli't o:n' 2.116_ = 2.tms 'tD2sJJ
1. QuanUUes and Units
Page 33 - Application Questions
UllO!fQ-
'" +1.s... z.s~
I an'W•20.S56_.:Jl•(lo2s.JJ
Sol.Jw ~Qnt vetocrty is 2.1 ms4 •l 21 • ~·n from ll'lrt
Sot1= :W0 ~2.s~..,,-·
Q I 0.)x(l x 1011):l00 000000000Hr ta-) >t 10'1 HtJ Q2 volume = 11 • 4.()1. M cm1 horilOnt:.al.
Q2 Mau. m, G measured in kilograrm, kg Now find thr. pc'l'~l.age uncertainly in t: Onct~'w: found the m.1!Jllu.de of the m;tOr YQU: ~ '*'
Vclod1y, v .. distance+ lime {O.OS: + 4.0t • 100 • 12.5% Sil or coe LO l"nJ Lhc angle OtOQ l:iut.1t 9 safer LO lfflC t.M ft&
0

Dlsaance is me.tisured in mettes, m, 1imC' I~ me;isurt"l:I in Multipty thb by 1hepower to find the u ncettaimyin 1 1: you know the vab?&of theOf¥>S1t.c.andadjac01t.;.lt:l.?CI,,.,,
~• .l, so velocity is measured in m + s. m ms '. l.25% Iii ) ).7$'1.
""""""
•
p • m.., M> Che units of momen1um = !fa v ms 1 • kgms • So wlume; • 64 s: 3.75"- cm' Q2 Hoti:tontal t."Omponent f, = Feo!iO-= 12cos56" # 6.710.•.
= 6.7 N (lo2 s.fJ
Page 33 - Fact Recall Questions - Fact
Page.i38£.g.tJk Rec•ll Questioos =
Verdcal componenc F, Fsinl-= 12sinS6•-= 9..948...
QI ~1n/IC QI . . _ _ _ .-...:rc ... -=- 9.9N (lo2LfJ
Q2 Any,_llom:e.g.l-/0-NMJll)/NU--/ R!!5UfG/ .... mar@semibw ~ ..
Q3 Sun tJr en~.,. llC4W ~ wilh .. JPProPri• tCM&
(e.a.. 5.0 cm• IJJ '1. Then mNSLR lhe sidfo, Md . . .
tr\\'I~' b) £.a,.alibrMar'C 8"~
Ql ~ I 1e 10"'
Q2 Add~lhfw~-~ 1IW' ~ ~. bS.O Non <t bNting otOSS•.
bt 001orlxl0 1 Q4 SUn by en.,,,. .. ~., show me bees en dw bnct::
Ql ~ erp@'llnfntilnfue-acaped~Ul" IQQ
C') 1. 10" differenc• • accepled vatue ic

2. Making EsUmates
Pm:-en1~ difl'«mee shows the accuracy of ..n
exµetilT'l('R IJ:l tf'SUll,

.:i , .
__ _
Poge 35 - Application Questions

~:r.
QI .1) /\room is abou1 the heigh1 oC onP-and.a*h;atf ptiople. 4. Graphical RepresentaUons of Uncertainties
/\ p«Jon is a round 1.8 m in height. 1ime/s
One room= 1.5 • 1..8= 2.7 m. Page 40 - AppliC.>lion Question ~ grMjN'!flt of !he line of besl fn
/\ ~ house is as ttl as 2 f!OOm1, pt14 OM!: heighC QI •l .,..,5 21)+ 120:-0.2375
d N roof' ..._, •ny ma1erial betv.1'ft'I 1"001'n1.,
So~ ~*1fey house is ilbota as UIU ~ J IOOml..
l x 2.7 .:8.1 m.
.,.,_.,....
The~ ol lhe Slel!pflSl WOCSl l1iw
•CSI 20)+ 120-=0.158J_ ,,,,. ~ F,
.lO.lJN
Then US!" ueonommy 110 find the sill:! ol F, Jlwd F ;
=Wtl~ • 20.0.: &.452_ = &5 N (lo? "-IJ
1

""'_"""'_""'_"'...
So .1 IWCMlotty house is~ I • b9 (to I U.) • ,4, 222) + 120 = 022S bt f ,=CCll2S • 20.0= 18.1M-= 11Ntto? UJ
bt Th@ m,m al • pelS01 is about 70 ta. Ml# " • dwld is Q5 let-. A ~N2lfl.ilioR:e,.anctbce • be1tw-l8N
ilbouth.ollU.. massolanadut~so 70 + 2 • lS kg. """" ,,,,. and die lin@ol beot fi1 "0.2583_ 0.2375 = Ion.
Gr.ivd.lllion•I poGenlial energ_y = lS w 9.81 • ) 0.0208._ ResoMnc lofa: A:
: 1010.os I The difference between the line ol ~t rr1.nd the ~ =22c:a.40". 16.85.•.
So ll'M: grnil.itionaJ polenliaJ enel'J."'t' of lhfi thfld Is grl<ienl of the sbaJlowesl WOf'SI line I~ 0.2J7S 0.225 Ay =22sin 40"• 1<4. 14 ...
about 1000 J (lo 1 s.f.). ~ •0.0 125 ResolvinR form 11:.
Q2 The\ 'ICIUJI v;due of lhe chance in ...elodry (O\'Cf a given
II~ w.as lar~, so the actual acc:f!letation ol lhe bill would ~ JOffifHfHfH:kitf!fH+ElfHfHtHfH+tlfl+I The tt?Sull for the sceepes:i wors1 line iJ l.11'g(!t, so take lhis
15 lhe uncertainty in the final result.
B.= 18ce»SO""• 1157...
=
81 18s.lnSO"• ll.78.. .
bl!o; lillrgc!t. This rreans tha.1 the actual focet on the! b.&II would
bfi I~ ltwn the one c:aJculated.
I =
So the gradiene 0.24 :z: 0.02 •c Ii ' (lo 2 s .IJ
MC
fhl:I ft:IMtt.e ~ the utile to 2 s.(. 90 f t ,Maon.
A: fllMl"l \o 2 s.l too. Youshot.M ll'mcp>c.c I.he~
sh;;WJ
Then cak:ulJl@th(! resultant horizontal c~
F.= A, B,•16..85... 11.57_.:5.28•..
UlcuWt N 11!1Uhrtl ~J component:
....................
~to thcwmctunia"of4eianW ~-U..: n:vwkd
F, =A, B1 • 14.4 I_ 13.78_ = 0.35_•
f'lftd..,. rnotowCl.de of Che resdQnl loo!:
•= If: 1: • IS.Ja._• ' O..JS_' = S.29_.
Now cDw <t ~ 110 help you ind che Mg4e d N
A!SUlunr btl! on lhe toy.:

'· (,.,____.,....o"c__
F.
llmc/s
tanO <>pJl(ltiilo + ~acen.1,. so 0= tan'(~}
=
0: "" '(Hi:)•l,817...• .
So lhiP- ~ btt is S..J N (lo 2 U .J lo 1be left •t .wt
-o11.r 11o2uJ .a.-awhorumo.L

Page 4S - Fact Rec• ll Questions

QI A SGtbr ~icy U only <t milgJlibie (size), whlft. 41 \..aot
CJJanc:icy .,..,, Si re <and cirecrion.
Q2 ~ R'!SUl~tll ~Vf!l.'10r).

••~s::JMI Answers Answers I ppw

 Exam-style QuesUons- Page 47 3. ProJectlle MoUon 4. Olsplacement-Tlme Graphs
1 D ( I marl() Module 3 Page 54 - Application Questions Page 58 - Application Questions
lhccrrorklr for the mcac-~of0.4 V $how$an ati-.x.ilett QI Rrst find how long it's in I.he air by cor6idering only the
Section 1 - Motion QI 26
unccrtalnt.yof±0.05V. (0.05 -:-0.4}x '100= 12.51.. ve.MM-.a I veJodsy:
OI) Sr.in by dr.rwing a diagram to .show the rorces: 14
1. ConstantAcceleratlon I f =:>t = ,rg
s = ,_g f1S = ;2~ -x-Lf.I = 05729 . .. s 22

~lSN
.
21)
Page 49 - Application Questions Then find out how far it travels in this time:
18
QI u =Oms' v =IOms-1 t=20s a =? s=? =
s = ut = 502 x 0.5729.•. = 287.60 ..• 288 m (to J s.f.) t.: 16
souses = Y,(u + v)t ~ s =- Y,{0+ 10) x 20 =- 100m R.ancmt:1cr there's no accdcrauon In the hortwnt.al dln:ctaon. '::: 14
Component down the slope, F, = WsinO Q2 a) Consider only the \•ertical W!lociry:
= 1Ssin30= 7.SN Ql u =-25rn>' v=Oms' t=l8s a =! s=l
u.,= ~ 12
The perc.encage uncenainry in 1he v.'eight is:
=
v = u + ou => a = ~ =- ¥ =-13888...
sin60.0"' x 25 =21.65 ... ms'
v. = u.' + 2gs !! 10
... 8
(0.S + 15) x lOO 3.33 ...%
This is equal to I.he perceruage u.nceMainry in the
component of the box's weight that aclS down the slope.
So 1he deceleration is 1.4 ms·2 (Lo 2 s.f).
Q3 s=l03m u =Oms 1 1=9.ls v=? a =?
=:o"" = /IT:65 ...*+2Xt-9.81f X(o) =--21.65 ... ms
l'hcnxtwtlbc~ tQvards tht:grotn.l.soltwtll h.M:a
1
g6 1
So the component= 7.5: 3.3% N (to 2 s.f.) "'<l"tM:final~ 2
s=- ut + 'har' ~ a = ~ = 103 -COx9.2)
(3 marks for correct answer and uncertainly, otherwise 'h.I ¥1 x 9.2 1 V~=U.. -+ .ill ,,., t= t'·:;U.. =-2l.6S ..§jfl.6S...
• 6 •
1 mark for correc.t answer "'ilhoul uncertainty, and = =
2.4138... 2.4 ms4 {to 2 s.f.) =4A 13... =4.4 s (lo 2 s.O Time Is
1 mark for correct method of cak:u/ation)

x
b) Consider 1he horizon1al \•elocity: Q2 a} The cydts1 is. moving forwards a.I a cons1an1 v8ocity.
b) Slar1 by drawing a diagram to show the rorces:
Page 49 - Fact Recall Questions =
u,. = cos60.00 x 25 12.S ms· 1 b) The cyclist is moving forwards bot decelerating.
QI a) The velocity of an objecl is iis rate of change of Sos= U1.I= 12.S x 4.413.•. = 55.174._ =S5 m (Lo 2s.f.) d The cyclts1 isn't moving.
displacement. =
Ql The vertical vekx:ity, u., =-sinJ.1.5° x 12.1 6 .322 ... ms-1 dJ The cyclist is moving bad: towards I.he star1inr: poim al a
b) The acceleration of an object is iis r.ue of chant.>e of Al 1he highes1 point, the hairs \-enk.al \'elodry constanl \'elociry.
velocity. will be 0 ms-1. Q3 First rind the rocker's acr.elera1ion:
v =Oms ', a =-9.81 ms'.
Q2 The equa1iom are: .. ~ J n' J .- = u + at ~ a -= ~ -- ~ ~ 20ln\'
lbr 1he box to have a resultanl force of 3.0 N up the
v = u + at "',.>=u.,' +2as,r.os-. ¥, = ix6\'j1 - 2.0Jn_. m Then work out the rocket's displacement at intervals wilh
s = iS(u + '1t =
Total height aboYe ground= 2.0372 ... + 4 .20 6.2372 ...
slope, the component of A l4J the slope minus f 1 must s= Ul+Xat1:
equal 8.
s = ur +Mal =
6.24 m (lo J s.f.)
l" = u'+2as 1 (>) s(m)
Thecomponen1oi A up 1heslope= 23cosJO"
rtic angle t.ictwcctl A and the ~ IS 3fY boeatme for two Page 54 - Fact Recall Questions 0 0
~raid aics that. an:: bdng lntascc:t..cd. t.hc alternate angles 2. AcceleraUon Due To Gravity QI Free ran mo1ion with an ini1ial velociry is called projectile 1 10
a<eC<jWl Page 52 - Application Questions motion. 40
=
f 1 Wsi.nO =Wsin30", Q2 Resol'o'e the ini1ial \'elociry into horizonial and vertical 2
8 ...-3.0N QI s = ~gr = !x -9.81 x6.19' =-187.9-IO.•• components, lhen use the vertical component ro work out 3 90
so23cosl~ - \V.sinla' =3.0 So height= 188 m (to 3 s.f.) how long it's in the air and/or how high it goes. Then use 4 160
W = (23ros3W - l.0) + sinlO" 1.he horizontal componen1 10 ~ oo:1 how far f1eoes in the
l"ld;:jht ~a 9C.Ollar quarttt:y 50youdon't.ncctl to worry about.
=ll.83 ... N =34 N (lol sJJ hoti7.onlal di:rec:rion while it's in I.he air. 5 250
(3 tmrks for com?d otnswer,. otherM.se 1 nurk for the mms 51gn9 here.
Ql Y=-u'+2<1S .:.:) v =-/o1 +(2x +9.81x 6.83) Then plo111le graph:
correct resoluUon of force A up lhe slope and t marl<
for correct cakulalion of U? =-(-)11.576... ms ' 260
a) his a systematic error (1 mark). Random errors So it's Cra\'ellinc at 11 .6 m~r• {lo 3 s.f.). 140
canno1 be prediclad and cause resutls 10 change in Ql f .g. use a small, hea\•y ball 10 nepte the effect of air lW
unpredictable WJYS. S}'Slematic errors usually shift an of resisianc:e and use a mechanis.m to au10ma1ic:alfy release 200
the measurements by the same amounl ( t nwrk). and time 1he ball bearing's fall. um
b} 3cm=0.03m ~,60
force consian1 =-force+ ex1ension =GO+ 0.03 Page 52 - Fact Recall Questions f; ~;o
=- 2000N'm' QI The onty bee presen1 in free falt motion is weighL
Now lind the pm:en1age uncmainties in both force and Q2 a) E.g. Measure the length of time ii taker; fot a metal ~ IOV
ex1ension: ball bearing to ra11a known disaance U$ing a switch °E. HU
=
% u-ncertainry in force= CS+ 60) x I 00 833 ... %
% unc,ertainty in exiension = {0.05 + 3) x 100 = l.G6...%
to rclease the ball be.1ring from an elE!Cf~ and
stan a timer, and a uap door to catch the ball bearing
a tiO 4{)
l\dd the percen1ace unc.ertainries to find the uncertainly and Slap the limer. Measure the height h from the iO
in 1he focce cons1:an1: botlom of the ball beari ng to the trapdoor. Flick the O +-"i----~~
8.33._% + 1.66 ...%=-10%
=
So force cons1an1 2000 :t; t0% Nm· •
switch to simullaneously scart the timer and disconnect
the electromagnet, releasing 1he ball bearing. The " Tune ls
(4 mMks for cort«t otnswer,. OlhetMse t nurk for ball bearing will fall, knockins the tra:ixb>r down and
'°"«' force romtant., t rnarlt for eotrect pen:entage_ breaking lhe circuit - which stops the tinw. Record I.he
uncertaintres of f«ce and exlemioa and 1 mark f« time l shov.TI on lhe timer. REpeal this experimen1 three
correct method US«/ to combine uncertainlie.s) 1imesand average the bme iaken to fall from lhis heigJ\1.
Repeal this experiment but drop the ball bearing l'rom
several different heigJics.
= =
b) for each heii;ht, rearrance h Yigt' to gee g lh + f
then subsci1u1e in the height and a\<erage lime thal you
have measured.

MEE' Answers
Q4 >) .,, 5. Velocity-Time Graphs Q2 6. lnvesUgaUng Motion
P•gt 63 -Application Question Page 69 -Application Question
QI food tho ..,.,._bf 6nd<lg lheama under lhe ~­ QI The Iner tinw tN:"8 dols at a r.Ne ol 2 dots per second,.
JO
E To do eus• .P• ii lnlO • ~and ;a recu~ solime~doa • 1 +2•0..5s
11 12 OisQna ~doe:• 7 an• OJJ7 m
'
! 10
~ 10 "= t= ~= 8.14 - -·
1
g IO
.................... -·-- ----.----..----.:
'
£8
i 6
QI E.g. id<--·......,
Page 69 - Fact Rtcall ~lions
"°'
bec01use they do
""°""'"''Ylhan-""'5
dePlftd on hunw1 reaccion times.
Q2 f.g.Pbceasmoorhramp I m~rromawall. Pl<Kea
tJ 4 met.re rule alone: lhf I m fLal 5treleh berween. the wa.11 and
II J •
Ttn>re/s
> the ramp. Set up,. vttioo e".alTICfa IO mm lhe set-.up rrom lhe
side. Measurf' lhe ~1h ol • 1rolley, hold it in place on lhe
b) Draw <1 l il~I " ' 1 • 3.0 .and measure ics g1adien1: J J 4 5 6 H V 10
Tm~ls
ramp and bf'£ln filming. Iac go or the 1tolley and lee iuol I
= cbwn the ra111> and hh chf! w.ill. Once lhe trolley has come
•o /\re;a oflri..i nglt! ... X )I base x heighc = X x 10 x 8 4-0
co a slop, stop the• r(l(;Ordlna,. Use video analysis software to
Area of m:t.Ll'lg1€! =base x height = 10 x 4 ~ = go lhrough 1hP \•lctro framo-by.fr.1me., and counl how many
So dl~l~-01 = 40 + 40 80 m = 71'"'" I<
frame; it 1 at~ ror chc 110lloy 10 c:ompk!tely pa~ a reference
You ooukl 11180 ~t. n. as a U'.ilfCZIJm and v.at: OU'L Lhc Area offirs1 lriangle CN "l/ti VA.4 • 9) • 18 m
n "' audrmcitY 1.15*1!1 the formtAa fer thearea of a~ Area of firs! trapezium (B) • IJA9 + I)) x J poin1 on the ml"lf'f ru·1~ bt.~oro theoollision. Use the frame
' .nm ra1e cl the video 10 fmd lhl! hmc t•km for !he uotley to

I
f:'
J()
i aQ ~·· tr)•h

P•ge 65 -Applic•tion Questions

Area of second crape7ium(O• Yl(IJ + 14)x 2

Areaof~(l))=
•27m
14 • t • 14 m
pass the referenc;e 1>01r111. lhe this time and the length of
dle trolk!y to oleutMe rl'IC ~cl the troHey. Repeat dtis
video "1Ntysis lor .,_,.. thfi colllSion.
~ 10 QI •I Arsolrhird tr.lpl'!lium (f) • 'hC1'4 • ll) a 2
•27m
Area:ofbinh nperium (f) • ¥1(1l • 9) JI; J
7. Stopping Distances
•llm Page 71 -Applie•tion Questions
Neaolsecond lriM!dPfQ• ¥1f119 ISJ :11: ' ) 18m = QI Slopping cisw'Q • IS• 18 • S3 1n
local at&= 18•lJ+27 + •• + 27 ... Jl + 18 Q2 OahA r.wek 14 m durw'I. hw h!'itlCUon 11me.
= 110"" (Kcept '""" in ml s =""so:
• _ _ ._.....,...,lll"_,....
Yoi'd sdlgct themarbrl yoJP, t.t1Cc;orra:$.~U5'19a
"'I""""
l=S~Y
= 14 .f 25
= 0.5's
Poge 59 - fuel Rec•ll Questions
Q I /\curved lina on .a d1spl.ac:emen1-1ime graph shows 1. .I .f Page 65 - Fact Recall Questions
;ic~lt'ra1lon tor OOCtlt~rnliOn).
Tlme/s QI The gradien1 o( a velocity Ii~ s:,_.ph 1ells you lhe Page 71 - Fact Recall Questions
Q2 /\ stral~1 llne on~ cispl.Qment-time graph shows constanl h) To find the .i4.'.'Ccleration, draw a 1angent a1 t =2 and rtnr:t aa:e&era1M>n.. QI TheslOpping disr.anc:e I~ 1M di)IOlnce covered by the vehide
vcloc:i1y. ftsgt~M..'lll : Q2 Uniform accelera1ion on n v<'lorlty lime gmph is shown by in lhe time betw(lm 1hc drl\lc•r rirsc six>1ling a hazard and
Ql h:ceif'r.llion. a straight line. lhe whkle (.'Ominj.l 10 • romi:t1r.1e ~1~. h's the sum of the
Q4 lnstant.<11'll"OUS velocity. " Ql The area undet a velodry·tlmci g.Qf)h 1clls you lhc thinking distanr..t": and the br•kil'lg distance.
The lhinlcinQ dli;1anc:ir Is lhc diswnce the vehicle travels
QS lns&ant.lnl'!OUS veloc11y is'*" object's vcloc:i1y a.1a panicutaJ
momen1 in 1lme, ~.ii~ velocity is lhe °''era.II displacemen1
............................... :::~
displacement.
Q4 Non-uniform acceleration Is d'lown on .i vclocity-time graph cli.:ting the drivff"s rci;ic.non time.
..·· The braking disu.nc-f' rs the d!S\ilnce the \'Miele navels after
.....·
divided by lllM ••km. : by a curved I ine.
Q6 llividf' N a.'fnll d\in~ 1n drsplacement by 6me r.aten. :: lhe brakes arP ~lted umd ii comes to a compleleSU>p•
Q2 Nry three from: ~c. NU d the wtucle, a (or wa~ oil,
le.M!se<cJ Oft . . . . - . qwl•y ol tho iy<e. qwliy ollhe
W!hide!'s bra.tfs.. WNlhft' oondllCKWls+
Ql >1-q
bi Thi'**'tl
L J 4 cl Thint"'c
1/mels et Br.ilcintt
A(ajer,abon ~- 'J:-f =lJ= .tms '

€'
 Exam-style Questions- Page 73-75 Section 2 - Forces in Action 3. Equilibrium
I C llmMfJ
fhc.,..\QloflllOltlon,)W"M:UdUSClt$ "f1/ •)lllJ'.l\:row 1. Mass, Weight and Force Basics P•ge 84 - Applic.Jtion Questions
Q1 ()Qw a talt ~ d Ille bas~ using a tc.11c!: ol
b-•(•......,.,.... .,.,.......,,,_..,.,.,...,.,.._)...i•
Lhlt.U!cW'~t&LJf~(•)&ZO'Q So)Ol.lnl*la.,.._
Page 78 - Application Questions l.O cm a 1.0 h l ;o.wd up lip-a) c:.ait:
QI w .m• • so:
(.............. .,.,i..1~ ... ..---~ m• W +g
o II m.ri1 • 7.75 + 0.620

.:~71
=
U!ic U'llnkl... «htaru !pi)( n:acuon time~ • 12.S kg
~ tlst.an::c- thnl:1ngGht..ilncc 1 bnlblglbt.alcc. Q2
B (I m~rkl
.,,,_,.,,.
I) II m.ri1
?--9s.whcrc g = 9..81ms 7, .;is-lrtw.l~t.yl&.a:ro.
A: 1•l•l •l m
~ ,.,,,,.,,,.. =4.65 N ~frm
0-.c hcn.t.«it.al~ofthcw:b::tty .. ?..:..Oco.JOO'".
8: 8•~•36 m llan
fhc::hortt.oit.al~tr.M:lcdlS:S.OO>t '-~~00".

Y~~11.•N n.......,.......
C.: 6•6•l6m Thfoy form J clow!d en.angle. so the objett's in equilibrium.
t) f ... lhe studenl accelerates liof thP fil'SI so s.. She Ihm ._._..,fi<'11heGdumn ,,.,.,..,
~fb ... ~ conSUlrU speed for 100 s, t.folt'. ~ O; , ... 4•6 •12 m

,,'° •m.ri""'lhe
smM'*- .. flA-Ar.c.
.Mop II\ 75 s.
ned
Q2 fifw::
conKt dlsc:ription ol motion MW/ , nwt Sod~·l+l6+l6+ 12=&7 •
'°' lt.lfilif .,. COfT«f time} a tlWh"" C'.'UtTfld MISltW,.~ r nwi'"" S&an by~;,·- bee in .. dosed~
bf IOWl~=250m cotT«f WOftirw if..,..""" MKotnd) Page 78- Fact Recall Questions
=
IOOI tJme tiken 225 s b) cha11RelnyaO 6:. 6ms 1 QI W • m1 /'M!ight =mass• gr.Mttl.JOnoll flcld M~h
r4.6NP'"7,
=
iM!r"•Cf! velocity lOf.al cf1Splacemen1 + 10QJ lime ~ken ch.1ntein.r•20 16="4s Q2 TM cenh d mass d an objeCI is the si~ f)OlnCM you
l(;.~
:25-0 + 225 gradient • c:h•n..,e in y -:. change in x Ciln CorGlder i~ vmoie weight 10 ac:11hrough.
=- 1.1 11... ms •=- 1. 1 . - 1 (to 2 1'.r.) • 6 + '4 • l.Sms" ar
Ql /\1 1tiie mitre che object. f = h .1' t 14.61 =16.23<4.•• N=1'N{to2,.f.)
a m"'rb for correct OIMK'E'(. othffwf~ I mM k for so accf!l('flUion • - 1.S ms"
(1 nwb (« t'l'JH e<'l <rnsww;. otherwM 1 mark for
Q4 Upll'ltUsl Or.
c'Orroct worl:ing if answer i ncorrt!C'() QS ,...._diawam Use lhe hotfron1.11 c:omponen1s:
oom!d worl:.lns: if .mswcr incorrect)
6 •)
~docdtr'Jlt.tin 19~a ncgat.M:arccdt:raQ!n.
(oosM•• FJ 7.1 • O : t f "'- ~its= 16.196.... N
c) Y=u'+2.H 2. Net Forces =1' N Ool s.J.)
~ .. =/lo) tC2 x3.~ P•ge 8 1 - Application Questions Youad'fhlo.e'*'1U!Q'.l\1Cf"Uc.i11~1n~~
=12369._ m.' Ql F • ln4 4 F .:2'4.1•35 .:84.l5 N a MN (lo 2 "1J ya.i'd Ui1Ci F111£.4• a\:J 14.6 N hSU:.id.
=12.4 MJ'l(kt J t.IJ
Q1 f •mo1 4 m= ~ =,Y :Q.£206_ Q • 0.'2l&(lo2.s.JJ
Ql Si~ H bca is 1n equi.libium, lhe bee f mus1 ~
(1...,n It# t'DnM ~otbt:ntistf> I trWi' /or the~"'9'1. ..allle~oflhe> l6H-.
'~1.00+--t--::-it--+--t--T-t--+-.;;.i cort't!d . . .t . . ;/ MIJ"Mf' ir.rcotRIC() Ql II '"'"- r~ lhe net force in ft nonh-toUlh dlft!CllOfl.
I t1 north be posiliw ~ JOUlh bP- ~w..
......... IO foott f .
d) v*=a'+ 2.n So:
N>nlMoulh itlta! =10.0 !0.0 • 40.0 N f : sinl'1' w 16" 10.0GL N =10 N 11o 2 I.I.)

1:~~.~..-.-+1<-+"!+,<"'"l*--l---4
~ y : Aii<il9.°0' x 650)"'+"12 x -'"9.81 ' Tiil

!. .
= S.96,... ms 1 =-5.97 ms-1 (to3 s.(.) ~I. chw a crianglecl forces: You c.o.Altiohowc U!lQJ,. ~offorus toatliWO' U..
(1 marltt for <'Or~ MUM-W, Olherl!VM I m.ut IN ~
CON'H"t M'(,Vt /ng if oln$MW incorrect) W4- f .1'10 N

i ·•.oo -1-#~~+-4#++-i+:l+~
l? IJ<"...c t.hcf11"4o'J~ IOluLlonforvas Jt.'s travdlngdowrw~
when It. hit.a t.ho grounri
J Page 84 - Foci Recoil Questions
} J.oo-J..i.l4-'-'-Jtl+"-i#~~!!!!l e} t'= U+olJ ... f • ~= -5.969... -(s;n;ro Xi.!tO)
QI ON
Q2 Spfi1ting a roia into IWO perpendicular coq>Ol'IM.lj ~U:MMlly
hori70l'ltitl ind veruc.al).
= 0.9297... = 0.930 s (lo 31.fJ <HJON
l.00-!-"'"+7'-+"""-1-'-'+"R*"H"'==l (1 nwi-s fol fBTf"CI .wH'llt"W;. olbends.e t tnMt IOI
c:otttd ~iiMJJ• W incotTecl)

0 O..ZO (L40 U.EO o.JIU 1.00 1..lO

~ traw.Jledd>wn t~ 1Atnp Im Sy Pyth;fgor.IS' lbeomn:
( I m.uk f« 01ll points correclty plotted, I ffMfk I« lkte R l.Jo.O' + 40.6' SO.ON =
of bet nt dr.,,,,..,, corr«lly) find the diredkln of R as a clockw~ angle rrom eist
bi V'• u'+.2.asand u =-O,sov'=-2.;is D 1.1n'(~)=53.13 ...• =5l.1 11 {ml$.U
Sqwhon d a straight line lhroogh 1he Clflsiln Is y • mx.
So Chu net foroe is 50.0 Nat 53.1 • c:lndwlS4! from easl
Comiunng "' =-Us andy= mx, youansoo 1tur b) F a tn.1
r•t",zasandm-=20I
JIO • •O..S xm .. · -m-0.56179 ...ms.' O.S62rM 1 (1o3UJ
dunt:e'" r =- 9.00 o =- 9.00 ems 1p
~., .. ... 1.20- 0= l.20m P•g• 8 1 - Fact Recall Questions
j() • • o.s )( f'.00+ 1.2Q QI JM "8 lion::e is lhe SIR" al N foKa OlCtll"C on the:
• J..7S ms-' (to l s.i.) obtfQ, .a:ounli~ for dwir" ~dillf!CDC)ftJ.
ll m..b fol comd ~ Oflw!lv& I 11111tt lfw =
Q2 F • ntl bce(1'J, m mas:s(tg)and • • accM.-... (ms').
....... ""',,-= b md I
wortlr.w if .-JSlt·er inc.«red)
""'*
kw .,.,,...,

5ft:;c: tho~~a $trajlt Inc. thcaccdcrauon •"11'1!ita'IL.

··~!·~:,~II Answers
4. Moments and Torques
Page 89 - Application Questions
=
QI M=F• 73.I x 0.2S s 18.215 Nm a l&N'm (&o 2 ,:.f.)
Q2 Anticlockwise momen1 .-ppleed by d1dd on ~:
M=-F•=-4"50.0x 150:67SNm
So clockwise momen1 appt1ed by c:t111d on n$lt\I • 675 "'m
M- fx :$ • = -¥ ~ l.JSm
Ql a) tA'elii;l'll W = m.r =- 24 OOO x ,.81 • 2l5 440 N
moment=f• - 235 440 x 3.S • 824 040ti:Nm
Page 93 - foci Recall Questions
QI

Ql
Ql

Q4
QS
Fri<:tion is a fotce 1h.a1 opposes mocm Drag is the name
given 10 fricrion caused by a fluid.
Friction acts in the oppos.ice dicec'ion to lhe mo1m
\\lhen an oo;ea reaches terminal veloc:iry, dW! rrictton•I
forces are equal in si:te to dle driving force(s) and in tlie
opposi ie direction.
The com!CI ltJilPh is .i.
SltydMn reduce their terminal Yeloc:iry by using•
pitt'XhUllf! ID i.noease lhE! drag they experience.
Exam-style Questions- Pages 93-100
I

J2
~
C Omill'tJ
C.""•14 lllo ,,,_.,
EJlnhb'.j'!)J>1

B (I -'<!
"'' -"'
co -"'
""'""'"'•bydlw.llng tho.a,;u.oo
m•'· fhcn<M.lctht::~tonVcnusbythc
mMMt)Q.l~tAI to firvJ the~ fiddstn:ngth.

5ll'Q Ute~.,, toec.atc,)QJCMl)JSt~ t:hc

.......... _ ... "'"""fartm.~"""USC'JO'X
·-r= ......
(1 mNt for COl'red .oe MN/ grJtph .Jlwpd
=120 kN 111 •ldod.-wM (to 2 t..I.) ~Mklthc~to~tbetatp:s. d N. lermiRilf YelocirY. Che reu-..nc ~ O"l IN <lncv is 0.
Cbt\. fonJe&. to c;cno1. UIC RUM 11 t, &o weight tt N bcfo¥' II) f.a..
HU ;a ~ M>r NI has been m:uked <It regutar So F musa be ecflill kt lhe sum d tht kww'iW'dJ
y:AJ '*1.lb&.c ihc mima:m. lnlfrv.lts t'°.S. WHh rubber~) wilh liquid X. Drop ~ d lhe80.0 N locc&.
tit clockwise momenl ~ ~ . ol~lbfM"'CWMOHl~(I ~. Use<1~ k1rw.11ds componenc: done 80..0 N b Q
(SS OOO x 7.5) + Q'x 65>• 412 SOO+ 6..SX ID~ N tinw a1 wtiich ii~ each m<llton • cm I S.0- • IO.O
•llilJodLwde moment 4ICN: ~ .. &24 040 lht 1utig UJcub• N lil'l"ll'! W:en by the bad llO '"°"'" So f =tcos 15.0'° • 80.ot .._ (cm IS..V • 80.ot
b<>u- .................. - __......, nwtlogs (I matt. Used1isand : I 5'1.548-. N : I SS N (lo J "1J
dodwisemon11rtS: ¥1l~~IO dw d6Qna> bf'rwNon lllUftinp ID alcubee lh! W!locily Q ..t:s fol-a:wTtd ~~ I .....t & C'.'OtrfC'f owlhod
412 SOO+ 6..5X - 824 OtO ifMJS:ft'I' ~

-
.......... - -.- .. m.wlOng:L '""" ...
X _ 8240401>541HOO 6l JU.&... tN vdoary bfcan'ws ~the boll Ns tNCbed its cl f =m•
-~(l nwl!). • : F +111= 1S4.S48_ + 81.l
:6l ltH (lols.IJ = 1.857S4_ms • = 1.16AK 1 (1o3U.)
b) momol liquid a ~ o/ lull be<lter INSS d aqJly
Q4 l -. fd :$ F - ~ - ~ 142.IS_ N a 14lN(1o2J.JJ a m;wb fol' eotred .mwer, , m.ri k1' CCJrnWf mHftod
.- Sbl 150=,12c if.ll'JSwer ino:wncC)

Page 89 - fact Recall Questions

,.. -m ~ . 1.J1:ican ' =- L-t :cm'(to2s..1.)
(2 nNri' fOI con-M ilMWH',. 1 nwi' I« rottKf mt!lhod
7 <l) The rnonwn d"' ba! <1bolA a pon/pM1C .s ~I to -
bee x h! ~i.1 dm.lnc:e ~the bnt d
QI A momen1islhe&uming8fecl d • ~ ¥OUnd ii
aaion dtheforce<11ndlhepoi~ (1 nwtl.
IfMKM·«Y' hrrorrPrlJ
wming point 11•s the form x lhe perpMdcut. d~ cJ Con-.·M ~'Y into le.gm 1 ""'1 height il'llO m: bt The rroni v.beefs will om • g~er force on 1he ll'UCk
6. Density, Pressure and UptllrUst (1 nwld. The dis&ance between 9lC front~· 1nd tM
frtm the ptYOl llO the line of XllOn ol lhf! foree. p • 1l60~ '.lt=0.640m
Poge 96 - Application Questions cenueol~ is shorter th.lnbefv.'8!R lht fNr~s
Q2 A pair affcn:es d f"!QU<ll sil~Vt'tl.ich «I p;1ir.llef toed p • hrf
other but in oppowle direcooni. u: al k!d • couple!. QI p V ~ ~ SOOkgm' • 0.(M() !IC 1360. 9.81
a Sll.664 l>a • 530 P• (to 2 s.f.)
and 1he c;entre d mass, $0 lhe force exenoo by lht
front wheels must be Laiger in order fol moml!n!J to bf!
Q2 p:~ (2 m.wt fcit ft'.lt"l'f'd AmwH, 1 nwk few t'Nred method
balanced ( 1 ~-
5. Drag and Tennlnal Velocity c) If the froru wheels feel no force, the <:lodcwil>f! ~tl

PJge 93 - Application Queslions so, A=~= M =0.1666.._ m, =0.167 m' (lo3 sJ.)
if M5Wt'f" /nrontd)
d) "Pl>lo lla.ltt.,"' upihM1 k oqual 10 llw! appl<!~ Wficht.
must balance the antidockwoo momcntJ .iboul the piYOt
(rear v.heels}.
QI a) The ball !>1arts wilh a l•q:(! {po!.ilM!) i1C'.CelcrJ1ion u Ql ,. ... V,som = pxv massofapplf> • 18S + 1000 =0.185 kg anlidodtwise moments= dod::w1sc moments
i1 falk through the air, The ~lc!r<11ion is dOCrO;tslf'IG U l)ll'INjl • W a mg
~ W'x0.65=210001o12.'4
sligh1fy (due llO .-air resist.t1l0'}. Afk."f ii hitic the ~lief tr m 2700 x 9.1 x 10 • = 2.4S7kg = 2.5l;g(to2sJ.) • 0. 185. 9.81
experiences a. sudden detelcr-11lion, which doclt~~ Q4 V ~ wt1 .-.. 1.-(0.040t .--. 2.68... x I 0 • m, a l.81'48..• N-= 1.81 N(tols.f.) ~ W= 2l'Wd 2.4 =77S:J.8...... N
unlil the ball has readied tl!rmin.al velocfty (l.9 ~ 1) . (2 nMlfh fol' <'Uftd ill'l)Wt!f, I n)iJ(fc (or correct n>t<lhod =78 OOO N (lo 2 ,.r,)
V 2.68~: ~ 10!¥ If .an,-WH lnrorrftd.J

l.·J=
II then rails at a consl.Jnt ~lodty until ii 1'111~ 1hr. bottom JI 55952 ...kgm ,. (2 marks for con-ed An.nn!t;. 1 mMk fo< .antltlockwl_jt'
b The ron,1t.an1 pulling forc:f'S on 1he cinghy cause ii to moments =-clockwise monJMfj if .uJSWf!r lnrorr~

.~:.:.~~
a)
-.560 kgm 1 (to2s.fJ
ac;cel~Jllft, As. thfl dl"l:;hy's vcloc:ily increas~, the
=
QS up1hrus1 {h, h 1)pgA
Conven on eo m and g c:m l to kg m .:s: ~isfive forec on IM dindtY increases (1 '"""*'·
C:.J~ tN> r~l1;in1 rorce on me di"RhY 10 decrease,
This
a} The centm of gr.rvity is lhe single pomt lh~ which otll
of an object's v-~ht c11n be conskk.'ftod 10 oc1 (1 m;.H'ft;).
b) Suspend the parrot rrom 1he ~e by • stril'IQ. .incJ dr.JW
h1 -=0J60 m,h, =0.650 m, r=O.OSOO m,
so i1,1 ~I.art dectNses ( 1 nwk). Evenually, !he a straight line d;uidJy downw.ards hum !he scri na ;acmu
p= l.00 1o11000 = lOOOkgm .:s
m~ (ort:f' will fQl.iill the forward'I componen~ of the lhe panot, using oi plooi> bob to h~ (I tlWlk), Th~
A= •t1-= a• O.OSOCP
upchrust -= (0.760 0.650) 1o1 I CKIO x- 9.81 • {• 1o1 0.0500') pulling fOl"Cf"J, and 1hl.o teSUltan1 lOfCe is 0. N. lhis poin1. rnc:Ne the sering IO ill ddferonl pos1b0n on lhc! q@ ol

,,, =8.47523 .•. N

Q2 /\ir resGtanceon•carwtll 1nc:re.&Ww11h t~ar'sspe«I
until thefncbonal k>n:t!bill.anc@stMdn\o•rc~. ~
larger lhe •u resuwnce on lhe at,. h lowf!r lhiP ~ IC
wiU reach befole the drmna ilJ'1d rnc1J(NI folas bfcotnf
balmced.
=1.48 N { lo 3 s.C.)
thf: dtnRhr seops. ~ri~ lhe vekx:iry beccmes
,,_.,
~ni. .-.t ~dinghy h.- tmehed terminal wb:ity
lhe par!Of,. iM\d repe;al lhe ~KM.n s.lep (I IJMlt}, Thi
parro(scen1reol~ityts al the poiru '<'>'l'w!r@Chl!: rwo
lines drawn inK!fleel N nurtJ.
<:) Becauseames are toll !hey hom! .a t\.ltur11lly heh cmtt~
Page 96 - foci Recall Questions ol mass. The bne must ttwnfm! be heilvy llO kJwc!r IN:
QI p V•..mete,=densi:ty, m =1NSSand V =volume. '°
cencre ol motSS rt llWTtJ .ar1d wide (f n:wrt) ttw lhl
Q2 The~... d>e olm>Wll "'"""'-byd>eoq.ct. cenrre ol mass~ within he bue MN ol 1M cnM
Ql f« d>e objecl IO llo.v "1 .... ikOO, !he densicy ol d>e object (1 nwl!).
musl bf! k:Pwes" d'IOltl lhe density ol lbe fktid.

Answers
Section 3 - Work, Energy and Power 3. Conservation of Energy Section 4 - Materials 2. ElasUc and PlasUc DefonnaUon
1. Work and Power Page 11 O - Application Questions 1. Hooke's Law Page 121 - Application Questions
Page 104 - Applic.>tion Questions Q I efftciency = useful~tputenergy
lotal lllpu1 energy
x 100
Page 117 - Application Questions QI f = j f.l' =,xJOxl.2x10~ = 0.18J
QI W= Fx =20l x 2.81 =570.43 =- S70J ( to ls.f.) QI l.60cm =0.0160m Q2 \r\fork done= area under fm:e-cime graph
Q2 P= Fv '!Q f = ~ = E.tJJ.'f =
= 1731.98 ... 1730 N (to 3 s.f.) => useful output energy= eff~~ x kltalinpu1 energy F = kx= 1250x0.0160= 20.0 N = ~x26x 10 ,x 12 =0.156 1=0.16 J (to 2 s.JJ
Q2 0.80 mm = 0.00080 m (= 8.0 x 10"' m)
Q3 ~V= Fxcos0=l71x1.39xmsl3 . 1 ~=502.26 .. =.:iW!x2900 =SSOJ Rearrange F = kx 10 get k = ~ Ql
=
502 J (to l s.f.)
Q4 Look al onty the horizontal component or the rorce:
P= FvcnsO = 83.1 x 2.99 x cos15.l"' 239.77... =
Q2
2
I

h =
mv';:r ~ h=2g
v' 100

x . = 3.1009 .•. = 3.1 m (lo2 s.f.)

k = ~ = 25000Nm '
8.0 x 10 '
=240 W (lo 3 s.f.) 2 9 81
Ql a} extension =new length - original length ''
QS a) P =!f = ~ =44545.4 ... = 4S.kW(to2s.f.)
Ql a) £,.=mgh=0.6Sx9.8lxl03=6S6.7 ...
= 660 J (to2s.f.) =
22.0 - 20.0= 1.0 cm= 0.020 m
b) Rearranse f .- kx to~ k = ~
/' "
b} W= FxcosO~ x =l>V+{Fc:us (/j b) -imv'=0.95 x f,. => V= jIED·§&.~&SfJ.7_. /
=980 OOO+ (9500cos IS')
=106.79... = 43.81 .•• = 44 ms·• (Lo 2 s.f.)
k = ~ = 2750Nm' ,:
=110 m (lo 2 s.f.) Q4 First add 1he rop, ~and bouom, ks,, spring cons1an1s fo1 ,'' oolruding
c) mgh = 0.800 x im~ -= h =0.4,rv' both seis of springs in series:
'
t =I+i':=lJ!i+rli /'
Page 104 - Fact Recall Questions =0.400 ~ 43.8L'
QI fnergy is transferred when work. is done.
Q2 One joule is I.he v.'Oft done when a focce ol 1 oewion
moves an objecl throu&Jl a dis.lance of I meue.
=78.28
.81

Q3 Power is the r.ue of doing v.'Ork (or transferring energy).
=
Q4 Power fo«:e x velocity (or P f v)
2. Klnetlc Energy and GravltaUonal PotenUal
Energy
Page 106 - Application Questions
QI £,.=mgh=32.4x9.81 x0.285=90585 ...
=
90.6 J(to 3 s.f.)
Q2 f =mghwhereh ischa.ncein height
=
&anse in height 890 - 760 130 m
So£,.=nDx9.81x130=981981
=980 OOO J or 980 t-J (lo 2 s.f.)
QJ f•= im.P=> m= ~ =~ =1171.875
=1200 kg (to 2 s.f.)
Page 106 - Fact Recall Questions
QI /\n object has kinEtic energy when ii is mewing,
Q2 /\n object gaill$ gravitational enersy when i1's lifted up in a
gravital'ion:al field.
=78m Oo 2 s.f.)
=> k.= 1~(-ii +~} = 34.285 .••Nm '
/\dd 1he c:ombined spring c:oosiants for the left, k.- and
"
= &r:t1 ..._."" "'"""' """JUS<""""""".......... tlOnal
potential energy into l:lnct..k; energy and floaclc again tt'g lost
righ1, k,. sides in paralk?I to gee 1he overall combined
spring constarn:
Q4 The band is elastic, because l1rerums to its orjginal lengch
(i.e. its extension is zero) after all Che load has been
some~ bccauc-...cooncof thtmcrgyhasbc:m transfcm:d k_.._,=A;+k,= 2 x k., = 2 x 34.285 ... = 68.S7L. Nm ' """"'ed.
to hcat-erv:rgy, !lOUtltJ. etc. = 70 N m-1 (lo 1 s.f.)
Page 121 - fact Recall Questions
Page 117 - Fact Recall Questions Q I The force (or load) beyond which a material will be
Page 110 - Fact Recall Questions
QI °'
Fnergy cannol be crea led destroyed. Enersy c~n be =
Q I F kx. 'Where F is 1he fon:e applied,. k is che force conscant permanently scretched.
transferred from one form ID another bul 1.he tocal amount and x is the ex1ension. Q2 /\ material that is deforming elas.1Kalty returm to its original
of energy in a closed sysiem wm no1 chanse. Q2 The poin1beyond ....tiich fbrce is no longer propor!M>nal 10 shape/length once the forces ac:ting on ic are removed.
Q2 How much of the input energy is transferred usefulty by a extensaon. Ql /\material that is deforming plastically is permanently
= system. QJ 'rou would need 10 measure 1he original ien&Lh before
adding lhe weist11, and 1he extended length ooce 1he y,-ejgh 1
Slrelc:hOO once the forces accing on it are remo-.·ed.
Q4 The are.-1 berweeo the two lines is 1he worlc done to
has been added. C-.alcu'31e 1he exiension by subuacting Lile permanendy deform the mall'rial.
Exam-style QuesUons - Page 112 origina I ~h of the spring from its exiended length.
I C ( I marl<)
3. Stress and Strain
2 a) Gravily (1 mark)
b) W= h cos0=660x9Sxcosl1" Page 123 - Application Questions
=61 548.02 ... =62 kJ (to 2 s.f.)
(2 matts - 1 marl< for <'Ol'Ted answer, I matk for
QI ,, =~ = J.l 5~Yo, = 1.6129... x H>"
cotTed substUur~ = 1.6 x 101Pa.{or Nm 1)(to2 s..fJ
a) ft= ~mv1=i x 74.8 x 6.5 1 =1580.IS
Q2 extension =new length - original length
=- 1600 J(lo 2 s.r.) = 12.3 - 12.0=0..lan
a marts for correcl answer,. r nwlc for correct working t:=f = ..%=0 .025
ifanswer ;ncotred) Rcrncnfu". there arc no ldv.> for st;raln. as It ea ratia J,ist
b) The brakes do work ~ainst fric1ion 10 conven all the mal:c $ l R ...tlcll WGri:lng ft. out. Wt. the cxu:noon and ortglnal
E~ 10 other types of enersr. length arc In the ~untt&.
=
So energy uansierrOO = W E, =- 1580.15 I
Ql n = f..
P=J¥. =lSfdlS =526.71... A
so F =axA=(l.Sx 10')x(l.2x 10 ')
=
530 \V (to 2 s.f.) = =
45.6 46 N {to 2 s.f.)
(1 marts for correct .mswer,. 1 mark for correct 'M'Orking
ifanswer incorrect)
Page 123 - Fact Recall Questions
cl mgh=~mv' ">gh=~"' QI a) The force applied 10 a m<1terial divided by i'ls
~ v= ./2x9.8i x 223 cross-sectional area.
b) The change in length <fMded by 1.he original length or a
=2 1.010... =21.0 ms·• (lo l s.f.) m.llerial.
(2 marli:s for COtTect answer,. 1 nwk for axrect tt'Ot king
c) The suess tha1a material experiences when it breaks.
ifanswer incorrect)
d) The maximum stress thac a ma1erial can withsiand before
breaking.

Answers
 C. The Young Modulus
Page 116 - Application Questions
QI it,t I.I wm.:.1.1x10,m
' ·(~/
·(.J..!...lTllL)' = 9503- x 10 '
9.S x 10 -' m'(fo2s.(J
Exam-style QuesUons-Pages 133-13'
I

2
0(1 - * I
f=o+; A. lul.
.,.,..F,,_...,,...,.. 101l
f = 10N..L 0.l'O"'-x -0De0m.A=-5Dx 10"ffi'
E=(10x 0.00) {:>x10"x ODOO)
=2Dx10'F'-
A{1 rrwltJ
f • b: "'>t F • • 1 .1-(~x10:1)
KMnrctmy
I.

2.

).

'4.
Uwa:mass~saleis:110mNJ1.1Je~

_.,...,,...........
~d-1>...,;p..-.
Mlmure k _
trite'\ damew "'• ~ flfft

lJ5e • ~piece of Wlf'I! ID~• ~ mension

oind reOJce uncenainty.
Use • lhin marker on the wire ro rtduc:e r.11ndom
Section 5 - Newton's Laws of Motion
and Momentum
1. Newton's laws of Motion
Page 137 - Application Questions
QI Floo<pu>hes
UptN'dfds on baJI
.,. X•0.20mm=-2.0x IO_.m
F •2J N,1= 1.0m,A=9..503.•. • 10'm' 220Nm 1 5. "'""'·
Keep the marter and ruler a1 eye le<V<!I when
I FI 23x 1.0 f .- 'fob! 1
/'lx'/?.0- -.0 .011'31 mrusuring the exter6ion.
C9.50L x 10 ix U.O x 16 \
M' O.OOtJl.L OD36J{to 29.f.) 6. Use a lra\'ellillg micr~ IO view clw! l>OSllion of
C:r .rv1ty pulls
t .210 Lj~ IOu = 1.2 X l O" P~ (Of Nm '}(lo 2s.U l a} How IO grQ )'OW •nswer (pick Che descripdon ch~1 ~ lhe marker when measwing 'xrem.lon. down on ball
m.UctW"S your .11nswer): 7. As wire~ unloaded, te-mN~u~ the ~k!nsion for
Q2 ~ " • A = i.O"XTci"' = Ll.S x 1O' Q2 Tht! rock8 I, b.dntng lhrougb its fuel SIOf"e5, so Is iog"I
0 rrwb: TlwYt!: n no r~ev.nt infoonlrion. Nd\ weigtl, and iMn~ your tttulK (•long as
- t..Jx10-h (lo2s.fJ )'OU ~"I gone pas1 IM ebsac lllfnlt). nus.s in N lonn d fl.18. F =ma cannor be UW!d litna! 11
1·2 nwb:A ......... "'5bemcn..,,, .oo ""'tol mq.Jires 1tw rNll' ot the oo;ea to remain an.um.
bt f•~iot..= l.1 5 x 1}! =0.l571- • 0.J.6 (1o2.t.IJ
l.S x lu-. poiros S, 7, a....,'._ bem CXMRd. " " ' - Is - bi·---~~ i: Ql \\!hen• bard fbJls lb~ ii pushes dcM1\ on ctw- •II. fh@
Ql Ml'flY per unit ¥Olume =jx
4 200 cm• t/J Mid Ms bdt ol ~ Wi:lnNlion is missin& Mid
.,_. ~rP ltw biM:bd up .,~uments.. ~ 5.0xlO' Mr dwn ~ b.ltt up on the bifd's wines wilh ~ ~n-.
''o
=909.+4._ = Im lflo 2 .1.fJ J.-4 ftWli:t; A ci.lcr•m has been drawn Mk1 mmt ol lhe lDx 10 bee~ _.,.ich Out& II to lift.

Page 116 - hct Recall Questions
QI Nm 1 or P.1.
Q2 OrlQin~l lmglh, extension, weightsAOild, dt<tmt!IC~ of wire
(tQ Ond ~sec:Lional area).
Ql 1 .g. ......_.,., s.ifufy sacgSes while carrying out 1he C!Jl.p<...,imenl /
Jtllt\d up so can mo'o'eoul ol 1he way orralhng wcigtiis.
mf!lhod PolntJ ~ beell coml!d. Answer tgs Dnf!
scruc:1ure, •nd inlomwtion is presented with a dear line
ol t'N$Ol'llM~ with •rguments lhal are paf'tially b.ldc~
up.
S·6 m.irk•: A dio11gt.a.m hall been drawn, all of lhe: method
potnfl ha\"C been a:ivered, and at leas.1 one poin1from
the acr.Ufit.'Y pc>i.nb ha\'f! been ca.•erOO. The> ;tns~-ec
= 1.666._ x IO"P•
= 1.7 x 10'1 h(lo2t:.I.)
(1 m.rb kl' lhe cortKI Mmret1 Olh1nd#. I nwri for
the corr«t WOl'tiQg.)
You COWi ;.elso~.)tlllranswa-'1 M~. Or.. or Nm ,
c) f t,udc polenlial eneq:y pcr unit volume
• ;tf'&I under graph =->S x 1.8 x 10'x 3.0 x lO-
~--
Q4
l rn
m 1902...39_. = 1900 kg (to 2 s.I.)
QS ABI Ond the force rhey pullh each Olh« wich:
F mxt1 60.0 w2.J-138 N
ThM find 11'W1 i1ttelcr.111ion of the other .skatef:
F = m • • • <1 • ~ :s~ =2.5090... = 2.51M'1 (lol s.f.)

----
Q4 ~ 'lbuog modulus of a ma1erial. is 'M"ll 1Cruc1umd. There is a clea1 and lo£k:;ll liMo( • 270000fm 1
MHDni"tl,. with inklrmlloon and arguments 1N1 are fulty ~~ofwire= I.Ox IO'x 1.6a l.6x IO 'm> Page 137 - Fact Recall Question
l>oc:mlup. So 8uClc p:MenliaJ energ)' SIOmd in WU!! QI 1'eiil.1on\ Ill~ lhe velocity ol an oo;ea "Wm•r ci'wintt
5. Stress-Strain Graphs Heft!. Me~ pc>tnG }'OIA' answer may incfrudto: • 170 OOO x 1.6 x 10 1 =Q.0.412 J • 0.04) J (lo z s.f.) un~ ;a f\'JUIUint bee acts on il. This means• body ._-,u
(J llWb for lbrt cotTf!d MtSlln!t, otlwnt-fw I ...t k11 soy wl OI fT'04 m • ~line at a COftSQnl ~ unacu
Page 131 - Application Questions ~.;a tmuUN bl:lr .mr., on iL
Ql ~
bi
h8ntciid
n.,,,..,,,.,
is obeyW>g-\ ..... ........,~""'--·-­
,_.,,........,...........,,,,._., ... n..I hl!wtan\ 2nd bw: llooel bee= dwnge in l'l'IOn"llt'I' +
~ 1n tunt. Thu me¥1S a tatger force Xlinc an Jn
d l'llortC \_ ~ E f ~,,.A = ~ obil!cl tM'l I tr.'en tune a.use: J I~~ an !N-
cl The. Y<>ung modulus is Ille gradient d ~ ~ up to I
point A.so: F •2.0 k.~ =- 2000 N. L-= 2.0m, f • 2.IOx 10" P.1, momenium ol 1.ht'! obted-
• • 0.20 mm=- 2.0 x Ht• m Newron\ 3 I'd l.;iw: U object A exeris a bee on obj(ICt
'l\lvng modulus= (150 )( 10') + o.om • 7.S . 101• P;a
2CXXI x 2.0
8, thm abjoo 8 ~t.lf'tll an e<pJal but opposi1e fon:~ on
Wnehout. l'oru11t& - htxc the~gl~6Ltr:M'1 Mfa Yoo A "'523 •
C2.1ox1ou>xo.ox 101 .,, •.. x 10 objocc A.. This me.11nii every action has an equal .•nd
Merl toconvrrt. t.111snt:oavallc1nP.1 bcfomyoucancalwl~te opJX15i1.- ~xdon.
9.5 x 10 ; m'{lo2s.r.)
t.he ~ nolulus Faw- the mat.at:L

__
cl "3ilnc /\ 1s the limit of proportionaluy. The~ S1ored Ml:!IJmj Cl nwks for corred MaSWet,. oU~twhf! r m.ut hK
I • Add juM l'!f'IOUgh weight to the end of the wire 10 (_'Offft..'f wot"ld.ng}
per un 11 volume is given by the ats unclcY thl! gr.1ph up
90 Point/\. which is OS x 0.002 x ISO a O. IS MP•.
Q2 QIPh I SihowJ • brirde malfrial,. a rt f) )161 • Will&hl
line. QIJ!hA show!>• maleilif mKhiflc ltl~ llmll
.,_
Mid undftp~ plaslic: deftwrNtiorL Br.llilt fNllfNb don't
2.

l.
sinlc:~lt.
MNll.ft tl'lrf SWrtirc position at ft marbr on •
,.;,..
lhilt~~awmieralipen:to~
bi 14-

"""''
/xlO'Nm
.I
-- I I
llw ®mfllr ol Wiie.
,__
Page 13 1 - Fact Recall Questions
"-
5.
UM .A •r' IO calcuble its OOSHf!Cbon;al atN.
hdd wiectlb to the end o1 me wire in Slf'PI,
recor61"11 lhf ~ugtic and lhe matter reldi,..
~

Ll/ ........

QI nw. stre:u til Yihich a Jarse amount ol pl;u;tk ti>tm.atton

1>tkH plce with a cons1aru or reeked bid. 6.
NCh lime.
C.1leulata thC! exeeniiion of the wire af1er eac:h
, '/
Q2 Any one of: e.g. pol)'lhene, rubber. Wf'l£1'11is ikkll!tl by MJWacrins the original marker I/
Ql 'n!s, lhc! i>lress-l-lr-<1in graph for a brittle m;ulotlaf is• i>tr.111ght position from the curreru marker reading.
linf' through the origin, which shows ii obeys Hooti:c's law. 7. Calcu la~ the stress on the wireaJ each s;rtp Ul.l,_ I/
n ~ ;and the strain using r. .-.. f.
8. PIOI ii ll~•in ~for the wire. I/
9. 0. 'lbur1a modulus is .,.W to 1he ~ d lho
linNr0"01Jlh- •
Sir.Mn/)('".
'°'ttr,,,,........_....._ ......_•
•""""11o.,...,
( I mri showiqr """"" ...""""'
.,,_, _..,,,__'°"-,,_w

Answers Answers
2. Momentum 3. Impulse and Vehicle Safety Exam.style Questions-Pages 147-148 d) Say rigJi 1 is positi\'e d irection.
I C ( lmar#() Horizon1.aJ momentum before collision
Page 141 - Applic'1tion Questions Pa ge 145 - Application Questions =-- horizontal momentum after collision.
~ thtt1al 15 m:.:l. thec.arrion mc:M:st1.aclward9.and the
QI Momenlum before= Momeruum afler QI Impulse= area unde1 fof'ce-time graph
= = b'all ts $OOt. forwiiR<ls, ainsa"1ng mcmcntum. 6cforc the '7.al 15 m x {.5.1 sin42° + 0} = m x 4- 1.S sin2S0 + v,. sin59°)
O (125 x v)+ (1.0x 10) 12s.. + 10 =X x I Ox 10 1 xJOO= 1.5 Ns Cancelling m:
v = 10+ 125 = -0.0Sms·' Ql Rigid materials don't deform very easily, so a large fired. thcl::lncUc energy ISO J as nctth;r objcct.19ma.1ng. oo
5 .1 sin42" = - 1.5 sin25° + v,. sin S9°
So the boa I moves al 0.08 ms·• in the opposi1e direction to propot1ion of 1he eneq.oy invol\•ed in the crash is transferred potit 1 cannot.t:ICcom:::ct.. rhcc.anR'Jl'lhasti muchbrgcrtnaSS
1he rock. elsewhere i ns:1ead o( being absorbed. than thel7alL sofa a~ force It ha&a smaller acGdcraUon :) "" S. lsin42~±1;,Ssin25• 4 .720 .. =
=
Q2 Momentum befOfe Momenium after Q3 a} The se,i( bell increases 1he (ime 1.ha11he dummy 1akes than thel7all (~ F = ma) oopo1nt.:5cannotbccom::ct. ssn 59 =
4.7 ms-• (lo 2 s..U
fll.165 x 225)+(0.l&S x_.7S)=CJ.16'5 x -4.2S}+ l0.165 x ll} to come IO a Slop by st.re1ching.. Since fon:e is equal to c (I mark) (2 marks for correct answer,. olhent·ise 1 mark fa<
- 0.4125 =-0.70125 +O.l65v change in momentum over time taken, lh is reduces 1he For a scenario to shc7N Mcwtoo"s 'flrJ laN, It has to showa correct t+-orkingJ
So V : 1.75 IOS'"1 overall force. It a lso slows the dummy down so lhal ii pat of ldcntlr..al forces that aci on two separate objcct8. Youcouldalo?-.owori: thlsoutUS1ng vcrt.k.:al moment.um
Kinetic energy before: h its the airbag with ~ force. l B l lnwl</ ~
={0.5 )( 0.165 )( 2.25') + (0.5 )( 0. 165 )( (-4.75)') b) Air bags inOatevery rapidly, with a IOI d rorce. Without ratcthcdlrccuon that. the ftrst.l7.;illof maoo0.25 i:g.19 a) Divide in10 three seaions:
=2.2790... f a .sst belt, the passenger can keep moving forwards

,/o~
U'a\ldlklg In to be the po<Jlt:IVc dh::ctUl
Kinecic energy afles: quid:ty as 1he c;u skw.'s down. They could h it lhe ai:r
Momcrrwmof~t1al = nw = 025x 1.2.=- 0.3t.gms 1•
= (0.5 x 0.165 x (-4..25)1) + (05 x 0.165 x Cl .7Sf') bag as ii a inflating wilh a force big enougb to cause
~of scconfl:ral =- 025 ~ ?. = 0. 125~ ~ 20
=1.7428.•. f injury.
Kinelk energy is nol conserved, so lhis is an klelaslk
collision.
=
Q4 Velocity in nw1 {12S x 1000} + 3600 = 3 4.7222..• "'6·1
fhac.aro 1000 m Ina bn and~~ln Mh:>ur.
Momcnuimofso::ontJ!Jall --.0.125 x -0.3=- -0.03'75 kg ms 1•
So totalmomcrnunbdorocol!ISO.
j
= 0~ - 0.D37!:>=-0.2625kgms t. 10 1 2
Q3 .Mas.$ (per second)= densiiy x \lolume (per second} F = llp = l>l!n'1
=
1000 )( (8.4 )( 10 1) D.t dt
Aft#t.fw:GolllSlon, theb'A&ftk)IC togeth:roo thcmaoo
E:.0.25-t 0.125: 0_;.j7!;> kg. 0 3
=
8.4 kg at --- ~ 0 s 10 15
p =- 1n1!10v =- p ·~m = 0. 2625 !- 0.375= 0 .7ms 1•
To find the \'elociry of the wa1er, consider the tencLh oi the
cylinder of water shot out of the hose per second. Th is gives
you the d isiance traveUed per second.
= 08000x Ol-..s,:g:x 34.n22..J 4 a.} The rate of cha.nee or momentum of an object is equal 10
the net force which acts on 1.he ob~t
Time{s)
So !he (Ota I area under the graph
V . vofume of water {per second.I = 10.080... = f0s(lo2s..f.) F =~ (f nwrk) =-area 1 + area 2 + area 3
e1ocity cross-sOC'bonalarea or hose =--('h x 8x 24)+ (3 x 24)+(V, x 3 x 24}= 2CMNs
(2 marks for correct answer,. olher..·ise 1 mark fa<
~~ Page 145 - Fact Recall Questions b) F =~ =!W!.!J. cak:u/afi.ng lhe area under lhe grapli)
5.6
= 15~1
x 10 QI The product of average force and time/ lhe change in
momentum of a body. "" "''
So, F6.r = 6(mt')
b) t;.p = a(mv) = F&
Rearranging:
Linear momentum =mass x velocity Q2 Air b-.gs rapidly inRa1e on collision, providing <I cushion
F& is constan1 kif both cases, so:
=8.4 )( 15 which increas~ the rime it lakes for the passenger 10 slow 6Cmv}1= l\Cmvh m=lfJ = f.1=92.727 ... = 93 kg (Lo 2 s.fj
=126 = 130 kg ms- 1 (lo 2 s.f.) down,. and so reduc.es the force on the passenger. It also
::)tnil\~= 111,6"1 (2 marks for con-ed answer,. otherwise 1 marl< fa<
Pf'E!\'elllS chem rmm h itting hard surfac~ inside lhe eat. m 1 = ICXXJ kg. 6.v, =--31 - 26.5=4.5 ms' , correct worki ng)
Page 141 - Fact Recall Questions Ql Seit belts can causet>ruising during ii crash, and can be m,= 1000 - SO=!l>Okg d £.g. There is no resuhanl force acting on ft, as friaion is
danserous ior small chikJren if boosier sears aren'l used.
QI Linear momenrum =1n.1ss x velocily/p= m v Q4 f .g. c:ruA1'1e zones a1 the front and bad: of cars c rumple So, 6V1 :~= J000m<f.5 :4.7368. . ms I assu med to be negligible, so Newton's First l aw states
Q2 linear momentum ts always conserved - Le. the lOlal Iha 1 I.he velocity of the trolley will noc change (1 m¥kJ.
up on impact. Th~ causes the car kl rake longer 10 stop, So, rinal velocity= 26.5 + 4 .7368...
linear momentum is the same before and after a cnl l~ion
increasing 1he impact time and de<:reasing the force on the :Jl.2368._
{provided no exiemal forces aa).
Q3 /\ perfeclly elastic oollision is one where linear momentum
passengers. =31.2 mr (to 3 s..f.)
1

and ldne<ic energy are conser\'ed. An ine&astic collision (1 marts for corred answer, olhent'ise 1 marl< for
is one where linear momentum is c~ b ut kinEfic GtKTed wor/dng)
energy is no1. 5 a} £ .g. this is an inelastic collision (1 mark) because
Soo\!': ktlcuc energy Is lost. to the rum.>UndlngS ancVor kine1ic energy is no1 conserved - some is conversed
~to other fonrns (St.dl as heat.and sound). to sound energy (1 mar1tJ.
b) Impulse is equal 10 the diange in momentum.
=
Momentum before =--025 x 2 .4-0) 780 kgms-1
Momentumidler=--0
So masnrtude of impulse = 780 kgmr'
a m.Jfb for coned answer,. olhent'ise , mark for
corred ttwldngJ
c) If the dodgem's in icial speed was doubled,. its initial
momentum would be doubled, and therefore the
impulse would be doublect
=
Impulse = 780 x 2 1560 kglm"' ( 1 mark)
For paru;b-)and c),)Ol.lcruld also~ your.lllt5WCf'ln tntsof
No.

Answers
 4. Resistance and Resistivity 6.1-VCharacterlsUcs 8. DomesUc Electrtclty
Module4 Page 158 - Application Questions Page 164 - Application Question Page 169 - Application Questions
Q I V: /x R-=2.IOx 8.62 = 18.102 = 18.1 V (Lo3s.fJ QI a) a d;oo.,/LEO QI I kWh=3.6x 10'1
Section 1 - Electricity = =
Q2 R= V+ I= 13.4 + l.ll 11.074.•• 1 1.1 O (lo3 s.f.) b) The d iode requires a voltage ot about 0.6 V in 1be So, energy trall$ferred in k\\lh,
1. Circuit Diagrams Ql R=pl+A={IJ2x 1o• x 0.40) + (2.8x 10"1 faward bias before ii will conduct, so 1here is no curren.1 =
W 72 OOO+ (l.6 x 10") 0.02 k\Yh=
=2.457... x 10-1 n = 2.5 x 1~ 0 (lo 2 s.fJ Row u n1if abou1 0.6 Von the diagram. /\ftef 0 .6 V, the Q2 C'.osl =-number ot uni~ x price PEf uni I
Page 149 - Applimtion Questions Q4 Gradien1=lly+ Ax=(0.10 x 10 2) + 0 .30 =0.00033... cun ent is allowed'° now. and inc:rease.i with an iocrease

b
So, nu mber of un its =cos1+price per un i I
QI ---@-- -@- = = =
Cross-secbonal area -wrl -w- x 0.004' 0 .0000502•.. in potm1ial cifference. =
£28.24 2824p
Resistiviry = gradien1 x cross.--sectional area c) In reverse bias, the resis1anc:e of the diode~ \'elY high. numberofunils=-2824 + 12.2

~
= 0.00033 ... x 0.0000502' ..• = 231.47.•. =- 231 units (to 3 sJJ
= 1.675..• x 10 •=1.7 x 10"' nm { to 2 s.fJ Page 164 - Fact Recall Questions
Q I /\ vol tmecer is assumed to ha\'e infinite resis&ance and an
9. E.m.f. and Internal Resistance
Page 158 - Fact Recall Questions ammeter is assumed 10 have zero resistance.
QI The resistance of something is a measure of how cifficul1ii Q2 a) Page 174 - Application Questions
is 10 get a CUl'refll to Oow through iL
It is defined as R= V + I.
Cum•ot/Av _ Qt £= V + V,SOV:-£ - V= 2.50 - 2 .24 =- 0.26V
Q2 E= V + lr=4.68+(0.6J x0,89)=-S.2407
2. Current Q2 /\rea =TI", assuming the wire is c:yfild"ical, so Iha! lhe = 5.2V(to2s.f.)
Page 152 - Application Questions cross-sectio n of 1hewire is c ircular. Ql E= f(R +- t), so c+ I= R + r and so R= {c+ 1)- r
=
~IV
Q I 4e= 4 x l.60 x 10''= 6.4)(1o~" c Ql Use a lest wire ol lhe mettl to be im--esiigaled, wil.h a known R =-CIS.O + 26.1) - 828 x 10l 0.566432...
=
Q2 I =AQ+Al =91 +32 =2.84375 2.8A (to 2 s.f.) cross-set:tional area. Clamp the ees1w;re 10 a ruler so that =0.566 n {lo l s.f.)
Q4 P=l'R=(l.2)'x0.S0=0.72W

V-.
Q3 V=I +Ane one end is aligned with the zero-mark. Connect th~ 't\ire i:n
= 12+(0.SOx lO"xS.S x 10-x l.60 x 10 1'} a circui1 with a pow't!r s upply, an ammeter and a ...ahmetet~ So 0 .72 J is d issipated each second.
=0.00176 ... =0 .0018 ms·• (to 2 s.f.) Use a Oyins lead to connect the lest wire, so 1he kmgth or Q5 il) r.= 5.0V
test wire connecied in the drcuil can be w ried. Connec1 b) Cwrent/A rtw:c.rn.f. IS thctll:accpton ttlc\O'Ucalaxts.
lhe nying lead 10 lhe wire and record 1he Senglh of lhe wire b) iniemal resistance= -gradienl of the graph
Page 152 - Fact Recall Questions in che c ircuit. Measure I.he current througf'I and poienlial = - (Ay + A<)
QI Curren• is the ra1e offtow of charge. e .g. internal resislance= -( - S.0 + 0.6)
difference across Lhe wire and use lhese to calcula1e the
Q2 From pos,ili\•e to ~tive.
resistmce ot 1h.at panicular lerig1h of wire. Repeal this =8.lll ...

~
Q3 An electrically charged partide that is free 10 move in an
olJiea.
process at leas:1o nce more ror lhe same length oi wire and =8.3 n (lo 2 s.f.)
use the values to calculate an a\•erage resis&ance for this ('j The sua igh1line Y«>uki still have the same y..truerc.ep1 <!if
Q4 1.60 )( 10-'" c
length ot wire. Repeal 1his process for d ifferent lenglhs or S.OV. The gradient= -r, so the gradient \Wuld be half
QS 7..ero wire and plot a graph of a\'erage resistance against lenglh . as sleep a.s that liof the original power supply, son y,uukt
Q6 Any one from: e.g. increase 1he cross-secfionaJ area of Ql A filamen1 laf11> is noc an ohmic conductor. l1s 1-V
Use this graph 10 calculate the resis1ivi1y of 1he wire material intercept lhe X'·axis at 1.2 /\.
1hewire, increase the number densi'Y of charge carriers! charaderistk ii OOI a siraight line - so current is l'IO(
by fincing I.he gradient and muflipfying it by the aoss.-- propot1jonal IO potential d ifference.
eleelrons in the wire, increase I.he mean drift \'elocity of the
charge caNiers/elec:lrons{by increasing the p.d. across the
.secrional area of the wire. Page 174 - Fact Recall Questions
wi.re}. Q4 Resistivity is dependen1ontemperature,so 1he temperature Ql The load resisiance is lhe tocal resiscance of all the
musl be kepi cons'lant so that it doesn' I a.ffecl the resuJts 7. Power and Electrical Energy c.'Omponencs in the external pan ot lhe circuit
of dw. experiment (it can cause errors). /\s current OOW'S
Page 167 - Application Questions Ow: loa:J~docsn·t n;ludc thc1nu:mal resistance of
3. PotenUal Difference 1hrough a wire, it causes the temperature ot lhe wire IO th:poto'C'"SOUIU.
incroose. The t.emperature could be kept cons.tan I by Q I 14-00 W O .HWl
Page 154 - Application Questions Fbwa"lsdcflncdasthccnagy ~er pcr!..ccond. tt's Q2 \'OllsM
ert$Uring o nly a srn.111 w rrent is used. /\switch can also be
QI V= W + Q= 1 14 + 56.0 2.035•..= =2 .04 v (lo 3 s.f.) used 10 ensure that cu trenl is onty flowi'ng lhrough the wire measured In watt.a whac 1 watt ts txp.Ull to 1 p.ilc pa 5CGOr'1t1. Ql The eneigy wasled per coulomb O\'P.rcoming an internal
=
Q2 \<Q 1hW so V =- mvJ + 2Q in short bursts. Q2 a) p = ll: = 12500 = 6250 w
resistance.
Q4 The gradien1 is -r {v.'here t is the iniernal resistanr.e> and the
V: {6.64 x 10-l1 x(2.20 x 104)1) + (2 x 2 )( 1.60 x 10 1') I 7.lllr
=5.021SV = 5.02 V (lo3 s.f.) venical intercepl is c (lhe elecu omo1ive forr.e).
5. Types of Conductor b) 1=6=¥.fxY=78L2S= 781A (to l s.f.)

Page 154 - Fact Recall Questions Page 161 - Fact Recall Questions Ql P= ~,sorearrangjng: R= ~
Q I Nothing - the resisrance ot an o h mic condoaor is COn$laru
Q 1 The po1ential diffEYmce berY.-een IWO points is 1.he ""'Ork
done IO move a unit c:harse belween those rwo poin ts.
(if the physical condiLions ir's under are constant}. R= ~ =10.1 73 ... =100 (to2s.f.)
Q2 In paralld across the component Q2 Tempera1ure.
Ql Q4 W= Vlt = 230 x 1.2 x 45 = 12 420= 12 OOO J (to 2 s.J.)
Q3 eV = 1hmv1 where e = elementary charse. QS P=l250W
V =potential d ifference, m =mass ot lhe eiearon and
v =final velocity or the elec1ron.
P= PR, so rearranging: I= lft
I= ,/Wj = 4 .8023 ..• =- 4.SOA (to 3 s.f.)
Page 167 - Fact Recall Questions
QI ~is the rare of transfer o f energy {o r doing wort).
II\ measured in waits <W>, where 1 wan is equivalent 10
I joule per seen~.
gi ~:..;;Vl,P:R,P=PR

Answers
 10. Conservadon of Energy and Charge In 11. The PotenUal Olv!der Exam-style Questions - Pages 183-185 cl
I B(I mart}
Circuits P.ge 181 - Application Questions 2 C(1 1'Dii11'!1
P•ge 178 - Applico lion Questions QI .i I/,, ~" \2~~.o•l6~3.2V 3 O(l awrl:I
QI >) R•ll,+11,•ll, < C(l awrl:I
<400·~·200+ 100 b) "- ~\4,soS.0=~xl6
"' R, 5 ~ l'=Vf=l.OO•O.n4 - 2. 172•2.17 W Uols.f.)
R,•..0 20 10.-100 a JAris kK nwffd ..mww, I nwt fol tom!d IMriing
bi o.•" "°"""'
the Qll'1Vfl. ~.a 5Cl1CS c:rcut.ts lht sane at.ii
S.DCl2+11,)•16R,
R, • w•
~60+5.llR,=lliR,"'

S.4>45-= 55 0 (lo? s.fJ

60•11R,
if MISllW irlalnw(I
b} 5 min'*5 = JOO M!COnds
lllJfJ
10.00

Q2 I"*"""'"""""""
~ Fnt~w~~~d.Del0and60 Qi "- "' 1'.
m'~"''lr "' < I
4.,.11,=u;=-.
AQ:ht. At=-OJ24" JOO• 217.l • 217 C (lo l s..f.)
a aw.ts kr cor7f'd ~f!I. I nNd' IOI con.d ~ :;..
9.00
....,_, ...... 1... ,..,;,..,.:i. ii; 4R, • R, + R, flOlR, =R 1
if~ inoorn!.d}
cl V= W+Q=565 + 217.2 a0.26012 .•.
'8.00
!;.
So. fur C'!IQn1)1f", )'Otl muld h;we R. =- 9 O a~ R, = l 0.
~-1·i·1·"'R:2n 1-b'c.)tOU c:anh.M:ltlfl~ thal.~ .- R, 15 true-for: =0.260 V ( lo 3 s.rJ j '·oo
Kes.i~cn 1n lt'r.es Mkf up and me iota.I resistance is 10 n, (2 marts for corred .WK't!t, I mNt for correct wotking ~ 6.(.JO
50 lhe &Olotl ws;lscanc-.P of tile 12 0 and R1 resistOfS in QJ .i) W. ~w,soV-=~xl.S=- 0.SV if answer inrorred)
€ 5.00
J:Mr-•lldi~4!QU<1lco: 100 20 - SO:l(l
lhc !1 0 ht:ro It the r'Q;I~ of the f'D519.tor In l1ClJNCCn the
b) 14. irh I(. '° 0.30 = ~ x t.S
d ) p.d . ..c::ross the ntamenl Li~• I I( R
• 0.124 )( 2 ,00 Ji 4.Utl
t.M>!lci.of1ofp.;w'tillcl rt«llfjU>l"fi 0.l0(3.0+R»= I.SR,~ 0.90+0.30R,= I.SR, a 1,448V f.lltl
So for Iha R, rC'!ISIOt and thr. 12 0 resisior in parallel, lhe (),90. 1.lR, V= V1 + V,+ Vi.a,
kltJ I resistance k 3 0. So: R1 • 0.7SO 3.00=-0.26012 ..• + v, + 1.4'48
1.00

1·-k·ill v, = =
1.2918•.• 1.llJV (lo J s.r.) 1.00
P.ge 181 - Foct Recall Questions (1 marts kx cwrf!'ICf MJSWet, 1 tJMft f« correcr wotting
i ·1 ti·~· 50 ll,= 4fi QJ A ~oaJ M-idH is a cin:uic containi~ a YOlliiage source if MISWW' inc.ontd)
o +-~...-~...-~...-~...-~..-~,._
l.U
bt f-inl rind ft llOQJ tUl'n!l"ll lh~ lhecircuic,. usi• the Olnd a ~ ol teSluors in series.. The vdtiige acl055 Ol"ll!
ot lhe fftiseM Is used as an o.aput ~ H the~
e) No, 1tw! filoill'Tlenl l<llTIP rt not .n ohmic conductor as I is
noc dj:reaty fSOPOrtaon.&l IO v fr ...,
0
"' "' IA
( t.TtMt
toUI rfliSWft •nd ft sau«e p.d.
'°'"" Ml"°""' "°'""If
I • V+R
/ all+ IO•l.2A
TM CVftW'll ~ 1hmtch llhe S 0 resislor, so find~
p..d. ac:raJI - A'SiSICw usq:
V.a.hc.Rel.l•Sa•V
--"°"'CO-
Mfffl

Q2 11..
the d«uil wil be ~d producing.

itbw..-V-=fleCJUpUl---
R,. ·~ ~ ol lh! resislor" comeCled .c:ross the
E. '1) N dle eled:llOflS rncM! ~ atw ~DPIY. d'leV colide
wilh ams nside fie Ml8y M'd trMtdH some d
lheiJ energy- (1 nwt).
lha.t
causes fto
m. :JINll ~mauN of ft!Sistlno!
merv lo9
......,...........,._, ftlidt dw ~is ahl!d
cl
et
(I - fo<
olbetlil••rV
e.m.f.=~• l .. V(f~
inlenwilreMSWnct • ~= 4y+~
=
plottH, I mrifo< 6ne

((.g.-=- l".00 + l.Dt • -4 " ' -·· "'·'7 0 (lo 3 s.fJ

c) The: p.d. ~ thf tif'$dlOIS in parallel 0 0 and 6 ()) d.:
V • l•R• l.2•2c2.4V
~ ouqu,. R, =- the msistlncil! d dle Olha' resGlor 111
... pa.....idM<W Mod V.= dlepclleOD.lld.......,dlhe bi F.g. a nwh '°'
corrM ~ r
if.amwf!f incorrf!lt'C)
nun"" C01TKJ 'llU'ti-w
~"flSIJR)ly.
So IMCl.lf'A'!nl ll'ltol«h lhe60 is: •) ""the .,...i... """""''
I • V + R• 2.4 +6: 0.4A QJ 'lbu c.1n ngkf> a light sensor usins a potential divider by
Kcmc:mbcr;Q.ll'T'O'lt.lpli.~onthe~
.,.,.,~ otn t l)R u. one of the resis1on.. ~=i·i
n. docil.Jl't.,JUt&. iipllt. ~ tletwct:r1 n:f:ilstors (ulicss the Q4 A j)()k!nd;d dMdet oxuaini.ng a \wlable resisior instead
of cwo ""blcn 1n series. E.g. they are used in a \'Olume ~=rd:u•rd:u
~t.or'!I ~ oqu.al ~statr..e).
a>ncrol on a stNoo.
~ =tla
Page 178 - Foci Recoil Questions R:S.000
Ql Thek>C.11currcn1en1eri~a junction =Che tool aurent kw the whole c ircuil:
le.tvtng ic. K R= 10.0+S.OO• IS.OO.
Q2 The eoc.tl e.m.f. 01round oa Sft"if!l circuit= the sum of lhe p.d..s (1 nwrt I« .r .wmib'e drt·ult lh•I could be u.W!d in (1 nwrkf /(K t/H! Mn't<'f •MWH; 1 mark (O< corred
ac:rou e.«:h componenc this expt!rimMI.. If bJuJd coot•• lultH~ '1 ~le wortirw if oln'SW'f!f tnrorr~
QJ They MC in M"rM>s. resistoi; <t roltmetN MHI Mt Mnmt"IN.) b) ReGl.lnce of c:~ A. R. = 10.0 n
Q4 prillallel E.g. 5el lhe ~ ~ (lht loiMI nosb&a~ IO ics A:ltmel•I ~ sptiu ~I'll to dle ra:iooi
hflt& resGtiance. Caatt 1M JY>1ch ;and m:otd the reist.ilnce ol lht ~ IO the ecxal resiscance,. so:
°""""(I).......,. .... _ ............... (\')"""" V,.=~V
lhe croHI " m.ri>. ~ .......tda Jnd dose it~-
llO ~ MdlS sd of CUf"IWll •nd powaul cffen!nce = ij:f!xl2
~fa lhG lo.cl~. R$f'M 1his., Cf!1 a

a nwts '°' u.. cortN'I ~ r nutt" /ot C01T«1

lhird sa of nYdlnp.. ~ lht mNn cunerw: and
:1.0V
pow.rmi diffen:ince for M Mitunef' Imm )"QI;# resuhs
(1 m.ri;1. Oec:rene !'.hi!~ d .... ''JriXlle resislor •vr&ilw II~ "'"'"""1J
d R:l.2111110 1 •S.OO•S.Olll210
by a smaO ;arnoun and A$l'Nl lhe ~ pmce5S b
l=-V~R
this resisQnce. Continue yn11I you~ a set ol mean
currenl'S and polenlial dll1«Mcl:s for I 0 different k>ad
=
I= 12 + S.00121 • 2,)984,_ 2.4 A ( lo 2 s.U
(1 nwtb /(K IM cort(!('I MKWH',. 1 tnift'k fot COITed
resi:Slances (t mMld. P'loc ;i V-1 ttfiiph of the mean
M'Ofting if M1SM'f!f' lnNJrrH!fJ
current and pocential di!ff'f!l'C.~ valut"S.. This will gi\.·e
you a suaight-line gr.i1:ih ~ 5:,.-J<irnt is '· whefe r is
n
the internal resis&.inca of tl'lll b;mery nwk).

1111~1~EJ..
I Answers
 d) , . =
Ul •Al~ t 0.21 1e 10 ) • l.OS • 10._, + 0.0100 Section 2 - Waves 2. Frequency, Speed and Intensity 4. Polal1satton

-
• l.26JS • 10 r
• J.2(, . 10-1 Qm (lo l s.fJ 1. Progressive Waves Page 193 -Application Questions Page 198 - Applic•lion Question
a mi.to /oc , . a:wtKt MJ51n"f",. 1 nwt> 1« C'On'fld
WOti. . ii .wmt-W- itK.onw:t)
Page 189-Applintion Questions QI ill - -'-l'°'"°""'
' • lit
Q1 aiJ This~fnllll.be~w:sebeauseitanbt-

a .i t o&. QI Thew.we IS~·~ ID the lel/ lmn righl IOlrt. •S •O.l bj C ~the lr.lnSmis:sion axis. 11 nJSt ~IN uirr.
O.:potr&•• XIO-Uf'W"Js.sothe~por&of""' . 1w as tht (1151 polM1slng fiher_. because iln lhfo w.MPJ ttut
~MJAtic~ ~x. Sothe'1¥3'teMl5t.bemcMng' bJ 1ncensrty a: (a.rrpfitudef p;n.s Lhf'OU!th !he fioc ooe illso gers through rhf. ~
to th!: left.. inlen:sity one.
Q2 a) 0.2 m So, (.L!J1>litude)' = constant c) Tlwi trotn$mUl1011 .axis would now be at right ar1G,IMO 10
b) 0.2m lhP w.l\'H lh.11 p.assed lhrough the first filmr, so now.Mis
fin.al lntensity initialintemity
Ford~t.t.ho~mattcrsQtcan bcnegat>.(:). would ~cl through the second filter:.
Wt for a,..w-Jc.)QI ~nocda magnltuch
din.ilampbtude)1 {jnitialampli1Ud(:)i

---+. . ." ". . .., fin~I ai"'4)1ilude )'

c) I.Gm f1n•I in lensity = initial intensity K (
(1 trMrk fOI' chwing the cf!Os,. thtnnl5kv MW/ reislor in init1.il •mpi11We 5. ReftecHon and RefracHon
~ 1 n..-t for cotn!dt chtti'W tM dn'llit web ilwl

_..
Page 189 - Fact Rec•ll Questions Ml>! ilude is doubted, so Page 201 - Application Questions
Ui. outplll ~is .ao'OS5" tlw: rMtolj
QI By.._. ...~or
ausiftc ..... _ lhe regjon. ao oscilble.
_ _ fields.,.. Q1 The~"'·~ is mea.sumJ from lhe nomW. ,.,;
bt v_ . ~w. Q2 .. So,'""'........,.= S x(2f =
.-.... .
~ o/ 1f"Od8n- 90 lO W"
.: 20\\'m l
B shows~ (:lei ol ,_ w.;we. - dlnodonata .angled.-.,so:
• ~x- 22 =8.6842._ =1.1 V (to 2 UJ Ql ~ fN lerlglh ol l 5 oscibric:G is 0. IS m. to 1he ler1£4h o1
C shows N ~ d !hew.we..
( I n:wri) Ql f.g_ thl!- ~ by wl'Ych one wave lags behind ~ I oneOKil~is!\j? =0.IOm. Q2 Side 8 is: ~. Thew.we has benl '4tW'l'f from tht l'IOnNI
w. ~··.If· llw! diffft'Mee ~ii poim on one wave and chf. ""~' Sow.i~. A= 0.10m. and has a ~ w.avttength in side B. so ft'MI be IW'Ml•nc
ci fasler hM!-. W<1MY W.M!S !ravel faster in deeper ~~r $0 8
identical poin1on lhl!5E!CDnd wave.. b) V • f).,andv:~ muse bee~.
t • l2•60=720s Q4 In longitudln.11 w.rvm, the direaion of oscillafions atf!
alo"ft the s.lme llM ~the diredion of energy prop.1~alion . Rf!Oltr•m:e v =~ fort, and sd>slituDP. in v • f>,:
Wa 1 ·~i··J' K]2Q
8
In tran~ w.wes, the! dnedion of oscillations are Page 201 - fo ci Recall Questions
• '°49.861 ... r perpendlrul1r IO lhc direction of energy pmpag111ion, t• lf ~ =0.13 ...s
QI angliP of lncld1._-nce a angle of relleaion
QS f.g. So thf! lime la.ken 10 u avel 1.0 m is O.ll ' (to 1 s.r.) Q2 a} ThL- wave~ !awards the normal.
• 9000 J{lo 2s.JJ
Q trWrb kx tbf: coned MSM'fr, 1 mMi' fot <u"fft'.t
I b) l"hP. V.~~ d lhe W.l\'e decreases, but iti frrqueocy

1-----------
Slaylll'tr~
incttr<dl P•ge 193 - Fact Recall Questions
et v_. d'Jt"
_ . . , i( .........

t.>orr.....,1o<11,: i
Q r....
QI l"'IUMQ' • ...:... If~+
6. RefracHve Index and Total Internal Rellectlon
Ql n.....-
n. - -.....
11.<R.+R.I = R.IC.
R,•R, · ~
hon.llllUI .uis shows lilfll!..
Ql Col<...., ... period d ... ,..,.,"""' ...
dtspby, by counting Che number ol dNl:uons tor one ru1
_.'°""'P" Page 206 - Applic•tion Questions
QI al n =~ • .l.1111..xlll' =1.54"-. =t .55 (lo ll.fJ
rnxTijl
R,· ~ R.
O.:dl!fl- ...,.gr"fhfura~"""'""*",_. cyc9': ;and mulliplying this by lhe Yllut o/ 00. dN15M>n. \J:se b) Thfl ltgl'l1 will bend towards the normal n a I, so ilir
lt.ct.hconcfora~ w..;;r.<e.
lhlJ jillue of the period to calculate the f~ US1ng i5 less cpck:illly dense lhan che material, so l~hl Jlows
- ~ 6.0 I T' down l&$ h crusie the boundary•
• 4.1518... Q4 w.M! speed= frequency 1e wavdength Iv • (), c.) sin Ca ~ ~ C • sm '(~)=sin i(r:dc:}=40.290••.
• 4.2 Q (lo 2 s.J.) QS The iMlt'IUdy ol a progressive WiM! is the r.110 ol flow of
(2 m.ub for fM coneGt MliWN, r mMt Mt t:orrm ~ Pt'f unil a rea at right angles 10 the> d1r~JOn of tr.r.<el • 40.J• (lo l s.JJ
~. . if .imwer incorred) of die WA'e.. Q2 So 1tu1 rM qy won' t refrad as it emers the block.
Q6 .. _,ry.
C.nl'fOudel' Ql a) When lttnc cr~lnlg from Che Cate meets 1.hfl w.IWY~ir
baundiry, 11\ 1*Kled (away from che l'IOftNO. Th.s
ft"Ol:a • loalt hb lhe ligt.i i:scoming &om il ~
3. Electromagnetic waves pod9 IOwhett lteage ~is.
Page 195 - Applic•tion Question bf 'lbutnow' n,• l..18. n., = 1.49., l , =172", l ,•l
QI ~ol EMw.wesinavacuum.v= l..OO :w IO'ms' So ~l'.ilft:DI' fie law ol reiraa:ion 10 find I.,:
=
rNlt'. . . . v n. fort n.s1n " nttrnf,-'"" f, - sin '{9-:'li)
f • V+ ,\ _ sin '(1.38 x .sinl7.l.}
• l .00 • 10'"+2.40x 10"' 1.49
• 1250 Ht - 34.053 ... - 34. t• { to l $.fJ

Po g~ 195 - F.ct Recall Questions Page 206 - Foci Recall Questions

QI Ttirt,t\'C!l"se WCl\'l"S.. Ql tfs a meawm ut lhe ~bi density of dle ma1erial, gi\<en by
Q2 C~mm.&Q)"S lt'M' r.u~ d ~~of lighl in a vacuum 10 thf. ff>etd ol
Ql <1 ) 10 1 IO'm ~1 inthP-tNIWL
bflQ • 4xl0 ' m Q2 II wil bfnd 10"Kmh the normal.
l.,,..... ...._......,il:jl,
Q4 d 10
11
1o•m __ ,..,... Ql n, < n\ Mid b! .11'1de d incidence mus1 be tft9l« Nn N
crilicill~··

llll~jlrJ~I Answers Answer.; WjbA

 7. Superposition and Interference
P•ge 2 10 - Applicalion Questions
:' .". . r. . ;. . .-
9. Two-Soun:e Interference

~
10. Young·s Double-Slit Expertment
P•ge 2 19 - Applialion Questions
12. StaUonary Waves
Page 227 - Applicotion Questions
This w..w! tS M N mini hannonic: so 15 wa.~ fil on

f
QI .. l....-ltcNis~llC.tolhep;1.mis QI
QI f.&.90'
-.... lhe . . . . SO l.5.l•'*sol.: 4m..

~ h~-n:.,.
~ I chl frin.te are produced wh8"e hn ll CClf'ISlrucriw Q2 <ii The ¥o"IW rl ttlntifC • fle fundamen&al f.ll!QUl!l"ICY, iO
•l'MtrliHft"ICe and daric: fringes ..,-e ~ w!wfto lhefe is die._.,ollhfosuingishaM"a~ SoA•Sm.
dettrua1Ye in1eriermce. v•fl•IOO•S=500mr'
w (4..5x10 ')x12.0 001 b) v:f.\t0.\•7-='iSJ=2.5m
<) .r "T" 0.00030 • 8m

15· ~ b)f.g.1--"--~
So ono w.1vclmgth (Of rwo half wavelengths) woukl fl1
d) The-~ am 1O maxima wilh a gap o<0.018 m bt>tween on the• stnni; lH lhl~ frequency. This re:son:ml rm~"'Y is
e,.--.(;h onr., so the ioiat width is 9 • 0.018 • 0,162 m. c.allt.'<I the wc.1>1"1 harmonic.
Sny= 0. 1' (lo 2 sJ.). Y~c.cd:IMltt>jUtLlookat. t.hc~ l\.'st.Mr:.c tho
QJ .i) O Point C.
E""' ~ '"'""'"' 10........,,,....,....,,«iiy Ofi1""" fn:qM;nc:,yofLhc ht.harmofic..so2 x ~·~ rtl.on
11) Nopoints.
iu) Polm f
"""""'"(""--Ihm}
Q2 ~~ lhe doubk!-slit fom-..dill: D • J!
...........
Ql The-h d N pipe i s - I ID~-
bi T-po/ft~\C-E). SoO•(l..19x IO')x:(0.11'>'10') l
Q2 p..d.=x.\so.11•0.<42+0.ll=l.S Q4 N. f - p l rr,.._.,, -dapen..,.GW
61Sx 10
P.ge 2 1O- fact Recall Questions As x is in lhe: bm n • .l ~ n =l). lhere .nl be =13 m U. 2 s.U
·~·
• 1.107_
QI \\1w!n MOClf morew.wes meec, h reuil.lnl ~ desWclrve tfVltltlfttnnc.l:.
So~ofCJPll'IPIPf' .J.•l.2=1.6m
f!f.JMIJ 1hP''«Xlf sumoflhe inch~~ lenglh al doMd PI~= I .f. 0.2 = I .'4 m
Q2 \\~ rwo W"'5 pass through eKl'1 oeher •nd Mr Page 215 - fact Recall Questions P•g• 219 - fact Recall Questions N fund.aimenc:al frequency, tengeh of dosed p1:pe is
dtspt~ts combine to make .1 drspLK~t Wtth Cteatef QI They must be cch<'fMt. QI By lihlll'ltnQ light through a ~11 S)')-~m. one qu,;i.n« or 1M wa~leng.th.
fTW~ruu.1clifo. Ql The palh di~ Is the amount by whim the p;tt'.h Q2 t .a,. Mountacatdwith t'NO lhinslits, w1th~>OK!ing.:t, a So w~gsh • 4 -..: length of do5ed pipe
QJ TM phll.SC! d;ffereoce of two poinrs on a w""' is the ir..velted by CJll'IC w.i\<P. ls ~than the palh 1raw&lt!d b)' d1.s11ar1f,e D horn an observation screm. Shillf"i the laser
lx!<im through the sHls to create an interferonc:e pallf'm on
a 4v l.4=5.6 m
difl'cwnCf': in 11'1eir posi1ions in lhe wd'lf!• t_')'Ckl. 1he olher Wd.,..,
Q4 l'h;a~ Olff!'fooce can be measured in degr(.<CJ, ,..idlnns Of Ql 'tbu see cons1rucd\-e lnwrference v.ben 1he path differt.onclll 1M ~r<ll-n, then find the fringe spacing. x, by mr.asuring
fr;ac1ions of 11 cycle. equals n.\ (IJ iJ ill\ In•~). .icrQU Sl."\lf'r.ll fringes with a ruler Ihm divtd1nc by the Page 227 - Facl Ree01ll Questions
Q5 \\then theu phase difference is an cdj mullJplt ol 181)$ Q4 E.g. Have Ol'K! •q>iifw attached to two l~b.n. numbfy d fringe wi~ between them. lhe lhfo double-slit QI The s.upcrpm.ltion d IWO progressi\-e wa\•e with lht! wme
1J

---
{• ncfi<tns or Ntf a cycie). Q5 E.g. Aatleh rwo kluds;pe:&.lcefs to an amplifier 4lnd ere.ale formub .\ IO cakulate the ~hot 1hfo lighL w.M!lenlth <and fl'l'!ql.Jenty, moving in oppm.ille dirfCliOf'IS,

. -·-ln!quency-. _.,.....d...._,,
Q6 two waw SOUtceS are OJbmn if the w.M!'S ~t llw gme

Q7 1wO ~Me in pNse if they IUYe. pt..-~ ol O"

sound W-d'Y9 <111 <1 Ml ~equency. W...t akJig a. S4r•iKl'll lint
pi;.nlel tD tht hN al the spei1kers.. Mark down pointJ d
milXimwn ~ Mtd ~ -nichshowlt..- powcion
al~ Mid deouai¥e inerieleno!.
QJ 'lbwlC\ ~I experiment showe:l !Nt ltEN cculd
difhcl .and ~ 8olh of dee qu;a&.c.e .... W.M!
~which~Nl9'1-•~
Q2 Unlike ~iw ~ m energy is crammrtlle!d by- il
sQCiorwry WJW;.
Ql A reson.1n1 ~ol a sn.:
is11 ~ • ~o
a .SU"°""1 ~ iJ bmed because an ewcl nunM d
W<JW5 . _ poduord lft lhe rime fl takes (or a Wiiie to V"C to
lot • .....,.. "')(,()").
lbuQOIMha.e!!ia:t2•~or 1 fr.lc;)dt~alYD
Q6 ----.~- ..........,,...i ""'md of ti.o-.oo """'.lg.tin.
11. Diffraction Gratings
...... minlrmun '"""' """""'·
Page 222 - Application Question Q4 i
QI .a) lhS! IM'.lll"koutthes1itspac.-ig. II ha•4.S • IO'slits:per QS The lowest ~ resonani frequency.
8. Dltfractlon l'l'W'tt('., so the sfiupac.ing d = .S ~ IO" Q6
4
Page 2 12 - Application Question =2.221 •.• • 10' m ""'"!S·--'""'"'"'°"'="---'~·········MQQpf~; ........":"V•·
QI No, I~ ~~illl is much smaUer than die w~. SO l hc waves
Me n~rly reflecaed back.
lM the diffracrion grating equa tw.in, rt_•;mang«I ror IJ,
.and using n 3: =
·····························
Q7 E.g. Use" mrul pl.;ue 10 renecc microwa\-es .and• Pfd>f 10
, '("') - . '() x (5.9 x 10 ,) ob5er.rt!. nodn ilnd an1inodes..
P•ge 212 - fact Recall Questions s.n d - sin 2.221.- x 16 t
QI /JI w.MtS.. = 52.797 _ SJ• {lo 2 UJ=
Q2 0.IQ(b(ln f&cls •te suonget wben N 1i11P Jilt"' Is simlbr
W'1 Jl.N 10 N w.M!k!ngCh. The sin! of Che doorw.f'( Mid bt r-.o br!ause!!A '4x(5.9x IOr) l.HIOls.{J.
N ~ d sou00 w..wes <life n:JUd'lfy f!QUI~ 10 fie
. d un._ x 10'
~ WM'5 ciffrao through lhe doorw.ry ~ Cln ~ heald Thf sin function is only deCned bdwf!M t .and I , so
MOUnd rhe mmer. ligtil has • much srN1'• ~~enc.di 5i:n ' I. I is impossi>le.
11w1 thf doorway, so diffraction effmi; •rm., notlc:.emle and d Tht p1ur.m will be more spread oul,, bfQuse- the ang5e is
1he ~ cannot be seen around the oomc!f
rtta1«1 ton, dand >.. If n a.nd d remain cuntilant, Owm
QJ Monodmwnatic ligl11i:s light m;ide upo(onlyone tl<'COml"' larger and so e..ch order d miUlmum will be
w.1v('lf't'istth (and so frequency}. funher from the 1£r0 order.
Q4 A t>rfJthl ef'Otral frinQe with allemaong tJ.irk and t>rlgh1
fnl'l(:('J: on t'ithf!t .side of iL P.ge 222 - fact Recall Questions
QI La. Measure the distaoce D between IM d1ffr;i(.llon
gr~b"I and a.n obser\'36on screen. Slime• br.wr through
the diffraction grati~ onto the .screen. .1nd w.nc a ruler
rMiktllft! the~ eo lhe IC c:sd8 m;o:imum
~ • v.llue of n). Ca.kulale lhe ~ llO H
_, ...... .,..... m.nmum.,.. ...,,.
~!he dilOaion ping t'qNIOn IO l •
~~ii toalcutaaelt\e~
Q2 \\lh1ui lcht is made up d a far...,e of d•fferenr ~hs..
Thew- diffract by diffemu amounts wtw!rl lhfoy pas.s 1hrough
lhe diffraction gra.ring, k>rmil'lg a spec:lrvm.

1111~1l'fillll Answers
 Exam-style Questions - Pages 229-231 Mdul 7 ii) 'J'hMo ate 9 maxima, so 8 fringes.. Section 3 - Quantum Physics
I Ollm<ri:I 1. 5u&pMCI m. l\lbe- in w.uer in <1. mea:swYc cr•ncW '° So frince sp.ldnc.:. = ,Y = O.OJO m.
1. The Photon Model
~raafaur.eocoxswh:n ihc J9thdfkn:ra:Sa
~ • cloiw!IHnd pip@_ lo find .\ use lhe cb.tie-slit tom'd<I;.

--"'~
Cll-'<I
/\(l -
........"""-
2. , _ _ , , ..., , _ d ... soo.nl..-by

3. Genll'Y gp euninc fort to genen1e sound wave..

.\ H=o.030·~~5·10,
= '-.0 x- 10 1 m (• '4MI ~
P"&<" 233 - Application Questions
Q1 2.20•1.60•10"=152xtO " J
Q2 f =- fV .a t'.(,J • 10 M) )( (f..0 X 1()U)
1.'/x10Wms 1.7x10tits
4. Hold tunena fott jusa abcwe rl.be to dSeel sound () nwh for ootT«t ~·er, o«bentM I '"**fol .a l.978. 10•
f • 1 f 1 ~(1.7 x 10.,,.-.5.88_ x 10 •Ht 1 ~ '"'°
thco 1ube.
S. Mo.-e I~ 1ubfi up and down in the water u nlil you
nncfffC frin,:e spMiJtg MX1 1 nwrk for all, mptittg to use .a 4,0 x 10 • J (lo 2 s.f.)
M ~ncuc waves trz.dat. the SiMnOtpet.ldl'I a lind tl'M!. i.horffls1distance berween I.he cop or thl'! lut~
rk>ul:JHM;lit fotmulaJ Ql f=~!iOA • lJ'
b) 11~ are coherent (1 mark) and monoehroma1ir., so 1he
VlCIUft'V ~.OO x 1~ms 1• .11nd 100 w.;nrr lf'W'I al which the sound from 1tM1 fork • (((>.6J x 10,.) • (3.00x 1(11})+(8.Zx I OM)
dllfr.ICtion patterns are clearer (1 m.11'1<).
~. . .v fltol =- v ~ f .. 3 x 108 !>.80-x 10 1
•
is lo~t. • 2.425 ... • 10....
--. 5.1 x10 11 m c,I Oiscotl'IC'.e between slits = ~ • 2.4 • 10 ' m (to 2 .s..fJ
6. Me.asurn 1~ clst.ance betwt!E!ll the lop d the tube
DN ""'l<J and lhf WJl('t' lf'Yel =l.92L. x 101om
nt.c:nilty • ~ =CGnStant.. 9Q. 7. Mul11ply thlS disonce by four to get lhe ~h
dsinl nl =>I= sin'(~) Page 233 - fo<I Rocall Questions
.....,....,_y(\) \hWl~Wl' ~-(\) oflhtW.IWt»
QI /\-11•.........,,lll"""'l:l'ofEM .......ion.
• ( -.......... (xJ)' I. Pklg, I ;and .\ "*> v =- ll llO calculate .: =sin •/J\3~921._
xfftx 10 ')) Q2 E:'f
~ ._ x..Jl" =0.7&xllT.1T";'1'C lrT'YP':'O' n• D'Y )( 10
Ql ......,.,.
=0..:599_,. .a <40 en {io ~ •t) I. Rf1pM . _ ~ •ilh cfiffecenl wn. . torb M"1 = 8.800_ - a.a· (lo 2 j,J'J
wt. an .J'W'tV b thl'! value of"· (4 nwb I« COf1tt1 ~ C>UNnt·fle 1 ,...,.. kit"
.. The> 1hifd harmonic ( 1 mri)
bi lubo""'Po=lx~
~ni;irc:
6
2. · - '°' -....,;,,g lorlt .. 6nd - >..
.;l) Each d~ 1J O.SOO µs and one cycle is 6 <ivt'iiOl'IS
11ncitwr 1M sp«e betltt'f!ftl slit~
'° I m.d kK ~IC
fonnut. rmt1 8, Mill 1 awt for C'OtTtd cMaJl•OOns..J 2. The Planck Constant
""·ide., so onecyr.liP ttkes 6 • 0500 3.00 µs = d) Thfl mon:ima would become much c~A!f I benf!r
>. j 11: rube9entth.-.j x 1.25 3.00 µi. •3.00• IO"s
Page 236 - Application Questions
• 0.8lJJ_. =- 0.831 m (to 3 s.f.) ( t m.ark) f-+ ~ l.33 ... •l~Hz 8
deflnf'd. (1 mark)
aJ n•i ~ t~ )( :~ = 1.477•.• =1.48(1o 3s.f,) QI eV,s If
c) J.low 10 grade )'OUr answer (pick thu c~ripdon 1hat best soV . !lf;. • ()63•10
M•J.0Ch:10'
ma1c;he; your answer): Re;nr•ntc v f>. to l. f (1 m.ilrk.s fot' cotT«f answei;. olhe<whe I IJWf"k lot ~,\ (.6i)X 10 19 w60IJx10 i
II
O mirb: There is oo relevant infonn.adon c;orr«t wotking if anm·er incwrecrJ =2.071 •.• • 2. 1 V (lo 2 s.f.)
Sol.~ 900m Q2 GradM!nl of &J<IPh a- (2 .0 1.3) + H2.I • I <1') t1 .S.S • IOil
~

·-
1•2 ma.rts: A diagram has been dr.awn. d.nd trw'lhod bi UJ;p 1he law ol refraction al the •ir<0re baundJry:
poinrs 2, 6, ;md 8 have been covered. Artsv1: « b; ba:sic a nvb f<W crwrH'f M!SWW, Olhenlir>e 1 nvt k1' =
n,s•nl1 n,sinl, with n, = 11 11 •l-4... 11 • 21•. .-OJ+(O.S2x1~)= l.J.t_"< 1o•vm

oe
..,.., h:&S belt: SltUCtlJre. trromwtk>n " ms:ssrrc Mid ~-- tM ll'"'fUMC1 ilttd 1 nwrt fol correct ~ n, B:Sln" =-I x = sinr· •
l.56- h- e•J:rMWnl • LWhtlO " •13•--•10 '
- --r-- 10'
~~few biw:tecl ~ .aiguments.. '""Sifi'I; SWl21 • l ., (.. 2 s..l.) ]J)()x
3-4 nu.rb: A latJei1ed cia£r<wn he bfw'I dQwn and bi ltodion _.., () ~f«cornd ~~iff' I ..... lot =- 7.17'- )I' 10 .. =-7.2 x t it-,. Js6o 2 s.L)
nwttod points·~ 2,-4, 6,. ~ 8 hal.1! ~ CIM'tl'd. /II. cl ~~ ~IUrinJ' Do the conf'l:1 ~ 1!1#11 nwrt for
NI OM «nKacy point is COW!'A'!d. ~ ha mtne ~ THitMiJiEibMI if.-sMW ~J Page 236 - fact Rtcall Questions
stn.K!Ul'e. Ind iniCrmalW)n is pn!S8'l&M w.lh a dNr line
d t"Ntoninft, 'Nith arguments that ....e ~~lty ~ ' CJ n•5 Mklv=IA. QI The m1n1nun ~needed lior a current to flow lhf'Ou&h
wtw-n a w.we traVels through a boun$1')', 1ts w~length an Ll:I) l'TM YOllOIJ~ needed IO give eleclrons in the dicu1t
up. r.h~ntf'S and its frequency remaiT'6 consranc. Son the wroo ~y M ;a pholon emitted by lhe 11-0.
54 nutll:s: A label.00 diagram h~ ~ druwn, all al the ' t N'CUmPJ.:
Q2 eV,=-~
m<.'lhod poi.nH have been CO'o'Wed, .and •t l~;aR OM. poin1
rrom the accuracy poinis has been covered. TM ansvm"
n•-'-M> A="-=- JOO•![r
TJ. fn 5.00•IO" •l.Sb... Ql a) "•·
ii wdl structu red. There is a clear dnd qk-al lil'lf> of
~
' = =
l .845 ...• 10' l80 nm (10 2 ...u
fNiOIMtlR. wilh inform.llion and .ilrgumenis 1h.1' are fully lime (3 nwrb I« CfJt'nd MJSWef, mhent·~ I matt for
WC'Jcrd up. (I m.ri for Sit<.Md.,.,.,.,., of t!qWI w.we/ettflfh MJd ·~ f is constW ¥Jd 1 tn¥k fcK Mlb$/ilutintr into
tM are some points your MlSWW rrwy tneludie:
V.,,.-q - l»K t/te .,,,,,.,_, - I _,,lo<
llwWm S«Ond ~ .,.._....,, 911' oaf ofplww ihtw/ ol b i
-
; = l:tt: =0.9470_
c =""""1aJ
........., d) 1dl
t0C =~ 'tQ.9470..J= 71.2_ =11• Uo 2 UJ
<0 I l=$f' Mb.aOwnA a ll'Mfh '°' cornd .mtl'!I;. 1 nwt '°' <on"«t ~
MMll•~11Ude)', toP .. ~ H MKliUr inc:tJt'TKL)
f"J Tht lifhl r11f enters the dackfing M•n 11ni;:k" d
~ c:onsum =
908 21 • 6,- (lhe angle has to xld to the angle b) The CU~IS throueh the circuit will be Yell' SrNll.
Campl•udol t>fotWN!n the dacklin& and che norm.tl), ....-nlch is less
So /l II 1 1"'1n chP o itical angle, so toeal i"ntt..vnal ~lion canno1
(..mphllJdl!d lst wave)• (ampliludeoC 2ndwirlel h111>1>en and it enters 1he d addiiig in~n~;id.
.1mp/i1ud1... ol 1ndw.ive)' (I mark (0< 8 < C, 1 mart for menUon ol tota.1lnlemal
I\ Ii { .ilTtP1'rudlPOt isi wave rt:RedionJ
n It~ B has been iocally iniemalty reflfC'lfd l)tx:ause it
-1s2•H) 3.aw hies itw cote-dacki~ boundiiry .c "" """"° CfNlet dun

--*"'s-1
0 nwrb kil tMrf<1 .m~ ~·ise I m.wk lot 1tle crir.ial angJe. {1 lnillft '"' lolJI illl« t»I tWkocOOn,
'nud' ltwaitial ~

1'·' Answers
 ..
3. The Photoelectrlc Effect 4. wave-Partlcle Duality Exam-style Questions- Pages 2"6-247 7 .i The won: function ol ;;a meuf is lbe minimum~ Jn
Page 240 - Application Questions
QI l1w ~ funclion is IK" rininum •moutM d tnefD"
Page 244 -Application Questions
QI ..\ = ~, ...,_p (mornenh.m) =1N:SS x wtociry, JO lhl dt
I C(l -*I
? Gt!i 2•10-x1£0x10 " :s.?x10 .. J. ,,......,
ekiic:uon ~to eape the surface of f t nvul

~A!d b Ml eleccron llO be emined "°"' ,...

line\
Wrbcll!. The energy of each phoal is ONltf dwn thn Bloef.. ~ .. ~--ID ~
r hf.901- E ' h " (:'S2x 10 ") - (6.63x 10 "')
4...&26._ x l<r.' Hz_
bi""'-"'--""
lidic n
.... ....__,,,,..
riequency •
IJNl'tl. Below a. arta.in ttnthold
v.tlue,, ~SO they will be 4lble 10 transf« MOUef't Mergy t;> ol a panideo. lhlrtion! IOCfeil:Sing the W!locirywiH d!ICrMe B ( 1 ,,...., • . . . _,, .,.--~ h.lve"""'£1>-.,.oo
~IN.M efiec:lrons from the zinc sheet. ..... Broat.. ~ ,,,. panide. 4,,,_,t!i 4~x1.60x10 19 6.D?.O x10 '~J. tf'lffse Jn fk!clmn from the merat's surface (1 ,,..1q.
Q2 .-i) The m.&.111mum kinelic mefRY d !he f'leic:lrOM 1ncf'N5e5 Q2 a) .\=~.toP • h + ,\ ~ hfo he; ,\ d A flnt; P'Jle is •II~ to lhe kip d an el~
itJ tl'w! frequency of lhe inc.iden1 radia1.on mc~.ue. OOA t.; • (I nwt). rhc nnc plale is nega1M!ly ch3rgf'd. whk:h
lnff&l.$4ng lhe f~ency d 1he radial Ion lncJ'N~ the
h=6.63w10..,b,..\=0.162nm, ea~ 1~ RO'd lt..'llf in the eleclto5cope 10 ri~e up M 11 Ii
.\= 0.162 w 10" m= 1.62 x 10.a0 m, (6.rux 10!M x:1.00x 10") • (M?l)x 10 1~
C>n1!tgy ol e-«h pho1on (f =hi>, and M> more c•ntorgy can repf'llC'd rrum lhe metal ( 1 mark). The 1inc place k then
'°
be lt.inslerred lhe free elaorons in ctit ~•I. p=(G.63 w IOJ•) + (l.62 x 10 1CP)
=4.092S9- .• 10 14 kgms•
• 2.(}'/0M. )( 10 ''m
IJ 11 nwlrl
irradl.ill'CJ wilh UV ra<ialion (1 mark). I kntUM arc
ThC! maximum kinetic energy ol lhf! ~mm losa from tho fine plate due to the photoelf'Clrlc rl'fac1
= 4.091111ouqnw'(lolsJ.) c fAto..\ - r; :- f =- ~.177_x 10'1m.
M'lll.00 is lhe energy ttans(mf!d IJV '1 phoeon fnll'IUS lhe {1 lnMll) , The fJnC plate and elecrroscope lhPrMo~
v. ~ (6.U,:,x 10~x:S1?0x 10")

-
M.*t f.ilft )OU •zy. t1dudc ll1ltS wtth your anstW,11'
won: fuOCIJon energy. The v.ot1c funaion eMf11Y rerNjns !cw tht:tr nfPlno""e charse a.net so the gold INt fa.lb bd
the~ )()as the energy ol the lncidMI phOeom a.a:Ud ftt.)OJ tome p-oc;b.15 actr.a marts ... the oc;;n. · (1.Wx10 ° x5..17?_ x10') l,.4()_ V d!Mn JS 111.t. no klnger ~led (1 mild').
•=N.
--'""""""-
lllCl8le, dle muilmm lc:int'lic mf'fJ!Y d . . M1llled b} m.,=9.11 • IO • q, Dll - d)
tt=p • m.. lhctf**'lofthetratlnJIS2x 10 • -. ~cri.t =
I•= 1.03 x 10' HL, h &.61 x 10-.. Js
bi f • hl, h =-6.fJ x 10-_,. Jsi, f= 1.20 • 10"' Hr,
to I • (6..63 x- 10 l4) x (1.20 w lt>-j
= C4.Dt2$9_. x I0"')+(9.ll x IO llt)
=4'4924- • IO"ms '
= •
E, ~ ¥r 1111 f'.I I x 10 • ) x (4.4924- v 117}'
............. .,,....~-·~~...
~
So••"'• (6 .61itIO "') x (l.Olv10")
• 6.128' 1t 10 "' I
• 7.956 111: 10 .. =- 7.9' 11t 10 • J (tol 1 •.f.) rl'C ~of thencutrons ISp .,, hf= •+Kr_
Q hf• •+JCF_ =9.19 1111 tO•Jool~f.) 16/~)(10 " x :!)200 ::. ~.:56x 10 ;o• t8"'9 ,, hi l .Ox 10 • 1, . =6.8289x 10 " 1,.
Kl- · 7.26 x 10 1•t, hf=- 7.956 • 10 .. I, Ql a.).\=h • f>zft._lvlOto Sottw;dcen.igllc~ts subs1i1u11na 1nco hf:. •+KE_ gNes:
'Oil lhe wort func1ion of the metal(~ lJ
l' 6.64bx 10 6 •60.0 (EiA.,x10""')~(!>.36x10,...) 1.?...!5- x10•. l.O • 10" 6.8289 x 10 "+KE_
t/i • llf Kf-=-(7.956x 10 11
{7.26• 10"')
=1.642... x 10' • 1.66 x 10"'' m (to 3 s.f.)
thl8 I& a bi. tmalcr than the spacing ol i.he grgi,1ng. 50 Kl_ (l.O• 10 1•) (&.8289 x 10 ">
.\=~.sov • l1+,\m
)

• ft.%x1 0 " J
b) dlO'r.icWn docs not. occur. • l .317 ... w: 10 ••= 2.3 x 10-• J (lo 2 sJJ
v- 61llx10,. lJ f • IK'+..\=(b.63-x 10 14 v3.()()w l<r) + (S.OOx JO') (J motrkf /<Jf correct answer, otherwise 1 mart'"'
-§Jhdb ilxl,QJ_.xJO* :3.978• 10"1 oorrf'lt't c..kul.,tion of wcri function and t mM'k for
Page 240 - Fact Recall Questions =41771&.7._ ms 1 .=. 4 .l8 x 10"- ms-1 (tol 1d J <l.97a x 10 "> + n .60. 10 1i = 2.486.2s contd wortitR 10 akulat~ KE..J
QI ~ ~ effea is when f!learanJ .e lmllled from =2.49 f'\I (lo J s.lJ ef i) t1 lht 1nlt!f'ISlty al the rodent radiation is lnaNited,.
N turt.iot d • metal when radiation ol • hfah ...,.... Page 244 - Facl Rtall Questions Q nwb for COITf!d ~ otlw!nl.._
I m..t 1o1 lh• lf'IC1tWes lhe number ol phoeons, hinina .in •a
....._ .......ly-tiOIQis-.....
Q1 lnii:1~ty. the gold INf in lhe elearosaJplo is~ from
QI Oiftramon tnoM ~ic wawe Me
w.M! ~ Md lhe pt............ic effea shcMs bt
n'.lrR'CI ~ ol f!!0«6Y ..
•V.•.toV9'ft'IY
of one pholon. f,
JotMJJ
....... _00,,..._,,, .............,
Wt II &foW' Ii.me, bu. nol lhe energy dad! pholon

,,.__from lhe zft: plaie,IN"""'""'

........~"""&<'d.-_ The -
whi<h ,.,,..,,..
~tive d'wlge riom lhe rinc pi.ale. The p j INf t.&lls
~IC '#4\4!'S twwepanide~
Ql All paniclH r.... bolh ,,..UCle and ...... _ ....
_

- 2.486_.
f _ l.978xlO "
· -~-l.60x10"
v,,....,
N nutti. A.J Che eiecbons can only absorb ont
pholQft .a • tune, lheu" lcineric: enefEY md dwttfcn
lh«!tr sP'f!d a una.ffecred by lhe i~ in lnDmWty
Waves COlft Jbo lhow p.1rtide properties.
~ 1he Cl'ldtQe on lhe plate is ll!dua!d. mluf.1 l'I& the So the l m will noc lighc up, .u lhft por:Mti•I difference (t trNrld.
Ql fleet.ton ditrrocoon
""PUtJion beM'een the k>..af and the trlf!lal h'J au.ictw.'(f kt. •crcm it is smaller lhan its threshold voltlf:f! n m.ri;). ii) The ra1e .u which photoelectrons am emit1ed
Q3 ~ c•lt.'Clron.s will be emitted, but ttw>ir ma.dmum kinelic 6 :t) All PJrtides have both partide and.,...,,"' f>tClpl!rlJl'.5. intrNJCf, <as chem are more photons hining "'"MN
f'nl"1l:Y will remain 1he same. W<1ves can also .shOYo· panide PfOP('l'tlec ( 1 m¥1t). In a ~lvcn lime, so more electrons can IX> hbeflk."d in
Q4 lk!f'or(I t1n eloclron can be emiued by a nwtal, it Mt.'th b) d m,.•9.11x1onkg.r,= 1.02• 1011-1 a RM.on time ( 1 m.uk).
MOUgh C!l'K!l'g)' lO break the bon<k holdit'lg 11 fhc.'«!.
This rrwm there is a. minimum a.mount of f'.nNIY •n
Ke.arrange f, ='bmv' lO giw• v /l/,/
""°ton noods hebe it can escape rhP ~I iurf.-.e.
nw lh~ frequency is the minimum~
... nx1.02x10• =149.'4 11'11 '
v-9.11x10 1 -
d rdMIOlt d'wt ho& pholons wilh !his~ =1S0JM"'(lols..fJ
Q5 l1w m&10nun MTIOUd d energy th.11 an bf. nn.dem!d (.l nr.ri5 lot- comd ~ odwr'9M I owt fot-
II). . 8Kllon is the energy al one- J>hc*ln. Thin is .1 ccwn<t ~
l'J'litumum .amount of energy needed IO frH- N 8!clron
from the mewl {lhe wcrlc funaion er'lf!fl)'). Thm!fote Che
B
,4) l,.: = <6.63 x 10 ,., +(9.11v10 • )t 14CJ.64_J

1N.X1mum llmoonl d kinecic energy an f!lfaron on ha\'e is a 4.86J_.x 10-"= 4.Ux ID"mOoJi;J.)
1he ~orgy of one photon minus the won: runcdon energy. Q nwks for correct Mb'lt'fY,. oth«wls4t I tnMt for
CUITOCt ..·orldng)
Iii) The kinetic energy of each electron • Y,,riv' .s. eV, so
if lhe potenlial difff!fence if. haM'(t 1he Sf,.._>ed of each
eloclron decreases by a facrot d 11.. Thi.t. me;ans.
lh.ill lhe de Broglie w.welength w'lll rnerease by a
f.ctor ol/! II nwrlrl.

Answers Answers WflM

 Module 5 2. Thermal Properties of Materlals 3. The Gas Laws 4. The Ideal Gas EquaUon
Page 256 -Applic.ition Questions P•g• 161 -Application Questions P•ge 263 - Applic•tion Questions
Section 1 - Thennal Physics QI 1 ..-. mcM. to / o.•s ic 244 x J.D = l29~• QI I.e. QI pV nJU ,. v nlfl 13 x 8.31 x C25 17))
JJO l(lo 2 s.Q -11:1'>1
eon..n ....... .,...,vo p - 2.4 x 10'
1. Phases of Matter and Temperature Q2 1 + 1000= 0211qi 0.2l7J I_ = 8.2.i m'(lo7 s.I.)
Pag• 25 I - Application Questions 910g+I000=0.91q
QI 1 • 0+273:>0::;1 273=.345 273•72-C Expand and tNrr.ange m,cAl;- Q= ~C.(' - 1J for r.: Q2 pV Nkf Q p • ~
Q2 a) Note now of thermal energy is from 1he filtil'lg w the • t8.21xIO"")x(l..l8x10-") )(SOO
p:uay. => ~e;I, - mic,1, ~4,- m.c.t .,
b> Uthe ~try and the filling ate both in 1hctm;al
f'lqullibrium with 1he room, thm the p;tj.lty und the rilling
=> me;l. + m.c•'· ""C. & + mc. li • 1.3987.•• w: 104
• 1.40 w: 10' Pa (tol s.J.}
mus;t be in thermal equ.ilibrium whh Heh OCl'K.'f. Since => t(m.c:, i ~ rri.ea ~ + me. t pV
Ql pV NA.I • I iJk
they •re in Chermaf equilibrium wi1h e~ octwt, Chey
~1 ¥·5.100'
must hi! the same temper.11ure.. • """. l'rlt<:. c1.29 )( 101) x 0.519
_ IO.l7 lll8'01t&tC0.91x3600xJ.4) ii.44 x 10', x OJA x id
Pag• lS I - F.cl Roe.oil Questions td91 tlj + '117x890) J.49.acJ.4_. = liOJC (tols.I.)
QI ~ P.lnicle lrl solids riJrale abotll (o.f!d J)OJlllOftJ In • - 17.28.- J7 "C (lo 2 s.Q pV
blllaP• .nt care dose togeChet. ~ dort\.l'ICQI 1.0o:n..:r\. tob!Mahn:stic.c~ri Q4 pV nltl ~ 1 ;;JI
bf brbc:lrll!s in liquids are free to movf!' ~ ex-. o.ncctu ¥acl u::mperataft~ U'lc: MIS b-t!O&.h.
•rfl: cnnstandy moving. They'n! bitty dole ~~ in Q3 eon..n....,.,q; 100.0g+ 1000=0.IOOOkz HXl -JOO -I IJ llX)
(23 lo ':l~ ~.Yi -.. Sl9J I_
iln megul.;ir oarr.angemenL Energy bit from 2S.O"C to 0 "C 540 IC. (to 2 t..fJ
=tne_.M • 0.1000. -4180 )( 25.0 .-... 10 -4501 Tempetature (-CJ
cJ P.lrllclf!ll in iilSES ilte far apan and ftN> IO move .around
w11h t"onstJ nt random motion. ThPy am noc In •ny Fnergy bg In (t~1ing = mt, = 0.1000 x 334 OOO So ;lt>!Olute J'RJO is approximately -280"(.
fQMiculc1r order. - 314001 ~on 'YC'll lncdttest. ~aa:.epi.~ ~ ktM:lCn Page 263 - Facl Recoll Questions
Q2 Browni11n motion. It is caused by randomly mc:wil'lg water Fnergy kkU from 0"C10 S.00 oe: :IOO"C.nl 260"C. Q I The nu ~r ol p.:irticles in one mole ol a material. II~ VdlUC
p.1nk:tes hilling lhe pollen particles Unwfnly, = mc.-,.AO • 0. 1000 x 21 10 x S.O = IOSS I Q2 ;i) The YOfume h~ haJ...00. Asp and V are invmcly 56.02 x 1onmo11 •

-
Ql TM M.."'11~ kinetic energy scays the s;atnf' ~use: the TOlal E!nffJrt' I® 10 450 + 33 400 + 1055 ptoportiona~ the pressute wiII h.1\•f' dc>Ybl«I., so Q2 pV=nRI
Mft1.Y su~ted is .l.ltering the bonds, cand ~ 44 '°5 = 44 900 J (to 2 s.JJ P • l x 1.4 • llF= 2..8 x 10S h . =
p pte»U1e hn P•>
~~ tnel'ltY~ or the pan:icks inSllNd ol ~their bt SLll'l~in K =27+27l a lOOK.. V =YC>tume hn m 1
)

lnd~in lC = - 171+l7l•10)~ n =fall'l'lbr_r ot moles. of ps

Q4
Page 156 - F.ct Roe.II Questions The~ is divided by l. Np ..S I .,., direcdy R =ma&# ps c:ons:uri (= 8.ll lmof ' K ')
QI lheMmln alMWV rlft!ded 10 raise die ~d
~the (RSSOO!wil mo ~dvidtd by 1. so 1 = -... IQ
li<gal ... -...,.bylKi<><l'Q.
Q2 E.g. Pbce an t1<anc - _.digital ............., In P• !!.jl- =9.lll_ x 10'= 9.3 • ID" P.J (le :Z MJ Ql t=-!
it bloc:t cl dW' NUNS ;and COVC!r ft with insubtion Tum QJ •I qz1m1-92•10'm R = kleal s;n CGnlWnl {= 8.311~ 'mol ?
lhe hea~ on and he•I Che material so that irs ~ure
inoe.lSes by ..OOU1 10 K.. Use a .scopwarch eo mNSum how
VOiume of ;Ur bubble='"'
:,xo.o x 10 '1•<92• 10
1 1)
NA =~s(l)l'1Sl¥lt C=6.01 w: ion mo1 1)
Q4 pV Nkl
long lhe heaft'I' Wd.Son tor. Use an amme'f'er and volfmett.lf =2.6012 .•• x 10" =
p pn!»Utft hn P.a)
aitached IO 1he elc.ottric he.tier to measu:re thE! corwru ;ind = 2.4 • 10 ' m1 (to 2 5.fJ =
V volume hn m1)
voltage susipl le<~ und lht.'fl cakula1e the enegy supt:>IM!cJ tl) b) pV consranl.sop.'4= Pl" =
N numbel ol molacuies of g;1s
USi 1'g E =w. vu. ll'lm use f =me M llO c.alcubitf' c. Jtc..mmgE! lo: k = Ro11 1m~nn c.'OnslAnH= 1.38 w: 1on IK 'I
ltJDNI c~xr 11 Q3 The quantity ol th«m.11 energy requiff.'d to met! ot froly~ V •pi\(= 350000x(2.6012 ..• w10) I= 1emper.tlUU! (in K)
QS al l\bsokite zero. 1
'71i"

di-.. . .---ut.,..z;.._....,.
lkgof.as~ 4.20000
bi 0 K. 273 "C. Q4 E.g. Put ~I~ al ice in Mo identical funnels =-2.167_ x 10" = 2.2 • 10" m>(lo :z 1.IJ
Qft l'hir '°~ energy ol .J body 5 the SIR d 1M nndom ~ b8lla.'n. Pul .a l'lell.lng coil in one d lhe lUN'llPIJ cJ Sothalthe~bas~IDfiUlbil~ 5. The Pressure of an Ideal Gas
Mid 1urn ae an few r:tvee: minute.. Use an anmew .and A,_.,""' lme 8'llPh pmil1( -
<P
... _ ..... body.
wtwn lht two objects. m! a. the sal.'IV! ....,.,...,.,. wtlh no
""' Row ol energy berweeo !hem.
~ MUiChfld IO fie heiwing coil IO mNSUn! ilw
cunenl and \duet ~ied,. Mid use lhese ID alcul.- ,_
energy ..._ by ... he>lu1g a>il .. ""' ice Ill"""'
..
d)
~-
......... P•ge 266 - Applic•tion Questions
QI p'o'
p
~-? • p !•!:!#so:
1.(s )\" ,02 )(I~ x(5..31 x 10., )( IS.II x '°'
=
E w = \!Yr. 1'ifl'!f sw1tc:hire ol lhe hea1irc coil, ~~
P•g• 261 - n cl Recall Questions l 1.44
QI fr muse h;rl.-e a fixed mass..
!he mass al WJltf c:ollec:UI in lhe beakers. Sulxtx1 thf 3.0005.- x 10' = l.08 • HF h (to 3 s.f.)
Q2 Th«! Pfa\lm! l.iw states that at COftfiQnc volumt. the ~we
mass of waff!t' coUtic.00 rrom the beaker wichout lhf> h~:.1 Ing
coil rrom •he nt1ss or w.1ter from che beaker with the l'M'a1ing
p of .in Kimi g;1s is di.reedy proportional to IL'\ ~ule Q2 pV .jNm? ., (' ~
coil to &M ttlf\ m.w of ice, m, 1ha1melted solely dut' 101he IAYnptt.llCure /,or ¥= cons&ant.
90Scm' • 90S x 10Am 1
=
prosenc:t' ol tht1 h4silf!f. Use f ml ID calculate 1_
C' )w:(740xlOl)x(90Sx10 ~
IO,Ji6x6.0J x 16'iw: (S.IOx JO Aj
2. 110.•• • 1cr-m's 1
c.- ./? /2.110-.x10'= ..59A·...- -.459fft"i 1 (1olt.fJ

>Y4"'i Answers
Answers Wf.-.M
 Page 266 - Fact Recall Queslions c) pV- Nk l ~ N .-. pV ~ (8.1xIO")x0.51 b) U N • n•N" •S"4.0x(6.02• l ()ll):3.2508 x 1~
Section 2 - Circular Motion and
QI ,\ny four from: cas conuins latJ:f' numtNY d p:&n~lf!f / 1.M kl <l.38x 1et") x273 • J.15 x 1 ~ (lo l s.f.) {1 f1Wtt)
pan ides rra.-e rapidly .and randomly / lhf! volumft of U~ .- l.OCJ6._ x ID"'= 1.1x 10•(102 s.f.) pV Oscillat ions
p.1!1 ides is ne£1 igible C".ott'IJM.md '°
the volume ol 1ht PJ I Q m.irliJ for COffl!d .JnSWer,. Of.berttisf! 1 marl: for
11.) pV nRI 4 I iii
mllisions betwf!en p.lRidf'S lhemwi~ or ~ JMMK'.fe correct working if "1tlSwer incorted.) 1. Clrcular Motlon
.and the walls d m. coneainf!f Mf' pcoffoo ly ~..M.r I t"' d) Total ma.s.sot gas= {1.096._ x ICP') x OJ x 10 ~)
Ii.xbl~'/)1'18 Page 275 - Applicalion Queslions
duration of eam collision is M.&lu;•bl~ when ~rod to =2.96.•. q 911."49.-K- 911 K(lo3 s.fJ QI FUiodinseconds=28•24•l600 s2.419... • 10'-s
the Lim! b8ween collision$/MI" a"' no liorcel b«wft!n f = mcM = 2.96._ lt Q.2 lt I IP) lt 150 ('1 m.wtl /(N awTed MJSWf'I'~ Olht!rM'ise. , nwt f(X =
Angular \'eklciry w =- 2.- 2.=
panicles: E'XCf'Pl few H momrn. wtwn thfy a~ lf'I a = 9J699_. x l<Jl'-= 9.8 • TCP- J(lo 2 s..fj tOIT~ -~J T 2.419.M x i(ji
a>ltision. a m.wb for cotnCf ~ othentise 1 m.art fot m) CAnw!tl ~Mure to K: :- 2.5972_ X IQ '- Qds I
Q2 f.adl panicte eicem .a foft:to on llw ~1 ol N COftQltM!f ~IM mmolp if~ is iocotTrd.J 1•1+271 8SS+27l-1128 K = 2.4 • 10""'- nds' {&o 2 '.IJ
MwJ'I ii collides wilh it fhf' c:ombtnfd fo«.e from ~ lhf: ~ f=mcM=(.92• IO')x2110•1S=4.85lx ICPJ 1mr lu~? ill = J•IJSx1o•x111a v:r..,=(].84 000 • 1000}• 2.S9n_. v 10•
JWfticles is spnYd .all Ollf"l lhfo ~ o( 9Ch ~l ll'ICJ =- •~9 • 10' J(lo 2 s.f.) (t nwd) l l m l.-4-0xtO k = 997.JJJ._-= 1000 nK" 1 (lo 2 "·"'
poc:ltacel .a S1Ndy, f!'W'tl m. on Ml 1M dis ol 1tw boJc. bi E=-ml-=<92• 10 1> xOJx1CF) - IJ7J_ x 10'-m's'
"°·:!..,~IOM
Ql Fcequency in revs ' -=I= ~
which is JWf!iSUle. -= 3Jll6 x 10" I=- l..O x tit J (lo 2 s..U (J outtj c_ ~ • ./IID.-•101 - 1111.96.... •

Ql c_ is d'M! fOOl tnlNln squMI! ~ 4of" lhc! puuc:Ma tn .a p.M. ~=2-.f-=2 •a x ~= 1'zJ Qds
- t1 70 111J''(lols.f.)
le.. lhesquue toOI dN mun oltM tqU¥Wt ~dlhp
panO..
d ToUI energy needed= {4...851 x 101) + 01D6 x 10?
= l.5211x10' I
mlmergyneeded - l52kb* 10•
a '°'
m.tr nwr«t .,._~ otiwnrisir 1 mR" /«
COMl!rlMw ~.._,.._ IOlf'ltirrMll/ I owrt kK <:<1= t -=>l-=d-m x EiO-=f;· a0.41887_
1

Time &ab!rt fillle' af energy Slft)lied

- 704.26 = 700 s tto 2 s.U
» -i..r•--sptt<JJ l

V=CS=- ~ lt ~ :0.41'JJ._ms
: 0.419tMl0.ls.I.)

~- 1 awrt '°'
""' l.a.
6. Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas
Page 269 -Applic•lion Ques1ions
'°'corrt!Cl ....wis,.iDc«rectJ
a nwts~if
CCJn'fll(f M.ISWW' QJ
~ -= 0 •..f3' - -·(lo l
~intws ' =f-=460+60.
'-0

QI U.WB. di " - - _,,.,,., . - qd lhe ;a, (1 ""'*I. 2.0 cm lirom cenue:

Q2 f=~tl ~x«l..llxlO~xlll 2.J1&4xl0" Hst is uansierred from hoflel' Sli:ls&ances eo colder ~speed=W"= 2w/-= ~· -=4&.171...
subsWnc:es a.s the ice is colder lhan 25 "<:.. insular:ing -= ..fl '""' (to 2 l.r.)
.-. 2..31x10 • 1 OolsJJ the bNker will *'P heat IJ'aRSfer iruo the ice rrom !he linear speed -= _. -= wt -= , . • 0.020
surrounding U ( I a:wri:).

...
Page 269 - Fact Rec•ll Ques1ions s .i How .. g-ywr .,,,....,!Pcklhe~ .... """ -= O.%J4._ n ' • 0.'6 mt:' eto 2 i.rJ
INIChes )'CM.II' ;ans""'w): 4.0 cm from a!l'llte: Angubr speed = 41 "'"' Uo 2 s.rJ
QI pV ~ Nkl and pV fNmC'. O lnill'lo:: There is no mtevan1 infotmarion..
Q2 That the poo!l'lliat f'nt'tKY i.$ 0 I bfoc:au:se 1twye ilm no (ore&
~&AarsptQJ isw eanc.at.ar;~m.a tollcJ rout.Ing
1·2 nwrb: N. least one K p:>inl for each d solid, liquid
becween the panides. •nd ps ha\·e been covered. B poincs I and 3 haw been
caverl'.!d. Answer is bask and h~ lade of scruaure, with linear speed-= 0.040 • . , . =1.926•.• • 1.9 m1' (to 2 1.r.)

Exam-style Questlons - Pages 271-272

inforrnalion missing.. (1 nwrt ltx dr<M·ing ~tuwel/-BoltxnNnn cur~ Q4 Kinetic energy-= 1mv'
3 -4 marts: N. least two K points for each of solidr liquid I nwrk for nwltirw high letnp(Y<1ture Ct.ln'e lower v ..- U"andw 2..r
I BIf marl-} ;and gas ha\•e been covered. All B poin ts have been W ~ s~MI out llwn bw lempeulure curve) -=>v=2-.fr
""- const.ant.eop1v, p,v,. v •r'xl eo p,('lr-'1 1)
p,(.....'I,).
covered. /\nsv.'f!f has some saruaure. and informa1ion is
gencr.1lly relevan t
f = f
and 1 is lhe teng1h of thf! strini: I, so v l.fJ
0Mdh]l:Jy._,...:p 111 p, I, ~ P:- (p 11,) I, S-6 marts:"-11 K and B points have been covered. Sokine.cicenergy -!m<.if>'
p, " (120x:30) ~ 7?.tr1o The answer is well structured, and information is relevam
2m.- f
7

D (1 marll) and pr~tt!d dearly.

a) Increasing the wmpera1utl' lnr.rrases chc klnecc <~l't'RY
of 1he gas molecuk-$ (1 mar~. M> the r.nu tipeed ol 1he
cas molocu~ incre:i~ (1 marl(). So from
pV jNm<? it can be k'ffl 1tu1 the ~Jiurc mw;s aOO
i:ncrea.se (f mark).
You could also hiNe answo'ed thle by t.abte ato.n. the Ch..lf'lfC
., momcnwm at.~ ~W"l'W I.he:: paruclc9c.oMc:
Hefe are some points your answer may include:
-..,..-
Kjnetjc: Mode" of Maller fKj Page 275 - fact Recall Queslions
I . l'artides in solids a.re dose t~ether. QI t\n.gle in radians-= TiD • anclc in df>&rt'!e5
l. Partides tn solids are arranged in a Cf!Gular lauic-e
Q2 The angle lhaJ an objoo m1aws throui:h per se(',Ol'ld.
wucture.
l. Particles in solids vibra1e around fixed positions..
=
Ql v w, where vis 'he linear~ w iJ the Ji"Si.'UIJr \'eloQry,
and 1 is the radius d i:he circi.- cl tt:Malion.
"4. Partides in liquids are fairly close rogeiher.
S. Particles in lif:Jlids have an irregular a~ Q4 The period is the rime caken fot a oompk>• f{'l.'Ofullon•

·-·
Mltlthtwabofthc~moreofi01aJon~ 6. Particles in liquids. a.re free to nOo'e pas1 one The frequency is the number d compk'llP: tt'\'Otucec>nS J>tY
I.here's a larger~.,momcnwm411r'1.1~ 0... second.
mcansa~buts~onww.-ort.hoc:ont.ancr 7. Partide in g.ases are far apart. Q5 w=2J, ....nemt.1is b!ant0Jar ~ry ilnd fb: the!
fmquency.
... Ulc 5a'l'IC amc:t.int. ol tne. a'd to she p'C1iMft llt lnCl"Cl!lc:d. 8. Particles in gases are free to move wilh c:onsww
bi nndam motion.
9. P.-tides in gases are not in any particular ords.
Rgwmyp M7ir fBI
I . 8n:JwnWn molion describes the random. lig;iag
mo6on of~ suspended in a luid.
l. II IS aused by randomly mcwirg g;lS Of liquid
panides ha.. ... cbseM!d pKlides ......my.
l. Bn:MT!ian moeion can be otaserwd by pulling
smol:I!! in Ml ilumirwled glilSS jar Mid viewing N
morion al the smote panides in Che air 'Nida a
-211
.....,,....._,..,
0 llJO
~

11 ....n1«.,,......... ,,,,,,,.,,.,,_,..,,,,""""""
11ttoa$ft 1-2n, OJ.,., <0,. a. r • tOfJJ

ftl Answers Answers Aft

2. Cenb1petal Force and Acceleratlon
Page 279 - Application Questions
QI fttqUln(y IR lle\'S I = I = IS+ 60.0 =- O.lS lftS.
l\ncULlf \11!1ocicyw= bi=- 2 x • x Q.15 aO.Sa r-.ads 1
F• mJt • 60.0 x l05•Y x ¥ ='29.I._
= '30N(lo'Zs.f.)
1119 Mjttll. 9CQll l*e a bt,. but n.·s at:ais. the PnC • Lhe bu
I.he"""",.., "'"""ty.
Q2
... .
3. Simple Harmonic MoUon
Page 283 -Applic.>tion Questions
QI >I A - C
~..,.....
b) Bandr
u..~­
......... _°"""'wh:n~IO ...........
'- Calculations with SHM
Page 286 -Applic.11tion Questions
QI ~ .l' aol\.to: • = - JA. : - 1..S' x l.lta
... _
l~41M
....,... .... acu1crauan. ............,,......
of~ .t*1l1Si.fly)IOUaw'1.U6e•- w'A.. rte
~,,... ......_...... ,_...,....._501.hc
xc:c:fr;r'.itJonl!trqatM::.
1
5. lnvesUgatlng SHM
Page 289 - Applic•lion Question
Q1 ail II Wces 0.SO t tor eKl'I ~osciLllion., I • 050D ~
~I
d (,t&
~,JC>/•1+0500= 2.00Hl"
'1J• 1• ) I 2 =4· = 12.566-= 12., Rid~ ' ( .. 3 JJ.)

~21/\ /\/\ /\ ,,..,.

"""""""'t>y Page 289 - Foci Recall Questions
Q2 c b) f..ngul.u frequency= w-=- 2n( rearranRlrc gM!S f =f.;- QI f .g. 'bu could ul!C a m.mauached to lhe end d a
VttJOl'&Olrrangtnggl~w-- /~ • LS+(2x n) =0.2387... H7 pendulum, which ill made to oscillate in rmm of a ploct1 of
J

Col 'f-to~lng~t - %
n~eocomplete 1 oscillation=, . t -~ c:atd with i n''(L'tentc mart.: on it to show lhfl mldpoln1of lhe
osdlla1ions, A.lt.a<hed at 1he same point that thf! pendulum
• 4. 188... s
s.r ~ .. ,_2.A fhe~~~.at.O.asthc~st.an&fn:wn "*'-
tune to complece IS oscillations ii. su5P<'f'lded from, there shoukf bE! a prouaaa1 te> rntQM.lre
dle .-ns:,w- rtw thl! pendulum makes wil'h a \'ertial A'f«MO!
• IS• 4.188._ =62.83_ s= t.l s(lo 2 f..fJ
So-to~3o<tcl6~:Sxf lnA' ._.....,....,.~(lk•...,...,.)........,O...i
Q2 >I ~=f=i=u:k=Llll.- •'
line a.sir ii~.
Q2 >I This .......... Wne period )'OU alcu1aoe .... ...,.,,.
Ql Cont.wt h •-..sher's mass IO kg:: F~Mpxowual ~~caM':l"ted S.Obv;Uc" tr'tOtw::f .W
m. •JIO+ 1000=0.31 kg Muunwn speed is given by. " - a i.a4 2wfA 010l~1.1on _,. be more accura11e.. sina! any htJnQn MOr
bad:. fhc~cnc:rv-.it.a~wftertihe!.iMtjltA
Sod>o_,.d ... _ i s
W • m.r •OJI x-9.81 =l.0411 N
as-pom.
.._...,~........,._
.,._f"'S5'5....,...,..pom.•- Subr.&IMlng this 9' and~ b ~ pws.:
A•,::;= oa~lll =0.101 -. m
~by Si&M1ii~ Of Slq:lping lhe~ 100 llR
(u 100 Nttyj wilt be ~sh;r.ced" 01e1 seo.'eAI asalbitllOfW,,
Thif fl);MJ~ centripetal farce Fon lhl> bunt. ...... f • m,rJr. Q3 a) Maximum d1~.ament =A = Q60 m ~·I 2x..-xl ·-= O. I0111 (W?!..fJ t$ llsi,. .a (lducir.JI marter helps )'OIJ .art Mm seop )'OUr
=
C'.onvM lhe bung's mass ro leg: m, 22 + 1000 • 0.022 tg =
Miximum speft'J • i.11'\ 2nU\ = 0.90 ms ' bJ Velocity <tl x =-0.080 m: Slcpw.ndt .a11tw same poin1 In the oscin:.rions, mNn1na
So 3.04 11 .. 0.022 x i.;} x 0 .60 Re;1rran£f v_ • lnfA to give f ~ = IM l'flf.;tSUtemenC ol lhe lime period fot one~
Y •.t. wlA - x'=s 2J/A.1 - x'
1

rhl~g·\~w - /o.ub.°! A.60 1

li:(•;urJn~c lhe formula w=
So I rr.ffr.:: = 0.4 119 .•. =0.41
Q4 ~ ~ -~ · ll.P+56.8
• 17.0283_. = 17.0 mr (to l t.U
bf The fonnubi for c~ fon:ll! is: F
1s.11a.•. rMts' So/:0,90+ l2 x 11 x 0.60) =0.2387...
•2 X • X f_]JJ_.X /0.101.,! 0.080'
oscillMIOn will be moA.'! iKCUrate.
• • 0.5228._ ms 1 = 1 O.S? """"""' (to '2 11.f.)
~ eo gi\<e r 2a- c 0 .2-4 H1 (l o 2 s.rJ
Ii (lo 2 ~.IJ b) I f
~rearr.tnsi"&grves I =j rho~ha~a ± Skjrl.at the front.bcc.llUDC)QI tt>n'I. k1117N
tilo dnx:Um of the w:Soclt)t
6. Free and Forced Osclllatlons
Page 293 - Foci Recall Questions
=
So I : I + 0.2387.•. "4.188... = 4.2 s ( to 2 t.JJ Ql PNiod • I =time 10 o::implete exacOy S nsoU.ations + S
QI A froo vibration involw:s no transfer ol energy~
cj Maximum Kll::lknltan = ..,,A =J¥=3.ls ltlt' osat141cing obf4!111 <tnd its su-JrOUndings. l1w ab~ will
=Ch/)'A • U: •"' • 0..2387._J' x 0.60 = 1.35 ms- *
I""""'1 t fJ '°
~.so If lhe a f: = = 0322S_.'' continue OllOll»e .ill ks natural frequency and with tht

·--·-•.e.•bemm8i>......... Page 283 - facl Rec..11 Questions

,.,..,...ude =-A=- 0.45 m
l~alimec x=Amst;:C)aACIDIQ.JO
same ~tudt forew. A fof'ced vinlion oa:UR ii thmi\
•-c....,...<1nvq....,..aq..,.,._._
~I llM::eis Ql.lil11fffd. So lhe> nrw~
_.,,..._d...,,....... numbetd...._
QI • =-.h =
Al ""Wt= 10..0• • Q-6 )( cosa. )(
G.322$_ . 10.Qi Q2 --.C.oca.rswhenlhedrimglmquency-

-·~-
Q2 is ... lhe naeuBI r~ d 4111 objea and NCJb;tic:t hftlftJ IO
= Q068J_ m =O..M.a m (lo 2 s,JJ
QS It IN blktt's speed is lhe mininun JIQ"ihlf ~for tum to q<ts pot st<ond. Thi!""'""' cl o<dli.tion ii ,,,. ,...,
raten for a complett cycle.
Ehl\ bgc<&opi<)Qrcabbta'1tonolbnohcr.. mcilltlO '""' • rolpdly inaeasing ~·-
Ql E.g. any 1hrtt rrom: a racto•s elearic circul1 reson.Jr1rc
nor f•ll, !he cenq,er.aJ acceleration to.or.Itch 1hc! Cf!l"ltre O.e. ~lum pit\SE5 throu~ equilibrium rwic~ f!\'«)' pemd, so
~ ir'J 1uned to the S<11me f~ ilS a radio sc~1 ion I a
doY.1') •H the Lop o( lhe cytinder will~ 9.81 ms'• due 10 Ql The W!loc:iry is ' r.adi•ns .ahead ol Che displ~t. if h\ Kot to 120 licks per minute:
g.lass ieson.1111·1'1 when driver1 by a sound w.Mt a1It$ na1urdl
s;r.wl1y. The motm:ycle w;11 fall if its circulllt mooon has a Q4 a) Equilibrium =
~iod • I 120 + 2 + 60 = I s
frequrnc,.y / ;i COiumn of air in an organ pipe tt!!OOnalln~
C:t!tmi pc_
ot.11 m:a!leratkln smaller 1han lhis. b) Ma.ximum diS{,..-:emc!nl lrcc1ucncy=l=-f =-i= 1 Hz ~n drivc•n tyt' lhe molioo of air at its base I a r.:wlng In ,,
So • • 9.81 IT6 1 =-f=/M = 19.81 x 5.0 cj Max imum dlt;f,.k'8nE!nl AmphludE! A= 6 .2 cm=- 0 .062 m playwound ~lmg when il's pushed by somoonp :.111J
Ri'~rr.1ni;ing lhis: v
: 7.00J._ m5 I : 7.0 """ I (lo l~fJ
d) Equilibrium Mll!':n1tudcolmax aa:eBarion
=
=•-
1
•t11 A • U111)'A
~- • CZ• x If x 0.062 2.447... ms' • 2.'4 m:§' (lo 2 sJ.)
natural ftflQUC'.'!nl"'y.

nw.. only Mbout. 16 '"'*' -

notvtX'y f.<ll!!il. ..,,_ ...
Q5 E.g. Q4 A ct.amP'nc rot'Ctl is a force that acts on an oscitlaror 11nd

-- "1 \
causes i1 ., k>sf mergy eo ils surrouodines~ reducing the

Page 279 - hcl Recall Questions r\

:v~ c Page 286 - f.id Recall Questiom
QI Oepl;iammt =- z =Acos(.A,. whf!rf' z 11 b Obta:f's
~iludlo of 1111 ~ILlbOns.
Q5 lid><-- --such1haunosdbW"C._
rab!s .._ ~ 1.ne to 5*Jp. and lheaq:ililudl'! of Nt)Wm

/\
I
QI II M' c:Jbtkt G moring in ;a ciR:IP~ Cl!tl~I ~.&Cton is ~ tiotia~ularfrequency, Mid A 11S mmnun
.,. XUl«".ac.on of lhe oo;ea cimc:ted IOw.Wdl Che ante of
lbt ~ CermpecaJ kwce is Che klrce tOW'.H'dJ Che antre
d 1he dttlt respons,ibfe for lhe centri~-.1 ,i.ccefifr,uion.
~k ;.n~t
""" &•"5<.
Q2 ~.1b0n= • =_,'• Velociry • "' •.tw~
~. " is lhe acceleration ol lhl! obj@r:t, x b ltl
HNvy--
A!lb:ft. by~ .. tnw.1 amount each period.
""-~such Chai.,.,,,..., utes""
lime to sacp OIOILMtng lhiin a lighdy damped S"J'lf'ITI, .-nd
~~
Q2 • • ..;, ditplxemenl, v ib wlociry, w ics ~ul.ar ltflQUmCY. md A
me amphrude ~ much smaller each period.
• • CMnpet.tl acceleralioo in ms ' hs m.ax1mum displacement Ctirical damp.ng d.lmping such Iha! the .-mphlUdio d an
u • nngul.ar welociry (in rads '} Q) "1Q)( speed = v_ =- wA, where v_ i5 lh(' obtcd's maxunum asc:illalil'!A 1y1~ t5 R!doc.ed (and so the system recurM tO

w'.<~
I • rnd1u5 ol circular motion in m v'f!toC'.ily. "'ib angular frequency, and A its m;aximum equilibrium) In the Jhonest possible time.

,.,,...,.~,,C\olf\·.
0.-erd:tmping C!lt'lrmtE!ty heavy damping such 1h:11 an
Ql ~ diJl>l.itt!mcnl
F. CfnU"q>etal force in N =
Q4 Mix l<lteler•tion a_= w'A,. where a_ IJ the ~·s oscilla1ing syswYn l•kes longer 10 re1urn 10 f!QUiHbrium cn..n
a critically <bmpt.'(f s)'lo!E!m.
m • rN5S ol abJect in tg ,.iA ' 1N.X1mum aa::daation, w its anculat fr~, and A its
v • l'Nil"trude of lineal velocity in ms • mll•mum dispbcement.
Q6 Al ics nua.imum di~ tbeota;ea\ kinetic~.
t • rJdl'A'. ol ciraAar morion in m £. is 1'f!l'O (iO fl . . . Tt!IO wiocilyj. Al of ils en8D' ii.
poeenri.at Ml"flr. f, As h oti,ea mows tointdl d'lt
«Jlilibriwn J*l&ion. h! ~ bo! does WOflt en
lhe objfct M'KI •lnlltn 90fne Er to E< /U &he equilhium
posirion,. N obt«f's fr tS Mid IO be i:ero ill'ld its E" IS
maximum to 1ti vttcx:1ty is maximun. As dw-otJi«I
ITICM!S ilWl'f riom IN: e(Jlilibrium. all thal fc is iran:.Wrred
badt 10 f, 4lr,;ain.

Answers Answers
 c) lf 1 is - num:. of $ECOOds shcMn on the AOpw;I~ Section 3 - Gravitational Fields 2. Grav1tatlonal Fleld Strength
rhen al'. o. IM: blod:
115 . . iils equilibrium (j .. poig1ion
Page 302 -Applic•oon Questions
vmM1aO,..,.~(r)=<I. ThismmnsxiJ
1. Gravftallonal Relds
g;w.. by 1ht fctmub x-= A sin l:O.
x=Aanwo
So ill I= l.ct
Page 299 -Applic..tion Questions QI X {, fl S..Slll._-.. S..5JN'q' (lol\..IJ
=0.20 )f stM.1f )( l.(J) QI F •~ Q2 1 L,so F• I"" lho_.,;tudedthev.llued6k-
=0.20 • ••n<f.rf, )( 3.0) (6.67 x 10 '') x (2.IS >< lo-) x (2.91 x 10•) onthl!-'"MOon.
wflK:h meoins illl abjecc: wich 1he gmt mm
will ~ te.\s force due to graviry (and so bet ~ui« to
• (J x 1011 1
,.._ 4't "'li!ltJfl\t'
= 0.1327.•. m • 4. 17308.•• x I C>"'
lifO.

L-----4-- -- So th~ IAock b: 0, IJ m (to 2 s.f.) from its equilibriu m • 4.2 w 10-N Ql g - CM• 6.67x 1 0 11
•4.87xl~
u.ilur,J rJ.uviuH WcGanf910re the mlrusS19n h NiCWUln'• ~of gr;wlLatJon
--7 (60Sbx10')'
ftt!C/ OOlt.'y fnYf'it'ftl y
posilion.
a
marb f(Jf" C.'OtTf!d .answer, ochendse 1 mart /(}If here bclcaJ<'...ewc'rcrot.~tcd"' LhodlrocUOnof ~force:..
=- 8.874 ... • -8.87 Nl(g • (Lo 3 s.IJ
~
Exam-style Questions - pages 29S.296 S
O'lffl!d •-Wking if answer incorrectJ
a) The a-nttiptgl fon:e Kling on lhe motorqclisr iJ s:.M!n
Q2 H s, so Che rorce. wm be 5 1 =2S times l•~-r.
Q4 a) f :
You j~ w.111'11 IO find the radius,. so you're noc INUy
2S•1Sa. 425N
I D(1 miriJ by. intel'fSllfld '" G.roction, Mid you an just use F • ~
OIC~ forllft:a"spx:r:f ISv .-. CJ",li!ftftr ~o .... f ~ ~
Ql .a.1 6l7000Dm+ tocmm=6lSOOOOtn• 4JIObn
t» The upwards kwce must balana Ndownw.wds foK:e R&minct:br:
. _ s.-......pa--ool 6 00 0.1HL
To-olici11t ...... net, the .-.-qdHI - .. dye IO jp\-Cy:
w 1.-f 1•• x 0.1---0.628-rah1.
0...~v 0..628... x :5D--.1.M4_ 1.Dnie'(to2s.f).
uaim WW.• m.r.mum speedofr_ ~'"here:
f·- ~ ' -_ v-r-
/CMrn
• ,,./667v. IO"x7.34xl0-•6S
1os:
C(I mril isoo irosl/-' (6.67 x 10 ") x (2500) )( (597 x 10"1
=
1.7408..- • 10'"-= 1.7 w 10' m (lo 2 s.IJ
"~'"""""sysum l"""5 .,,._..,,..._.....,,. Wyo/d_,tllo......,..,..,.,,.""""""l""~­
to rcwm toe:qoUir!IMTI. An~ped ~um 1.111:at1on9cr
So v..! ~- JSJl4.•• • (6380 x 10'1 ~...ctF 1Cb tQQ. 90 ttw;,MnJs ~c.ancd out.
=5.976.•. • - 244S6J... N 0I {;Al. x 6.67
1
x 7.34 X If'
10
to rm.um to cqulllrlum.
C ( I '""'Id
This ITll'.1"-'

=6.o IM • (to 2 t.r.)

v_ IJS.71 •L.
So uvw•rth force= 24 SOON (lo l Jo.I,) '= ,,- <ir.1•01L" 10'1 +\Mox '°'»'
=- 0.8636... • -0.84 Nlqr' 2 (lo s.f.)
lhc°""""'""'""""" '°""°"' 1GO<nplt:«cy<le{U:.2 'pc<oks) (2 m.uts IM IM wrred .nswet;. mhen.-is" ' nwt fcv
t1;, ~.omcJzcropou:nwiencrgy at.O, 1.!J •and ~s. Page 299 - Fact Recall Questions
oorrM worl.111.9 if M1SWet" irw:otred.)
~ ThC'l maximum cf~1 of lhe block W is 0.20 m Q I A gr.iv11.1cional f~d is a fon:e flf!kt ~ led by any objea Page 302 - Foct Recall Questions
lllnd t\e &&me period oC the osciJ~iom (0 is 1. 147 s.
b)v=J,t01o1 ~ ~=1.195._ w.ch tNM which causes arpt OCher ~ w111'1 moGS to QI & is the ll:r<WttilhorW rteld Slrengih {or the ba! P4"' uni( mol!Q
v-.oy "g,....> by. 1..Zr-Mt s '(lo ? UJ ~iena! Ml •.u:naive bee. ~ID grn·rtyl, tTl6nWed in Nlrg 1•
., .a..1.fA"'" - i' (1 m..b kw the cwR'd ~ otbtt!f'ttM I llUllt lot
Ql aJ Q2 "'t. the ft\UI ~fie ob;ec:I aealing lhe o:aviudorwl r1M1.
com«t -U.. If -bla>m!d.I Ql The"'"""' - .. c1.
• lfa-::?
• • ffl; x /~- O.IS' c) w =i1 So I t; - 1.fii;_ = S.25'-
3. GravttatlonaJ Potential and Energy
• ._ OJ2"6_. ms = .% on ms ' Oo 2 ~.t.>
1
(lo 2 s.IJ
5.J ' Page 307 -Application ~ions
r.>on'1forb'f!' to con\'M 20 cm and I S on •nlO metres. (1 marti f(w lhf! aKTK'I MJS~ OlhMdSf! I m.vt lolf
No Chante (C IS .. con.sea.no.
Q nMrb for lhe correct answtir, OlhHwfse I m.vk for crxrt'd •w""*If .tmWet" incwrect.)
QI a}

rorrec:t wtri.ing if answer in<tNTH:IJ

b• i\\llx1mum kinelic: energy is: f1:-.;= ~nw_1
6 a) The ampliluckl or the pendulum's osdllarioo will lntrNte
rapid ly ur01.md ils lld.tu rnl frequency (1 mark). This ii
t. ,t b) V1 W'tll double (Cw ice as nega1ive) as i(s tf'tlled IO ~
{\I 91),
callNI r('lloQn.1nite ( 1 mu~.
Milx1mum Vt'kx:iiy is:
b) f4t. fric:don with 1hc w.iter acts to dampen 1he~llla1ton Ql f ~, cj No <Jhance (man G the same everywhf*.te).
v- · ~ =1fA= ftf; x0.20 =1.°'S.•. m~' (1 ~. The~ will occu1 al a frequency when! F is lhe form on mass m due tom-."' M, d) t: will be four llroos bigger as it's related IO ~

Subt'il1t1.11e: th& irllO the equation b maximum lont'DC slighdy te.s tMn the penduJwn's naiura.I frequency C lj !he gr.witational mn:stanr, 6.67 w 10 11 ,..,m·q '• <• ~~
(1 tf'Ulflf). The pnluhm's ~ wi1I be tbrw;r ff.a. Jnd r fl the disWla!' between M and m. Q2 AW=mAV • IJ2 x Sll
""'1'r.
the~ peM. will be less stwP* , , ......,. •• 913.ll
I1 - • i x 0.60 x (11195..J =O.J600_ • 9IJJ(lo ls...(J
• 0..34 I Oo 2 s.I.> Ql ,.,...._.,,_ - t h e 8 " l f l h -
0 m;wb lol COfl'Kf atlSltW, Ollw!nit'N I nwi' 2•10'-m<tndS • IO'm is~2 sqwm,. 1JICh
for <Mcu"IMJ nwxinun Yl!!'lodr_t MWI I tnMlt for ...,..ontt.cr.aph bworth 20x(l w ltn= 2.-10'1'm.
JUbsdlutitW rhn info IM lorrnu£t fcv tnihlnMn kinetic =
Then!forf. WOl'lt done • 2 x 2 IC' II>' 4 • HP J.
m«gyJ 6 &Zic 1o ·"w7 J.fx lo"?J2$ 0
Q4 •) - 1.74wHr
2.6729_. x 10' - 2.67 x 10- J (lo 3 s.I,)
b) Ulih~ 1hf1 cqu.1lion ror escape velocily:

/2CAI - /2x(ft.&7w10 1,x(7.3-4•107J)

"_,.... (1.74w10')
2.3722••• IC 10'
2.37 w 10J mr• (lo 3 s.L) (= 2.l7 tlM '>

··~,,.IJ.Jll Answers Answers Wf.:M

 P•g• 307 - fact Recall Questions Poge 3 11 - fact Recall Questions di I -,, CM Section 4 - Astrophysics and
QI lbe pittlJOft.11 poteNial at ii poinl IS ltM!' ~ dt'lne> in
rnor.rlftC ii r i rrw.s from infinity IO lfwl ~
II\ mNiUlft:I in J!kg I •
QI A wttiilltl! tt" tmlll mm dul orbits ii 1arges l1"lillS5.
Q2 The orblLll _tpMd d ii s.Meiite is inwnety pcoporbOIWI ID
llesqi.w~roo1olNQCimoli1Sorbil (v • * ). 10¥N
~
.,. , -1- 7 -- -1--
[(i;i;i" )( 10( - h 97 x ' flr, '°' Cosmology
1. The S<mr System
Q2 11'MI Mpd... f!N!l'gy sign meiflS. d1¥ N P-""·Qt~ ACfius ~ ft ipN!d del::1uses... I 7.94392_ x tcfm - r>4J.92._lr.m
So .1h1rudl!! =7943..92_ - 6370 .a 1573.,2 ... P•g• 316 - fact Recall Questions
po1«1li<1I a; nf!CJti'W! Mid iroeases kJrfl.•.tf'dl. l'fJO ~ yu.i Ql The orblWI pMOd ol ii uielf1te is proportion.;111 to thl!
mow: further ,away from the .soun:e ol lhe EflYll..iuonal flekS. squa.rerootolN~usabed(l., R>,southt!t~rtD IS70Lm(lols..f.) QI hd""'" al""" Mid pi..... hed--by EC<''"'Y·
/I.I 1flfinlty, me i:ravilational poeential is te?fO. ""' a ~ 1hink
d rhis n4$:ative potential as being caused by you h.avmg IO
increaSES th(! ort>lcil pf'fiod increases..
Q4 11 geos.liltionary grellhfl is a sa1effite thac orbits dim:tly ~
n mMts '°'
c:orrM worki111;J
cortee1
a
~~ °'~ r mlft ""
Q2 A ~;ar •nd .111 ~ obj6cls whid'i orbi1 it (,ind the obj«:tl
Yitiich Otbit 1hose obiKU}.
Ql The Oort c loud.
dO work againsr 1be gravitational l'ield 10 move nn obj.N:r 001 1he equ111or <Ind Is Jilways above lhe same point on ~•nl'I, ~ l11Jt find lhedi$1ancer. Q4 The unit ol disrnnce thal is equal 10 1he me•m du.t.anea
of 1l, Their orbil t.1~ MC;.tr.dy I day. Geostationary salelhtttJ :1m
QJ -always .ibo\lc 1he ,,.me point of the Eanh, so receM..'fl don'l v. ~ bet'M!<..'fl lh@ 1anh11nd the Sun.
need IO be repc»ioon.!d eo keep up with then. ,.. , CM (6.67 x 10 ' ' x IS.9 7 'X' IO"l
Q5 Kepler's first s.tw: fa(h planec moves in .iin elhpse•round - v, = - 20.6x 1&' 2. Astronomical Distances
lhe Sun, '°"·1Cl'l tM Sun M one focus. .-. 1.933_ x 10''"
Keplef"s second bw:: A line joining lhe ~ to ~ pa.- 'Mll
Page 319 -Applic•tion ~ons
QI 20pc a 20iil. 1x10-m=62 • ICP"'m
sweep OUI f!ql.loli 41INI in equal limes.. _ CM t6.67xl0 ')• l5 ..97 11d ~ I ly.:,.S x I0'1 m
- - - - - llwporiodd ... - - ..........
6 r 11.'JJ- • 16')' SO, 20 pc: a t'2 IC l (rt .:-('9.5 X 101$) = 652'1- fy

=•
disunce ~""' dW Sun .and lhe pane. .ve n!WM!d by - I .oE.56_ - - 1Jl7 hta ' (kt J 1..f.) :70 1y (lo I dJ
P• rl. (J ,.,..,for rotnd ~~I ,,..,t lot
v Q2 ;tj Hil':lil O>nYM O,J7 MCS«Xll1ds into degrees .net tl'MJI
~ to nwrt~ r /be subjl!cf M'tll r nNtt I«
00.W::
Q4 I !QPC vl!fociry is the YekJcify needed so illf't object h.is jus.t rotrtrid rJ
enou~'1 ldnt>ric enetCY '°escape a cr.rvita1aon.at r,eld.
Exam-style Quesuons - pages 313-314 OJ7 • l.0277•.. • 10..-•
I 8(1mMt1 Q V • fEP. = /2•{6.67•10 )•,t;,~7 111:1'iQ
1.§13.•. 111: 0'
1
1.02n•.• x 10 •t. Tio=1.19 ... x 1o~ oo
Grav!~~' ftr.tdt1~th~asyourno.ei.w~ rrcm
• 6.<4187 ... • ICV= 6.42 • 1G-' m~ 1 (to 3 ~.I.) Tilend L a LSOxlOn
4. MoUon of Masses In GravltaUonal Fields the IN9!t by ~ tM;nt: sq,u.e law.
(1 nwks I« correct M>Swer;. Ol.hNwl'$t r nwll f<W use of • () i.19... x 10 t
2 A (I trMl'k)
Page 3 11 - Application Questions l a) Tune wkoi lot ON\ orbit =f and distance IOf dn:uUr c;om<t formu~ • a.J6..• x to•• m = 8.4 • 10• m (lo 2 1J.)
QI mf ~~ v1=C?:' 2.,.'°
orbtt . djet becomes:
tpN'CI
rhc: vU of r In this cquattJr1 IS tlv: .ht.otro: (n>m the GO"lttC
of the lll"'5iS M (In dl5Gil&C E.vth). 90 Ille th:.dlii.l.MICt:)DU
b) The dGUnce IO Sirius is 8.36._ )( I ()I• m.
t h~YNr • 9.S x IO'" m,
C.ncx-ll"L~ and r's: v" =~ ·-lf .. , Z,.11 -*l f(U'lcll"le). soSinll\d(a.JO_ x I0•) +('95x 10.., =8.tll)_,
Sow JT ~in~bv: II) A--ryOllJO(lawll. =8.8 I~~ nay (IO 2 s.(J.
So~"°'" Sintawil ul'.el)'Nf'SMMI 10mon0w; IO
~ lbu an use llhe ~to find fle ~ d 1he bee.
(-ai)r'"' M ~(~~ T - Jvt -41!.- hr/1 r. on 1he asaeroid a1agiwn~1 ''°"'Name of rN<ft l .1nh.
(/JT!) ~
Ql I'
Corl\'ft'I I ID S: tM pbnet.. So r:iu can use Newton\ IMW of pbtion
'42 haurs a 42 • 3600= 151 200~
M ( '4•' )(l.9Sxlor
So r' (tif)r crmMkJ
1
I f7· Page 319- Fact Recall Questions
QI Hair lhe antic by which a nearby stir appeal'\ to '"°""" in
m;;Til"" \ 151200) b) K~s, third 14'W Stal~ that ,, er t', so: You dorfl.nocd t.hetnnl9 ~!il'lee,you·n.: Ull"!1 ~ ~ relaOOn IO lhr: b.lCk;ground Slats in 6 months as lhe I iUth
of' tJ1C rorct. F.
1.5955 .•. x JQl1 kg = 1.6 w 1ov kg (lo l s.f.) ~
r, ~
r. .1> '•' 1/!A.
1;'
m<M!l bdwt~n opposi1e points of its orl:tiL
QJ /7 (X r1 Pick a ~of values from the gr<iph Ql A pal'S(!( iJ a unit of distance equal to 3.1 • 101• m. I\ MM
v .,T.'11 v~'i ·6, )(4201XXi
, .1,
1
e,g. r =to • lCfoNandr = 1 • IO'm
1
is E'JldClty Ol'll' p.1111-c (pc) away from l:.arth ir the <tllltlC of
So~ ·m --r:r
Sot •
So .it. 10• IO""flx IO't p;a1i1114x. D• I a""""ood : (:n\io)".
666708.44._ = '70000km(lo2,.f.) m GM 6.67• 10 "•2. 14..:10"
,. aL..' Ql The dGUnc.t lhilc elcctron'la£,netic waves tr-.M!I in • vxuum
71 • 7 a nwb"" ('On'f('f MtiWel';. Ofbent•ise 1 nvt- kx 7.005 .•. • to• = 7x IO'k&(lo ls.U in oneJ81.
,J_.,_, conK'f .,,,tln:rJ (1 Miltb I« cotnd ~ OlhB'vtM I nwk lot
tQm!d MWti..,
· -~ • f ,,.
,_ - ~ c)
f .:6S •I.I • 117 =120N (lo2 s.r.) ( t m¥t1
d> A 11ne Pntnl ~ IO .a Urpo <Will sweep OU1 tql.lill
bi - . . -_..,
_.,_ - pol81lial """'11 d ...
,..,.....,.,., .,..,-•...,...isroeld"
...

, • r =L ;;ad~ 1. from lhe pland. mull1phed br ft 415lefOid\

- 7f U2 Men •n oqu.111 1ime1. (1 miri;I rNlllii$ , , ""'*'.
The gr.MtaaioNI p.JUY1ti4lll " thf. v.ork
.. aJ A forol! r~kt" 11 "'l:ion mwhich. body~ .. donf" in moving a unit~ iom tnfinhy 10 tlui1 point
non-cont.ICC fa«f> ( f marltJ. Wort is done moving a ~ ilirlD'. rrom tkt' pb1net since
tl'wre is a folce of auraaion betwt!<!n th(!f'n, tiO 10 note a
m<1S1i c~·ards a planet,. I.he work done iS nt.~atlw~ So 1he

'*
Aravlta1ional po1ential {and liO lhe: g1.1v11~'~;il poeential
~) is neg<ilive ( 1 nJtJrld.
d

•
(I mri (« - . . . . painting .. the"'°"' of EMIJt,J
c.) ~ lhf ~ d I close IO lbe surticl! of lhe l . . .
ts W'ttlorm, '° lht- heighl dilerence .. 41 daswoom ""'"
~ .. negtcil* f'fJea as the distlna! to the~ ol
the t:.ril'I tS ,Jbout H same for bom studenb. f
(I mMl· lof- ffllTt'd aMWl!t Mxl correct ~n,J ( r nt.ilfl' I« ., t:r;aph below the r a.11 jfloM lnt: ., llr
rf'.l:ildonddp wilh f tending to ; ero .u r lf'ntk lo irHmity)

··~4'~!~·11 Answers
3. Stellar Evolution 4. Stellar Radiation and Luminosity P~g• 332 - Fact Recall Qu<stiom 7. The Evolution of the Universe
Page 323 - rat Recall Questions Page 327 - Applic.>tion Questions QI ThC'l: xYO Ofdermuimum is a lined ma~ brW'i~
P•g< 340 - Applic•lion Question
QI ;I) A is bit18. beCAt.H A Ns lhe ~ lmlinos.ry. .c 1he:ame of a diftraaion pMan. lr's .n llnt w1lh b
QI """"'
Q1 Nmwi~ lil'ICldl!nl bmm.
QI aiJ ll.7bllio'l)'Nl'l=ll.7xlO'x36i • 24•60•&0
lutl'linoMy iJ ~ IO swface Mea and'- four-. .. 4.3204_ x lOV s
Ql 1ht P"!M'ff' poduced from me~ 1..aeon in die «Ke ~ d ~ M1Cf since A and 8 .ite bolt ill cM Q2 WI\. . 'chi is rn:.Se tip of a ranr:e ol diflMN w~
d the tur tM&ances lhe graviubon.lil ~ c;ompres&ng lhe ~ lrtnptnl'ute, A musl be bigger. - dil!r.oct.,,. _ """"''"' ~-lhoy-lhrough r • ll.', toH.,• t'o: 4J204~KJ()U
JCiN', to d IS SWbfe. b) M.1in~ the dlffr«:bon gralirc,. formfng a f4'.W'Clrurn. • 2Jl4_ x 10--••s'
Q4 \\/hen the core of ill scar runs out of hydroSteft. hydrogt.on c.) Wtltt.l'dwdrf Ql /\ photon. The phocon's energy is eqwl IO lhl! difference • Q.Jl•... K 10--xl.l K IO")tM'Mpc'
(wion, und the pres.wre caused by it, sq19 ilnd 1 ~ core d) Star R betwoen lhe energy IE!\-els {lhe chan~ in t-nergy ()( the ... 71752.08..• ms-1i\.~:'
SJM1' IO c:.ontrild and heat up. The he:tt from 1hc core of the Q 2 a) Rigel's ,,,..11c w.rvt_1lenglh will be shorter than Chf' Sun's:, 4!-lt'Cll'Ofl). • (71752.08... + I 000) kms 'Mpc"'
Jt111 00.11s up lhe surrounding hydrO(:M la'rf'r until ii i.shot becau$1• Rl.-:cl h.ts a hishcr ~ature than thfl Sun. Q4 I ilC'h .uom in the s1ar absorbs pattkular WiWeJcnelhs or • 71.8 kms 1Mpc-1 (lo 3 s.f.)
mc>ugh for the llydro£en to fuse into hf.lium. b) L=4xt1,,I• rad1o11ion that correspond with the d irff'tt'nt('j ~~'em its b) Thal I'• l\JJ lu!n oons&ant since the univetie bt.ogan.
Q5 Com h')'dro&en burnings.tops in the scar illnd t ~ core oi the
j l j f lqins 10 contract, causing 1he Otll« bym to C!q>ill'ld
r KS.674.SxJOll
sor=jif:p v-... x 10 1 x 120001
cll!Clron energy levels. So there will nnty be ~ion
I I~ in lhe spectra al the pa.rficubr wavrlmg1M
.1nd COOl, ~ the scar becomes a md J:ianL ~lll8 to the elements found in lhe 5Lll•
Page 341 - Fact Recall Questions
= s .s1a_ x 10'' m = s.s I( 10- .. (1o 2 1.f.) QI W)'OU ~ lhe eq>ilnSion of lhe unMne Mio bHrl
~ O,C,. fuwon Mops 111 che core ol a ~ iUI', the:
pttlil,R OtWled by fusion is bi. so ttM!> a f t ~ .,
consrani. lhM 1tw .q d «he universe is H.', whfirp H, ~
conrr«1 under its own~ and Mlt. t.1J. OQ the coce Page 327 - m l Rec.ott Questions 6. The Big Bang Theory .......... °""""'-
Q2 \\\! an ody mNM.ft tie si:t.e d lhe c:tisevalJko Uft11W!rW,
ltt5 to .tlo&ll lhesiLeofthe fmh,. ~ ~
~*I» it conlr.lCtirc any blher. lhct ouwr ~al
QI A~iletbf
=
Q2 1 ~.r•. when! l is lhelumnosiryof the sw, 11stht
P>ge 337 - Applic~tion Questions
QI 14xlO'pc:l4~
- ° " ' I '... ..,.. iom ......
enGl..cJ'l Ul'M IO tud't us.
"""msunc.. ... hid
~ ~r Me fleeted. and the hoe dense Ceft th.» a left ewer is
.. whiec ctw.i.rf.
radius d lht SQr, " is 5'efiln\ cons&ant and I is tlw surf.IOI
aemper.11Ute d IN: M.ar.
r • Up= 70 x 14 =980bns' =9.1 x IO'" nw ' Oo 2 s.O Ql a) The tlf'n"IP«.Mure" Olbout 10"' K. £.g. quads iofn
Q2 Con\l\Yt .- to ms 1
Ql IO£fthet' IO form piilrtides like procons and 1¥Ull'On$.
Q7 The rMltl.ilnlS of 1he ruter Llyen. d a N!d s:bn1 tNt <Ve v • 46J I ( 1000 =463 OOO ms- 1 b) Tl'le u~•TIJX!r•lure is aboUI lCXXI K. E.g. r.lec1rons combine
~t!d ~the slar becomes a white dwarf.
Q8 The C~lroo ~eneracy pres...;u.re cannot wi1hs1o1nd
thfl gr.1vi1Atton.ll km:es at this mass, so wtw-n •hot! fusion
¥
iO 4A •
l
'!f. -4bJ~t0?·2 11 0.00032564...m
wi1h hydrQRt'11 .1nd helium nuclei IO fonn aeoms.
c:} ThP wm1H!r.t1urc i5 abou12.7 K. E.g. stars, gi1laxlet: .rnd
11-.,r1ions h.t\•e stQR>E!d_. 1hecore will con1lnue 10 conlrad
galacik C:fU!>lt..lf'S fiorm, due 10 gravita1innal ;utrar.ilon lrum
l>Pyand lhc point at whK:h a whice dwarf wou Id fioon. - 3.26K 10... m (lo ls.t) cmn~lly nue11.1•tiuns in lhe universe.

-
Q4 Dan: ma1 ~ COUid C!lq>lain ~h'/ gafaaic dusters h<IW': .1
Q9 ~ care mntr.Kts and the oom layers f.111 onllO the core
Mid~ ausing <11 huge shod:waw dut PfOP11J the Page 337 - Fact Recall Questions i:reatPr m..u lhoan 1s ak:ubled from their luminm.iry, illnd
v.tiy mrs .il the ~ al a galaxy 1T1011e l'.asler d\<tn lhc!y
OUWJ ll)'M Wo space. QI 0nJ......,..,.,.lheunMneis...._Jnd~
QIO A nMJOn SWL They_., made mosdy mhfU90f'd.. ~the ~ol physics are ibesame~
Q 11 A bbd: hole 0 Ml oti;ea 'whose lf!SaPe wfloacy is pl!-llB Q1 Thp JOUnd W<M5 tm"elling in ft~ dironion.., fie QS MAOlOs .... -.... ean.,.a Halo oo,ecn. •.a. -
polo car .e1M1ched llP' in fronl ol 1ti. polo c... The holf!s Mel browft dwartl.
Nin dw 'Plfd ol ligfll. they Me- fomw!d whln a J&¥ d core Q6 \\'IMl's.,. \\..aly _ n g _ P:lt!id8.
m;t.U more dwn J siobr masses OJnr:acn ;iind ~ inkt
°"'d'lfin1wty dense point.
buncho...... a.... lhe ' -.... _ " " ' pold>"'
tlw sound wave lo be higher. Ql The -
not docel«Jt1
"'""'..,.....,.is l!looghl .. be aa:dsJOnc,
re 1.s olSCroocwners expecled Mtf1Y
dttt
Ql ~ .th1ft IS where \Vcl'o'es emitted from a $iOUrCoe rh•I is
IT'IO'VI !'lg •wzt from the obser\u am dt>leculd by !he observer might explain chis.
5. Stellar Spectra w'i11'1 a klngc.'f' wavelength and lower rreqveney th•n they
Page 332-Applicalion Questions were t!lnitted at. Blue shifl is ...mete w J\'eS <'ftliuro from a
QI B IQU" c 1hi11 is IT'IO\'ing towar<h lhe obst>rver ~M (k!tocled by
Ql M= ),4 ( l).6) • 10.2eY:I0..2xl.6Kl01' 1ne cll»eM!f with a shotter wavelength and l'liGht.'1' frequency
=
1.632 K 10 .. , lhan lhey were emitred ac.
M=hl,StO f•~ l.6J2x10" -=2.461._xlO" Q4 lf • Hjl, where v is the recessional vekx'ary of M'I objed in
II 6.6lx10:U ~:~&::in:=:::::. 'Mix' and dis lhe
•1.S • 10n H.t: (lo2s.f.J
' torH_U
Ql M ~
'
''l•10.,xJ.OOi.:IO' = S.S25xlO " J
3.60xlO ........
YOuc:oAt*>hM:~thel:dLS.as ...

Q5 lho hooy ..... the unM!rse .......t

I .......

oll-r""' .ond w.y

Cono.ftt 90.V, Al • S.S2.S • 10" + {1.60 x ID")
~.., h¥ been~ f!¥W' Sll'IClft.
• l .4SJ._ev
So origin.li ~ ~ = 2.00 - 3.453_ 5.453_, = Q6 CC»mlC microwa\>e badcground r.adUuon 15 ~
=
5A5eY (lols..f.) tada..111<1n 1n the microwa\ 'E! region chat 11 lound fM!l'yWhere
Q4 d:Mnb= n,\ In 1he universe. and is largely ~etlfOUS and douopic.
11 Ii il continuous spectrum of radiation 1hJ1equ.ua w a
so, d= ...aA.. • l• 4
iln1
661&' =-0.000070SCM
iini •
... m
= 7. t K 10"" m {lo2s.U
1empcya1ure of 2.7 K.

Answers Answers
 Exam-style QuesUons- pages J43..,345 c) f-or a parallax angk!: in arc:seconds, p =~ Module6 2. capacitors In Circuits
1 c (t marl<) d ~b Page 355 - Application Questions
Yhtat. thest.arbccornc$~ai It.score's ma9$GOl'Tpml
to the Chandr.asd:h<r llrnlt.. Mlk.ti IS 1.4SGb'" ma95CS. The
So,

d= 5.5: 10 • :-1818.18.•. pc
Section 1 - Capacitors QI ln..n.s.i:; = t 1 t;
ire, = C, =-<:t~tl; = f.· soc_ =~
rauo of the ccrc tnafJS to the Stris mas& 19 1.0!l_ so the
mass IS bdow thc.Olatkb$ckhar ltrlt, ant the star l:7cconw;s lpc=-l.I x 1o~~m 1. capacitors So tile toul c:ip::icit:1nce of Ille circuil is h:itr 1he o~icincr
1 fy=-9.Sx IO'~ m Page 350 - Application Questions or one opacilor. Porenti:il di:ffetMCt'., V, is lixed. so the toe:il
aMlltcdwarf.
Cor'J\'e« d in10 light ye.irs: dl:wge SIOff!d by lhe c:ip;icitors. Q, is :also hltf the troll chlrge
D ( 1 mark)
d= (1818.18... x l.I x 101~i+ 9.5 x 101\ QI c .-. ~ rearrangedgi\-esQ=-CV=0.IOx230= 23C swred by 3 single c:1p3citor if it were conneaed on ils own in
B (t nwk)
Calculate thcencrgyofthcphotoo ~ E=-hf, andGOma't It.
= 5933.014 ..• ly
= 5900 1y (lo 2 s.f.) Q2 •;V:~V'C= ! x230' x 40 x 10-) = lOS.S I 1he same circuit
So, Q = 1.2 x IO.J. + 2 = 6.0 x IO"C
toc:Vbydlvktln!Jlt.t1)'1.6x 10 ''· rhcn.JU$taclclthsrunbcr (3 marks f« cotTed answe.;. o(flien.·ise 1 marlt for = 1060 J (to 3 s.f.) Q = l1,sol= Q.::-1
to- 13.6CV. correct method for caku/alion of distance in p;ttSea,. 1=- 2 x £:.0 = 120s
4
QJ E.g. it would h.ave 10 be very latge to provide enough pc:iwer,
a) and 1 flMfk fM corred a/cularion ro com'eft parsecs to which might hinder the portability of the media p layer /ii
So,1=6.0x 10-4 + 120
~ 1d G;O
lighlfHrs)
d) The ooier layers of the sur collapse towards lhe centre
coukf only JXM'el' 1he device for a short lime, so it would
= 5 .0"XTO"'A
Q2 a} TocaI capacitance is given by the giadien1 of the graph.
~ and reboun d off the core ( 1 marld. This uisgers powerful
need charging very often I the voltage would decrease as 1.h e
gradien1 =(3.6 x I O1 - 0) + (0.8 - 0}
j
~ "' E:V shod:waws which cause a very bright P.xplosion - this
is a s upernova ( 1 mark).
capacitor disd\arged, so it would be d ifficufl to prodoce a
mnstani output
=4.S x 10 1 F
So 1he iota I c.apaci"'-1lee is 4 .5 x to l r.

l;,. "' 6 a) The uni\'«?rse s1aned off \'ery hot and very dense (perhaps
as an infinitely hot, infinitely dense s ingularity) and
Q4 W=ic,.so
·~
C2 (2.2Sx lO '1
=
b) For capacitors coonec1ed in parallel, C_, C, + C, + .•.
Since all the capacitors have the same c:ap;tci'lance,
a expanded 10 form the present universe (f mark).
C : 11lll ~ -rxr:i:r c_1= nu mber of capaci1ors x C
~ a01 b) H ubble's law says tha1 1he funher away a galaxy is, 1he =
1.9471... x IO'F So, number of capacitors= C_, + C
-'I f:t$ler i1 is moving a.....ay from us.. 11 suggests lha1 the =
1.95 x 10.. f (to l s.f .) = 4.SxJQ-.1 +1.Sxl01
universe is expanding so at one point it mus1 have been : l
$4000 1( 1~(Mn"-~ 2t;,()() I( denser and holier (t mark). Page 350 - Fact Recall Questions
(1 mark for oorred shape ofmain sequence, I mark for cl H 0 =65 kms'Mpc'=~ =2.09... x IO"s 1 QI The capaciiaoce oC an obtecz is the amoon1 of charge it is Page 355 - fact Recall Questions
J.1 x ion
drawing the red gMnts and super red giants correclly,
and 1 mark f« drawin1: while dwarfs c:orred/yJ
1 •
t = J:z; = .09... x lO 11 = 4.769 ... x 1011 s Q2
able to store per u ni1 po1eruial difference {p.d.) across iL
Electrons now from the power supply 10 one or the p&ates
QI d:;=t;+i!; +.
2
Q2 The 101aJ capad1anceof 1he capacitors..
b)
= 15 biJlion years {to l s..r.) ol the capacitor. The electrons cannoc ITIO\'e across the gap
(3 marli's for rotted answer,. o«herwise t mart between lhe p lates., as 1.h ey are separated by an electrical
for corredly cotnerUng H. to s-' and 1 llMfk lot insulator, so a negati\•e charge buik1s up on the plate.. The
n~tive chaige on lh is plate repels electrons in lhe oppo.si1e
3. lnvesUgaUng Charging and Discharging
subsfiluting into oorreef formulil)
d) f.g. Cosmic microwave bad:cround radiation: The Big pJaie. This causes elecltOns to flow away from lhe'Opposite Capacitors
Bang Lheory precicts tha1k>t.s of gamm.i radlalion was pb1e, and a posi1ive chatge boikts up on this p late. Page 359 - Application Question
QJ Find the area under 1he \,(.Q graph.
produced in the early universe (1 mark). The cosmic
QI ~=-&,soQ= CRf,Q
microwave background radia1ion h cons.istesu with lh6
Q4 W: !ov, W:jll'c, W=i~ Cap.icitor is discharging. so L\Q =-
85 nC = - 85 x 10 • C
predic1ion, as the predicled radialion would be Doppler
shifled by Lhe expansion of the universe from the gamma
\Vhere W is energy ~red by the capacitor, Q is the dl.arb>e Q- 4,2xl0 1 x5.5 x101 x(--8.Sxl0.,
range oC 1he specuum 10 the microwave range (1 mark). on the capacitor, Vis the po1en1ial dmerence across Lhe : 0 .4363 ... C 4 :Sx IO'
capaciror and C is the capacitance d lhe capaci1or.
7 a) dsinO=n>.,so: = 0.44 C (to 2 s.fJ
56(1Q(J I( rt:f11P13;Ki«:{)lotll..tno.:if~ i1JOO K >. = dsinO + n = 5.4 x 10-L x sin(0.18) + 2
( 1 mark for corroolyplotting Star X on the HR diagram = 4 .831... x 10 1 m Page 359 - fact Recall Questions
=

L
at a roughly correct position for Us luminosily and 4.8 x 10-1 m ( to 2 s .f.)
QI
temperature.) (1 marts for correct answer, mherwi.se 1 mark for

~ic_
c) W'hen fusion in the core of the Siar stops, the core will corred method)
begin IO contrac1 (1 mark) and the o uter layers v.ill b) AE= he= 6.63x 10 "'xJxlot = 4.114 ..• x 10" I
beejecled in a supernova, leaving lhe core behind A 4.833 ... x lO 1
(1 mark). The gravi1ational ~will be so larce 1ha1 =4.114... x 10" + l.60x 10"
the core will oot stop at a Yot\ite dwarf or a neutron star, =2.57173 ... eV =2.6 eV (lo 2 s .fJ
bu1 will collapse to an infiniiely dense point (a black (3 marts f« corred answer,. Olberwise 1 mart for U t () I
hole) (t marl<). corred method and f mark for c«rect conttel'sion from Q2 E.g. remove the power source and reconnect the circu it.
a) Wien's displac.emen1law S$ales lhat: jto eW Ql E.g. Anac::h a fully charged capacitor in a c ircui1 conlaining

~ .. f, so ~T =constant c:) Uearons in hydrogen atoms absorb and emi'1photons

by movi:ng beiv.<een enefll)' levels ( 1 nwt). Since
an amme1er and a fixed re;is1or, and wilh a vollmccer/
vollage sensa connecled across the capacieor. Co111>lete
>.,.,....-r_=~'~ the elec1ron can only move berwoon these discre1e the circui1toallow1hecapacitor to disch.arge. Use a daia
1-= ~1-
>-.....
500.0xlO,x~SOO =l4()9.S? ... K
S2B.6x IO =- l SOO K (to 2 s..r.)
energy le\-els,. they absorb the same energies (and so
frequeocierlwaveleng1hs) oC photon that lh4.?)' emit, and
these energies would be different for d ifferent atoms
logger connecled to 1he ammete1 and voltmeter/vohace
sensor to measum 1.h e current lhrougli the resistor and 1he
po1en1ial difference across the capad1or al dirfermt limes.
a marks for correct aMwer, ofher.,.ise 1 mark for ( 1 mart). The dart lines are caused as the l~ht emiued Once 1he capacitor has folly discharged, connect 1he data
correct metbocO from inside the Sun passes lhrough hydrogen in 1he Su n, Jocger ma corrc>uter and use the re.sulls obcained by dw
b) L-=4-n1of4,so which absorbs these pholons, and prevents them from cbta lcscer 10 p lOl graphs of current 1hroug)i the c ircuit and

r=/i!£? d)
reaching the observer ( 1 mark)
~ = ~,so:
po1en1ial ciffermce across the capacitor ag.ains1 time.

-/ l.083x10»
- 4• xS.67xl0 1 x3499.87•. .' v - A.\c 0 .019x 10,x3x10'
= 1.0064••. x 1ou m - -:r 4.833 ... x 10
= 1.0 x 1ou m (to2 s.f.) = 11791 .96•.• ms '
(2 marks for correc.r answer, otherwise 1 mark for =1.2 x 10 4
ms-' (to 2 s.f .)
correct method) (2 mari:s for rotted answer,. o«herwise t mart for
corred method)

w~t• Answers
4. Charging and Discharging Calculations d) i)
Section 2 - Electric Fields 2. Uniform Electric Fields

~~
Page 364 -Application Qu<Stions Page 373 - Application Quostions
U••' 1. Electr1c Fields
Ql V= Wen-= IS.Owe .._111,.11 ... Qi\ • 5.7.)4$._ QI
"

~F
=5.7V(to2s.f.)
Page 371 - Application Questions
Don't. ftrget. to GaMl't. al t.tw; vab:lt 'ytN\le: turt flW;rt ~"° Ql , • .fl!J..,
4u..r
511d14 0 ( 160x10")'
Q2 \.\'hen lhe ~ is fully chJi'tfd. O Ciw&elC
4a x(8.8S X 10u)x (S.22x10 11j
ihecha.rgeisO=CV= IS lt 10 ' )I llO• l ...S . 1o•c (I _ , , ,., ~ - lhroatlb !he origi~ •8 <44784_ x 10...
Then-0.01~ •i) fragy sacnd by lhe apac:ilor et mart). • 1.4.S x 10_.. N (lo J sJJ Ql If the pattide! isn't moving. ft~ force"'°"' fl°'I!
O=!l.e1'=l.45xlo~x,. .a? wt b) C-=-~-~-15 xtO"F Q2 ~by .....,..,,.. lhe iorrnl.U for the rN£nilUde mE to eko.aric: field must balance the p.Mtlldt\ -~ .....
:5..587_. :it 10"=' • 10 (to I LI.> nc (1 mris few CDIT«I .-swer, , m;wi" kx o:wTI"'Cf rM!l.bod fNQrlhe~ . . ~ f-0: >'<,}

-L
Ql ~ Thf! ~ lminc f.n. d dJ d'lMp fl cht YM • if MISWW inalrrt!:d) r -6•r ~ lbs...,..huno_ .,._e ~-E ~
d1e.,..,.otor cfisdwt:q .. )~ol .. q O N l - .,.,,.,_._.....,."""""" .. Mychargod. .... ~
whicti t.ates .1~~11)-htf'lf'~t•CR..
T =Cll'= IS• I0 6 w..00w ICJl•4s
Mfcnnc;c .-::ross k 19 apif to W.pA of tht scuu: ascd to
.. , lb ~f'lis:tomM»dlhe~N!npulltldw
numbers:
~ C=i=~= l.S•IO•f cJ V-= ~ 6' = 12xe u.o•'!'-;;:
Tiwn pul ,,. nURtxn in:
I <4!sx10 4
nw=W,.d=~
c) The cap.lCiloc' would hM> II) .,.,. • kll bi:fS.IH INn .,.
origiNI one. Tlw> ~d N ~could bt
: 6.020_ : 4JI v (lo 2 sJ.)
Q . . 0 loT com!d .-.w;. I ~ ffK CDm!d llWlhod
y·4-. x IUS " 10 S) x 15000 <S.00 'JI 10 'x- 2(1.60 1( 10..,

incn5tsed n.n
1.sms_ (6.64 l( 10 ) )(: , ...,

a ii MISllW irrcortK(} - o.m..S6_m 1.-t'an~ Js:.JJ

:L
1., .. (lo2UJ
Q4 =0.l Ql C=~=nas:.:10°otzp1do•. 7.28Sll_ .- 10
f •b•~• 1WIONC '
d)
QJ d 8.5 tdO a 7.lx IO• f (to21.f.)
~ _ e ~so O.l ,. fll ,,. ln0.3 tn(e +f) 1:0.7) nf)
~ lnO.l ~ ~ CR fn'ld •''-' t Oo J i.fJ Pag• 371 - Fact R•oll Questions
Page 373 - Fact Recall Question
QS a) ln(VJ. whece V• is rtw tn11bl polf'NQI di~ KI055 QI f 15 ;a me.uu~ of lhe bu per URIC po51b>.-e cNrge 6n an
QI e = £,"-o where " is ChepermillMty ol thfo 1N~1.;JI, r, IS tht
me capaciror. ~mcrlf!kll.
rebJive pennittivity and "• is thfo ~iltivHy d (~ jpOIU.
bt Vertical .1xis inll!CO!pl =Inv. • 2.708
Rearranging co find v.: 0 t Q2 ~
v. =eJ.M =14.99.•. =15.0 v { lo 3 s.(.)

~
(1 mri "" "'"""' slwpe) 3. Electric Potential
c) The gradient d the graph is:
e; /:loe,; sol= CRtn(O
? ZQ§ -
2.00• lo'
"®A = 8Sl SOO
0

I ooking 6or when lhe current has fallen to 10%ol its

Page 376 - Application Question
QI a} v- 0 - 12.bx 101.
initial v.due, so ~ =0.1 - ~ - 411 x a.as x 1091 x s.1~ x 10 1
The gradien1 = ~ so CR • I + 8Sl SOO
• 1.171.- )C 10 • i= (l.Sx 104x29x 101)x l~0. 1)
-=2.18298. •• x I C'/'
• 1.17 µs (IO 3 a.r.) = 0.1001 ... s= 0.10.sOols.f.) QJ f Oq
=2.18 x 10' V (to ls.I.)
So 1.h e lime constant ' =1.17 µs (lo 3 to.I.) (2 nMtks fa- corr«-1 .answa;. 1 mMk for correct m«hod Q4 <.;:;? b) Firs1 find Lhe new pornndal a1llY' C?l'ln1w of1he i iMlief
sphere:
EllK' ~
If answer incorrec()
\/'.- Q
Page 364 - Fact Recall Questions s ii) W=.j-V'C=1•50.01 xl.Oxl0 1 , -~
J'fax!Q 6
QI Q=Q.11-ei\) =J.75 f =3.8) (lo 2 s.f.) ... x 8.85 x 10 jj x ((5.19 )(101; Cll.9 x 10 \1
Q2 V=\!•ft = 6 .26..• x 10"V

~rim
(1 marts for oorred answer;. 1 m.Nt" for cott ed method
Q3 The l'f!!;isranc:e of the circun and 1he ('.ap'9C•tilnc'.f' uf the The cledric porontial enetm' cu a poin1 • Vq, and
Ifotnswer incorree()
capacilor. wart cbne is the difference in f'laorlc potrnll~I ~
Q4 The time taken for the c:apadtor 10 dl~~rl"' 10 ~
b) ' =CR-= 1.0 x HP x 3.0 _. I 0 1 6 s (I mark) = between two points, so:
cJ Aftef 14 s, lhe chatge on lhe capacitor is:
Wotl:done
tabout 37%:1 ol its otigmal cha~~ h b i;Nen by ,. •CR. Q:C'.lojl e CV(I e °'> = /ti =
= V1q ~q (V, V,)Q
Q =l .Ox 10 1 x 50.011 - e ~ = (2.18.298.•. _. 10" 6.26.._ _. 10") x O.IS2 w 10 4
= 0.135._ = 0.14 C {lo 2 s.f.) = O.lJ.66161._
Exam-style Questions - pages 3~367 (2 nwb for OOITf!d MSM'tf; I m;ri- f« correct mt!l.hod
I h (1 n»rll). = 0.2l7 J (to l -'.(J
ifM5Wfr ilJOOIT'«f)
You cotlrJ also hae ...att:r.fous. the~ JlO'O'IUllcncrgy
tnc-'""'""""'<f*'llY.rd"""bd<olf•L - -
.rd"°"""""''f*°'Y.nl""""""'olf.. n.-.. a<eaobpant."'""1r (ll\l (• .,.,,,..,..,,..,...... .,,.

)
C(1 mM11).
0

So~D.>)
90C- -
• 0

;.
u j
0 e':'M~-11• .ftn: Jt tt-0.Q.>

,oo;~(?';C
100x1 x~Y....1)
8(1mM11).
?..3x 10"F(to?U)
Jlc_a 6 ,,.
~~lilcnr.o~
q C='4v,.R=.fa .. a.as .. 1on .. 2.11 .-1ot
=- 1J.4lt- ) t 10 ,,
:2..J5a JO D f (I0)1,JJ

T...aels
Ars<findwtoUt..,...........,...,..__.....,
scncs. L1 2c)7.0'
1

............
1
w1 ·-20
"'
.Ne_ 6(i6.. pF
..,...........,...._...F..
thcnfindwtout..,..........ofW-l>y~ -
~
...
,n.:
(I - .., cwn<t -
dwgiC !ih:MI n:::rcasc- toM'l:Jlnl 631.n.6 s Mkf OO'lac.

c_ -- 1w • 6.6fL-= 1&.00.. 1&.'l

Answers
 P•g• 376 - Fact Recall Questions Exam-style QuesUons - pages 37~ Section 3 - Electromagnetism 3. Forces on Charged Particles

- Ooly"""i<d_.,,_....,. ....... ,.,.,,._..

QI The tktcuic poeeU aa a point is the wort doM IO mow a I A(I nwrt> Page 393 - Application Questions
vn.1 pOldtw charge from infnily to !NI poi1n1 In M lfif!a'K: lhcrcwtl be~ urtb'la ~fidd poh*lt from ihc 100Y 1. MagneUc Fields Ql

-
fUe&o"'°OV,,..,,, lht""""pauole19~~ Page 383 - Application Questions fi9cb~tu\•no~.
sou.re: . . be A buantl.h s:ttsdlnx:U:lntb: t.ohdoc:UW: Q2 The fain: Wlll Kl ~ tusing Ille lel-Nnd "'8.

~· ·~
QI
_.,,.P'""*,..__"1orgc<l)QI..,.., "'""'""
2 B (1 nwrtJ
Capocl....,.(I(.,_..,.
R l9thc:l"a.'llu&orw~
C (t m¥l<J
~sphere"'- 40', . ........

-·
'jCA690Cllll\1,.,,...t'I thctlfflOSlte~ to lte..Cl.Wll

QJ F = /IQV
-(640 x 10 ') ic (l.2 x 10 '">" (55 x HP>

"l7
l'hc~loll€.lcoft.hcforudtx:n:aSC9asyoo ntcWCt.1waylrom =-1.12b4x 10"= 1. 1x10-~ N (to2s.f.)
'
4
""'char(lC<l""""'
A ( I m.M"lc)
by u.:1....... sqwrclaw. Q4 v - I.
8
=it f Bv QO.Oxl0 1)x52xl0'
1.04x1CP=- 1.01C1<FNC 1 Clo 2U.)
Fk'st. fnl..,, cq.a.lt.iOr'I for the dectrlc fidd stn:ngth tiet.wcoi Q2 The ,_. ,.;11 ""' upw.ud<.
..... IO....... _ _ _ _
1.1¥tt.tunn.d':uit.wkteb::tlort. El--. _ _
dcctrt fdd........,
~th.... QS ., f . mf.1 • BQv
.,. q:.
-·-
P•ge 383 - fact Recall Questiom BQv
t.o~M&.ttc ftd:t. ~decsr1c.fidd 5'ren!fth.

.,,............
.. wctar; 90)IOU J.lk.aa:t the drx:Ut 6dd strcnf\h &Uc. to
QI ~" rlll!tds. are fomd aiound ~ lftWW'l5. .and
s;;
''°"'
=$ • •

QJ Tho-'"°"'°'-""""""·V·~·•ndm.
c:Nl'lf' on 1 capacitor Q =- cv.
• ...,
°""""',.....,~ .a.m-..,..._ Ql nDnh., SOUlh.
Thew"1Cl"ollhe~fiold.
Uncell"'C 11w Vs.:
o.soE
t
~(' 0 l
.f'Sf..-r
,._...,.
~ " ~- lhcnlnlt.hc-...:
"'.,,.-..,-
QJ
Q4 bi an use )"OIX left barxL The rnc (1nd(!I;) ~ B• fi"
f~ts tile directKln ol the m.1i;:ncti<: rlf!fd. the sec:ond b) 8 = 1!1! . (I (t73 )( 10 ., x 0.99 )( 10')
4. Comparing Elecb1c and GravltaUonal Fields fdl ~~ t.hc hchml ruclcusand the ma.ron tmldirllt>) lincer r~ts the dirocbon of 1hrl c:ul'Wflt, and Qt ll.&Ox 10 "lx5.49
Page 377 - Fact Recall Ques tiom E.,= zc• o? ~ ~a,. Fmnthe t.woDCtuiUOtlft)OO lhe 1hud> rnpresen~ the di rection ~ IM IOrtc (or mo1ion). • 0.03790... = 0.0379 T (lo 3 s.f.)
Q l /\ny 1IHf'll• rrom: f.g. 4,,_.r ~ ..1,.r 4Wfor
"""""'""''~ ;:.eoE, ~-
I. Crav11alional f.eld suengthg is the fort:@ a un11mass Page 393 - Facl ReCtll Question
'h't)U'd t"XJ>l"rience in a gravi"1 lion.;d Oeld. I l~ulc: Of'kl
2. Magnetic Flux Density
QI It will follow ii c1rcubr p.llh.
su~lh Eis the force a unit pos,itive dw'lf!: would s al Sphere A ~ ~JCJOl'Qty, so fon:es acting on it muM ~ P•ge 388 - Application Quesli011S
f!l(~e in a.n electric field. equal. M> fo.at ~'°gravity-= bee We'° eteclnC QI il) F
Bllsi.n0 =0.201C'4.0 x QSxl0')1i1$inSl•
2. ~'s bw itnd U:Juloni1'S lilw Ire lht NrM bul w1lh r..td. = 0.1597 _ ..-. 0." N Oo 2 5.1.) 4. Magnetic Flux and Flux Linkage
C twlldM!d for C and M ~ m sw1ldwd (Gr 0 and q.
F= ~ ~ , . /.J!i!J bi nwt. is no ktco! ~on lhe wue.
Q> ., lo&.
Page 397 - Application Question
J. t-itld 111'15 tor it ,:.a.~ fll!ld Ind ii tJdW QI ail Flux I~ iS •its~ 'ftilen the: ¥Mis norrNI
~ rwtd have lhe same slwpe. !f-925 x 10 'le-JU x 10 ~ to ow f'l'\ICJWllt rleld. • lhe aog1e of the field Wiit!
•.GR\ ouanal powcia.I v ilnd "1bsolUle ~ poten1Q.I
v c~ 1hf' enets:Y a unil 1mass or dYrlf! woukl h,_.. ;u a
• "'- ... x 8.85 x 10 • x 1.9'
a l.8081._-= l.81 m Oo l !fiJ .)
.... -...i lo ti.. ....... Kiaeased, ....
-....... °"" ...
~

po1 ...
Q2 /\ny two from: f .g.
I . Cofilv11a!lonal f~ are always atl.radM!, but emtk
°'
run:et. c;.iln IM! a1uac1.rve repulsiw~
a nwrb fot rorr«f iWKWf!t;. otberwise I awt fol
COITf!d M--ot1VvlJ
b) A unirorm t lootlc fiP.ki is prodoced ( I mart>, poin11nc
rrom 1ht! pa,11e wi1n 1he more positive potential (tnc 1cip
.....-...-
"*' 19~ tilcttJrnbcrof 61'!\CdlWICS~.klg Urough t.h:I
b) At hi~t valoo of nux linkage cosO =- cmO • 1, w:
l. ()bjQru; c.an be shielded from eiedric licl<K, bul noc rrom p lale) kl 1M pi;&., wi1n the less ~iti\•e po&ential <the
Qt'".w'IL110\dl rields. botlOm pl .i~ (1 m.ut). N~ 8/\N .., R N~
AF1 ~~ · id
mx13 Fx
3. lhe fiill! ol an elearic force is dependent on !he tnNium Q First c:.&k:.,..illle the t'tec1ric field suengdl: = 5.2 x 10\T S2µT
tJi8Wttn the charges, but for gr;Mlal»Ondl rte1dl 11 tnolltfs b) II. v.anable teSi!IOr should be U5ed to lh.illl IM R"Sisr.ance,
E: L • ___J!JJ__IO =- 1945.9_ NC' .illnd dwelon! thea.irreN, can be~ b;lnc. V =-Ill) Oori\. lorft:t. toana-t. lbc.an::a to .W.
Q '9T.Sil1)'
no di~-
Thon_,. H eleclric pooenriat 1n O«iel' IO dertefmine a nlue b a. Q> ,,.: ...,,_, .. , CC5 •(.;;&)
E=- ~to V•ld• l!MS..9_.x0.104 d Ontr rh;a1 k!ngli'I of wile wiD expenMOt a wniaJ
a202.l78_ torc:e. wtiid'I wil c:onlritMe mChe Midi,_ on ~ mass '( tl0.0• 10 '
Sol=<m dA•ibix(ilSxibix(E;)
)
a lOOV (to 2 s.O i,.i......
This 11 lhe~i111differencebelween1he pl..ce., JO ..... c0 Conwit1 ttM> mliS reMtin.gs, ink> btt wna F a mr. !hen • 19.12'- . ....... (to l s.J.)
ekOr1c powintal ol rM top pt.ate is 200 v (to 2 i.U. plcM your data on a graph al fora! F l!P•Ml r.unenl I.
(1 awb for llw! Wl't«'I MJSWE'T; otbentiw I m.vl· fol lk!G'luse F =- BIL, the gradient of the lint of besl fil is Page 397 - fact Recall Questions
cMc.Wtlng lhf> t+drk field strength md I marlt f<Jf' C!QUi!I DO BJ. bJ kllO'N the k?ogth, I, so JUSI di\'ide the QI Magnetic nux:
IJ ~=tsured in webers (Wb).
ron-"1 tt'Wtf!J$ frw cak:ul.tling the eledrk potMll..JJJ gr.KIC!flt by i kl get the magnetic Owe OCinJiry, B. Q 2 M e.m.f. C.illnd a c urrent if the mocb:1or is part of d c:1rcu~1) .
d ) itCdffdl15;C! C • 7
lot t-: Q l The numl>f"r ol 1ums on the c:oi! cutting the Oux (M,
_ tii( )1$:ic18 11 x0.104 Page 388 - Fact Recall Questions
'--A• .JI
• 1.1$7••• x 10-u Fm 1 (1 nut1c)
Thi$ is ~ lhMI ,_., SO lhe space between the ptatel II
QI
_.,r......
The current-carrying wire nws1 be perpendic:u l<tt to lhe

Ql Tlw bfc~on a wire is F=- BJL sin I. Al: 909, 1inla I, so the
nol • v.acuum (r lffiMtJ. ~ b ac a maximum

·•~*~:·l'I Answers
 5. Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law Page 407 - Fact Recall Questions a} The m.1g:nc.<1ic field produced by a primary coil c.arrying
Section 4 - Nuclear and Particle
Page 402 -Application Qu<Stions QI GE!ner.llOl'S conYEtl ldnetic energy W°llO eleclrical enetm'· d"ec1 currcn1 is conli1an1 ..tier bemg: swildled on, so
Q1 The plane\ wi ngs aa as a mndUl"lor, 11nd 1M rarlh They induce a n electric current by relating a coil in a will not predK:e • dwnging ~netic lield in lhe Physics
~ field. The oocpui volsage and au-rent dtal1£e con~ ( t nwt}. t•r~ l;1w dictales that a changing
has a macnetic field lhal LIM> pllltw'c CUCS thlO!Jlth, JO 1. Atomlc Structure
d1 redion with evet)'" half rocark>n oi the coi~ producing an trQj;ncl'iC fl(!ld is r~uned in the core for a n e.mL IO be
eleatomagl'M!tic induct ion occurs..
aleemating current. £:M(y'"•IOO in Che~ coil (1 tmrt} . Page 414 - Application Qu<Stions
Q2 , ~ _ 6:~ =- N~AI SO • t g~•01• SU S QZ /vl allemating current flcM'ing in the primary (or inpuc)
coil produces a <hanGirc masnelic 6ek:I in Ille iron core.
bi~ ~ 6 n. ,,,.~ QI al 8
I>) 8+8=- 16
5o magnitude! al e.m.f. = Sf. V (lCI 2 1.1.) The ~ng magnetic field is passed dwOJgh the iron n.•n, • 2SOJOn, • 2SO n. c) 'lO
Hae the~ fbcdoisli.y~toAB•l"ICIJJli.M:.
Ql ., The anetll is Pc lNllf from
6ylmist.(. tnec.m..t~•fOl"toCWt.oppo8C9W
t""
ffll<Q.
an ID fle ~for oulpUI) mil, v."hett it inOOces an
~ wfl'lle (e.m.0 of Ille same r""l<"""Y .. lhe So•, •QSO 1\1•* (zso•i) (n.•i) QZ a.I iX (the nodeon numbet is 21 + 24 • • SJ
bt F.c. t.x
input wlqge. The more 1ums lh«e are in lhe secondaly ~ wn.·s mone Side:: isotopm hifte the same tu'l'hr' ofprm.one but..- dlllfcrMs.
n:cJontNt.~ts..sol.hcforu~ac:a..~
•LO the"""' .Owt'lf~·. 1ch. n.•(tt~) (zso·~) .. "' (zso•*)
coil~ llO the~mil. lhe ~ f'ie induced ~of~ Solhepnx.on~191.t6c.bct.hcNrnt
fhc~d Lhc fitfd e..mJ. is COf1'C)¥ed
,,.,,,.,,.,.. IO the
, c.D\L ..,,... _ input
_ e.m..L
"'_ _ asnpan.41). tvt. \he~raMCcrlN.IM.bc.tfti:rcnl..
hnl"*-thcCUl't'Tll'l&.~lftliC.bc .. Lhc~.,._.
(•+~) QJ .i 2
a/ID(!/lnmthc~-
bj Oisotr.etuwlk!dby•ff.• • ..~
.SOM& olb rut A= Lt'.& wtWft' I • iiMOh~•n.
QJ IVfy ono 6om: lhe cumru ~Ille pri...,,. ml / lhe
~ «105S he prirnMy coil
n. ~ 7.l8L- 7 tum.Ooh.O
_.,.,.......,,......,..,.,,.,.-.
bi 2

So Utl nugnf!lic flux Oil'• M • .i,.'11

Exam-style Questions - pages 4!$-410 (' ->nu) Page 414 - fact Rec..11 Qusions
~=
lil
~
lil
bi~N •U, JO C(I _ , , , Q MriY I« carnet .n!ill'ft;. odwntiw t mri' ffK QI The lact-- - ""'°"-JIRClll 1-.p. lhe
cGfTKf lWOf'&iqr.J foil stow!ICI lhat mosa ol rhe MDft'I is empty ~
t: = ~ = . , .. .........""' ............ f!.1 ; 8A: 8lr&......-.ll>""' _ _ .,.
d How llO er• JU&.lf .answer {pick ft~ lhal best Some~•1PNP"rtide

= CS.4. 10 1) IC 1.l • 0.50. O.ooJ.24 v

So magniad! of e.mJ. -= O.D0.12 V (.. l s..fJ
lcng<hof""'""'"""'"""'"""'*Y"'""'""'
~sliw. £;- ~ , 6<;-6,j , 6'(asN ; 1) mMd'w "°"' Ml\WfJ't cheatom by a bfl'I! ancW.. showifw UY1 ~ musa ~a
nucleus with a lafEiP posilM! ch.l~.
5o£- Bl.Y.l\.~ ~ .l\.C.-. 81.Y 0 mutt: fhere IS no R!lrr.anl infocrnalion.
I·2 ~ /\ d""lr.am has been chwn, and mechod \/tiy few alpha ""'°"bounced hid<, "-"'1 N •ho
"""'""- • - £ • (Bl)
l".lge 402 - Fact Recall Qu<Stions potntJ 1; 3 •nd .. tMve been c:overed One iKCUl'aC)' ooclaa is ¥«'( smaO.
--(4.5x 10 ') ' ((21 x 10") xp!lx 10 ')) High momenlUm a'1tu po1nick!s wt"tP dff\ecwd ~Ids
Q I Fa.raday's lawsutes th.11 N ind.Jcfld ~.m.J. a po.n1 Ns been men1Kll'1ed.. Answer is bilsic and has bck:
- 0.649... by lhe ma::teus., showin£. that ma5I ol ~ rNSS d ~ 11rom
direaty proportional to IM Ult' ol d\ltl£Jll ol oi nrucrure and inliomwbOn" missirc.
So ""'Ydocltyof ""'~"" ; 0.66 ms '(lo29.l) nu1 be in Che nucleus..
flux linlcage (induced e.m.f.,. t a - ~). 2 A ( I rrwk) l -4 n'Wb: /\ WJeMed dwgr.m has been drawn <11nd
Q2 Inside an atom !here is a nudeus which c:onUJns neutrON
1 1 mechod potnU I , 3, 4, S MK'.16 h.we been covered. T-.o
Q2 The negative of the inducf!d ~.m.f. Corr.cn.v tolfl!J :42bns :-4 2w10"ms • and protons. Hearom orbit che nuc:leus• .Mose ol 1he a1om
ic:curM:y poi ntt l'l.we been mentioned. AnsWeJ has some
Q3 Calculate the negauve ofchir art'.1unck'f' 1ht gr.tr'\ to gel tl'lt!
Y- E ~ 8 => 8 - E ~ v :. (37 x 10') ~ (42x 10') llNCIUA!, M1CI in1orm.attoo is preenled fairly clearty. is empcy space, as lhe f!lt>ctrons Ofbi1 at tf'l;uivtfy l;tt~
total Oux link.age c:hani::e and di\lid(' lhls by !he nulfbl.'f of ; 0.8609- = 0.86 r (w2s.£) distances.
S·' m.arb: A Labelled dMitr.un h.as been dr.M"n, an orthe
) ii) The parucle wll I ro11ow .. circular palh ( t mart). Q3 The number of protons in 1fl.e nuck>us ol an ak'ltn.
1ums on 1.he c:oil. tnell'IOd pcMnts hdYe been ccwered. All accuracy points
b) f.BQv Q4 The IOtal number oi j:XOl:ons and nrurmns in the nuclem of
Q4 Len;r's law .s1ates tha1the induc~ ,..m.r. tS idW-.l)'ll In suc..fl • h.ivci ~ mt.onbone.d. The ilnswer is well slruclured and
dimc:tion as eo ~ 1h.- ch;1ni;t• 1hat au~f ii.
=-0.93 w (l.GOw I0 1'} x (8.1" ICY)= 1.20528 w 10" 1nrorm.i110r1 rs ckslrly presented. an atom.
= 1.2w10 11 N(lo2 s.f..) I k°!f\' ilrt! M>ITIC points your <11nswer may include: QS /\tofr6 with 1he same number of pro1ons but dlffNe:n1
The force would act downwards. numbers of nartrons.
( 1 naark for OHT«f force and I nwk for dir«.OooJ LIW:wD
6. Uses or Electromagnetic Induction
rhc~l.UtJcof ihcch.anjcon.andcctrontsgM:nln tht:oan
Page 407 -Application Questions
QI •) ~=~,so V,= v,~ • 190 • m • 3 19.2
= :120 v (lo 2 11.rJ
dat.oi and formulae booldct. Rid thctbrectlonof the fon:cwim
Acn.-.g·91eft. hiwltfn.k.- bcca.t5c doctroreh.iwea rq.~tM:
....O]lC.f"'nt:px"""""<l ..,,.... .. ""'"l'f'O"tC~ ...
b) *-~·"',, It!' ~ 8. 125
ft.9vdoat;y.
=
c) F, ,. =-l w f .. =- 2 w 120528 w JO 11 2..41056"K 10"
8.1 A (10 2 1.(J The fon:e wfll be 2 4 w 10 11 N (lo 2 s.l.) upw.uds..
Q2 a) E.g. By usina a l;uninamd COl'f!. ( I m.;irt foe O'HTed force and t mark for direction.) k1wvol~~
b) i) /\ ~ translotn'IE'r. If.)IO'I ~·t. §Cl. t.hc c:om::ct.al'l5Wa for 17). you1 gc:t. lhe marts 4 r:. $lfl>ly P'""MY secood.1ry
ii) ~ ~ ~ n. n,~ for c) as~ .ag. the force l!tdoul'Ac t.hc force for the dcct.ron ~ mJI <:04/

n.=- 110 • & =9.086_. """"""'"Pf""'U:......,_ 1. 1\11 tv.'O C<ores llOi.'elher and wrap wire <11round each

--
.i ~........ mMtl (I 10 ~!«!:the COllt..
=9 lun'K Oo ttw- 1'16~
....... __, A:rtq"s kft.--tund Ne cm be usa:I to md ite dnx:.tbt of
the foru-on the ..-c. rhe force on the 0'3l'.le IS in thc£.lfPOSIU ......
~k.e: sure the~ eoils hr.-e different numbln of

l . Tum on tM .1..c. supply ID the primary coil.

bi E.&. The ....,...ic ftux dens<y an be fOund by v.uy;.,g Adfu$t N vMMble reMSlol" to ch;q:e the inJM
Che cunl'!l1I usWlg lbe variable de. ~supply 4lnd _ , . , . _ ......,, _ "°"'lle ..,.,,.-.
°'"""'-
noCing d'M! mass shown on the ecp pan balance for a
......,, ol airrmi:s (t fl'l«t>. Ms o:inwrting the masses COii few .I ~ ol ll1JM, c:um!nls..
. , _ . . , . . w ; mir(l nwll, a-dlaa!
.ipiret o.IT«ll an be ploaed (1 ....t;). Orrawq a
6.
...___
~ nuriJrft> o1 twin on me coils ronsuin1

.._ ... .,,.,

loneofbel&.andinlqlhe.-.g;...~ Jtt. ... 7. Ow lht tt"Mb llO see how the rotllio o/ lhe aJn8'llS
-~ .......... by lgiwsthe . , . _ ..... _ , , .....,. ... <cols.ol'ectslhe_of . . . . . . . .
• (I """".
d 1- • l ~ ,_,
a. ~" won1 ""*owe ~ - f We ID energy losses
6Swl0 ' 2.!Jn_ = l.0A(lo2s.f.) '" tht lr'•1'91ormel. .,.
44 w10 w52•10 1 ~
a nwrh 1ot cotrf'ICf ~ OlhMtrlse r nwrl' /ot I• UM low "'""""·
2. UM! • Lwnln.Med core..
cornd wortingJ
3. lhe k>w·R!SISbince wft.

llll~!lt·~lll Answers Answers

2. The Nucleus 3. Particles and Antiparticles 4. Quarks and Anti-quarks 6. Nuclear Decay Equations
Page 418 - Application Questions Page 423 - Application Questions Page 426 - Application Questions Page 432 - Application Questions
Q I Rearrange R = t,,A111 for A, QI F, =J.mC' QI al Charge= !+ H)~ o Ql Bet:a·min ~ decay invotves lhe conversion of a neu1ron
:2x 1.673x 10")(0.00 x 10")'
A= (ID°= (hJ =5' =125 =3 .01 14 x 10 - 1 b) Charse=j+ ~ +( j) = !
IO a proc.on w hen an electron isemitced (along with
the release of an anrinewino}. So nucleon number A
number of protons =A- number of neutrons = l .01 x 10 " J(lo3s.f.) remains cons1anc, and pro1on number increases by I :
: 52
=125 - 73 Q2 a) E =me' cl Charge= ( !)+H)+(- !) ~ C:c.s-'UBa + ~+ltt>
• = 1.983 x I Ct-11 )( (3.00 )( 10")' You can chcd: 'PJ'" anfJNCI' l1y m;ikJng !Are that. the total
Q2 OI) For separations less d1an around 0.5 fm the strong = 1.7847 x fO"I d) Charge=H)+H)+( :f) =-1 charge (proton rumba) on the left. of the cquatb'l lr.41nccs
nuclear rorce is repulsive. So at 0.4 fm it would be = 1.78 x 10· 1• J (lo l s .f.) Q2 The panicie has a charge of - 1, and contains 3 quarks, o nly the tot.al charge on Uw; 11tj1t. Oo the same for the nucleon
repulsive.
b) for separations between abouc 0.5 fm and 3 fm the
b) f,=h/,so: one of whim is a slra.nge quat k. The o nly IWO q uarks w him
can be added 10 a sirange quali: to make - 1 are 2 down
.-.
f=~= ! 7847x!0 111 Q2 1H.-\t -'WBi +1u
strong nudear force is attr.K:fr•'e. So at 15 fm i1 would 6.6lxto'" quarks. Theref01e, E -= dds.
h Q3 r-AJ-~~Mg+ .~+:"'
be attracrive.
c) For separations bigger than abou1 3 fm the strong nude.ar
=2.6918... x IOJ'Hz= 2.69 x 10" Hz(lo 3 s.r.) Qldss Xd +d ti
(Of'Ce has little effea. So at 4 .2 fm, the strong in teraction
ts small enough that it can be ignored.
£.,=,,so
>.-he_ 6.63x 10 •xJ.OOx 10'
-!-!-! x-! -1·-!~ 7. Exponential Law of Decay
QJ OI) p=V· --.,. - l.7847xibti So, -l=X+ ( i)+H)'> X- i=O Page 436 - Application Questions
= l.l 144 ... x 10 m= 1.1 1 x 10-1~ m (10 3 s.r.) X=+i QI A=lN= ( I.! x 10 1l)x(4 .Sxl0'#)
i\'odel the atom as a sphere,. so V =1111
1
QJ E1 =2mc",andf•=hl,so
a\
The onty q uark wilh a charged +j is the up qu.ark.. = 4 .95 x !CJ$= 5.0 x l ~ Bq (to 2 s.f.)
So, p=~ hf= 2mc'' so: Therefore., X is an up qu.ark. =
Q2 lime in seconds=- t 65 x 3GOO 23 400 s=
(- 2mc1_2x l.88x to•xo.oox let'>' J\aiviry a:1 time t
Rearrange for r: A= A.t> " = (3.2 X IO~x e 11.l X 10--;x:.i:uoo
- 11 - 6.6lx1on
r= (~)i =5.10407 ... x 10" Hz = 5.10 x 1on H'1. (to3 s.f.)
Page 426 - Fact Recall Questions
Q I Q uarks: up (u), down (d) and s11ange (s.). An1i-quarks: anli· =IS2J6 ..• -= 15-0 Bq (lo2 s.f.)
up (U), an1klown ((band anli·Slt ange (S). Q3 lime in seooods=t=35x60=2100s
-{3x8.Sx10,..)I
1 N umber of unstable nuclei in sarr-.>le at time t:
- 4-.x8.4x10 Page 423 - Fact Recall Questions Q2 U= - je a=+~e S=+je N-= Noe "= (2.5 X 10''1x e (9.87x 10-1)x1100
=6.22802 ..• x 10 11 m Q I Hadrons
=6.2x 10- Q2 Any one from: 1he weak nudea1 k>n:e I gravity /the Ql prolon uud= =-2.49.•. x ! ~
1• m (to 2 s.f.)
neu1ron = udd =
2.5 x 10"(to2 s.r.)
b) p=f;? electrostatic focce.
Q3 The neutrino has zero charge and {almosl) zero mass. ll i!i a Q4 In bela·minus decay, a down q uark decays into an up-quart
3x85x ion lepton. via the v.'e.'lk interac1ion, emit1ing an eiE!C1ron and an Page 436 - Fact Recall Questions
= 4x x (S.l x 10 *') 1 Q4 a) An anlipank!e has 1heopposi1echargeto its anlineu1tino. Q1 a) The p robabiliry oi an atomic nudeos decaying per un it
=1.44 317... x 10 kgm 11 1 corresponding pa.nide. Q> u >d+ .te+" lime.
=1.4 x 10 kgm..,, (to 2 s.J.>
11
b) An antipa.nk le has 1he sarre mass as jLScOl'tespondins Q6 d>arge b) The number of a 1omic nudei that decay per
panicle. M!<:ond.
Page 418 - Fact Ree.ill Questions QS The positron Q2 a) ' : :=->.N,
Q I Approximiuediameter ofan atom=0.1nm(Ix10 'm) 1 Q6 a) - 1 5. Radioactive Decay
b) 0 where !!:Jf/- is the rate of change of the n umber of
Approximate diameter of a small nucleus= a few fm Page 430 - Application Question
Q2 Nuclear radius increases propottiooally with 1he cube root <l 0 QI a) Since the radial.ion is b locked by aluminium, btrl no! by undecayed n udei, >. is 1be decay consiant and
N is lhe n umber of undeca)'ed nuclei in sample.
or the nucleon number <R ri/t\Q). = Q7 tl.f-=- 6mc', Y9flere 6f is 1he chans:e in energy, 6rn is the
change in mass, and c is the speed of tigh1.
paper, it mus1 be beta-minus radiation.
You coukl .al<"..cdefinc aN ard 6 t 1nJM.Jually as~ 19 the
QJ The nocleus is assumed to bea sphere and iis \'Olume is b) The Geiger-Mul k?:r lube is stilt delecting counts from
cak:ulared using V =1"r 1 Q8 Energy can be corwerted imo mass and produce partidES,
ir Lhere G enough eneri::y. The mass is always produced in a
background radialion, so the count rate does no< d rop
to zero {e.•en I.hough. no radiation from the source can
dungc ln rurtm"oftnb.:aycdnucld, f).t.Jsthcdta~lntmc.

Q4 a) b) E.g. spreadsheel modelling

panide-antiparbcle p.Jir. reach ii).
Ql
Repuloon
qJ Two phoions
Page 430 - Fact Recall Questions
Q I When an u nstable a1omic nurJeus breaks down to become
more Slable, by releasing energy and/or panicles.
Q2 a) alpha radialion
b) gamma radiation
Q bela·minus racttation
Attr:K'.lKll'I QJ Alpha radiaUon, b1$1...minus radiation, betaiJfus radiatio n
a nd gamma radiation. time ls
o..~fm
b) Ber.-.-een 0 and aboul 0.5 fm. Q4 Roiling a 6 o n a: d ice is a random event with a c:onstan l
c.) Be1v.-een about 05 and 3 fm. probability, similar 10 the even! of an undocayed n ucleus
dec.rying.

Answers
 8. Half-Ille and Radioactive Dallng 9. Binding Energy 10. Nuclear FlsSlon and Fusion 11. Fission Reactors
Page 441 -Application Qu<Stions Page 444 -Application Questions Poge 448 - Application Questions Page 451 - Fact Recall Questions
Q1 Find the n umber al litrlf'S 1hP aciNlry hal\•00 In 2• hou" QI Motss defed ~ equiva.lent to bindirlg enetgy. QI I) (u'9on QI \oVhen the neutmns ~ased by nuc:~r fission cau~CMh«
'°
count the nwri>er of •i.ml!s.. n, you ha\•e dl'iidt 2-400 by 2 Convert lhe mass d6ed from u to kg: blr..,... nuclei 10 f1SSion and release motfl nf'Utmnl in(j iO on.
10mach 75. =
~deect =- 0.0989 x 1.661x10" 1..6427_. )( 10• kg C') (USIOl'I Q2 The neuuons need 10 be slowfid down it'I orUtt fof ur.11nium
=
n = 5; 1hP.refcwe t...., 24 + S c 4 .1 hours =
M =- t;.mc:1 1.6-427_. :.c 10--- :.c (3.00 x IO"P d) ,....,,, ooclei 10 absorb them,. to inducft f~.
Q2 Oeay OJM3nt l 1~; O.tu·· • I .tJS ••. 111 10 1
= = = 1.4784_:.c 10 11 ) ff' I.he nuc:loon runbcr" It fo99 da1 !:16. fustln 19 mere Ql The control rock •re made of a 1ni'8\<ll lh;11 JbSOl'bl
=-Cl.4784_. x 10 11 +1.60 x 1et 11) + 10'-)MeV neu:uons 41!.g. boron). 8y insenini: 1hcom imo 1~ l'f.llOOI', N
=
1.44" 10 s s •two l s..U
=92.4015_ t..'eV
~(~ lf'1t.Smcretlun~.fi9stlrl'9more
number ol neutrons in 1he rmaor an bf> llm.ud. ~ r..;lif
Ql Ha.lf-flfl!! d arbon-14 in~
tin=-5130 • 065 • 24 • liO 1C Mita 1.8070_. • 10'' J
=92.4 Ml!V ( lo l s.r.)
Ql Mn.ofnudeus=-15.994915 u
~·-
Ql IH .!H-lt... ·IX
X Ns .11 nudf!on ~of I .-Mt• PK*Jn nOOlber of 0.
of reaaion can thefefofe be cximrol1ed bf ~Ina how fM
the a:introl rods Me inserted inlO ..,.. INOOI'.
Oeay c.om&arll l =ml= fnl Nl.llJ'lber d p'*JnS =- 8, nooiJer of neutrons= 8 So Plftdt X is .11 newon. Q4 The maleN.I used for dlP mobnl IW'ds 10 bf\ I liqwd Of .I
m..1 1.8070... •IO 1 =
"'+
-deep--.. --...,,.
Mns.of PR*Jn=- l1l0n8u.Massofneutron t1l0867 u gas at 100m tl!n'lpenture so ii an be~ .ound thrl:
=l..llS&...• IOUst
AaMry Ma\ animal died= A..• 1.2 8q
°'
To&a,1 m;m nuc1eons =-ea • 1..oona
=- l6.t276u
<a • 1.00861 u>
QJ Atn•m,•m, mH 1 m.. m.
• UXJ721+ l.D0728 2..01155 0.Q(l)SS - 0 teiKIOf. h aho needs eo bf> efticiMt a11~ hNI from
I.be! tea00t. Was coutd be UW!d u 1 c:oobN.

A<:IMly_...........,ty_oo:
"'2Mly ,_.=A= 0.4S 8q
A M •
So mns defect =- mass of nucleons - mass of nudll!us
=- l6.1276u-15.994915 u
•O.AXI046u
•«>.00046 .lt 1.661 x 10-Jt&
• 7.64()6 )( 10 Dk&
QS lvlyone cl: e.g. facililies IO Skft nudw ~ ft'MI b9

~lh.sbti~•= -i •tn(~) =- 0.l:J?Wu bndsc.ape. / leab!d nuclear w.IW' an canum11-Y1t WJW

=2..55'9_ • 1on s =1100 fN1S (lo 2 t.IJ QJ ~""'£)'·-..:~ per- x -
=
nurtmer 8.1'9 WeV x S6 =- 492..24 loltFN
Conwrt bom bincirc energy IO mass defect using
"".""""
•7640ft x 1o• x oJX>x let')'
~ies.-1 ~ otpnisml.

•'87'5-4 • 10 .. 1
Page 441 - fad Recall Qu<stions Ahllmc' In hWY: Al• 116..476.s.4 x 10.., + (1.60 x 10 ")j + 1'7 MeV Exam-style QuesHons - pages 4~5
l-tfSC. aJIM!rt bO:ing energr riom MeV 10 J I 811.....,

........
sample al an isolope.o (or llw g.,,..,,
QI The time it cates lot lhe numbtor of~ nudel in ;a
.JCll'\O•IY or counc Q4ifj M = '492.24 :.c IO'i x 1.6 x 10" = 7.875_ x 10 n kg
rn;m.defed -4m- M - 7.875_.x 10"
• 0.4197-. • 0.4JO MeV (to J s.L)
Q4 f11•sc, cakuLllt N l1UllCw ol neuironsproduced by
b>bnc"'8 .... _ _ A;
2 0 (I matt>
A.6.nfC~ocar~ch.wge •Mt.~
- - 7 - tl.OOxld')· /\(f mril
=
Q2 Read df the iKIMty a11 0. f-bM thu v<llw. dr;aw .. =- 8.-750_ )( 10--• tg ""w.. • 1 ... ns. A. . . ,.. ... 119 + x
3
the runtierof .at.OmS drops LO a 'fl.1r'\O"ol M ttu;d YJIUc. In
hori700.til line ID rhecutW. thton a ~al line down IO the
=(8JSO_x 10-- + 1.661 :.c IO'U)u
x-axis. Read off the ril!'I@ 1n.s rM hlff l1ff, find 1he bme T~ number ol neucrons produced =- x =l 10.4'jCill'S.50thchalf4eotc.otuft. roi.~2~ ~

C.
=0526S4_u thlst<>........_and .....r.IWUo""' . . . , _ ~.. lr(?)
lalcen l'or the activiry to fall ID a qU11n~ oidlift ClnfhlNI v:,ilue
= 0.527 u Oo l s.f.) SoAm•m• ..-mu.,,• m""., m•ut 11n.
and divide by l'WO 10 chock. • l.oo867 + 234"9333 93.88411 138.90611 to fnJ t.he~constant.
Q4 '1 8.6 MeV
QJ f.g. Set~ a C. . . .·M Ull« cubt. ~ su~Jdy in"' c1.ur4>
..).lstn:atl U.:v.aluc:d the~ r.xwx~pc:rnJdoon ata
o x1.ooa&n 4 a) Alfy me fn:m: e.g. both hadrons and l(lpionJ WI and
stand, and anached 10 a counG«. find 1he •0.18SSS u interact wi lh the weak nuc:INt ton-.e I boch Ndrons ;and
badi;:mund rount t,.. tf'Cotding eh<> l()l;JI bact~round c:ounl! """"'1....t>cr of100-. th:grafh leptons can feel and i nteraet wi lh 1he t"l~1 ro.;1.;ide JOR:111
b) Mu1Liply the binding energy per nucleon by the nucleon •t0.18SSS :.c 1.661:.c10 11)1cg
in P..g. 30 s. Repe.111his measutf•tr~r" ~and c:.11c:ul.ate {if !hey are charged) ( I mart).
number. •l.08198.•. • I0 19 kg
:an 3VC!r.l~l!. Divide lhis :1VN'21~ by 'he numb« ol J«onds llrrf me from: e.g. hadrms C'.11n feet and ln1er..:1with
Total binding energy=- 8.6 x 100 =-860 MeV !ii . Amc' 1.he stroni; nuclear force, btrl lfPlonlO annor / l~on!I
10 find 1.he bacl(ground coun1raU", This \'.1lue ,;h<Juld be
.sublracted from all subw!qum1 mNiurmx'tlc' of eoun1 rd~. •l.o8198.•• x 10 ' • 0 .00• 10')'
1
are fundamental pattides, bul hadrons are noi {1hcy •M
Place 1he sa~l e ol No1X'lium~255c·~10 1hc cktt"<'.IOt of Page 444 - Fact Recall Questions •2.77378.•• x 10 11 f made up of quart~ (I ~rt).
1he Geiger-MUiier 1ube, wi1hln 1tw- r..nr,c Qf an ats>h.1 p<ink:le QI The energy nooded to separate all the nucleons in a nucleus. In MN: 61 •Ul.nJ78..• )( 10 ")+Cl.60 )( 10 '"))+ 1()1> b} Total charseofthe f!L•• h:idton:: +lt'.
10 ensure chat the radiation t(l:tii:hM rho d~1ec:DCN'. Rt'C<Wd 11 is equW.dent to the mass defect. • 17J•.l& l ..... 17J MeY (lo 3 s.f.) Charge on an upquarlc +iP =
the number of counts in 10 m:oncls,. dM<k1 1his IJy I O..ntf Q2 So,2e=ie+i:e +x
subl.rac:1 the tudcground c.ouni r;up 10 nnct chfl coum rJ1e x::2e {~e + ie}=+ifl
"Fe P•ge 448 - Fact Recall Questions The only quaric wi1h a d\arge of +ff' Is '™' up «iu.;irJt. so
due 10 the Nobelium.. RcpN11hi,; f'Y('f)' lO s for around S QI Nudo.i1 ravon U when 11 l.arser nucleus splilli in10 two
minu1es. Plot your rewhs on,. s:Japh of count nuc .i~illll!!-1 quart x is an~ quattc ( t marl(J.
MNllef nutlil!f. h can be induced by firing low eneigy
time, and draw a line of bes! lie. llnd 1he Nit Ii~ from your MNll'OnJ 11 the nudcus. \\'h4!n Che nucleus absorbs one
c) ma.ss=2.19•10 " k£
graph by reacin.-: off how Ion~ i1 td:r.s b the counc r~lf! 10 charge= le
of~ nt'!U~ ii beco~ u1'6table and will undergo
drop 10 hatf its initial va lu~. ft mark)
Oii-1on. d) [;£: llmc'
Q4 f.£. r..a.tbon-14. Q2 TIM! fuSll'lg of two lolfWllcr nudcl to rorm one latger nudeus..
Fof minjmum energy in i:uir produetlOl'I,
Ql Nuc:k!i •ff f*tl 1Ycly charged. so they repel met. other via din=- mass d panic:~+ m..s.s of ~m1p;1nde • 2m...,..
lht l!f«lroKi&11C inll'ndion. kw fusion 10 l#e place, the
So, t:rJ =- 2m...,,c1
l~ute must be~ h.il;h so th• the nuclei can uiM!I
=- 2 )( 1.71 )( 10. )( 0.00 x 10"1
fJSf tnOl.Ch (Ind JO ha\-e enoudt energy} kl O\'ffCOIT'Jf! lhis
Jt'pUIMon Uo th;al lhe wona nudeal il1M'Atlion an Ql:e =3.078• 10 11 I
owr ~ .rna ll'M'!m ~hed. =((l.078 x 10 "> ~ U.60 • 10"»+ tt'.J'>
=191.375 tiiteV
=1''2 MeV (lo l UJ
(J mris f« awRd MKWl!r,OlhMliti# I mM't lor
mmd aw4bod MJd t .... for awnd <'On\W'don
-\/)
'°

::• Answers
 :aJ lhetf' 3tP 94 pnmn5. et H.Jl..lifleins 25 4•2.C•lWO= 2191l560s Section 5 - Medical Imaging 2. Medical uses of Nuclear Radiation
oeucrons.." llWV P>ge 462 - Foci Recall Questioos
l°hf'l'• llr9' 2·t0 g.1 - 146
bi 11..............
d ":1\1 •":U p
...,."-*'·
.... . lrQ1
So--
A- .al ~ lnQl• 2 194 Sf.O
1. X-ray lmaglllll
Poge 4 S9 - Applicatioo Questions
QI The new• •new
bol.N to :a CXlqllOUfld Iha isnanlly IMd bytfw.
tmue or orp doc a bN'I ilwestipai. e .nfll'Ol!d
-l.ISl- •10' l.1, x lt~ s- (\ols..(J
1,..... ,_
1
Q llNth - 1 mri" lot U oum6ifn: CClm!d MWI I nurt" I« QI t_ ~·V 1-'0x10-"x85.0xHP 1~ • 10 .. I - Of SWJ.llCJMird by ~ ~ienl :and mcM5 lfvouF ow body
a ..u tot 11w roma ~ OllwrvW
0- ""'"""' J>K*ln rurm .,11
di \\'Uh"""" ... ~. the ~ fmm com't1 ..U., If MiltW incom!CtJ
~ N:rct.Nt..ald she: ~CCUfllol t.ht;doc;ucrl915
~toX~
to the r«'&JO" d tNli'n'SI. ~ t:adi:Mioo emiaed OM! ID lhf!
isc*'IJe 1n lht trXW Is then dereCled by :a prmu ~T
9fi by 18 10 76. The proK10 nurrb!f ofll IS 81. to)(Kf need e) Nullk ot u~ 2IOOlS gM!rt by: N • NJ! • 5CaM8" and~ 10 :a oon1JU1er to poduce :in im:iR'!-
Q2 I ,,,,. 30.0xecu·MJll'"'5.l45._5.J Wm '{lo2~[)
fi\'e(i dK -'JS·
a '""h for coned ilnSHo"l'F; olhen•·ise t nw• lor t'Ol'tf!d
Re:wr:inQI!' for tlrm' l -1n(;t) x i Q2 C.g. lf!Cflnf!lium 99m. The tg:imnu) r:idi:ition A emib an
e:isity pm ru11r1ic~ thfl body :ind be deteded. It has :i h:tlf-hf4'
M1Htf"I If MJSWl!'i focotred) So t. In(~)•
16 x 10· 3.158... x 10' , of 6 hour;, whk h Iii long f!llOugh for d:it:i 10 be recorded, bl.11
t!l In M:i--mlnus dec:ry, :i down <J.l:lr\:: t.'fllib :in Cl(l(Cron :ind short E!lll>Ugh to llmll lhe p:icient's exposure lo r:idi:idon co :m
:an :amll'lf'llrrino ( 1 tndttJ :ind dAc.;rys into :an up cltJlrk vi!I • 9.901 .•. x l~s xcep4Jble l(!Y<'I It :iho deoys to :a rTll.tm more stable!: ~
IM ~>k intenc:rion 0 mart>. .a 11'1.&7•.• cbys Ql P£r SCJns.
a 11 0 ~ (to 2s.l.) Q4 tm shMtd•l'W ptN!flCS ooi:ailion trom Olher soun:eii ~nc
' » '"""'
n 2,.,;wy1,Bq n Bq. ..U lor lbe t:Otr«f MliWl!f;. odJ«v·M I m.ri IOI'
"'°'"""
Q ~byNC3'N!ll":l
rinw >Mien die X!ivily h:as ~ IO lf. 8q •
.so. h:alf . -
bf~ lnCZ•. so.l --~
10 ..-s <1 .....tt
10 mins.
8 .i)

bi
(.'(WTKf " Mb••« ilawt«O
The ""'11 fWdfd IO pul :al the nudeoas in ~ nudet,a
~.....,.~.Den 2 ra.dru forms (I ....., ...,_.....
,_,_
--~
onlylmpmmo...,. ........ ,..,,,.....

Sen- A - - a y s u l d a l - •lbihol
C. ..,. - .. br. """""'r>y.
IOtnllM
A ~ 0.011552_. s '
IOxW:WOs
•• - - - deoealhelb!lwsd"i:ft ...., . . .
dun no etM:rcl '4Nk.
AC'liviry :ia 17 mins : 21 Sq lled.ronit ttltVll rollects 1be eledric:.:al sign:ils and R!ndi dV'
llt'.3~ the :k!Niry equ:Mion, A : >.N, for nu!TM of inform:ioon to :i C()mpl.ll.et which fonns :lll inu~.
bi A k• d 1he electrons' energy is con\'l!ne'!d IC> tw-3.1, so Q5 The. Jl3hent i• lnjMM with glucose th:it is bound 1o :a
undfoc:i)'M nuclei:
1Q1:i1ina 1he :anode helpsspre3d the hc:it Jnd ~s ii t'ldiolr.im, lhri r:idlotr:ioor miils po:silrons lh.:11annitiil,;iCA.•
=
N ~ ~ 19CM3.57... 10 OOO (lo t sJ,) from ovmhe:iling. wilh eloctruns Jn 1ht1 body, producing g;immo photom which
(.1 m.ilfb (0< correct~ ol/rendse I nwrk (N ro«f!d Q2 §.ms>IC! iC!lttfll'ing, the phocoelac:lfiCeffect. Con'll>ton f'ffect, p:iit :11edeCoct4!CI oo~il' 1 ~ body. TISSUES in 1hebodywilh :i hta,h
~.JkulMJon of the deary coost.-..m md I tn.Nlt for t'Orffl!CI producuon. r.11e of fTM'!l;abC'ltlc :lC'livily h:ave :a high r:aie of upt:ike ot gl~.
QJ A b)tium 1ne2I contains <lDUS with :i h~ :ic.omlc ntmbet :and
""'""'°
r )Q' .,._.,. tlffm:nt. inJtlltX topm.a) am \#)C(J LM llil'lfJtO "
a-*'- ,,..,."",,,,,_"'-'...,.""
riur..fi!clntJUn.rl-rr
t0 ii~ up cle¥1y in X-ny imlge compairfd 10 soft msu.._
so Chee :WNS w1U tu~ 3CCd'OUbted mote r.ldiotr:lcf!f th:in
This me:ans the Pl r ~

·-
:11tm of 1ow ~ xDiily.
...........,...... . .gct. ..............1crg... , . . , _
oi ... °'""'
..,......,. T• & M lhe pHlt
wl'lich Is mod@ up ol rmeerQI with loll\w 2IOmiC' l'IUMM!n. A
~CUI~~ 2 briJm mmi 9Q !JW'')liorw. lhd: hf!lp5,
wil deCft.1: no• pnmo f2Cbion in :armsofhicb n'Mlbtlolic
ac:iny. ,,_ inlomutioncan be.sett ro:a ~ "1 buitdup
d Blncinl MfflY • ICp'Olenl IO the m:l55 d8ect:. ~ h! a:dt:a5I berweeD tissu5 from IN cfr.Mt1.tp, Wxt
d - - d p h a l o n _ b y _ b b l... aa ~ d mfQbak xUriry in di!' bcqt.
Ai · Am<' :and .......... risuisClft mX~ .....
• . . . by lllM! imss of one of che ann1hlblir!d pandl!s
('.OMll'ftPld..,ll!hffl)',f,-mc'. S o - .......... - ~ t>n<' Q4 A t.IOft'CUfd nm~~ son • 2 tc:an in wtiidli
Conwr1 JNb dtfec'!f 90 ta: iitdeorirUi& ~ X.ny 1Ube- is n:aed :wound the body :ind chr: rmimd X--ay
JM f!CW'llY of 2 phcnl IS ff!bw!d IO the hq.JMry by
I hi Sa. O.r.20!.S u tO r.20!.S v 1.!.tl • IO "l lea ~ .n 1~ Wpe oi :t bn is pid:td up by dtCMOrS TIV!Slf!
10308.... x 1o w 1cg

..
hi me' ff!ifd :i. J,:ign'1 to :i. a:mpJIEY, wbich worb OU1 how l'l'Udi
llm<hng...,,gy ... nudeon :iamu:ihon h:is beM c3USE!d by eadl p:ift of 1tMo body :ind
~:am.l"fl.eforf.
I JDC. 9.11xlO"xO.OOx10"l-' 1.0..108... x 10 "•O.OOx1m• J)fO(lu<'f.S :i high (JJ3fity m:,ge.
T tJJx ld" 1.AOS7•.• w 10 11 I QS Al'l'/ I\\~ from: e.g. CAT sons c.1n be ~t by :i oorrpu1er
I .23lJi.S... x 10- Hz (1 1.4057•.• )( 10 '')..:- u.w )( 10 ")) + 10" 10 pr(l(~Cf' mote del:tiled im:ige; than regular X r:iys I CAl'
1.24 • 10- H1 (lo l s.J.) SC!IM :irf' betlet :it im:agingsoft 1.issue/d.11:1 from CAT sonners
8 7860•.• MeV .- 8..79 MtV (lo l s.JJ
(3 ,,,..,n £« corrf!d iW\t'et;. other-wise I nw.t f« rorredly t:an bt' mnipul:11ed 10 gener:i1e :a 30 ingge
a nwh I« corrroct ..nsw«,. othttWise t tn¥fx kK '-'Otrt<l
fqW/JnJ the hr'O ~ MJd I trWll ifx t.'Wrtd mefbod it MH»W" itrcotR!d)
7
Mi>MitutionJ
aJ It r._Av.
d) u....-d <tmge to 6ndf"*"' ...-o1""St-
IA• IO*"xll.., • - 9l S<I JI
tM~ol flUdiem nurrberco rm ~of
•Aial:l!S_ x 1o• m
~ b CZlS • 0 040-..9-0.-.. 2

a ..ts • awna
4.S . 10 • •(lo 2 sJJ
..swer,.~ '.-...t l« mmd
a...., - ,...,.f«atmdly- - * o i•
ll>d bJ
........ i(MJSltW iKomcO el The klbl blnc:irc Mf.flY d ~ fin:il nudei is grm19 than
bi, m the b111d1na f"f'W'l'IY d the iniliJI oocleus <t mri1 M
v •
\lolumf" of 21iphere., v =-
1 r. so: incre:ise in btndq Mefl'Y means .an incre:ise 1n Che 11oul
p f.'ii, wtweRistheQcf1USofthenoclM. m:a55 ~ tU ~ o( the m:tSs irom the initi;al nuck!u• k
COl\\'Enl!d tnlO rc'll"fRY (I nwfd.
Conven ITU~ IOkg. m -=-02.97 )( 1.661 J( JQJl)ka Am c. l23'1 ,9qJJJ -.. 1.0 0867) 039.8Q19d .. 9J.8Q44(1
=- 5.<C76... x IO"ki .. t2 x 1.00867))
""lx•,:·::s:.~~?; )'
.-. 0. 1982bu
p 10.1962' • 1.6.61 x IOU') kg.-.3293... x ao•q
IA-078._x IQllkgm-l M a6mt:' J~l- • tO•x(l.C)()x 1~
1..4 • 1G""tgtrrO.o2 .s...f.) ... 2.96.J7 • 10" I
0 autb '°'comet
MJS»W'~ odwnriW , .wt' '°' tomd
~ o/IUSS Mid I .awd lol comd •wtMsl
al0:9417. w 10..,+U.6.0x lO"»+ IO"MtV
185.23- 185MfY . . lsJJ
d::I' •::S tl!t :O a ..u lot U.. cwn!d ~Olbfnw 1....,. 1o1-
a-as - r ...,. 1«<r>m<11r- ••'""' ~.
I ..t: lot t'CWTI'!d.ly llbellt!d 68...-,us fW1.lt*' Jfttl
cwrf!dlr ~ ilrletlUSSdtl«t R t -.rt I«
'°
..,~ fO fOmWf ii 6incioJ «HrOJ
. .lnftltrlno.I Wyou""""'Plf--Bd).bu<9><&1J~)QUJ..a
~... the mart.for thlJqucstaon lfycxxnv;c-.ho(l isoorn:ic:t.

"'B' Answers
 Exam-~ Questions - p39es 469-470 ~lh£=>Alf
3. Medical uses of Ultrasound
PJ.ge 467 -Application Qul"Stions
Q I :al L
ti "'
JA:..
'}·
c
9/ -
~ ~
un
(11.s x
t -c . . -C,1i5Ailri t lbxllnf
ISOOrm '
t8.0 x unr
I D ( t mM*1
1r ~1, .. (Z
7.)' · (.l.,_lZ,Y
- ubo.10') - (1.!>1i. 10'))'
((1.70.10') '(t.!>8.10'))'
-0001~-0D01 ~(to3U)
on ....11
I~

"'"""""~
with thl~ im:aliesl w.NelMftth will be product'!t
t.r2'/S
by 1he electrorG w•h the highest ent"tll)'. The m:aximum

,., .............
.....,..,_......,,...by....
fMf1Y of the X.ay photoos is eq.i.:il IO the polmial

1(..6.3x ID "•(l.OOx 10? • .010... k 10 11 m

_d
= 0.4(;,81.., 1.al:lngthenour.illoga1thnd0 IJ-•" lnQ IJ- I"' >. OIK10'Ki 601(1o ,., 4 ,0 11110 " m 002 ..u
So1hepet"Ct-'fll:'lge-.OA68I ... • 100 = 47% {l.o 2 d.) -...,,,,.., 1•-c-1no · IJ)" • O miU".b '°'"' or Iwill•
mMk uyi1.f llwi m~mum
for
If the 1nt.enmyts~ by ~J'l.. then the tJUS'lllt)!of the
Q2'f~~Af~ ~beim(l)ISOD".1 \. Sol '.• Olb
·~ x~.,,
flfrdrons Mrd f ...., lot comd
produad bf
wcri.., entfJ1
lnib'.IO'UD'
61 2•0..l1•12xl0-•CO'l<t'" 3979.JL.. p -( .. (0.()5)) 45.0_6'i>·1.-0G/an '(to2o.Q bi Anyanelrom: .,..,..._ _._ 1hoCan1JIOn-._
IM t .ltHt<t•lt.f.)
B<I-*.!
PEt...,,..."""'°"1-"9""""'°'1"'""'4....,can"""'
plir produdlOn " ""'*'·
d kldine h:u :a htgh :atomic IUl'llber, 50 i: shows t4> cle:irly
Page 467 - Foci Recall Questio ns . WJCof atmoclc:al ttaeerbound to(/wH"...C. 111 X-uy ~es coinsurOO to body liRWE!S f t mri). Self!
QI Ultr.isound Is a longituchn:il wM> with :l f~ncy higher 1h:an !I) The a;amm:t l'2YS tr:1'"1!1 lhrough :a le:id oollim:uor so 1.h:it 1.s..we h3ve simil:it :urenwtion coef(~ so ;we difr1CtJk
lun:lins Cln hfa:1r (> 20 OOO Hi). only nyt ,,.,nlSel 10 hob .n lhe lmdan g!'C lhmtch ., dislinguish in X-.ny ~ By "'ifaitc iodine ll1IO
Q2 Z pe. ~Listbe~iqM!cb.nceink&l"IJ"s 1., is.the n nwt> n.e pmrm ~hi: lhr! sciolilblOt whidl e:ai& ... ~ lheddnSI between ... blood wswJs :and ...
densay d lhf ft'Dlifri:al in . . . :and C is the_ 'Pf.'C'!d d sound ID a ftMh cl ligtc w."beN!Wr a prrrm rat lllb • if --*'· ................... ~11....no.
Che medium an ms' .......,lriptB...,, d<Cl<I me lb!h!sdlir,tw mm the {, a) ln:inA-SC':llf\a"'°'1putsedultratoUndissen1Ao1M
Ql The pieJ'Of~ eKeo is •twfl !I m:11eri:il prodlK'ei :a po1entfaJ sdMdl:i~ .:and nm them into pulses or eler.lflciry tr 11MlkJ. Pyt!b:ill fr m.ri). l':ind1hepulseid~ed21 lhe
diffe'enCC wtwn i1's deform1!(1, cw vice w.rs:a. b) How 1op:te your 3n~wtlf' {pick the descnpitlan 1h:a1 best

. . _d. . . . . .
boundary :t.I the blct ol the ere ll nd ilS detected by :an
Q•t Ultr.1soond w:1...es :are gent.rir:it4!d :ind deteded by !UI ur.r.>SOU nd IJOICMJ your :mswwt. uknsound tramduet'r in iont of the~ (1 nw.tJ. Thf ume
tt:tnsdJce Inside. lhe ta.nsWcff, ~ 2&errurina poll!llli:il OmMb: There is no~~ ii 1::ates b Che; «'l'lotocorne b¥t on be used IO akuble
~a>ppielllO.,..-a)"Qi.. _ _ .,
a8llll! :a ...... wwe. Whfl'I ... WW!? is reftfdfd :arid relUm5.
aQl..ISe l!W: aysuls to \ibDW, which in tl.m (ttlff'5 :an
1-1 llw\.T I p:jre 3 and.( h2w been COWftd Doe S
pod his~~ Ar6W« is ba!C 3nd has bdd
stnKIUl1\ with iOOnutlOft missing.
bt I
(I marl<)
<l nwtl
,c= 1.ll•l40 flB.2 m• "s 10olUJ
:illenut~ f)Olffltial difiere~ 1h:11 is ddected in :an 3djoining l-4 mi rb : tpoim 1, l llfid 4 h:rve been nll"lllioned. Two ot
d I~ lungs conum brge YOlum1'5 :ilr. lhe :.coustic
S poincs h :we been mentioned. Answer h:iJ some structure, lmped:lnce of tun.2n 1issue is much higher t.lun !he

__
circuit.
QS UllT.:ISOUn<l lm:igingdoen"I work ifchere :ve :iriy :ilir g:aps
berween 1M1r:a.MO.ar a..t body lissue beouw !he difierence
in X'OUSbC bpecbnce be!tWf.oM •he - and lhe f(ll 1issue
'MlUld CaM ihe rm;criy" d ln uln.souOO $Cful IO be!
md inkwm:Wion is ~lty relev:ull..
>-ft CMrts: All I :and s pcwe tmie been ~td-
.,,.,,.....,..,,
The ~ iswel ~ 2lnd ''*'""*"'ls~
__ .....,...i.........-.-
)COU5tic ~of :air (1 tl'WkJ This means 100!11 d
m t*asound"s ~ wil be rt&cwdb::d fJun M
~ tl'.se ~ ~ l3fle ifT1>ecbnct1: mtfmlldl, so 'o'f!fl' l•tle
ret1eded !»de. 8ec:lUse ol Cl'lti, J ccqJoling ml'd iUITI 'irilh ~ :irt $Ollll! poinls )'OIP" :IMWB" IN)' inciude: of 1.he ultr.isoond~ rnA"gy will be uansmilted past thf! lunRS
simil:w ~ic impecbnce 10 1hP. skin is neeOOd her~ 1he !rk•n! jM ng ?tmi r( jpfigioo (ll 10 prod.Ice :t.n im:ige ft martJ.
tr:msd.lctt :md 1he body, b@c:.)u,;e 1l'tis 2Uows utlr:ISCXllld 10 be
IDll!mitlA'd inlo Ille body.
1. While blood celb c:1QM wilh 1ec.:flfldlum-99m :ire
,,,. _ioto
2. injcrded _ ~iM.
the_ ..... ......,. .... _..,.,
d) RMnlflQillQ o/- • in1o y n• • c Dmlt
Q6 :a) Short puMs of u!U:l50Ul'ICI ~ senl inlo dlf' bodo/ wtule :an
. . . , .hmm inside 2 othod!: Dfosdb«lpf' ~ xtUfl.lta .. ~" iflfieaioft.
"' (¥)""'•
.aam1 11$ saeen.. Retlet'lt'd putses :Me delr!tt¥d 2fld show J. C#l"ll'!Ut:ldi:11111ont1fltftittedb'fd'le~M~
So lhe gpdient al 1hfo gr.iph is eqi&JI ., 'l:p.. (1 lnitltl
'4> ~ Vf'M lc:il defkidions on 1he osciCloscq~ sere.en. lhe :111Xhed10 thewhiiln blood cells.
diffenYl(l'l in time bet\\'((!n mmsmission :i nd <k>lf!dion of "· A. Sl)mm:t. c:1mff":i t:in be used 10 ~ort rlldbtion
cl ppdient T. • v
1'11 r:icfiil ll (
&he rtntlr.U'd pulse alloYn t romputer IO c:abll:ue the deplh tcniil!A!d iom technedum--99n'L ~ ~ (2.lx10' O! 2.Jl_ x 10'
d m obifct- r .g. A-sc:aM on be used IO l'1WIQ$lft lhe depth 5. ""1ee is formed by rmppi.-.: the~ rxli:arion.
"'".,........
bf kl a ~ llw! ~al rf'fleaed p!AM511 lh:M11 :I§; ibe
.......
..,.~c1.-
~rfQS d infer1ioR.
""""""'1dl0... ·---· chlrllfln•
Sov Q31 xl(J')x1SSO
WJJB a;
O.lll
brtghln8 cl .spou on :i JOC'M. A linear .a,,.,,.
cl tD.nsduc:m: St11•abi1u ct1edmrtiuro 99m rn . . . . 2111 18 i.HM

- .....---.
.:al~ a 2D im.:ige to Ix! formed of inside LM body. f.g..
0.22 ms ' {to?s.r.)
B-sc:ans c.:in be used to bm a 20 im:age ol :i (f't'US.
1.

2.
l('rlineeium-99m t-m«S g:urvn:a r:&d1;Ui(lll which mad1ty
p~ses througli tht! bocti 10 be delocted.
~ 1ui..l.ife of W!dww>ti~99m G Iona MOQ&h for
,,_of...,,,, , _,-•
(J marts kw corrl"d answer,. or f mM'li forakul•tlfta lhe

Youancak::ubU Vcplmt~M/ t'flOp:*Mon W

lar ...,,,...., ..........,

J.
.._............
cbD 10 be~ td shon ~ IO limil lhe

f~df'OyS toanud'lf'l'Mftmble
~bu\.a:~~todt:losetaoU..#Ebr.iiiplR.

isotope. \\'hid\ lim!Cj 1he p:11ient's exP®M"e ID

r:idi:llion.

Answers w1.uw
Answers
 Bluo.hln
ThC' shif1 In w.tv<'i<'n!l'h and frequency
of •n lM w.l\'O oowan!s (or bc')OrldJ
the blue MC1 ol ohO olrorom.'ll""ic
~um d~ t0 Lhc' sourct" mewing
AmplJludo AU..,.,.Uon (absorpllon) coofflclonl
II IOW3rdslho"°""""'.
Conlrlpel•I lore.
Tho force on an object moving
wi1h circular motion. It's diroocd
toWards the ceru.re ot the circle, and
is responsible ror oho <Jl>jcct's curvro
paoh.
Control varl~~
A variable lh.:u is k:q>t consl:im In
an experiment.
Conwnlion.JI curr~nl
Slancbrd current 1h:u is said to now
from a positfvc 1crmin.Jl IO :a ~:atf\~

-t· sale of lt'mjM"f>lUl1'

A trolX'f3lUll.' scale Wt docs not
dq>ond on tho propmi<s of any
ponicubr 5llb5<ana!. The unh of this
seal<! is tho kcjvin ()().
-ltun<WWlnly
Theuxal unrotairl)lof•
mczuromcn.
~Lft"O
The lowosl possible?~•.
0 K tor - 273 'O, lhat • ....,,..,.,..
onh.1\'<?.
Abso<pllon line spKtrun
A spoorum produc<d lrom li&I"
paS5<'d through • subsiancl', \\ hlt'll
coouins dMk lines coocspond1ng
dillcront w.n'<l~ths of lig/11 ,,,., """"
bcm absolbod by 1hc substincr.
Accdorollon
The r.uo of change or ""locity.
Accufilft result
A result tha1 is really dose 10 the
true answer.
Acousllc lmpodanco
The dcnsiiy of a medium multiplied by
the speed of sound in that medium.
Acllvlty
The numbcr orunscablc nuclei in a
radioaaivc sample tha1OOc:ay per
second.
Air bag
Sal"'Y dovlce; used in vl'llici<s
&hat inflat:c quickly on collision t0
'cushion' passmgro.
Alplw partklo
A panick! lormcd of •wo pro100S
and MU ncuuons (the same as~
helium nuclcu5).
The maximum m:1gnhud< ol 1ho
di1pl""""""11 ol a w.wo, I.e. the
d~ from 1~ undisturtxd
posilk>n '° •
Cll.'S1 or trough.
Anglo of lnddrna
The •ogle'""" incoming fighl malros
Wllh tho rc>nn:ll of a - r y.
,.,. ot ..ir.c:tlon
The •ogle' 1hat r<6'30t'd liglll mab's
wilh •ho rc>nn:1I ot a boundary.
AAglUr l"'l"f"Cl'
ror .., ClbJOC1 mo.ing "111>
twmonic motion.
si•
The ""Iv.lion of >fl:Ul>r \'Oloc:iry
AngWr "1'toclly
The angle' a roo21ing objoa "'°""'
'° 1tuoug11 P<Y unh 11111<'.
Amhl•flon
\Vhc'n 3 (»inid<' and its andpank:.-IC!
men :and thr-lr mass gm conV(lf100
oo """'ID' in oho form ol • pair ol
phOIOOS.
Anodo
A posillv<'ly.charr,rd oloc11odo.
Anomal°"'r°"'lf
A rcsuh 11'1:11~n't fit in wilh the
p.111crn of thC' 0 1ll£'r r~ulls in a set of
d:u:a.
Anflnodo
/\point ol m:ixlmum aa-.>lilude on a
Sl:nionary ~Vt'.
Anllp>rlld•
A parik'I~ with thc- same mass as its
COO"'!JOnding ponldo, buo cquol and
cpposloo choogo.
ArehirnodM' po1ndpl•
When on <Jl>jro Is lully or panially
1""'1«Std rn a nuid, i1 oxp«iona!s
"" upiruwo l'<Jl>l oo ""' woigttt ol lhe
A measure ol ohe fr:>Clk>n ol an X-ray
beam that is att«tUamd as it passes
ll>roogh. rmo<ri•I.
AwogospHd
The ...1dislance C0\...00 by on
objoct divided by Ille oooal rime
flaps«!.
Avog~c-
The ~ofparricl<s contJinod in
one mole of a smsrance.
k is ....,1 io
6.02 x 10" mol 1.
II
hct<ground rodWion
The Y.'Calc l{'\'el of nudear radiatioo
found everywhae.
B~unll
A fundamental unit that cannot be
derived from other units.
114>1a.mlnus (It) rodiaUon
Nuclear radiation made up of
C!locuons.
Bola.plus (ll-) radl•llon
Nudcar radialioo made up of
posiLronS.
Big Bang lhrory
The idea 1ha1 the universe began rrom
• sma II, ""')' hOI and dense region of
spaeo, which oxplodul and has bcm
""Jl"nding"""' since.
Binding ...rgy
The onergy R'leased wfl<!n a nucleus
lorms, or Ille ooergy required oo
Boylo'l IJW
At a COf'l$e:m1 ~urr ltlC pR!SSW"l'
p and volunl<' v ol •n ido:JI gas •re
i"""""4y proponlon>l.
llnldng di!IMKe
The d1SUl1Ct' lr.l\'('tlod by a \'O'lliclo
ah« oho br.ll os are applied t.lllil h
comosoo•~""P
Bttaldng SI,...
TheSIR'SS~bya ,,_..I a
oho poonl lhao lo bmll:s.
8'11U.
A tx•tk! R130Mal doo<n' Odolorm
plasoc:ally, but ""PS whon oho "'""'
on 11 re.ac:hos a """"'n poino.
811M111illl motion
The 1lg1ag. random mooion or small
panidos 5Usprndrd in. nuid.
C.llbrallon
ChoLtlng a sc,1lc on a """'.suring
ins1rummt by mc•asurlng a known
value.
capacllanc:t
fhe :imount of char~ an objtn is able
10 s1orc l>N unh potmlial differroct'!
<p.d.) across h.
capacllor
An clooric.11COfT1>00Ml1h:11 can
''°"'cha.go, usually mado up ol owo
eondUCli'l) p1.... !<par.lied by •
dictoorlc.
Ch.lln rNCtlon ~)
When oho notJorons released by a
nuclear fission cause omer nudci to
ftSsion and release rriom neutrons -
and SOorL
ClwndrosddYr -
The maxin:un mass of a st¥ core
ror "tlich 111e o1e<:uon dogor1cncy
pressure can couneaa lhe
p•-~
O\lrgeanlor
"" l!looric>lly chalgul panide """ is
free
a-
eo lrlCM! v.;mm a maei.al.
citation is included in lhe main
A U!XI
of 3 mpon IO show "'30 • panicular
bi1 ol information was takm Crom a
SOI.la!.
Coho!ronl
Sources (or waves} that have lhc same
wavef~ll> 3nd lreqoorx:y and a foxed
pha~ difference between them arc
cohcrcn1.
COOll'I
A ball al ice, du5' •nd IOdc which
orbits a star in a highly elliptical orbit
Compressive dolorm•llon
Deformation of an object caused by
balanced inwards forces, which leads
LO compression (squashing).
Compressive Ion:•
A loroo which squashes some1hing.
Construcllve lnlorlM'llCo
When tVi'O waves ir»i.erfcre to ma.Ice a
wave with a larger displacemern.
Contr.m mt'dium
5tJbs4ance wilh a high aoomic number
oh21 shows up c~I)· in X-ray images
and can be k>Uow«J as it~
tcrminal.
Com'lilllon
A r1'l•lionslup bdwm> 1WO Y.lri:iblos
Cowk ....,..,...,... boct;pound
r.dillon !CMBRI
A cominuous !pOCVwn o/ rnoaow:M'
r.idiorion, coocspondong IO a
_...... ol 2.7 K. lh>o """"
1hrougllou1 tho unrvmo.
Cowologlul priooplo
On a ~ seal<!. tho """"""' is
IIOI I aJCC1 KUA and isolropic, and
Ille b\\~ ol physics •le the Amo
"'"'Y"tim'.
Coulonm
A uni1 ol charge. Onocoofomb lO
is tho amourn ol charge oh21 pa""5
in 1 second v.tlm the currcnt Is
1 3mj)(YO.
Couple
A pair of forces of equal sit~ which
act parallel to cadl C'.Mhct but m
opposite directions.
Coupllngllll'Clium
A subsc:anc:c :applil"CI during uhrMC>Und
scans to avoid air gaps b<'.'lweerl lh<'
ultrasound 1ransduccr and th~ body.
Crilk•f angle
11lc angle or incldcnl'C :11 which 1he.'
angle of refraction is 9'0°.
Crilk>I damping
Damping such tha11hc amplitud~
of an 05Cillmion is wclu<:M in lhr
shortest possible Ii~.
Crilk.r ......
The amoon• of fuC'i ri<nkd for •
fissioo d101in reaction to continor :it a
5lcady r.nc on its own.
Crumpletono

Alplw (o) OOl>lion
Nuclear r.idi>tion mode up of
alpha panid<s.
Alllllx'lor
A COliipCAbM usOO K> mc~.wn~ the
cumn "°"ing "1rougll • amliL
--
fluid h has di<jllxro. sq:tarare all the nudeons in that C.tllOdo ll>roogl> a paliml's body
nuct<Us. Equiv:lkn oo Ille mass dcloct P.on of a ar "' 01hor W'l1octo do5lgl1<d
A!lorold A nogaolvC'ty<ha'!l"l <'locllodo. e.g. a barium meal or iodine. oo crumpk! on i"1'3'1
of Ille nudrus.
A chunk of oodc •nd milll'f21 lha1 Cenl.. . , ..... (Cl'lll. . of ply) C-rod CUR'l'lll
The poinc "'1ilcll you on ronsid« •II A rod inserul illlO a nuclear reaaor K> The rate of now of du~ in a circuit.
O<bilS · -· "" objoct "flose escape \'Oloc:iry is of on Obj«t's wC'iglll oo >Cl ohrougll. c:oouol oho ..... "' f5'ion by abso<bing
A!lronomtol unot &""""' ohan 1he spoo1 of filP. newons. - r o "'....,...,.. w.
A unh of cflSlana> dollnod as tho C1't1trtpol>l .attd«>llon
""""'disllna' bc'Mcm 1he Com The OC(('ltr.>oion d •• U¥a movirg
;and ..... Sun. .....h atallat motion. lt4s dit1'!al'!d
-ards lho ctntre ol oho dn:lo.

Gk)ssary 4\jM
 m
Damping
A force whic.h causes an oscilla1ing
objeo 10 lose energy and so causes
the amplitude of 1hc object's
oscillation 10 decrease.
Dark energy
A type of energy thal fills 1he
whole of space, and might explain
the accelerating expansion of the
unWerse.
Dark mailer
A source of mass in the universe that
cannot be seen, bu1 makes up a large
amount oflhe known of lhe universe.
Decay conslanl
The probabili1y of an unstable nucleus
dtcaying per unit time. A measure of
how quickly an isotope will decay.
Ocnslly
The mass per unit volume of a material
or object.
Ocpendcnl v•ri•bl•
The variable lha1you measure in
an experiment.
OestructJw inlerforencc
When two waves interfere to make a
w·avc with a reduced displacement.
Olflracllon
When waves spread out as they pass
through a narrow gap or go round
obslacles.
Olflracllon grnllng
A slide or other thin object that
contains lots of equally spaced slits
very close together, used to show
diffraction patterns of \YaV3.
Diode
A oompooont designed to allow
current 11ow in one direction only.
Olrec1Jy propotUon.l
Two variables that are diret.ily
proportionaJ will produce a suaigh1
line 1hat goes through the origin when
plotted against f'.ach other.
DisplaCctll<'OI
How rar an object has uavellcd from
its staning point in a given direction.
fvl Glossary
Dlsplacemonl (waves)
The distance a point on a wave has
moved from its undiswrbed posi1ion.
Oisplacemonl-Ume groph
Agraph showing how the
displacement of an object changes
over a period of time.
Doppler cflccl
The dlange in the frequency and
wavelength of a wave emitted (or
renocted} from a source moving
towards or away from an obser\'er.
Drag
rric:tion caused by a fluid (gas or
liquid).
Driving frequency
The frequency of a periodic external
driving force which causes an object
1ooscillate.
Duclllo
A material that can be drawn into
wires or other shapes without losing
its strength.
Dwari plane!
A planet-like object that orbits a star,
but docs 001 meet all the condi1ions to
be considered a planet
a
Efficiency
The ratio of useful energy given out by
a mechanical system 10 1hc amount of
energy put into tile system.
Elasllc collision
A collision in which momemum and
kinetic energy are conserved.
Elastic de£orma:Uon
If a deformation is elastic, 1hc material
returns lO its original shape once the
forces arc removed.
Elasllc llmil
The force (or stress) beyood which
a material will be permanently
Stretched.
Elasllc polenUal en"'1!)'
The energy stored in a strc.itchcd
material.
Elcclric Held slrcnglh
The force per unit positive charge
experienced by a body in an elroric
rte1d.
Elcclrlc polmllal
The work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from a point infinitcfy
rar away to a specific point in the
elect.Tic field. /The electric potential
energy lhat a unilchargcwould have
at a specific point.
Elcclric polcnllal "°"'CY
The energy stomd by a charge due
10 iis position in an electric field.
ElcclromagncUc induclloo
The induction of an electromotive
force (e.m.f.) across the ends of a
conductor due 10 a dlanging external
magnetic field.
Elcclromagncllc spcdrum
A continuous spoctrum of all
the possible frequencies of
eloo.romagootic radiation.
ElcclromoUW' force (e.m.fJ
The amoum of electrical energy
a power supply transfers to each
coulomb or charge.
Elcclron degencrocy pressure
The pressure tha1stops clecuons being
forced into 1hc atomic nucleus, e.g. in
the dense core of a star.
Elcrnenlory charge, e
The smallest unit of charge, equal 10
1.C.O x ·10 19 c.
Emission line spccllun
A spectrum or bright lines on a dark
baclcgroond corresponding to different
wa\felcngths of light that ha\fe been
emitted from a light source.
Equation or slalc ol an ideal g>s
A combination of the three gas laws,
given by pV = nRf or pV = NkT.
Equilibrium
An object is in equilibrium if all
I.he forces acting on it cancel each
other oul
Escape vt'lodly
The velocity thai an object would
need to travel at to have jus.1 enough
kinetic energy to escape a gravitai.ional
field.
Even! horizon
The boundary of the region around
an object inside which the escape
velocity is greater than c.
Exponcnllal rclallonshlp
A relationship in whicll tv.'O variables
am related by the cxponemial
function, e.g. y=Aeb.
a A panicle which cannot be split up
Faradays law
The induood e.m.f. is directly
proportional io 1he rate of change of
0ux Ii nlcage.
Flcld lines
A W;Jlf or representing a force field.
Fon:e constanl
The force needed to extend an object
per uni1 extension. ~ unilS are
Nm·1• each objoo has itsown follX?
constant.
Force llcld
A region where an obj~'Cl will
experience a non-contact force.
Fon:cd vlb...UOn
The oscillatK>n of an object due to an
external driving force.
Free>-body diagram
A diagram showing all 1.hc forces
acting on an C>t>;l'Cl, but none of
the forces llle object exerts on its
surroundings.
Free f•ll
The motion of an object undergoing
an aocclcration of g.
Free vibralion
The oscillation of an object wi1h
no 1.ransfcr of energy 10 or from the
surroundings.
F11!<juoncy (of a waVl?)
The number or whok! wave q.•clcs
(~1Ja 1i?11s) per second
g1vcnpomt
passing a
F11!<juoncy (of circular motion)
The number of complete revolutions
or cycles that a rotating or oscillating
object makes per S<lCOnd.
Friction
A force that opposes motion. II acts in
the opposi~ direction 10 the motion.
It arises when t\'t'O objects are moving
past each other, or an object is moving
through a Ouid.
Fund;vncnlal mode of vibration
The lowest frequency at which a
stationary wave is formed.
Fundamoolal parUd•
into smaller paniclcs..
Iii
Gamma (-.,) radiation
Nuclear radiarion made up of high-
frequency electromagnetic wavCJ5/
photons (known as gamma fa}~).
Gcncraloc
A device that COOV(!ns kinetic
energy imo eleruicaJ mcrgy by
rocating a coil in a magnetic field.
Gcoslalionary salcfllle
A sa1cm1e that orbitS directly over the
equator and is always above the same
point on Fanh. Its orbit takes <'.xac:tly
one day.
Grovl lallon.l field
A force rield generated by any object
with mass which causes any other
objca with mass within the field to
experience an auractivc force.
Gravllallonal f1ckl line
Arrows showing the direction of the
force that masses would feel in a
gravitationaJ field.
Gravll.lllonal l'lcld slrcnglh
The force per unit mass, g,
experienced by a body in a
gravitational field.
Gravll.lllonal polenllal
The gravitational potmtial a1a poim is
the work done in moving a unit mass
from infinity 10 tha1point
Gravllalional polonllal energy
Th<! energy an object gains when
lifted up in a gravitational fiekf, due 10
its position.
m
Hadroo
/\ panide made up of quarks that is
subject to Lhe strong nuclear force.
Hall-Ufo
The average time it takes for the
number of undocaycd nuclei (or the
activity or coum rate) in a sample of a
radioaaive isotope 10 h:ltve.
Hcrllsprung-Russc!I <HRl dlagram
/\ graph showing a luminosi1y-
temperature plot of many stars. It
shows distinct areas corresponding to
main sequence stars, red giant stars,
super red giant stars and while dwarf
stars.
Homogenelly of unlls
When both sides of an equation have
the same unil'S.
HomoS<'flOU'
[very pan of something is the same as
f!Ve<y Other pan.
Hooke~ law
The ex1cnsion of a stretched object
is proportional to the load or force
applied to it. This applK.is up to the
limit of proponionali1y.
Hooke~ law llmll
See limit of proponionality.
Glossary

Hubblo'Slaw
The recessional velocity of a djstam
object in space is proponional 10 its
distana? away from an obserwr,
v ~HJI.
Hypolhosis
A specific testable statement, based on
a theory, aboUl what will happen in a
test situation.
lntemil rcslslancc
The resistance created in a power
source when electrons collide with
atoms inside the power source and
lose energy.
Inverse square law
Artf law in which a physical quamity
is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance.
Ionisation
Ionisation occurs when
electromagnetic waves uansfcr enough
energy to an atomic elocuon to
remove Lhe c&ecuon from 1he atom.
Ionising radiallon
II
Koplors first law
~ach planet moves in an ellipse
around the Sun, with the sun at one
focus.
Koplors socond law
A line joining the Sun 10 a planet will
sweep out equal areas in equal (imes.
Kejllors lhltd law
The period of a planet's orbit and the
mean d istanrn bP.lween the Sun and
the planet are related by 11 a: r 1•
l(JnoUconorgy
L...,.
A structure made of a rigid obj oct
rotating around a pivot, in which an
etfon force works against a load force.
Llghl-dopendont roslslor U.DRl
A rt-sistor wilh a resistance that
depends on the intensity of light
falling on it. The resistance decreases
wi1.h increasing light intensity.
Llghl year
The distance tha1 electromagnetic
waves 1r:rvel through a vacuum in one
year.
Llmll ol proportionality
The poim beyond which lorce is no
Magnetic flux density
The force on one mcue of wire
carrying a current or one amp a1 right
angles io the magnetic field.
Magnetic flux linkage
The prodoct of the magnetic flux
passing through a coil and the number
of turns on the coil cuujng the flux.
Main sequence
A phase of a star's evolution in which
the star is fusing hydrogen in its core.
Margin of error
The maximum difference bel\vcen
a recorded data value and the uue
value.
Modol
A simplified pic1ure of what's
physically going oo.
Moderal0<
/\ ma1crial (often water) in a nuclear
reactor that slows down neutrons
so they can be captured by uranium
nudei (or miler rrssionable nuclei).
Mole
An amount or substance containing
N14 paniclcs, all of which are identical.
N14 is the Avogadro consianL
Moolenl
The turning effect ol a force around a
turning poinL

a
Ideal gas
Radiation which, when it hits an
atom, can cause the atom 10 lose an
clec1ron.
The energy possessed by a moving
object due to its movement
l(JnoUc model ol m.lllor
longer proporuonal to extension.
Unear~ntum
The linear momentum of an object is
Mass
The amount of ma11cr in an object
Momentum
See linear momentum.

A (1hooreticall gas Iha• oboys lhe 1hroo
gas laws at all temperatures.
lmpulso
The impulse of a force aeting on an
object is the produa of average force
and time.
1nc1opro<1on1 vmabie
The variable you change in an
experiment
Inclasllc colllslon
A collision in which momentum is
conserved but kine1ic energy is n0t.
Inslanlanoous sp<OO
The speed of an object a1 a given point
in time.
Insulator
A substance Which does 001 conduct
elcaricity. ~feet insulatorS oontain
no charge carriers.
lnlenslly Col a"'""")
The rate of Oow of energy per unit area
ai right angles to the dirOCtion of travel
of a wave.
lnlerferenc(!
The superposition of 1wo or more
w·aves.
lnlornal energy
The sum of the random disuibu1ion
of kinetic and potential energies
associated with the molecu1es of a
sysC<>m.
ISOIOjl<!
One of 1wo or more forms or an
element wi1h the same number of
protons but a different number ol
oouuons.
Isotropic
[verything loot:s the same in every
direction.
/.V characteristic
A graph which sho\YS how the current
(I) flowing through a COllp)nenl
ctiangos as 1he po<•ntial difference (\/)
across it is increased.
a
joule
One joule is the work done \vhen a
force of I newton moves an object
1hrough a disianc:c of 1 metre.
The idea that sotids, liquids and
gases are made up or tiny moving or
vibrating panicles.
l(JnoUc theory
See kinetic model of matter.
l(Jrdlholrs first law
The 1ocal current entering a. junction in
a circuit must equal the to1al current
leaving 1he junction.
l(Jrdlholrs socond law
The 1ocal e.m.f. around a series circuit
isequal to the sum of the potential
di ffcrenc:es across each component in
the circuit
a
i..s.r
A source of coherent, monochromatic
light
lrnzts law
The induced c.m.r. is always in such a
direction as to oppose the change tha1
caused it
Lopion
A fundamental panicle th:u is 001
subject to the strong nuclear force.
100 produa ol its mass and velociiy.
Longltucllnal wave
A wave in whidl the oscillalions of the
panicles/lie!ds (i.e. 100 displ acomon~
is in 1he direction of energy
propagation.
Lost volls
The energy wasted per coulomb
overcoming lhc internal resistance
of a power source.
L1111iooslly
1hr.1mal airoun1 al anergy
emitted by an object in the form
of electromagnetic radiation each
second. Also known as power output.
MagnoUc llold
rorce field in \•lhich a force is exerted
on ITI3gnetic materials.
Magnoucnux
The total magnetic nux, </>,passing
1hrough an area, A, perpendicular to a
magnetic rrekt, 8, is equal to BA.
Mass deloct
The difference txmveen the mass of a
nucleus and the sum of the individual
masses of the nucleons. Equivalent to
1.hc binding energy of the nucleus.
Maxima
Construa ive interference that occurs
at any point wticre lhe path difference
is a whole number of wa\'elengths.
Mean
The average of the vafUC?S collec1ed
in repeated measurements, obtained
by adding all the valullS togllther and
dividing by the total number of values.
Moan drln •olodty
The avorag• votoci1y ol 1ho nei
movement of charge carriers mwards
a terminal of the power supply.
Moao square sp«'d
Represents the mean of the squared
speeds of all the panicles. It has units
of m's·7•
Medical lracer
A radioactive subslance 1hat is used in
medicine for imaging inside the bOdy.
Minim•
Dcs1ructive i nterrerencc that occurs
at points where the path difference
is hatr a wavelength, one and a
half wavelengths, 1wo and a half
wavelengths, etc.
Monochromallc
A light source that is all of the same
wavotong1h (or frequency).
II fi'equmcy
Nalur•I
Th{! rmqucncy or an otJjl!CI oscillating
lroe!y.
N~t force
I\ single force that is equivalent to all
the other forces acting on an objocl
added 1ogoihcr.
Neutrino
I\ lcp1on with zero charge and (almost)
zero mass.
Noolmo
/\ ncu1ral hadron with a relative mass
of I, and quark composition udd.
Noolron star
A star mainly made up of neuuons,
lormro by 1ho collapse or a red giant
with a high core mass..
Newton's 1sl law of moUon
The velocity of an object will noc
change unless a resultant force aas
on it.

}! I Glossary Glossary
 Newton's 2nd law of motion
The rale of change of mornemum of an
object is equal to the nes force which
acts on I.he object
Newton's Jrd law of motion
ir obicct A exerts a force on object
B, Lhen objoct e exens an equal but
opposite force on object A.
Newton's law of gravlLltloo
The force aaing between two
point masses is proponional 10 the
product of their masses and inversely
proportional m the square of the
distance oowecn their cemres or
mass, or F = _c~m.
Nod<'
A point of zero amplitude on a
stationary wave.
Non-otwnlc conductor
A conductor that doesn't obc..iy Ohm's
law - unck'r constant physical
conditions, the resistance of the
conductor changes as the current
lhrough it changes.
Norm.11 contact rorce
The perpendicular force that a surface
exens on an object in contact with
tha1surface. The force is equal and
opposite to the force applied 10 the
surface by 1ho object.
Nudeor fisslon
The spontaneous or induced splining
of a larger nucleus into two smaller
nuclei.
N~arfusion
The fusing of (WO smaller nuclei 10
form one larger nucleus.
Nuclear model of Ill< atom
A model of the structure of the a1om
that siates that Lhe atom consists of
a small, positively charged nuck?us
containing protons and neutrons,
orbited by electrons. The a1om is
mostly empty space, and the nucleus
coniains most of the mass of the aiom.
Nuclear radl.ltlon
Pa nides or f'J1Crgy rek?ascd by an
unstable nucleus as it decays,
e.g. alpha, beta.minus or bcta·plus
panides, or gamma rays.
}:11 Glossary
Nuclooo
A panicle in the nucleus of an atom
(which can be a pmton or a neutron).
Nuck-on number
The numbtY of nucleons in the!
nuc.lc!us of an atom.
Ohm
A unit of resistance. A component
has a resistance of 1 n if a potential
difference of I V makes a currenl of
I A Oow duough it
Ohmic conductor
A conductor that obeys Ohm's law-
under constant physical conditions,
Lhe resistance of an ohmic conductor
is constant for any current passing
1hmughit
One-t0-00e intcraclion
Where a panicle imeracts wi1.h a
si ogle mher panicle.
Optical density
The propcny of a medium 1ha1
describes how fasi light uavels lhrough
it The more optically dense a material
is, the more light slows down when
it cmers it The optical OOnsity of a
material is measured by its mfraaive
index.
Ort>llal period
The time taken for a satellite 10
complete a full orbiL
Ofbilal spo<d
The speed at which a satellite iravels.
Oscilloscope
Displays waves from a signal g<!nerator
as a function of voltage over lime.
OYerd.unplng
Heavy damping such that the system
takes longer to return to equilibrium
1.han a critically damped system.
II
Pair producllon
The process of convt:ning
<!nergy to mass to produce a
paniclc-amipanicle pair.
Parallax
A mcasum of how much a nearby
objca (e.g. a star) appears 10 mo1,-e in
relation to a distant background due 10
the observer's motion (e.g. as 1hc Eanh
orbits the Sun). Measured as an angle.
or parallax.
P.....c
The disra.nc:e of an oo;ect if iis angle
of parallax. as measured from Earth, is
equal to I arr.second = (lf.lG-00)'.
Palh difformce
Thoamoum by which lhe path
lravelled by one wave is longer than
the palh travelled by another wave.
Pc.!errl'Vicw
Where a scientific repon is sem out to
peers (other scienUsts) who examine
the methods, data and resuhs, and if
they think that the condusion
is reasonable, it's published.
Ptfcentlgo dlfloronco
The difference t>ecween a measured
value arid iis uuc value, as a
percmtage or lhe lrUCvalue.
Ptfcentlgo error
The uncenaimy given as a percentage
of the measurement taken.
Ptflod
The time taken for a rotating or
oscillating object to complete one
revolution or cycle.
Period (waves)
The time taken for one whole wave
cycle 10 pass a given point
PronillMty
The permittivity ol a material is a
measure of how difficult it is m crea1e
an etcaric field in that material.
Phase
A measureme-111 of the posiLion or
a ccnain point on a wave cycle,
measured as an angle {in degrees or
radiall5) or in fractions or a cycle.
Phaso dlfforonco
The amount by which one wave lags
behind another, or the difference in
phase bt'l\ve<m two points on a wave.
11 is measurl'd as an angle {in degrees
or radians> or in fractions of a cyde.
Pholoeloctr1c clfoct
The erniS"Sion of electrons from a melal
when light of a high enough lrequency
is shone on it
Pholoeloctron
An clcc1ron released through the
photoelectric effect.
PhoIon
A quamum or energy ol
elocuomagnc1ic radiation.
Physical qu•nllly
A quanlity that can be measured, that
has both a numerical value and a unit.
Piezoelectric elfoct
The production of potential difference
across piezoelectric crystals when they
arc deformed (and vice versa).
Pilot oxpcriml'nl
An experiment ca11ied out before lllc
aaual experiment. The same set- up
as the actual experiment is used to
vary the indepcndcrtl variablC' to sec
(roughly) how much Ille dependent
variable changes.
Plvol
The poim about which an object will
1um when ii experiences a moment.
Plane polarisod wave
A wave in wflidl all the vibrations arc
in one direction or plane.
Piano!
A natural ot>;oct in space which orbits
a star and salisfies cenain conditions.
Planotary nebula
The remnants of the outer layers of a
red giant that are ejected as the star
becomes a white dwarf.
Planetary satollll•
Objects which orbit a planet,. such as
moons and artificial satellites.
Plastic <k'formatlon
If a deformation is plastic, the material
is permanently deformc.Jd.
Polarised w.w~
Soo piano polarised wave.
Polarising fillor
A filter that only lransmits vibrations
of a wave in one d irectio n or plane,
called the plane or transmission.
Polymeric
A polymeric material is made up of
molecules that am arranged in long
chains.
Posltron
The amipa.nicle of an electron.
Sometimes caJled a b· particle.
PotonlLtl dllfcronre
The work done moving a unit charge
between two poims in a circuit.
Polontlal dlvldor
A circuit containing a voltage source
and a pair of resistors. The voltage
across one ol the resisiors is used
as an ouipu1 voltage. If the resistors
;uen'1 fixed. the cirruit will 00 capable
of producing a variable output voltage.
Potonllal cnorgy
Eoorgy that is stored (e.g. elastic
potcnlial energy is cnergy stored in
something 1ha1 has boon sulltchcd or
compressed, like a spring).
Powor
The rate of transfer of energy or the
rate of doing work. It's measurnd in
watts (W), where I wa11 is equivalent
to 1 joule per second.
Predsert'§ljt
The smaller the amount of spread of
your data from the ITl()._an, the more
precise ii is.
Prl'dlction
See hypolhesi~
Prefix
A sealing factor used bcrore a uni L
Prossure
The roroo applied to a surface per
unit area.
Prt'ssurci: lilW
At con.s1am \'Olurne, the pressure p of
an ideal gas is directly proportional to
its absoluie iemperature r.
Principle or conservation of enorgy
energy cannot be crcamd or
dOstioyed. Energy t'3n be 1ransrerred
from one form 10 another bu1 lhe total
amount of energy in a closed system
will not c:fla.nge.
Pr1ndplo or conservation of
momentum
Assuming no external forces act,
the total linear momenium before a
collision is equal to Lhe toial linear
momentum after a collision.
Prlndpto or moments
r or a body to be in equilibrium, the
sum of the clockwise moments aaing
about any point must equal 1hc sum of
the anticlockwise moments about the
same point
Progrosslvo wa><>
A moving wave that carries energy
from one place 10 another without
transferring any material.
Projedllo mollon
Motion wi1h a constant horizontal
vcloci1y and a vcnical vclocit)'
affected by acceleration due 10 gravity.
Proton
A positively charged hadron with
a rcta1ivc mass of+ 1, and quark
composition uud.
Proton number
The number or protons in the nucleus
or an atom.
Proloslilr
The earli~'St stage in the life cycle of a
star. PrOlostars arc fonned when the
force of gr:rvity causes clouds of dus1
and gas to spiral together.
Glossary
 Red shffl
The shift in wavelength and frequency
Qualilallve data of CM radiation towards (or beyond)
Non-numerical data. 1.he rad md of 1.he etecuomagnetic:
spectrum due to Lhc source moving
Quanlilallvo d.lla away from the observer.
Numerical data.
Red ,._.,.,. glanl Cor Slljl<'r red gianO
Quart A phase or a massive star's cvoluLion
A fundamcrnal panick! 1ha1 makes
during wtiidl fusion of large nuclei (up
up hadrons. 10 iron) Lakes place.
Rcfcrt-nce
A dcl-ailt'd descripLion of where a
source of information can be found,
usually a1 the end of a document.
Reflecllon
When a wave is bounced bade when ii
II
R.adi<ll clectrlc lield
lli1s a boundary.
Refraction
The way a wave changes direction as
An electric field wf'lf'.re the l'ield lines
i1 enters a different medium.
all point towards or ~Y'a'f from the
oomra I point. Refradlve Index
The ratio between the speed of light in
Radian
Aunit of measurement ror angles. a vacuum and the speed or light in a
material.
There arc 2..- radians in a coq>letc
cirde. Repealable resull
A resuh that can be repeated by the
R.adloaclllll' dating same person using the same method
A moans or dating objects by and equipment
analysing the aaivity of an isotope
with a known hair.life within the Reproducible result
Amsuh !hat can be consismmly
object.
R.adlOKllll\' decay
When an unstable nucleus breaks
reproduced in an independent
experiment.
down to become more s1able, by Reslstaoce
A component has a resistance ot
releasing energy and/or paniclcs.
1 n if a potcnlial difference of 1v
Random error across it makes a current of 1 A flow
An error that occurs by chance. hs
1.hrough it. R.esis1anoo is measured in
cffoci on experimental results cannot
ohms Cm.
be prediaed.
Reslstlvlly
Rt".icUon force
The resistance of a 1 m Jength of a
See normal contact force. material with a I nY cross.sectional
ReacllonU~ area. It is measured in ohm-metres
The time taken k>r a person 10 react (llm).
afler an evcni (e.g. seeing a hazard).
Resolution
Recessional 11\'lodly The smallest change in what's being
The speed at which an object is measumd that can be detected by the
receding from 1:anh.
cquipmrot
Red gianl Rosoo.mce
A phase or a stats evolutio n in wtiidl
VVhen an object, driven by a periodic
the star is fusing larger elemcms tllan external force a1a frequency close
hydrogen in its c:ore. 10 its natural frequency, begins to
oscilla1e with a rapidly increasing
amplitude.
}}I Glossary
Resonanl rrequoocy
On free vibnllons)
The frequency of an objro oscillating
freely.
Resonanl rrequoocy
On slillionary w...,,)
A frequency at which a stationary
wa\"e is formed because an exact
number of waves are produced in tile
time it takes for a wave to get to 1hc
end of the vibrating medium and back
again.
Resutlanl lorce
See net force.
Resu:llanf Vl'Clor
The V<!Ctor that's formed when two or
more vectors are added 1ogether.
Ripple lank
A shallow tank of water in which
water waves arc created by a vibrating
dipper.
Rool me.., square speed
The squa.m root or lhc mean square
speed.
11
S.lellile
Arry smaller mass which orbits a mudl
larger mass..
Scal•r
A quantity wilh a size but no
direction.
Sc<lle drawing
A drawing that is proportional m lhe
real.life situation it rq>resentS.
Seal bell
A belt used in vehicles tha1isdesigned
to stretch slightly to protect the wearer
in a crash.
Scmicondoclor
A material wtlidl conducis elccuicily
(bu1001 as well as a metal). When the
temperature of a semioonductor rises,
it can release more charge carriers and
iis resistance decreases..
S.I. derived unlls
UnitS that can be derived from the S.L
base units.
Simple hmnonlc motion
The oscillation of an obj ea where
the object's acceleration isdiroctly
proportional io its displacemem rrom
the miq»int, and is alv.oays directed
towards lhe midpoint.
Solenoid
A wire wound into a long coil.
SpeclOc heal capacity
The amount of energy needed to raise
the temperature of 1 kg of a substance
byl K(or l'Q.
SpeclOc lalenl heal
The quantity or thennal energy
required to change the!. state of 1 kg of
a substance (e.g. 10 melt or vaporise it)
without changing its temperature.
Speed
How fast sornelhing is moving..
regardless or direction.
Slllndard form
A number written in the form
A x 1er, where A is a number be'l.ween
I and 10 and n isa whok! number.
Slllndard nolallon
Summarises all the information about
the nucleus ol an Qll!f11ent in Um lorm
~x. where A is the nucleon number,
Z is the proton number and X is 100
element's chemical symbol.
SLlllonary (slandlngl wave
A wave created by the superposition of
1wo progressive waves wi1h the same
frequenq.• (or wavelength), moving in
oppos-i1c directions.
Sleran'S low
The luminosify of a star is directly
proporUonal 10 the fourth pmver of the
star's surface tempera1ure and to its
surface area: l = <h:Psl'.
SUflness
Stiffness is a measure ol lhe extent to
which a material resists deformation in
response to stress.
Slopping dlslance
The distance.covered by a vehicle in
the time bet\\~ the driver sponing
a hazard and the \fehicle coming to
a complete stop. It's the sum of the
thinking distance and the braking
distanc:e.
Strain
Tho change in length divided by ttM!
original length of the material.
Suength
The strength of a material is a measure
of ilS ability to withstand slress
without breaking.
Stress
The force applied divided by the
cross.sectional are.a.
Strong nuclear fom>
A rorcc with a short range which is
attractive at small separations and
repulsive at very small separations.
Supernova
The explosion of a high.mass s1ar
after its red sujX?r giant phase,
caused by the ooro collapsing and
the outer layers of the star falling
in and rebounding. creating huge
shock\vaves.
SUperposlllon
When tY.'O or more waves cross,
the resultant displacement equals
the vector sum of the individual
displacements.
Sy.1.....,llc error
An error that usually causes
measurements: 10 be shifted from their
true value by a fixed amount.
a
TangenI
A line drawn on a graph 1h.a1 is parallel
lO the curve a1 the poini thai i1 rneetS
it. Used to cak:ulate the gradient of a
curvc a1 a poi nL
Te-nsiJe defomlallon
Deformation of an object caused by
balanced outwards forces, which leads
to extenSion (stretching).
Te-nsJJe rorce
A force which suctdl3 something.
Tensile slraln
See strain.
Tensile stress
Sec stress.
Tensioo
The force that actS equally on eiLhcr
end of an object that is pulled tight.
Termln.ll polential dlllel't'flce
The potential difference between the
two terminals of a power supply. This
is equal to e.m.f. when there is no
internal resistance.
Tennln.tl velodly
The velocily at which the driving
lorce(s) match the friaional rorco(s).
Theory
A possible explanation for an
observation.
Therm•! equilibrium
When two objcas am at the same
tempmature with no net now of
thermal r.oergy between them.
Tbermoil neulron
A neutron in a nuclear reactor that
has boon sk>•Ned down enough by a
moderator that i1 can be captured by
uranium nuclei (or other fissionable
nudei).
Thermlst0<
A resistor with a resistance tha1
depends on i1s temperature - it is a
type of scmiconduaor.
Thinking distance
The distance travelled by a vehicle
between the driver seeing a hazard
and applying the brakes.
Thn?shold [l't'<)Ul!ncy
The lowest frequency or light that
when shone on a metal will cause
electrons lO be released from it (by the
photoelectric effect}.
Throshold voltage Col an LEO)
The lowes1voltage thai will cause a
current LO now 1.hrough a light~ itting
diode (LEO).
Time conslanl
The time taken for the charge on a
discharging capacitor to fall 10 ~
(.alx>ut 37%} of its initial value, or for
the charge of a charging capacitor to
rise to about 6.l~. of the full charge.
Torque
The turning effect caused by a rorce
couple.
TolJll lnlernal R'llccllon mR>
When all light is comple.,ly relloctcd
back imo a medium at a boundary
with anolhcr less optically dense
medium, instead of being refracted. It
only happens at angles of incidence
greater than the critical angle.
Transformt'I'
A device that m:akes use of
electromagnetic i ncfuc1ion to
r.hange the size of the voltage for an
alternating currooL
Transverse wave
A wave in which the oscillations of 1.he
panideslftclds (i.o. tho displacement)
is at righ1angles to the dirooion of
energy propagation.
II
Ulllmale lensile sllt'flgth
The maximum stress lllat a material
can withstand before breaking.
Ulfrasound waves
Longitudinal waves with higher
frequencies than humans c.1n hear
<> 20 kH7J.
Uniform eleclric ficld
An elooric field with the s.1me electric
field sLrengLh everywhere.
Uplhrusl
The upwards force experienced by an
objoc1partially or fully immersed in
a fluid
II
Valid conclusion
A conclusion that answers lhc origiml
question.
V.Jlld rl'5Ull
A valid result is a result that is precise
and answers the original <JJestion.
Valldallon (of a lhcory)
The process or testing a theory by
repeating rucperimentS, or by using
1hc theory to make new predictions
and Lhen testing these new predictions
with new expcrimentS.
Variable
A quantity that has the potcnLial to
change, e.g. temperature, time, mass
and volume.
Vccfor
A quantity with a size and a direcLion.
V..lodly
The rate of change of displacement.
V..lodty selector
A device used to separate om ch.1rgcd
panicles of a cena in vclocity from
a stream of accelerated charged
particles moving a1 a range of speeds.
V..loclty-Ume graph
A graph showing how the velocity of
an objea chant,:.es over a period or
1ime.
Vlscoslly
A measure or how thick a fluid is.
Voll
The unit of potential difference.
The potential difference across a
component is 1 volt when you conven
1 joule of energy moving t coulomb
orcharge through the component.
~llmeler
A component used to measure lhe
poiemial difference across another
oomponcnt in a circuit.
Wall
a
X-ray lube
A ram of energy transfer equal to An e&ecuical circui1 contained in an
1 joule per secood. evacuated tube tha1is used to produce
X-rays.
Wavt'-parllcte duality
All panicles have both panicle and
wave prQfX!fties. waves can also
shc'M· particle propenies.
Wave~
The speed lha1 a wave travels aL
WaV<lenglb
The length of one whole wave
oscilla1ion or wave cycle, e.g. I.he
distance between two crests (or
a
Yleld poinl (Of yll'ld str.ss)
troughs} of a wave. The s1rcss at which a large amount of
plastic deformation takes place with a
Weak nucloar lon:o constant or reduced load.
A force that has a shon range and can
Young modulus
change the flavour of a quart.
The stress divided by strain for
Wclghl a material, up to ilS limiLof
The force experienced by a mass due
proponionality.
to a gravitational field.
While dwarf
A star with a low luminosity and a
high llCfTlperature, left behind when a
low-mass star stops fusing elements
and its core contracts..
Wlorno dlsplacemonl law
The wavelength corresponding m the
peak intensity from the continuous
II
Zero error
emission spcclrum of a star is inversely
proportional to its surface temperature:
When a measuring instrument falsely
reads a non.zero value wticn Lh<! true
:._af value being measured is zero.
Work Zero order Une
The amount of energy lransferred from The line ol maximum brightness at the
one form m another when a force
moves an object through a disiance
or when a charged paniclc moves
centre of a diffraction pattern.
through a po1emial difference.
W..kfmcllon
The minimum amount of energy
required for an electron to escape a
lllC!tal's surface.
Worsl Uno
A lioo of besl fit which has ei1her the
maximum or minimum possible slope
for the dara and goes through all ol thc
error bars.
Glossary

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History Museum, London/Science Pholo I ibrary, p 250 Marlin Dohrn/Science l'hoto I ibrary, p 255 Science
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p 457 c.n.,..1 S.C,tric Research And 0..-.lopmentlEmilio Segre Viwal Archives/Americ~ Institute of
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A annihilation 422, 423, 4&1
A-scans 4&5, 4&&
absolule 1emperature 250,
253-260, 2&9
absolute uncertainly 16, 17, 37
absolute zero 250, 259, 260
absorp<ion spcora 331
acccferJtion 48
and forces 79, 135
ccnlripetal 27&, 277
COO$ldnt acceleration 48, 49
due lo graviiy 50-54, 79, JOO
measuring 66, 67
on displacement-time graphs
SS, 56
on velociiy-time graphs 60, 63
t:imple harmonic mocion 280,.
281, 285
accurJcy 18, 38
acoustic impedance 463
activi1y (radioac!M> decay) 433,
436
air b.tgs 143, 144
air rcsis1ance 90, 91
a lgebra 47&, 477
a lpha-pJnicle scancring
experiment 411 , 412
a lpha radiation 427, 428, 431
a llcrna1ors 404
ammc1en 149, 150, 162
amphtude (of a wave) 186, 193
amplttude scans IA-scans> 465,
4&&
ampl11ude (simple harmonic
mo<ion) 281, 284, 285
angl" of incidence 199, 202-206
angle of rcnection 199
angle of rcfradion 199, 202-205
angle niles 485
angul.!r frequency 284, 285
angular -.,lcxiiy 273
•IE:~eJ•I Index
anomalous results 1O
antinodcs {or Stdhonary waves)
223
anliparticles 420-424
apparatus 6, 7, 17
arc length 273, 485
Archimedes' prmciple 89
;:ireas
of shapcs 486
under a graph 478, 479
asieroicls l 1S
astronomical units 31 &
atmospheric 1hickness 311
atomic numbc< 413
alOOIS 411-41 7
attenuation (X-r•ysl 458
averages (means) 10,. 17
uncroainty on ,J mean 16
Avogadro's constJnl 2&2
B in se<ies 352-354
B-scans 466
background radiation 428
cosmic miCJ'O\.YJve background
radiation (CMBR) 33&
balanced loo:cs 82, 83,
135, 136
bar charts 11
baryons 424
baHeries 149, 170-173
beta decay 4 19, 425, 427,
428, 432
Big Bang lheo<y 336
binding enetgics 442, 443, 447
blade holes l2l
blue shift 334
Boh1mann constan1 263
Boyle's law 257, 258
braking disiances 70, 71
brc•king slress 122, 123
brighlneSS SGJns (B-SGJns) 4&&
brittle materials 128
Brownian mo<ion 248, 249
c collisions
Glltbration 37
capilCitaoce 346, 347, 351,
352
chJrged spheres 376
parnllcl plate capacitors 372
<:ap• cilOrs 346-3&3
ch•rging and discharging 347,
348, 356-3&3
electric fields 372
energy stored 348, 349
rn pamllel 351, 353, 354
modelling capacitors 358, 359
Ust!S of capaci1ors 350
car s•fcty 143, 144
risks 144
CAT sc•nning 459
GJtcgoric data 11
cathode ray oscilloscopes (CROs)
190, 191
causal relationships 20
r-ells (elec1rical) 149, 170-173
rcn1rc of mass (or gravity) 76,
77, 85-87
c-entripeml acceleration 276,
277
cen1r1pe1al force 277, 308, 390
chain reactions 449
Chandrnsekhar limit 321, 322
changes of phase 250, 254-256
chaige 150-152 cosmological principle lll displaccmcn1 48
charge arriers I 51 cost o( electricity 168, 169 displaccmcn1-11me graphs
conser;ation 175-177 coulombs ll, 150 55-58
charged paniclcs ma field 373, Coulomb's law 3&9, 377 ofa wa"" 18&-188, 207, 208
389-392
Charles' law 260
couru rJtc 429
couplcs (f0<ees) 87, 88
on velocity..cimc graphs
&1, &2, 64
circle propcni<>S 485 coupling m<'Clia 4&5 simple harmonic motion 280,
circuit diagrams 149 crash tests 144 281, 284, 287, 288
circular mo<ion 273-279, 308, cri1ical angle 204-20& domestic enetgy 168, 1&9
389-391 crital damping 292 Doppler elfco l3l, 334, 466
angular velcxiiy 273, 274 crumple zones 143 dooble-slit cxpcnment 216-219
frequency 275 current 150-152, 175-177 drag (fluid fric1ion) 90-93
period 275 currcn1-volrage (/M driving frequency 290
circumference 485 chJr.:1cteristics 162-1 64 ductile malerials 127
citJtions 27 dwarf plancis 315
coherence 209, 213, 21& dynamos 404
carcrashes 143, 144
conservation of momentum
133-141
investiga1ing 67-69
D
comets 316
compressions (wavl'S) 189
damping 291-293
dark cn•'fl!Y 340
E
compressive dcfomiJlion 113, dark m•ncr 339, 340 efficiency 107, I08
114 data 11 inthehomc 169
Compton cffec1 458 analysis 9-10, 13-15 Einstein's mas.s-cnctgy equation
conclusions 19, 20 cvalua1ing 6-18 420, 421, 442, 448
conductors (elcc1ric•IJ 151 prescn1ing 11, 12 elastic collisions 140
conservalion n>eording 9, 10 elastic dclorma1ion 118, 120
in circuilS 175-177
ofencrgy 107-109
tiblcs 9, 24
uncenJiniy 16-17
elasticlimil 118, 120
e lastic poten1ial energy 119, 120
of momenlum 138-1 41 da1a-logger.> &9 energy per unit volume 125,
constant accclC!ration 48, 49 de llroglie wave length 241-243 12&
due to gravi1y 50-54 dccoy consianl 433 e lectric fields 363-377, 391,
construclive intcrlcrenc:e decision making 3, 4 392
207, 209, 212, 213 dclorma1ion 113, 113-120 radial 369
con1inui1yequa11on 151, 152 densiiy 94 unifunn 372, 373
coniinuous dara 11 depcndcrit variables 5, 6 electric field Slrcngth 368,
contrast media 458 dcsrruc1ivc interference 207, 370-372, 377
control rods (frssion rcJ clors) 450 209, 212, 2 13 e lec1ric po1cn1ial 374, 377
control variables 6 diffra c1ion 211, 2 12 electric pou~nria l energy
coolant (fission reactors) 450 diffr•ction gratings 220-222, 233, 375
core burning (Siar>) 320, 321 328. 329 slored by capaci1ors 348, 349
correla1ion 13, 20, 24 electrons 242-244 electrical energy I&&, 1 &7
cosine rule 488 diodes 149, 159, 164 elCClriciiy 149-181
cosmic micl'O\\-avc b.K:kgroond dirco proportionaliiy 1l, 14 electriciiy bills 168
radiation !CM BRJ 336 discrete dara 11 electrolytes 151
Index 14ffiA
 electronidgnccic (f..M) radiation
194. 195
photon modcl 232
electrom.Jgnc<ic induction 395,
398-407
electromo1ive fon:c (e.m.f.)
170-173
electron diffmct1on 242
electron micmscopcs 244
electrons 412, 420
as charge c.m1crs 150-152
degcncr•cy pressure 321
e ne<gy levels 329, 330, 457
photo<!lcctrons 23 7-240
shells 457
elcctronvolts 233
elcctrostJtic foo:c 417
elemenwy ch•rgc 151
e.m.f. (induced) 395, 398-407
emission spectra 330, 331
energy
conserv•tionof 107-109
efficiency 107, 108, 169
electric poiential 233, 348,
375
electriul 166, 167
gmvi1ational poccntial 106,
108, 109. 306
internal 249, 269
kine<ic 101, 105, 108, 109,
249, 267, 268
of EM W d V<'S 194
of photoclt'Ctrons 238-240
ol photons 232
ratings 169
SdVing 169
transfer 101, 103, 107-109
eovironmcn1al impac:1 ol
g<!llCrdting electricity 169
equation of SLltC 262, 263
equations o( mo<ion 48, 49
equilibrium
forces 82, 83
momenlS 85
simple harmonic morion
280-283
thermal 251
•E"~R3tll Index
error bars 39, 40
errors 36
escape velocity 306, 323
evaluating
experimenl designs 8
experiment limi1ations 18, 19
resul15 18
"'""'t ho<izon 323
evolution of the unive<>e 338,
339
exam technique 489-491
expansion or the univcr.;e 335,
340
explosions 139
exponential fu nctions 483, 484
capacitors 360, 361
nuclear d<."<:ay 435, 436
extension 113
F tensile 113
Faraday's law 398-400
field lines
electric 369, 372, 377
gravitational 297, 298, 377
magnetic 381, 382. 394
fields
electric 368-377
gravitational 297-3 11, 377
magnetic 381..407
filament lamps 149, 163
efficieocy 169
first harmonic 223
fission 445..448
reactors 449..451
Fleming's lell-hand rule 383
llooting 95, 96
fluid friction (drag) 90-93
fluid pressure 95
llux (magn<ticl 394-397
flux (magnetic) density 384-387
llux (magnetic) linkage 395..400
force constant 113-11 5
fo<ce-cxtension gmphs 115, 11 6,
118-120
area under 118, 119
foa:e-time graphs 142
fotecd vibrations 290, 292, 293
fotees 77, 78, 13!>-137
car safety 143, 144
centripetal 277, 308, 390
compressive 113
couples 87, 88
equilibrium 82, 83, 85
free.body diagrams 78
frictional 90
moments 85-88
Newton's la\vs of motion
135.137
on a current-carrying wire
382-386
on charged particles in a field
369, 375, 389-392
resolving 83, 102
resultmt (net) forces 79-81,
135, 136
1ension n
weight 76
work done by a force 101,
102
fractions 474, 475
frame rate 68
free-body diagrams 78
free fall 50-52, 79
measuring g 51. 52
free vibrations 290
frequency
circular motion 275
driving frequency 290
natural 290
resonant frequencies 223, 224
simple harmonic motion 282
waves 187, 190, 191
friction 77, 90-93
full SG!le dellection 153
fundamcnral mode ol vibration
223
fundamental panicles 419, 424
fusion 320, 321, 445..448
G K
galaxies 315
gamma cameras 460, 461
gamma radiation 194, 195
medical uses 460-462
nuclear radiation 427, 428.
432
gas laws 257-260
generators 404
geometry 485-488
geos1ationary satellites 309, 310
go ld-leaf electroscop<" 237
gra phs 12-15, 478..484
area under 478, 479
error bars 39
gradients 14, 15, 479..481
intercepts 14, 15
lines of best fit 12
rates of change 479-482
sketching gmphs 12, 482
worst lines 39, 40
gravirational fields 297-311, 377
gravirational field strength 106.
300, 301, 377
gravirational potential 303-306,
377
gravirational potential eneigy
106, 108, 109, 306
H 439
hadrons 419, 424
hali-life 437..440
harmonics (stationary waves)
223, 224
Hertzsprung.RU55ell (HRJ diagram
326
homogeneity o( units 30
homogeneous 333
Hooke's law 113-116
How Scieroce Works 1..4
Hubble's law 335
hypotheses 1, 5
ideal gases 257-269
impedance (acoustic) 463
i~lsc 142
independent variables 5, 6
induced fission 445
inelastic collisions 140
incnia 76
inlrared 194, 195
insulators (electricaO 151
intensity 192, 193
polarisatio n 196-198
the photoelectric effect
238, 239
ultrasound 463, 464
Wcin's d isplacement law 324
X-ray beams 457, 458
interference (of waves) 207, 209,
212, 213
diffraction gratings 220-222
stationary w.r.'CS 223-226
two source interference
213-219
intcrfereroce patterns 328
internal energy 249, 269
internal resistance 170, 171,
173
inver.;e square law 299, 301,
369, 377
inversely proportional 15
ionising radiation 427, 428
decay equations 43 1, 432
investigations 429, 430, 438,
safe<y 429
uses 462
ions 151
isotopes 413, 414, 440
use in medical uacers
460, 461
i<atropic 333
l.V characteristics 162-164
J lost volts 170
joules 31, 102
Kclv1n scale 250
Kq>lcr's laws 310
kilowan-hours 168
kinetic eocrgy 105, HJS.1 Hl,
249, 267, 268
of charges 154
photoelectric effect 238-240
kinetic model or malter 248
Kirchhofrs laws 175-177
L
1....... 216
~Jd 7irconatc 1itanate {PZf) 464
leo1's law 401, 402
lepeons 419
""""'
light 86
diffraction 211, 212
diffraction gratings 220.222
clcctromagnc1ic (EM) spectrum
194, 195
nature ol 241-244
polaris;uion 196, 197
reOcction 199
rcfroction 199, 202-206
two source interference
213-215
light.dependent resistors (LDRsJ
149, 160, 161, 180
lisl>t·cmiuing diodes (LEDs)
149, 159, 164
threshold voltage 164, 234
hght gates 66, 67
hght years 319
hmd of proponionality 115
line spectra 330-332
hneargraphs 13-15
lines of best fit 12
log-linear graphs 363, 484
log-log graphs 484
logarithms 472
loogitudin,11w<wcs 189
luminosity 325, 326
 M N
magneric field lines 381. 382,
394
magneric fields 381-407
magne1ic Rux 394-396
magne1ic nux d<!nsny 384, 386,
387, 394
magneric nux linkage 395-400
magnirudc (o( vcc10<S) 41
main scqumcc stars 320, 321
margins or CfTOr I 6
mass 76
ccnrre or 76, 77, 85-87
mass defect 442, 443, 44 8
mass-energy cquivalt'flcc 420,
421, 442, 448
mass number 413, 415, 41 6
materials 113-130
MaxwclJ ..Bolczmann dislribution
267
mean drir1 ""loclly 151, 152
mean square <pce<I 265, 266
means (aw!f"age<) 10, 17
LWK:cnain1yon a meJn 16
medical rraccrs 460-462
micromctcn 17, 156
microw.w<'S 194, 195
interference 2 14, 215
polarisation 197, 198
stationary microwJvCS 225
modelling
discharging c011>acitors
358, 359
radioac1ivc dCCily 434, 435
modera1or (fission r~•clors) 449
molar gas constant 262
moles 262
moments 8S-88
momcnrum 138-142
carsalc<y 143, 144
deBrogliecquauon 241-243
rarcs ol change 481, 482
monochromaric light 212
m<llion experiments 66-69
5
:-. i Index
national grid 407
natural frequency 290
natural logarithm 472
ne1 {resultanl) fotecs 79-81,
135, 136
neutrinos 419, 420
neutron stars 322
neutrons 412, 420, 424
thermal 445
newrons 3 1
NC\vton1s l<nv of gr.ivi1011ion
298, 299, 377
Newton1s laws of motion
135-137
nodes (ol stationary waves) 223
non-linear graphs 15
normal contaa force 77, 136,
137
NTC lhermistors 149, 160, 180
nuclear ~ations
decay equations 431, 432
fission and fusion cquarions
446
nuclear fission 44 5-448
reactors 449-451
nuclear fusion 320, 321,
445-448
nuclear model ol rhe arom 412
nuclear radialion 427, 428
decay equations 43 1, 432
invesrigations 429, 430, 438,
439
safety 429
uses 462
nuclear \vaste 450
nude; 412, 415-4 17
densily 416
nucleon number 413, 415, 416
nucleons 412
0 penniniviry 372
ohmic conductors 159, 163
ohms 31, 155
Ohm's law 155, 159
oplical density 202
orbilS
charges in a magnetic f oeld
390
circular motion 308-310
in !he solarsystern 3 15, 316
orde<ed (ordinal) dara 11
orders or magnitude 472
oscilloscopes 190, 191
ovcrd amping 292
p
pair production 421, 422, 458
parachutes 91, 92
parallax 317. 318
parallel circuirs 172, 176
parallel springs 115
parsecs 318
parricles 41 9-426
antiparticles 420-424
hadrons 419, 424
leplons 419
quarks 424-426
p•rh difference 213, 214,
216, 217
peak wavelength (stars) 324
peer review 1, 2
percenlage difference 38
percentage err0< (uncerrainry)
16, 37
percentages 4 74
period
circular m<llion 275
orbilS 309, 310
simple harmonic morion 282
waves 187, 190, 191
PET scans 461, 462
phase difference 187, 208, 209
coherence 209
simple harmonic mo1ion 281,
282
phase lol a wave) 187
phases ol maner 248, 250
photoeleclric elfec:r 237-241,
458
maximum kinetic energy 239
photoclec:rrons 237-240
photons 232, 238-241 , 421,
422, 456
emission 329, 330
pairproduaion 421, 422
pholon model 232
wave-partide duali1y 238-241
pie charts 11
piezoclec:rric effec:r 464, 465
pilot experiments 7
!'land: constan1 232, 234, 235
planerary mOlion 308, 310
planelllry nebulae 321
planets 315
planning expcrimenrs 5.S, 23
plastic deforma1ion 118, 120
polarisation 196-198
light 196, 197
microwaves 197, 198
polycrystalline srruclurcs 242
polymeric materials 128, 129
positrons 420
po1en1ial difference 153, 372
capacitors 346, 348, 349
e.m.L 170-173
X-ray rubes 456
polenlial dividers 179, 180
po1en1iometers 180
po1en1ial energy
elec:rric 233, 348, 375
gravitational 106, 108, 109,
306
pmver 103, 165, 166
!'radical Acriviry Groups
23, 28, 29
pradical endorscmmt 23-29
pracrical skills 5 -22
precision 18
predictions 1, 5
prefixes (units) 32
pressure 94
nuid pressure 95
pressure law 258-260
probabilities 475
progJCSSive waves 186
projectile mocion 53, 54
protactinium genera1or 438, 439
prOIOn number 413
protons 412, 413
pair produaion 421
quark composition 424
protostars 320
pulsars 322
l'yrhagoras' 1heorem 487
Q ropcarabilily 18
qualitative dara 9, 13
quality ol extended response 490
quanra 232
quanlisatioo o( charge 151
quJnlitalive data 9
qu•rks 424-426
R 136
radial fields
elec:rric 369
gravitational 297-299
radians 273, 485
radialion (ionising) 427, 428,
462
r.idiation sickness 462
radiowaves 194, 195
radioactive daring 440
radiooctivc decay 427, 428
activiry 433, 436
decay constant 433
decay equations 431, 432
half-life 437-440
modelling 434, 435
rare of 433
radioaaivc isoropes 440, 460,
461
radiotracers 460-462
random errors 36
rarefactions (waves) 189
rates ol change 479-482
modelling 481. 482
ratios 474
"""'1!00 forces 77, 136, 137
reaction times 70
rcarrJnging equJtions 476
red giants 320, 321
red shin 333-336
red super gianrs 322
rclcrcnc<,,; 27
rcncc1ion 199, 200
tocal intcm;i l reflection 205,.
206
rclracrion 199-206
refracrivc index 202-205
r<pmducibiliry 18
resistance 155, 156
inrcmal resistance 170, 171,
173
resis11v11y 1SS-157
rcsolu1100 (ol apparatus) 17, 18
resolving vccrors 43, 44, 53,
54, 83
resonance 290-293
rcson:inl frequencies (stationary
w.1111.'S) 223, 224
rcsuh.ml (nc1) forces 79.81, 135,
rcsuhanl vccrors 41, 42
righr-hand rule 381
ripple ranks
diffracrion 211
reOeaion 200
refractlOO 200, 201
risk assessments 24. 25
root mean square speed 266
rubbe< 129
Rutherford scalte<ing experimenl
411, 412
 s spectra 329-332
satellites 308-310, 315
scalars 41
scale diagrams 41
scaling units 12
scatter graphs 12, 24
correlation 13
linear graphs 13-15
lines of best fit 12
non-finear graphs 15
scien1ific process 1-4
belts 143, 144
se;it
semiconductors 159
sensor cin:uits 180
series cin:uits 172, 176
series springs 114
shell burning 320, 321
shells (electrons) 457
S.I. units 30
signiflGlnt figures 473, 474
in data 9, 10
uncertainties 17
simple harmonic motion
280-293
e ne<gy 282, 283
freque ncy 282
graphs 281
mass on a spring 287, 288
pendulum 288, 289
period 282
sine rule 488
sinking 95, 96
sketching graphs 12, 482
Snell's law 202-204
solarsystcm 315, 316
solenoids 382
sound
diffraction 21 1
speed of 226
stationary sound waves 225
M-o source interference 214
sources (of information) 26, 27
specific heat capacity 252, 253
specific latent heat 254-256
7i1i Index
speed 48, 49
of a wave 191
of light 194
of sound 226
1ooninal 90-93
speed distribution in gases 267
sprcadshoo modelling 481, 482
Sfl"'adshoo models
capacitors 358, 359
radiOilCtive decay 434
spring constant 114-116
standard lonn 471
standard notation 413
stars 320-323
distances 317-319
~lcrtl>pNng-Russcll (HRl
didgtam 326
lum1nos11y 325, 326
peak w.ivclcngth 324
stcll•r radiation 324, 325
surf.ice tcmpcrJturc 324, 325
stationary (sr.tnding) wJVCS
223-226
Stcf,1n's IJ\v 325
stellar mfidtion 324, 325
stiffness I JO
stopping distone<'S 70, 71
strain 122
strcng1h 130
Str~'SS 122
strcss-str.1in cr• phs 122, 125,
127-130
strong nuclcdr lorcc 41 7
super K<d gi•nts 322
supernov•c 322
superposition 207-209
surf.tee •rcJS 486
suvat cquJtions 48, 49
for f"'° foll 50
switches 149
systematic mors 36, 37
T u velocity-Lime graphs 60-64
vibrations 290
weak nuclear force 419, 425,
426
tables of data 9 uhim.110 tensile strength CUTS) video analysis (motion) 67-69 w<>bers 398
tangents 480, 481 122, 123, 130 viscosity 90, 92 weight 76
temperature 249-251, 267-269 ulirasound 463-467 voltmeters 149, 153, 162 ooite dwari stars 321
stars 324, 325 A-scans 465, 466 w its 31, 153 ooi1e light 212, 216, 222
tensiledeformation 113, 114 8-scans 466 wlumes of shapes 486, 487 Wien's displacement law 324
tensile strain 122 ultraviolet 194, 195 wOOc done 101, 102
tensilestress 122 unccna1nties 16, 17, 36-40 against gravity 106
tension 77 combining 37, 38 by a battery 170
terminal potential difference cnor bars 39, 40 by a device 166
170, 171 reducing 17 by charges 153
terminal velocity 90-93 significant ftgures 17 in defonnation 118-120
teslas 384
theories 1, 2
unilonn electric fields Jn, 373
unilonn llf"dVltational f1Clds 298
w worlc function 237-239
worst lines 39, 40
validation 2 units 30-33 wan 31, 103, 165
thermal equilibrium 251 onclearicitybtlls 168, 169 wave equation 191
thermal neutrons 445 universe 315 wave-particle duality 241-244
thermistors 149, 160, 180 age 338 wavelength 187
thinking distances 70, 71 Big B.ing theory 336 determining wavelength of light
threshold frequency 238, 239
threshokl wltage 159, 164, 234
C\'Olution 338, 339
expansion 335, 340
221, 222
of EM •vaves 195
x
tic ker timers 67 si1c 338 waves X-rays 194, 195
time constant 362 upthrust 95, 96 diffraction 211, 212, 220-222 attenuation 458
time-gain compensation !TGO displacement 186, 207 X-ray tube 456, 457
466 electromagnetic \vaves 194,
time management 491 195
torques 87, 88 frequency 187, 190, 191
total internal reflection 205, 206 graphs 186-188
tracers 460-462
transformers 404-40 7
v intensity 192, 193
interference 207, 209, 212, y
transverse waves 187, 188, 196 validation (1hcor1t.'S) 2 213
trigonometry 487, 488 validity 18 longitud inal waves 189 y-intercepls 14
cosine rule 81, 488 variable "'5istors 149 path d ifference 213, 214, yield point 127
Pythagoras' theorem 487 v.1riablcs S, 6 216, 217 Young modulus 124-126
resolving vectors 43, 44 ~'Clors 41-44 phase difference 187, 208, Young's double slit cxp<.'f'imcnt
resultant vectors 42 resolving 43, 44, 53, 83 209 216-219
sine rule 488 velocity polarisation 196-198
small-angle approximations angular 273 progressive waves t 86
487 simple harmonic motion 281, reflection 199, 200
tungsten anode (X-ray tube) 456 285 refraction 199-206
two source interference 213-219 velocity (motion) 48. 49 speed 191
light 216-219
miCJO'o\'aVCS 215
measuring 66-69
on d1splacemcnt-Ome graphs
stationary 223-226
superposition 207, 208
z
souod 214 56-58 total internal reilection 205, zero errors 37
tcnninal 90-93 206
velocity scl«iors 391, 392 transve<se waves 187, 188,
196
Index WE;zi:lilJI•
 This page st11n1narises some of the conslilnts and values that you tnight need to refer to i,vhen annveting
questions in this book. Everything here will be provided in your exam data and formulae booklet
sonre1,vhere... so you need to get used lo looking lhen1 up and using lhem corrcccly. If a numbt.'f isn't
given on this sheel - unlucky... you'll need lo remember it as it ivon't be given to you in lhe exam.

Physi cal constants

acce/cration of free Fan, g 9.81 ms'

CGP books - they might
elementary charge, e
speed of light in a vacuum, c
1.GOx JO"C

J .00 x 10' ms'

just save your life ...
Planck cons1o1n1, II 6.6.J x 10 "Js

Avogadro consMn1, NA 6.02 x /OU mo/..J

mola1 gas cons1am, R 8 .11 /mol 'K I

Boltzmann constant, k l..J8x IO'JJK'

gravitational constant., G 6.67 x JO 11 Nm'kf!;'
permittivity of fme space, F.a 8.85 x 10 "C1N 'm 'frm 'J
elecuon rcs.I mass, m11 9.11x1D"kg
proton res1 mass, mP 1.67.J x l0 27 kg

neutron rest mass, m" 1.675 x JO" kg

alpha particle rest mass, m.. 6.646 x 10" kg

Stefan constant, u 5.67 x 10~ Wnr'K'

Quark dlarges Conversion factors

OK, maybe not your life. But when it comes to exam revision, CGP are the undisputed champions..
)Ou can order any of our books (with next.day delivery!) from us, online or by phone:
unifted atomic mass unit I U: 1.66/ x /0 "kg
elocuonvolt I eV -= I .GO x /0 ,, J www.cgpbooks.co.uk 0800 1712 712
day I day:8.64x /O's
)'O<lf I ycar - 1. /6x leis
light 'fedl I light)'f'.ar .. 9.S x 10"' 111
parsec 1 parsec ... J. I x 1016- m

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"zfl Data Tables

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