WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

- an area of professional practice that includes the design of systems to control the quantity, quality,
timing, and distribution of water to meet the needs of human habitation and the environment
- Aside from the engineering and environmental aspects of water-resource systems, their feasibility
from legal, economic, financial, political, and social viewpoints must generally be considered in the
development process
- In fact, the successful operation of an engineered system usually depends as much on non-
engineering analyses (e.g., economic and social analyses) as on sound engineering design
- Examples of water-resource systems include domestic, commercial, and industrial water supply,
wastewater treatment, irrigation, drainage, flood control, salinity control, sediment control,
pollution abatement, and hydropower-generation systems.
- The waters of the earth are found on land, in the oceans, and in the atmosphere, and the core
science of water-resources engineering is hydrology, which deals with the occurrence, distribution,
movement, and properties of water on earth.
- Engineering hydrologists are primarily concerned with water on land and in the atmosphere, from
its deposition as atmospheric precipitation to its inflow into the oceans and its vaporization into
the atmosphere.
- Water-resources engineering is commonly regarded as a sub discipline of civil engineering, and
several other specialty areas are encompassed within the field of water-resources engineering.
- For example,
o the specialty area of groundwater hydrology is concerned with the occurrence and
movement of water below the surface of the earth;
o surface-water hydrology and climatology are concerned with the occurrence and movement
of water above the surface of the earth;
o hydrogen chemistry is concerned with the chemical changes in water that is in contact with
earth materials; erosion, sedimentation, and geomorphology are concerned with the effects of
sediment transport on landforms; and water policy, economics, and systems analyses are
concerned with the political, economic, and environmental constraints in the design and
operation of water-resource systems.
- The quantity and quality of water are inseparable issues in design, and the modern practice of
water-resources engineering demands that practitioners be technically competent in understanding
the physical processes that govern the movement of water, the chemical and biological processes
that affect the quality of water, the economic and social considerations that must be taken into
account, and the environmental impacts associated with the construction and operation of water
resource

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THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
- the pathway of water as it moves in its
various phases through the atmosphere,
to the earth, over and through the land,
to the ocean, and back to the
atmosphere.
- The movement of water in the
hydrologic cycle is illustrated in Figure
1.1.
- A description of the hydrologic cycle can
start with the evaporation of water from
the oceans, which is driven by energy
from the sun.
- Rainfall on land surfaces is partially intercepted by surface vegetation, partially stored in surface
depressions, partially infiltrated into the ground, and partially flows over land into drainage
channels and rivers that ultimately lead back to the ocean.
- Rainfall that is intercepted by surface vegetation is eventually evaporated into the atmosphere;
water held in depression storage either evaporates or infiltrates into the ground; and water that
infiltrates into the ground contributes to the recharge of groundwater, which either is utilized by
plants, evaporates, is stored, or becomes subsurface flow that ultimately emerges as recharge to
streams or directly to the ocean.
- Snowfall in mountainous areas typically accumulates in the winter and melts in the spring, thereby
contributing to larger-than-average river flows during the spring.
- A typical example of the headwater of a river being fed by snowmelt is shown in Figure 1.2.
- Groundwater is defined as the water below the land surface, and water above the land surface (in
liquid form) is called surface water. In urban areas, the ground surface is typically much more
impervious than in rural areas, and surface runoff in urban areas is mostly controlled by
constructed drainage systems.
- Surface waters and groundwaters in urban areas also tend to be significantly influenced by the
water-supply and wastewater removal systems that are an integral part of the urban land-scape.
- Since human-made systems are part of the hydrologic cycle, it is the responsibility of the water
resources engineer to ensure that systems constructed for water use and control are in harmony
with the needs of the natural environment and the natural hydrologic cycle.

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WATER CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
• Permit System: The Code establishes a permit system for the use of water resources, requiring
permits for various activities such as water appropriation, water quality management, and
construction of water-related infrastructure.
• Water Quality Standards: It sets standards for water quality to protect human health and the
environment.
• Protection of Watersheds: The Code emphasizes the importance of protecting watersheds to
maintain the quality and quantity of water resources.
• Irrigation and Agriculture: It promotes the development of irrigation systems to support
agricultural activities.

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 • Flood Control and Drainage: The Code addresses flood control and drainage issues, allowing for
the construction of flood control structures.
• Environmental Protection: There are provisions to safeguard aquatic ecosystems and the
environment in general
• Administrative Bodies: The Code establishes administrative bodies like the National Water
Resources Board (NWRB) to oversee water resource management.
• Penalties: Penalties are imposed for violations, which can include fines and imprisonment.
- In summary, the Water Code of the Philippines is a comprehensive legal framework for the
management and protection of water resources in the country. It emphasizes state ownership, a
permit system, environmental protection, and the responsible use of water for various purposes
RAINFALL AND ABSTRACTIONS
• Surface-water hydrology is the science that encompasses the distribution, movement, and
properties of natural water above the surface or the earth,
• Applications of surface-water hydrology in engineering practice are mostly encompassed within
the field of engineering hydrology, which includes modeling rainfall events and predicting the
quantity and quality of the resulting surface runoff.
• Designing systems to control the quantity and quality of surface runoff is the responsibility of a
water-resources engineer.
• The land area that can contribute surface runoff to any particular location is determined by the
shape and topography of the land area surrounding the given location.
• The potential contributing area is called the watershed, and the area within a watershed over
which an particular rainfall event occurs is called the catchment area.
o In most engineering applications the watershed and catchment areas are taken to be the
same and are sometimes referred to as the drainage basin or the drainage area.
o The runoff from a watershed or catchment is concentrated at the catchment outlet. which
is sometimes called the pour point of the catchment.
o The characteristics of the catchment determine the quantity, quality, and timing of the
surface runoff for a given rainfall event.
• The precipitation of water vapor from the atmosphere occurs in many forms, the most important of
which are rain and snow.
o Fail and sleet are less-frequent forms of precipitation
• Engineered drainage systems in most urban communities are designed primarily to control the
runoff from rainfall.
• The formation of precipitation usually results from the lifting of moist air masses within the
atmosphere, which results in the cooling of air mass and condensation of moisture.
• The four conditions that must be present for the production of precipitation are:
o cooling of the air mass
o condensation of water droplets onto nuclei
o growth of water droplets
o and mechanisms to cause a sufficient density of droplets for the precipitation to fall to the
ground
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MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
• Records of rainfall have been collected for more than 2000 years (Ward and Robinson. 1999)
• Rainfall is typically measured using rain gages operated by government agencies such as the
National Weather Service and local drainage districts.
• Rainfall amounts are described by the volume of rain falling per unit area and are given as a depth
of water.
• Gages for measuring rainfall are categorized as either nonrecording (manual) or recording
o Automatic-recording gages are usually used for measuring raintall at intervals less than
one day, and for collecting data in remote locations.
o Recording gages use either a tipping bucket, weighing mechanism, or float device.
• Rain-gage measurements are point measurements of rainfall and are only representative of a
small area surrounding the rain cage

RUNOFF
- the portion of the precipitation that makes it's way towards rivers or oceans etc, as surface or
subsurface flow.
- Portion which is not absorbed by the deep strata.
- Runoff occurs only when the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which water may infiltrate
into the soil.
- A fundamental hypothesis that was originally made by Horton (1933b; 1945) is that overland flow
occurs when the rainfall rate exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. This type of overland flow
is commonly referred to as Hortonian overland flow or Hortonian runoff.
- In modern engineering practice, it is generally recognized that the two primary hydrological
mechanisms that generate overland flow are infiltration excess and saturation excess.
TYPES OF RUNOFF
• Surface runoff - Portion of rainfall after all losses such as interception, infiltration, depression
storage etc. are met) that enters streams immediately after occurring rainfall - After laps of few
time, overland flow joins streams - Sometime termed prompt runoff (as very quickly enters streams)
• Subsurface runoff - Amount of rainfall first enter into soil and then flows laterallv towards strea
without joining water table - Also take little time to reach stream
• Base flow – Delayed flow. Water that meets the groundwater table and join the stream or ocean
FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF
• Climatic Factors
• Rain and snow fall
• Rainfall intensity
• Rainfall duration
• Rainfall distribution
• Physiographic factors
• Shape of watershed
• Soil moisture

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RUNOFF ESTIMATION
- the process of quantifying the amount of surface water that flows overland or through channels
and eventually reaches streams, rivers, lakes, or other bodies of water during and after rainfall or
snowmelt events.
- It is a crucial component of hydrology, which is the science that deals with the distribution,
movement, and properties of water in the Earth's atmosphere, on and beneath the surface.
IMPORTANCE OF RUNOFF ESTIMATION
1. Flood Control and Management: Civil engineers use runoff estimates to design and size
stormwater management systems, such as drainage systems, detention basins, and flood control
structures, to prevent or mitigate flooding in urban and rural areas.
2. Infrastructure Design: Runoff estimates are essential for designing infrastructure like roads,
bridges, culverts, and dams. Engineers need to ensure that these structures can handle the
expected runoff without causing damage
3. Water Supply Planning: In areas where surface water is a primary water source, runoff
estimation helps in planning and managing water supply systems. Engineers use this data to
assess available water resources and design appropriate water treatment facilities.
4. Erosion Control: Runoff can lead to soil erosion, which can have detrimental effects on
construction sites and natural environments. Engineers use runoff estimates to develop erosion
control strategies and implement erosion prevention measures.
5. Sediment Transport: Estimating runoff is crucial for understanding sediment transport in rivers
and streams. Engineers need this information to manage sedimentation in waterways and maintain
navigation channels.
6. Hydropower Generation: Hydropower plants rely on the flow of water in rivers and reservoirs.
Runoff estimation helps engineers assess the potential energy production and manage water
releases from reservoirs
7. Environmental Impact Assessment: When planning construction projects, civil engineers must
consider the environmental impact of increased runoff. They use runoff data to evaluate potential
effects on aquatic ecosystems, wetlands, and water quality.
8. Urban Planning: In urban development, runoff estimation informs decisions regarding land use,
zoning regulations, and the design of green infrastructure to manage stormwater in sustainable
ways.
9. Climate Change Adaptation: With changing climate patterns, runoff estimation becomes critical
for adapting infrastructure and land use practices to address more frequent and severe rainfall
events. In summary, runoff estimation is essential for civil engineers as it forms the foundation for
designing and managing infrastructure, protecting the environment, ensuring water supply
reliability, and mitigating the impacts of extreme weather events. Accurate runoff predictions are
crucial for the safety, sustainability, and functionality of various engineering projects and systems

RATIONAL METHOD
- widely used technique in hydrology for estimating runoff from rainfall events in small to medium-
sized urban and rural watersheds.

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 - It provides a relatively simple way to calculate peak runoff rates for stormwater design and
management
- The Rational Method is represented by a simple equation: Q = CiA
o Where:
▪ Q is the peak runoff rate (cubic feet per second or cubic meters per second).
▪ C is the runoff coefficient.
▪ i is the rainfall intensity
▪ A is the drainage area.
KEY COMPONENTS:
o Runoff Coefficient (C): This is a dimensionless factor that represents the fraction of rainfall
that will become direct runoff. It depends on land use, soil type, and cover conditions.
Impervious surfaces like roads and buildings have high C values, while vegetated areas have
lower C values.
o Rainfall Intensity (i): This is the rainfall rate during the design storm event, usually expressed
in inches per hour or millimeters per hour. It's often based on local rainfall data or regional
rainfall intensity duration frequency (IDF) curves.
o Drainage Area (A): This is the area of the watershed or catchment that contributes to runoff.
It's typically measured in square feet or square meters.
LIMITATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS OF THE RATIONAL METHOD:
o The Rational Method is best suited for small to medium-sized watersheds with relatively simple
hydrological characteristics.
o It assumes constant rainfall intensity throughout the storm event, which may not be realistic for
all situations.
o The method doesn't account for the time of concentration explicitly.
o It doesn't consider the effects of infiltration, detention, or retention practices.
o Calibration with local data or regional adjustments may be necessary to improve accuracy.
o In summary, the Rational Method provides a simplified approach for estimating peak runoff
rates in watersheds. While it has limitations, it remains a valuable tool for stormwater
management and design in many engineering applications, especially when more sophisticated
modeling is not warranted or feasible.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
You are tasked with estimating the peak runoff rate for a small urban watershed with the following
characteristics:
▪ Drainage area, A: 10 acres
▪ Runoff coefficient, C: 0.65 (for
the given land use and soil type)
▪ Rainfall intensity, i: 2.5 inches
per hour
▪ Calculate the peak runoff rate (Q)
for a design storm event using
the Rational Method.

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 TIME OF CONCENTRATION METHOD
- Estimating runoff using the Time of Concentration (TC) method is a fundamental approach in
hydrology to determine how long it takes for precipitation to reach a particular point within a
watershed.
- This method is especially useful for designing stormwater management systems and
understanding the behavior of rainfall-runoff processes.
Key Concepts:
• Time of Concentration (TC): TC is the time it takes for rainwater to travel from the hydraulically
farthest point in a watershed to the outlet point (e.g., a stream or a catchment area). It represents
the critical time duration for peak runoff to occur.
• Flow Paths: Watersheds have various flow paths, including overland flow (sheet flow), channel
flow, and possibly subsurface flow. The TC method considers these different flow paths and their
respective times.
THE RUNOFF ESTIMATION USING TIME OF CONCENTRATION DEPENDS ON THE FLOW PATH TYPE:
• For overland flow: the kinematic wave equation or empirical methods like the Kirpich equation
can be used
• For channel flow: Manning's equation or other appropriate methods are employed.
• For subsurface flow: consider groundwater flow equations or estimates based on soil properties.
CONSIDERATIONS AND LIMITATIONS:
• TC estimation methods can be empirical, and their accuracy depends on the assumptions and data
used.
• The TC method may not account for complex hydrological phenomena like infiltration, antecedent
moisture conditions, or spatial variability.
• It is primarily used for small to medium-sized watersheds with simple geometry
In summary, the Time of Concentration method is a valuable tool for estimating runoff in watersheds. It
provides insights into the timing of peak runoff and can inform stormwater management and flood control
measures. However, it is important to use appropriate equations and data sources to improve accuracy in
TC estimation and subsequent runoff calculations.

TIME OF CONCENTRATION: OVERLAND FOW

Estimating runoff for overland flow maybe done using:
1. Kinematic Wave Equation, and;
2. Kirpich Equation
These methods provide simplified ways to estimate the time of concentration and runoff from rainfall
events in small to medium-sized watersheds.
KINEMATIC WAVE EQUATION
- The Kinematic Wave Equation is based on the principles of kinematics and assumes that the flow
velocity is constant across the entire overland flow surface. Here's how it works:
o Assumption: It assumes that the overland flow is uniform and doesn't consider variations in
flow velocity.
o Equation: The kinematic wave equation.
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 ▪ Where:
• TC is the time of concentration (hours).
• L is the length of the overland flow path (feet or meters).
• V is the constant velocity of overland flow (feet per hour or meters per hour).

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
o Calculate the time of concentration (TC) for an overland flow path
with a length of 500 feet and a constant flow velocity of 2 feet per
second

KIRPICH EQUATION
- The Kirpich equation is an empirical method for estimating the time of concentration for overland
flow.
- It is widely used due to its simplicity and applicability to various situations.
- The Kirpich equation is given by:
o Where:
▪ TC is the time of concentration (minutes).
▪ N is the Manning's roughness coefficient (a measure of surface roughness).
▪ L is the length of the overland flow path (feet).
▪ S is the slope of the overland flow path (dimensionless).
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
o Calculate the time of concentration (TC) for
an overland flow path with the following
characteristics: ▰ -
▪ Manning's roughness coefficient (N) =
0.025
▪ Length of the overland flow path (L) = 600
feet
▪ Slope of the path (S) = 0.02

CONSIDERATION FOR KINEMATIC WAVE FLOW AND KIRPICH EQUATION

- The Kinematic Wave Equation is more theoretically rigorous but may require more data, including
velocity estimation.
- The Kirpich equation is empirical and provides a quick estimation of time of concentration based on
surface roughness, path length, and slope.
- Both methods provide estimates of time of concentration, which can then be used in conjunction
with rainfall data to estimate runoff using the Rational Method or other hydrological models.
- Calibration with local data or regional adjustments may be necessary to improve accuracy,
especially for the Kirpich equation.
- These methods are valuable tools for estimating overland flow and can be used in practical
engineering applications for stormwater management and design.

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TIME OF CONCENTRATION: CHANNEL FOW
- Runoff estimation for channel flow using Manning's equation is a common approach in hydrology.
- Manning's equation relates the flow rate (discharge) in an open channel to the hydraulic properties
of the channel, including the cross-sectional shape, channel roughness, and slope.
- This equation is especially useful for estimating flow rates in natural and artificial channels, rivers,
and streams.
MANNING’S EQUATION
2 1
1
- The Manning's equation is typically expressed as follows: 𝑄 = 𝑛 𝐴(𝑅 3 )(𝑆 2 )
oWhere:
▪ Q is the discharge (flow rate) in cubic feet per second (cfs) or cubic meters per second (cms).
▪ n is the Manning's roughness coefficient, representing channel roughness.
▪ A is the cross-sectional area of the channel in square feet or square meters.
▪ R is the hydraulic radius, calculated as the ratio of the cross-sectional area to the wetted
perimeter.
▪ S is the channel slope (or bed slope) dimensionless.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
o Calculate the discharge (Q) in a
trapezoidal channel with the
following properties:
▪ Manning's roughness
coefficient (n) = 0.035
▪ Cross-sectional area (A) =
200 square feet
▪ Hydraulic radius (R) = 3 feet
▪ Channel slope (S) = 0.01 (1% slope)

TIME OF CONCENTRATION: SUBSURFACE FOW

- Estimating runoff for subsurface flow involves applying groundwater flow equations, specifically
Darcy's law, to determine how water moves through the saturated subsurface soil or rock layers.
- While Darcy's law is typically used for groundwater flow, it can be adapted to estimate subsurface
runoff under certain conditions.
- Darcy's law is a fundamental equation in groundwater hydrology and describes the movement of
water through porous media. It is usually expressed as:
o Where:
▪ Q is the volumetric flow rate (cubic meters per second or cubic feet per second) of
groundwater.
▪ K is the hydraulic conductivity of the subsurface material (measured in meters per second or
feet per second).
▪ A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow (square meters or square feet).
▪ dh/dl is the hydraulic gradient (change in hydraulic head per unit distance, meters per meter
or feet per foot).

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SAMPLE PROBLEM
o Consider a small
watershed with a
groundwater table at a
depth of 5 meters below
the surface. The
subsurface consists of
two layers: a sandy layer
with a hydraulic
conductivity 𝐾1 of 0.002
m/s and a clay layer with a hydraulic 𝐾2 of 0.0001 m/s. The slope of the water table 𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑙is
0.001. Calculate the total subsurface runoff through these layers.
- Please note that this is a simplified example, and real-world applications involve more complex
geological and hydrogeological considerations, such as unconfined or confined aquifers,
heterogeneity of subsurface materials, and transient conditions. Groundwater modeling software
and detailed hydrogeological studies are often needed for accurate subsurface runoff estimation in
practical situations.

Pipe flow
- flow in closed conduits
- flowing fluid completely filling the conduit
Discharge, Q
- pipe flow at any location along the pip
- may be described by the pipe cross section (A), elevation (h), pressure (p), and flow velocity (V) in
the pipe
Elevation, h
- usually measured with respect to a horizontal reference datum (such as the mean sea level)
Engineering Applications
- Water Supply Systems
- Stormwater Drains
- Irrigation Water Distribution Systems
Continuity Equation
- For incompressible, steady flow, the continuity equation simply states that the volumetric flow rate,
Q, across any surface normal to the flow is constant.
Momentum Equation
- Conservation of Momentum
- based on Newton’s Law of Motion (change in momentum flux between two sections = sum of
forces on the fluid causing the change)

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Example:
The horizontal nozzle shown discharges 0.01 m3/s of water into the air. The supply pipe’s diameter (Da =
40 mm) is twice as large as the nozzle diameter (dB = 20 mm). The nozzle is held in place by a hinge
mechanism. Determine the magnitude and direction of the reaction force at the hinge, if the gauge
pressure at A is 500,000 N/m2. Assume the weight supported by the hinge is negligible.

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 Energy Equation
- Water flowing in pipes contain energy in various forms
- major portion contained as: (1) kinetic energy, (2) potential energy, and (3) pressure energy

“Head” = energy per unit weight of water

Total Head = Velocity Head + Pressure

Head + Elevation Head

𝑉12 𝑃1
𝐻1 = + + ℎ1
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑉22 𝑃2
𝐻2 = + + ℎ2 + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑉12 𝑃1 𝑉22 𝑃2
+ + ℎ1 = + + ℎ2 + ℎ𝐿 What does the hydraulic grade line (HGL) represent?
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
HGL: measure of the hydraulic head (P/γ + z) at each x-sxn
ℎ𝐿 = head loss What does the energy grade line (EGL) represent?
EGL: measure of the total head at each x-sxn

Friction Head Loss, hf

- loss of head caused by pipe wall friction and the viscous dissipation in flowing water
- also referred to as a “major loss” due to its magnitude
Resistance to flow in a pipe has been found to be:
1. independent of the pressure under which the water flows;
2. linearly proportional to the pipe length (L);
3. inversely proportional to some power of the pipe diameter (D);
4. proportional to some power of the mean velocity (V), and;
5. related to the roughness of the pipe, if the flow is turbulent.

Darcy–Welsbach Equation

Manning Equation

Hazen-Williams Equation

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Local Head Losses, hm
- additional head losses due to flow through pipe fittings, around bends, and through changes in
pipeline geometry
- sometimes also referred to as a “minor losses”
1. Due to Pipe Contractions, hc

2. Due to Pipe Expansion, hE

3. Due to Pipe Entrance, he

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 4. Due to Pipe Exit, hd

5. Due to Pipe Bends, hb

6. Due to Pipe Valves, hv

Table 3.6 Values of Kv for Common Hydraulic Valves
Close
Gate Valves Kv = 0.15 (fully open)
Open
Close
Globe Valves Kv = 10.0 (fully open)
Open
Close Swing Type: Kv = 2.5 (fully open)
Check Valves Ball Type: Kv = 70.0 (fully open)
Open Lift Type: Kv = 12.0 (fully open)
Close
Rotary Valves Kv = 0.15 (fully open)
Open

Example:
The figure below shows two pipe sections in series that transport water from a reservoir and discharge it
into air through a rotary valve at a location 100m below the water surface elevation. If the square- edged
connections are used, what is the discharge?

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Solution:

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