Université Mustapha Stambouli de Mascara

Faculté des Lettres et des Langues

Département de Langue et Littérature Anglaise

Research on Teaching Listening

Introduction
Listening is one of the four essential language skills, and plays an important role in language
acquisition and learning. Despite this, it has traditionally been viewed as a passive skill that
would develop naturally through speaking and reading, and that therefore merited little
research and classroom attention as compared to the other language skills (Richards, 2005).
However, influenced by studies on the cognitive processes of language comprehension,
listening is now increasingly recognized as an active and complex cognitive, psychosocial,
and behavioral activity that deserves more systematic and more direct teaching to most
effectively foster its development. This recognition has spurred a growing interest in listening
research in recent years with the aim of finding out what constitutes effective listening in
order to inform classroom practices.
Process Models of Listening
Cognitive processes in listening comprehension Listening is the least researched among the
four language skills, and most existing listening studies have drawn on theories and research
findings on reading comprehension. Although reading and listening involve different types of
linguistic decoding skills (i.e., visual vs. aural), many researchers have suggested that they
nevertheless share many common cognitive processes of language comprehension (Anderson,
2000). Based on the insights of information processing theory, researchers have posited that
listening comprehension, similar to reading comprehension, involves the interaction of top-
down and bottom-up processes (Rost,1990). That is, listeners usually make use of both
linguistic and schematic knowledge when dealing with a listening task; they may employ
bottom-up processing when they use their linguistic knowledge to interpret the words and
sentences comprising a message, or may use top-down processing when they rely on
contextual or prior knowledge to build a conceptual framework for comprehending the
meaning of the message as a whole.
 Bottom-up processing
The first model of listening to be developed was the so-called bottom-up model. It was
developed by researchers working in the 1940s and 1950s. According to the bottom-up model,
listeners build understanding by starting with the smallest units of the acoustic message,
individual sounds, or phonemes. These are then combined into words, which, in turn, together
make up phrases, clauses and sentences. Finally, individual sentences combine together to
create ideas and concepts and relationships between them.
 Top-down processing
Developed after bottom-up models, top-down models emphasize the use of previous
knowledge in processing a text rather than relying upon the individual sounds and words. The
top-down model was developed when researchers considered the fact that experimental
subjects are unable to identify truncated words in isolation from the words of which they form
a part, while, on the other hand, they are quite able to identify these same truncated words so
long as they are presented with the surrounding context.
 Interactive processing
If listening involves both bottom-up and top-down processing, it follows that some sort of
model which synthesizes the two is required. This we have in the so-called interactive model,
as developed, most notably, by Rumelhart and his associates. According to Rumelhart,
language is processed simultaneously at different levels. In this parallel processing,
phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic information interact with each other. It is
important not only to listen to the words of the message but also to listen for the intent, value,
passion, focus of the message, and the speakers’ relationship to what he or she is
communicating. By listening deeply, the listener gets the message and the meaning as well.
Anderson's (2000) Three-Phase Comprehension Model
Anderson (2000) proposed a three-phase model for understanding the cognitive processes of
language comprehension, including reading and listening. In it, language comprehension is
divided into three stages: perceptual processing, parsing, and utilization.
 Perceptual processing refers to the encoding of the spoken message.
  The parsing stage is the process of transforming the combined meaning of the words
and structures being processed into a mental representation.
 The utilization stage is when listeners draw on their existing knowledge to make
inferences and connections to fully understand the message and to use the mental
representation to produce a response to the message.
Additional phases have been suggested in listening models developed later by other
researchers. For example, the Integrative Listening Model of K. Thompson et al. (2004)
proposes five listening phases: receiving, comprehending, interpreting, evaluating, and
responding. Browell’s (2010) HURIER model has six: Hearing, understanding, remembering,
interpreting, evaluating, and responding. These models provide useful frameworks for
researchers to investigate students’ strategy use and problems in relation to different listening
processes.
Dimensions of Listening
The above three models have been used extensively over the past decades to develop
materials for teaching second language listening. However, they do not cater for all the
complexities of the listening process, a process which also encompasses affective, individual,
strategic, contextual, social, cultural, critical and intertextual dimensions (Flowerdew and
Miller 2005). When we include such other dimensions into teaching listening, we are able to
demonstrate how a pedagogical model of second language listening might be conceptualized.
 An affective dimension
Most models of listening basically try to explain comprehension. However, comprehension
can take place only if individuals are motivated to listen. There are many influences on
listeners which may affect the way they listen to something and either increase or decrease
their effectiveness as listeners. Mathewson (1985) suggested a four dimensional model for
reading in a second language which includes attitude, motivation, affect, and physical
feelings. Such a model can be easily adapted to a listening context. A pedagogic model of
listening needs an affective dimension which accounts for the decision to listen and to
maintain appropriate levels of concentration.
 A strategic dimension
Any second language model of listening needs to incorporate specific features of the second
language listening process. The learning dimension of a second language model of listening
must identify the specific learning strategies which are beneficial to the acquisition of the
listening skill. These can then be considered in the development of pedagogic materials, as is
increasingly becoming the case. See for example the Tapestry series of course books on
listening and speaking with Rebecca Oxford as series editor and Benz and Dworak, (2000).
 A contextualized dimension
Contextual dimension involves an understanding of the specific listening situation (who the
participants are, what the what the setting is, what the topic and purpose are) and an
understanding of the ongoing discourse or co-text (what has already been said and what will
be said next). It is understanding in light of all surrounding circumstances.
 A cross-cultural dimension
If we consider the role of schemata and background knowledge in the listening process, this
leads us to the question of different cultural interpretations. Different cultures are likely to
give rise to different schemata
and consequently different expectations and interpretations of a given (spoken or written) text.
Effective cross-cultural communication typically happens when people are aware of their own
as well as each other's culturally bound communication practices. Brownell (2006: 48)
contends that “listeners often look to the context of the situation for additional cues to make
sense of what they hear”. This leads to the assumption that members of high-context cultures
perceive and process listening differently than do members of low-context cultures.
 A critical dimension
Texts, of course, are social artifacts, produced by individuals situated within particular
societies, at particular times, and in particular places. If texts are social in nature, they can be
said to represent society. At the same time, however, society, to some extent, is constituted by
texts, by what people say; our conception of reality is necessarily mediated through language.
If we consider texts in this way, then listening becomes a political activity, because what we
hear is imbued with the assumptions, or ideologies, which are shared by the society
from which the texts emanate.
Listening Strategies of Good and Poor Listeners
Studies comparing good and poor listeners have highlighted the importance of effective use of
cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies for successful listening. According to various
researchers, listening strategies are defined as listeners’ conscious plans and mental
operations to manage incoming speech in order to understand the meaning of an utterance
(Field: 2008). Summarizing the findings of previous studies, good and poor listeners differ not
only in the number and frequency of strategies they use, but also in the quality and
effectiveness of their strategy use (Berne, 2004). That is, some studies have found that while
learners with different levels of listening proficiency employ very similar strategies, more
successful learners use these strategies in more effective combinations. As suggested by
Vandergrift (2003), effective strategy use in listening will be a skillful orchestration of
various cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies to control the listening process in order to
achieve better comprehension of the text.
An important feature that distinguishes good listeners from poor listeners is their
approach to listening and strategy use. Studies on L2 listening have indicated that while more
proficient L2 learners are able to combine a wide range of strategies and flexibly engage in
top-down and bottom-up processing simultaneously, less-proficient L2 learners rely almost
solely on bottom-up/word-level strategies (Berne, 2004; Chang, 2009; Graham & Macaro,
2008; Shang, 2008). Since the word recognition process of good listeners is often to a larger
degree automated, they can more quickly concentrate on the holistic understanding of the
listening text, with little conscious attention to individual words. Good listeners also have
good knowledge of effective strategies, meta-cognitive awareness, and control. They are able
to select and orchestrate different strategies in planning, monitoring, and evaluating their
listening process, in a continuous meta-cognitive cycle. In contrast, due to their insufficient
language ability, poor listeners appear to have a larger number of low-level processing
problems in the initial perceptual processing phase. They usually rely heavily on word-level
and memorization strategies to process information word by word. Most of them are unable to
distinguish the important information in a listening text and need to individually comprehend
every word of the text. This creates a heavy demand on their cognitive load that may interfere
with their high-level listening processes.
Stages of Listening
Effective listening tasks include the following phases
 Pre-listening
 While-listening
 Post-listening
Exercise and Discussion Questions
 Describe each of the three components of Anderson's Listening Model.
 Describe each of the six components of the HURIER Listening Model. Which
component do you believe is most troublesome for you as a listener? Explain. (The
answer requires extensive reading)
 Why is listening so important to effective intercultural communication? Provide a concrete
example.

Listening Self-Assessment
Respond to each of the following questions concerning your perceptions of your listening
behavior. Use the following key: 5 (always); 4 (usually); 3 (sometimes); 2 (infrequently); 1
(never).

I weigh all evidence before making a decision.

I am sensitive to the speaker’s feelings in communication situations.
I approach tasks creatively.
I concentrate on what the speaker is saying.
I use clear and appropriate words to express my ideas.
I encourage others to express their opinion.
I am able to see how different pieces of information or ideas relate to one another.
I listen to the entire message when someone speaks, whether I agree with what they have to say or not.
I let the speaker know immediately that he or she has been understood.
I remember what I am told even in stressful situations.
Irecognize the main points in a presentation and am not distracted by supporting details.
I am sensitive to a speaker’s vocal cues in communication situations.
I provide sufficient feedback on the job.
I consider the speaker’s mood in understanding the message being presented.
I hear what is said when someone speaks to me.
I give an individual my complete attention when he is speaking to me.
I take into account situational factors that influence interactions when someone is speaking to me.
 I can recall the specific information someone gives me several days later.
I respond in an appropriate and timely manner to information and requests.
I am ready to listen when approached by a speaker.
I notice the speaker’s facial expressions, body posture, and other nonverbal behaviors.
I wait until all the information is presented before drawing any conclusions.
I allow for the fact that people and circumstances change over time.
I overcome distractions such as the conversations of others, background noises and telephones when
someone is speaking to me.
I accurately understand what is said to me.
I seek information for better understanding of a situation.
I communicate clearly and directly.
I focus on the main point of a message rather than reacting to details.
I am receptive to points of view which differ from my own.
I time my communications appropriately.
I remember the details of things that happened weeks or months ago.
I let the speaker complete his or her message without interrupting.

References

Anderson, J. R. (2000). Cognitive psychology and its implication (5th ed.). New York, NY: Worth.
Brownell, J. (2010). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Flowerdew, J., and Miller, L. (2005) Second language listening: Theory and practice. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
Field, J. (2008). Listening in the language classroom. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Rost, M. (1990). Listening in language learning (2nd ed.). New York, NY:Longman/Pearson.
Richards, J. C. (2005). Second thoughts on teaching listening. Regional Language Centre Journal, 36, 85–91
Worth.Carrier, K. A. (2003). Improving high school English language learners’ second language listening
through strategy instruction. Bilingual Research Journal, 27, 383–408.