FRENCH-CANADIAN PATRIOTISM

ROBERT C. DEXTER
ClarkUniversity

ABSTRACT
Development and the effectsof French-Canadianpatriotismfurnish significant
on an understanding
sidelights ofEurope. It is necessary
ofthelocalpatriotisms to
understand history thesituation.Thefirst
to appreciate weremainlyBretons
settlers
and Normans;latertherewereIndianand Scotchaccretions.A feeling ofisolation
developed,due to Britishconquestand to the Americanand Frenchrevolutions.
TheQuebecActandthereturn ofthelayleaderstoFranceestablished control.
clerical
A hostileattitudetowardFrancedeveloped, and thepatriotic
mariage de raisonwith
England. French-Canadians in Quebecholda dominant andhaveimportant
position
influencethroughout Dominion. The sourcesoftheirpatriotism educa-
are historic,
tional,and religious.The destinyoftheraceis boundup withCanada'sfuture, yet
theyremaindistinctly may come throughtheirsons
separatist.Theirliberation
anddaughters whohaveimmigrated to theUnitedStates.

On theNorthAmericancontinent thereare fourracialgroups,

eitherindigenous or oflongsettlement, whichare notamalgamated
with the prevailingraces. Owing to their scatteredhabitat,
backwardcivilization, and comparatively smallnumbersit seems
unlikelythat the Eskimohas developeda racialpatriotism;and
the Indian,whilehe certainlyshowedan intensetriballoyalty,
has apparentlynever become race-conscious enoughto expand
that loyalty into a racial feeling of patriotism. Of the other
minority groups,theNegrois just nowdeveloping an intenserace-
consciousness, while the French-Canadian, particularlysince the
Britishconquest,has nourishedthemostdefinite formof localized
race patriotism thatthiscontinent has seen,a patriotismthathas
survivednot only the hardshipsof a militaryconquest,but a
treatment of a conqueredpeopleof an alienrace and religionrare
indeedin theeighteenth century, and unsurpassed evenin ourown
day. A study of the form that thispatriotism has takenand the
resultingeffectson thelifeoftheFrench-Canadians, theDominion
ofCanada,and evenon ourowncountry, mayhelpus to gainsome
understanding of the cognateproblemsof local patriotisms with
whichEuropeis struggling at thismoment.
694
 FRENCH-CANADIANPATRIOTISM 695

An appreciation ofFrench-Canadian patriotismmustrestupon

a studyof thehistorialbackground and ofthepresentpoliticaland
culturalconditions.
The earlysettlersin Quebec,thehomeof theFrench-Canadian,
werein themainpeasantfolkfromBrittanyand Normandy. The
settlements weremade at firstalongthevalleyoftheSt.Lawrence
River,especially in thesectionfromQuebecto Montreal,and in the
periodfromi6o8, the date of the foundingof Quebec,to 1700.
Therewas intermittent emigration fromthemother-country from
I700 to 1763, thedate of thefallofQuebec,but thiswas to a large
extenta floatingpopulationof government officials
and soldiery.
The latter,however,werefrequently disbandedat thecloseof the
variouscampaignsand becamesettlersin thecountry. SinceI763
the immigration into Canada fromFrance has been negligible.
The earlysettlements weremadeunderdefinitely religious
auspices,
in thisregardalmostequalingthe New Englandsettlements;the
difference, however,was that the French came not to escape
religious persecution thenatives. OnlyFrench
but to Christianize
Catholicswere allowed to settle in New France, and for each
settlement the "Companyof New France" was to providethree
priests. Othersettlements weremade in Nova Scotia,and later
a chainoftrading postsestablishedalongtheMississippi, evendown
to the Gulf of Mexico. The Acadians were drivenfromtheir
homes by the Britishaftertheircaptureof Nova Scotia, and
althougha fewthousandstillremaintheyexertlittleinfluence on
the French-Canadian characteras such,largelybecause of their
geographicalisolationand theirencirclement by membersof an
alien race and religion. The Creole Frenchof Louisiana were
apparentlya different group in origin,and theirdistanceand
incorporation into the UnitedStates has preventedany feelingof
real kinship. It is to the settlersof the St. LawrenceValleythat
we mustlookforFrench-Canadian nationalism and patriotism.
The factthatthe originalimmigrants werelargelyBretonand
Normanin originis significant.The formergroupare perhaps
as purelyCelticas any Europeanpeoplewiththeexceptionof the
Irishand HighlandScots,to whomtheyare related,beingoriginally
Celtic inhabitantsof Britaindrivenout by the Saxon invasion.
696 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

In Francetheyare reputedstillto be amongthemostconservative

of the groupswhichconstitutethe country. It was not till the
seventeenth centurythatpaganismwas evennominallyabolished
in Brittany, and we mustremember thatit was in theseventeenth
centurythat many of theseemigrants leftBrittanyforQuebec.
It is also said that thereis no sectionof Europe wherepopular
Christianity has assimilatedso much fromthe earliercreeds.
A studyof the French-Canadian churchwould,I feelsure,show
manyofthesesurvivals in theNewWorld. The Normans, although
not as primitive as theBretons,are stillknownas deeplydevout,
simplepeasant folk,and theirdescendantson the banks of the
St. Lawrenceand theSaguanayremaintrueto type. In addition
to this predominant elementamong the settlers,therewere,of
course,otherFrenchgroups,but all historians seemto agreethat
theywerea minority Siegfried in The Race Questionin Canada
commentson the Norman appearanceof the school children,
especiallyamongthe"habitants,"and philologists tellus thatthe
CanadianFrenchhas a verygreatsimilarity to thedialectofancient
Nornandy.
Thereare perhapstwo otherimportantracial elementswhich
go towardthemakingup oftheFrench-Canadian, themoreimpor-
tant one, the originalIndian inhabitants, withwhomthe French
fromthe very beginningmingledtheirblood freely,and a less
importantaccretionof HighlandScotch,the offspring of soldiers
of thegarrison whowereattractedby the comelydaughtersof the
St. Lawrence. Possiblythe commonCelticancestryand religion
of theseScots and the Bretonsmade amalgamation easy; at any
rate,thereare sectionsof Quebectodaywhereone may findMac-
Donalds,Frasiers, and MacKenzies,who speakno Englishand are
in no way differentiated fromtheirneighbors who answerto the
names St. Pierre,Bolduc, or LaPlante. It is interesting that
the amalgamationhas almost entirelybeen of the invadersby
thenatives.
With the Indian,however,it is a different story. From the
verybeginning and even up to the presentday therehas been a
constant interninglingof French and aboriginalstock. The
coureur-de-boisnotonlysetup hismoreorlesstemporary establish-
 FRENCH-CANADIAN PATRIOTISM 697

mentin a tepeewithhis duskyhelper,but the influenceto the

churchwas broughtto bear to make theseunionslegal withthe
sacramentof marriage,whichtherewas the ever-present Jesuit
to administer.Whilein manyinstancestheIndianbitterly fought
thebeaver-trading Frenchmen withtheirblack-frocked companions,
in as manyotherstheybecametheirfastfriends and alliesand even
theirbitterestopponentsyieldedto the persistenceand intrepid
daringoftheJesuitsand before manyyearsbecameCatholicand to
a large extentassimilatedthe primitivecultureof the settlers;
althoughit mightbe almostas trulysaid thatthemissionaries of
the Cross amendedtheirtractablebrand of Christianity so that
therewas a considerable blendof Indian and Frenchsuperstition,
and theFrenchadoptedmuchof thecultureof the originalnative
as possiblysuitedto the new country. In defenseof the French
it mustbe said thatourownancestors, whileonlyin rareinstances
makingregularunionswiththe Indians,came to adopt manyof
theircustoms,even to scalpingtheirenemies,forthesamereason.
This earlyblendinghas continuedto the present. A French-
CanadianwomanwithwhomI talkedrecentlytoldme of visiting
the Huron Reservationat Sorel some ten or fifteenyears ago;
thenshe said therewerebut two Indiansof the severalhundred
therewhoclaimedto be full-blooded, and thatshewas surethatby
now therewerenone. She further said that therewas constant
intermarriage betweenthe Canadiansand the Indians,and when
asked categorically if therewas any social stigmaattachedto
marrying an Indian or half-breedseemedsurprised, and said there
was none. On the otherhand,it is onlyfairto say that Sarah
Bernhardt, on whatwe mayassumewas herreallylast appearance
in Montreal,being displeasedat something, incurredthe mortal
displeasureofheraudiencebycharacterizing themas "Les Iriquois."
This is also interestingas givinga ratherextremeFrenchopinion
oftheextentofbloodmixture.
Just how much Indian blood there is among the French-
Canadiansit is impossibleto say. It wouldtake a verycareful
anthropological and historicalstudy to ascertaineven approxi-
mately,and J have been unable to findany such study. The
Encyclopedia Britannica,in its articleon reservation Indians in
698 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

Quebec,statedthatthereare "few if any pure blood left." The

bulk of the intermixture, however,is outside the reservations.
What have been the effectson French-Canadian nationalismof
this different stock would make an interesting study by itself.
The vocabulary" Canuck" ofthehabitantis said to containmany
Indian words and idioms,and the facial appearanceof large
groupsof French-Canadians conveysindubitableevidenceofsome
Indian ancestry. "The Indian races with whom the French
amalgamatedweremainlyof Algonquinand Huronstockamong
whomtherewas apparently a considerableextentof tribalpatriot-
ism. To the strongattachment of the peasantto the soil of his
loved "patrie" therehas thusapparently been added the equally
strongtriballoyaltyof the aborigine. The superstitions of the
originalinhabitantshave also been superaddedto those of the
BretonsandNormans, producing a groupeasilyswayedbyreligious
leaders; in additionto the survivalof the priestlyand political
powerof the Druids,whosemantlefellon the Roman priestsin
Brittany,thereis the furtherinheritanceof the beliefin the
medicine-man, and hismagic,to accountforthetremendous power
of the"cure" and the "religious"as a whole. In additionto the
reasonsin the historyof Canada itself,thereare otherreasons
datingback into moreremote,almostprehistoric, timeboth in
EuropeandAmericatoaccountforthestatement madebya careful
Frenchstudentthat "In the case of the French-Canadians the
ascendancyoftheChurchis so greatthatit maybe regarded as the
principalfactorin theirevolution."
Priorto theEnglishconquestof Quebecin I763 thehistoryof
FrenchCanada mightbriefly be summarized as a fearful
struggle
at first
withnaturealliedwithitschildren, theRedmen,to establish
tradingcentersand a homealongthe St. Lawrence,and afterward
withtheEnglishforthepossessionofa continent.By thetimeof
the latterstrugglea firmfoundationhad been laid in the river
valley,and daringexplorers and soldiers,withthe Indiansin the
main as allies,usingthe Quebec settlements as a center,carried
the lilies of France-and the Cross of the church-southward
intothe hereticcoloniesand westwardoverthegreatprairiesand
surgingrivers. The wars withthe Englishweresanguinary and
 FRENCH-CANADIAN PATRIOTISM 699

bitter,and the naturalfeelingof nationalanimositywas further

strengthened by religiousdifferences.As J. T. Adamspointsout
in anotherconnection(but speakingof the same period)in his
Foundingof New England: "The contest. . . . was fought out
on religiouslines,because it was an age of religiousinterests."
Therewas thusearlyestablished one necessarybasisofpatriotism,
viz., an enemywith opposingeconomicand materialinterests
whohad inflicted grievousinjuryon theFrenchand whomtheyin
turnhad seriouslyinjured,and whom the religiousleadersof a
primitive peoplewereconvincedwereenemiesof the soulsas well
as thebodiesoftheirown. The "heretiqueBostonnaisse"and the
" idolatorsofQuebec" werethephrasesusedby theleaderson both
sidesto stirup thevalorof theirfollowers.
In I763 FrenchQuebec becamea Britishpossessionfollowing
Wolfe'sdefeatof Montcalmat Quebec,and fromthat date the
presentformofFrench-Canadian nationalism andpatriotismbegins.
With the exceptionof the Indians and half-breeds the national
loyaltyofthecolonists had beenlargelydirectedtowardthemother-
country, "la belleFrance,"but following theconquesttheredevel-
opeda feeling ofisolationwhichpoliticaleventsbothin Europeand
Americawereto strengthen, untiltoday the French-Canadian as
Henri Bourassa succinctlysays "is French as the Americanis
English." One whohas had muchacquaintancewiththeFrench-
Canadian on his nativeheath,despitea rathergeneralflaunting
of theRepublic,cannotbut feelthatat presentthe
of the tricolor
"Quebecquois" are more thankfulthan otherwisethat the tie
withFrancewas brokenin I763. To quoteM. Bourassaagain:
If theTreatyofParis had keptus boundto Francewhatwouldhave become
of us? Supposingwe had escapedunderthe sanguinaryRiegn of Terror,it is
morethanprobablethatNapoleonwouldhave sold us to theAmericans....
as he did in Louisiana... . We have been able to retainour characteras
Normans and NorthernFrenchmenmuch better than our brethrenbeyond
the sea.

Indeed thelack ofinterestin thedangerto "la patrie,"excepton

thepartofa veryfewardentsoulsduringtheGreatWar-the diffi-
cultyof securingadequateenlistments froma populationteeming
withyoungmenofmilitary age forthedefenseoftheirownmother-
 700 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

land-seems to me proofenoughthat the love of the French-

CanadianforFranceis decidedlyplatonicin its nature,moreso,
I am inclinedto think,than that of the average Anglo-Saxon
Americanforhisownmotherland.
Therearemanyreasonsforthisdissociation.In thefirst place,
as wasentirely natural,a majorpartoftheleadingfigures inpolitical
and civillifeleftCanada forFrance as soon as possibleafterthe
Britishconquest. This was, of course,a winnowing processand
leftthecolonywithout its natural lay leadersand its mostardent
Frenchpatriots. The religiousleaders,faithful to Catholictradi-
tion,forthemostpartstayedwiththeirflocksand, uncheckedby
an equallycompetent lay group,becameand have sinceremained
the all-powerfulgroupin theprovince. Faithfulalso to Catholic
tradition,theyseized the opportunity of makingtheirleadership
countforas much as possibleforthe churchtheyrepresented.
The factthattheflagof thePapacy and the SacredHeart is seen
quite as commonlyin FrenchCanada as the tricolorof France,
and,probablymorecommonlythan the Union Jack,is a rather
obviousindicationof whatI believeto be the fact,viz., that the
loyaltyand patriotism of theFrench-Canadian vestsin thechurch
and its priestsand bishopsand is best typifiedin "Our Holy
Father, the Pope" and his representatives in the Dominion.
Perhapsafterall theEucharist,oftencarriedin solemnprocession
through thestreetsofcitiesand towns,comesthenearestto being
the symbolof theirpatriotism, as the Stars and Stripesis ours,
or "the King, God Bless Him" that ofourBritishcousins.
Fora whilethenewlyacquiredcolonywasgoverned byauthority
ofa royalproclamation, but in I774 theBritishParliament, follow-
ingwhathas sincebecomeitsgeneralcolonialpolicyofexpediency,
passedtheQuebecAct. This act confirmed thestipulations in the
capitulationsof Quebec and Montrealand in the Treatyof Paris
regarding the rightsof the Roman Catholicchurchand further
confirmed thechurchin all its ancientprivileges in Canada, which
wereconsiderable, evento the exactionof taxationforchurchpur-
poseswhichwasandiscollected bythecivilauthorities.Perhapsthis
seemsmostextreme to us in thisage ofeconomicthought;but the
absolutecontrolofmarriage, evento theextentofdeclaringmixed
 FRENCH-CANADIANPATRIOTISM 70I

marriagesillegaland the childrenof same illegitimate, the legal

rightto refuseinterment in consecrated ground-a verypowerful
weaponwitha peoplewhosesuperstitions are a blendofBretonand
Indian mysticism-thecontrolof the schools(thereare no public
schoolsin theAmerican senseoftheternin theprovinceofQuebec
today,noreverhave been),and innumerable otherprivilegesand
concessions claimedundertheAct,giveto theclergy, bothregular
and of the orders,a powerin the lifeof the community whichto
Americans and evento mostEuropeanCatholicsis almostunthink-
able.
Fearingin theearlydaysthattheirreligion wouldbe interfered
withby thehereticalEnglish,deprivedof theirnaturallay leader-
ship,and in additionbeingby natureand tradition devotedto the
priestsandbishops,andthenhavingtheinvadershandoverwithout
a strugglepracticallyall powerexceptmilitarycontrolto these
verypriestsand bishops,it is no wonderthat the simple-minded
habitantcameto thinkofthemin termsofadmiration and devout
obedienceand that his patriotismbecame intertwined with his
religionin such a way thatone todaycannotseparatethem. He
feels,and probablycorrectly, thatit was thechurchthatsavedhis
languagefromdisappearance, andpossiblyhisracefromamalgama-
tion; and beingkeptin utterignoranceofwhatis goingon in the
outsideworldhe does not know the price he pays in freedom,
knowledge,and modernscientificthoughtfor this protection.
For theBritishgovernment, at the time,it was largelya question
of unitingto themselves the all-powerfulclergy;just how much
influenced by the mutterings of discontentin New Englandit is
hardto say. Incidentally a similarpolicywas adoptedtowardthe
fewlargelandowners whoremained;theywereconfirmed in their
seignoralrightsand Frenchcivillaw was establishedside by side
withEnglishcriminallaw. The seignoralrightshave, however,
sincebeenabrogated.
Then came theAmericanRevolution,and the coloniststo the
south,who a year or two beforehad been dedaimingviolently
againstthe QuebecAct withits protectionto Popery,now tried
to incitetherecentlyconqueredCanadiansto revolt. The various
attemptsagainstQuebecand Montrealwereapparentlymade in
 702 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

the beliefthat the habitantswouldjoin to throwoffthe British

yoke. But hereagaintherealleadership oftheclergywasmanifest.
Theyhad securedall theydesiredfromBritain-Londonwas three
thousandmilesaway-and theydidnottrustthefanaticalPuritans
"bearinggifts"; theBishopofQuebecpromptly advisedhispeople
againstunitingwiththe Americans, and finallywentso faras to
threatenexcommunication to any who did so. A few did, but
of
most them-they formed thebasis ofwhatit was fondlyhoped
would be two Canadian regiments-promptly desertedafterthe
Bishop'sletter;mostof theothersneverreturned to Canada after
theyleftwiththe retreating Americans. Thereseemsto be little
questionfromreportsmade by variousBritishofficials thatmany
of the habitantsthemselvesweremore than willingto join the
"rebels,"but the powerfulforceof religionwas on the side of
Britishrule.
The FrenchRevolution,withits emphasisin thebeginning on
freedom of thought, and its laterprofound anti-clericalism further
influencedthe formationof a separate nationalityin Quebec.
The clericsdid nothesitateto pointout theexcessesoftheRevolu-
tionand to lay thementirelyto the intellectualism of its earlier
advocates. The tacticsof the clergythenas today"consistedin
supervisingandcontrolling theperusalofbooksandpapersimported
from France." Voltaire,Montaigne,and the other forward-
lookingwriterswho so profoundly influenced Frenchcontinental
thoughtwereonly known by their clerical
critics on the banksof
theSt.Lawrence;consequently thesecriticsdid notneedto confine
themselves to facts. The hatredofFrenchthought, withitsofficial
liberalismin mattersof religion,has continuedfromthat day to
this. The "Index," operatedby the clergy,today controlsthe
readingof two millionpeople,and on that Index suchwritersas
Musset,Renan,and Zola, "whosename,"says one of the French
Canadianbishops,"shouldnotbe so muchas mentioned evenfrom
the pulpit" are prominently inscribed. Even the Revuedes deux
Mondesis lookedon askance. In fact,everything fromFranceis
understood to be questionable, at least,untilit is provedotherwise;
Siegfriedstatesthatthisevenincludesnative-born Frenchclergy.
Perhapstheextremecase ofopposition was foundwhena proposi-
 FRENCH-CANADIAN PATRIOTISM 703

tionwas made some yearsago to establisha collegeforFrench-

Canadian studentsin Paris. This was lookedon withfavorby
the Frenchgovernment, but nothingwas done. As Siegfriedso
asksand answershisownquestions:
pertinently
Why? The Archbishopof Montrealdid not conceal the reasonfromhis
entourage: he was afraidof the evil influencesParis life mighthave on the
winnersof the scholarships. La Verite,that enfantterribleof the Ultra-
montaineparty,did not hesitateto blurtout what certainanxiousCatholics
werethinkingto themselves. "The idea has been put forwardof establishing
a college in France for French-Canadianmedical students. This idea has
given rise to a seriousdisquiet. For if the capital of France is a centerof
and impiety. If theprojectcan
science,it is, also, alas! a centerof corruption
be carriedout withoutperilto thefaithof ourfuturephysicians, welland good.
greatermomentthatwe should
If not,let it be put aside,forit is of infinitely
have physiciansa littleless learnedbut sound in mattersof religionthan a
littlemorelearnedand withoutfaith."

It is interestingto notethatit is thefaith, and not themoralsof

theincipient physicians overwhichthechurchis concerned.Here
we have thefineflower of a moreor less consciousattempton the
partof theclergyto substitutethe CatholicchurchforFranceas
the centerof authority and devotion. It is a clearcase in which
therewas a possibility ofa renewalof theold tie whichboundthe
colonyto Francethrough fellowship;but whichmight
intellectual
also weakenthetiewhichboundsomeofitsmembers to thechurch,
a churchwhichin Canada has arrogatedto itselfa patrioticas well
as a tremendously strongreligiousemotion. Indeed, to Catholic
France,theFranceof Joanof Arc,of St. Louis, or even of Louis
XIV, thereis a considerablesentimentalloyaltywillinglykept
aliveunderclericalauspices,but againsttheFranceof theRevolu-
tionand theRepublicthechurchin Canada resolutely setsits face.
Nor has over one hundredyears' associationwith England
kindleda compensating loyaltyto that nation or even to the
Empirein theheartsof the French-Canadians.Thereis, indeed,
a certaingratitude forthefavorsshownthemby therulinggroups,
a gratitude of which the attitudeof FrenchCanada duringour
Revolutionand duringtheWar of I8I2 are proofs. Of evenmore
significancewas theactionof theBishopsofQuebecand Montreal
in sidingwiththeBritishgovernment againstPapineauin theshort-
704 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOP SOCIOLOGY

lived" RebellionofI837 " in whicha fiery

and fire-eating" orateur"
made an abortiveattemptto secureFrench-Canadianfreedom.
Some of Papineau'sgrievancesweregenuineand wereafterward
adjusted,but theywereconstitutional and politicalin theirnature
and thechurchthrewitswholeweightagainsttheeffort.Another
reasonfortheactionof thechurchwas thatPapineau,in orderto
securehis ends,was apparently readyto throwhimself-which he
literallydid duringthe fighting-andhis cause into the armsof
theUnitedStates; andgratitude forEnglishgenerosity wasmingled
with fearforreligioussupremacyin the mindsof the religious
leaders. There is, however,no genuineloyalty for England.
Againto quoteM. Bourassa: "Our loyaltyto Englandcan onlybe,
and should only be, a matterof commonsense." Indeed the
attitudeof the French-Canadian leaders,whichis reallythe only
attitudethatcounts,as thepeople,evenmorethanis usuallythe
case,followthemlikesheep,is a mostinterestingstudyoftheresults
ofa mtariagederaisonin therealmofpatriotism.It is a caseofquid
pro quo, and as such is worthyof studyby thosewho maintain
thatintelligent self-interest
mightlead to a reasonedinternational-
ism. Fromwhat littlepersonalobservationI have been able to
make, the resultingpatriotism(if one mightstretchdictionary
meaningto callit such),whileat timeseffective,thatis,againwhen
self-interestpromptsit, as againstAmericaninvasion,cannotbe
relieduponin a crisis,as duringtheGreatWar; and foreveryday
use it fallsshortof whatwillbe necessaryif we are everto have
an international state with its necessarygive and take. Any
enthusiasm forEnglandand theEmpireis lacking,whilefortheir
English-speaking and Protestantfellow-citizens
thereis verylittle
the
of kindliness which inmyopinionmust existbetween theconstit-
uentmembersof any international superstate. It is onlyfairto
statethattheOrangeinhabitants of Ontarioreturnthisfeelingin
kind. The fact,however,thatthe tworaces,exceptin thecities,
and eventhere,wherepossible,are keptapartby intention of the
clergy,and thatthereis practically no intermarriage mustalso be
put downas an offset ifone wereconsideringthisa fairtrial.
What thenis the presentconditionof the French-Canadians?
In thefirst place,onemustbearin mindthattherewereonlyabout
 FRENCH-CANADIAN PATRIOTISM 705

6o,oooFrenchin Quebecat the timeof theconquest. At present

thereare close to twomillionFrench-speaking peoplein Canada;
all, with the exceptionof the Acadiansin Nova Scotia and the
accretionfromthe aboriginaltribes,descendedfromthe 6o,ooo
remaining.This populationis in the main in the provinceof
Quebec,spillingover into the valleyof the Ottawa,in Ontario,
on thewest,and a considerableoutpostin Manitoba. We must
not forget, either,thatthereare said to be overa millionFrench-
Canadiansortheirdescendants inourowncountry, thebulkofthem
in New England. If thewillingness to bear children
werethesole
testof a people'spatriotism, the French-Canadian, thanksto his
religiousleadersagain, would easily out-distancemost civilized
races. This tremendous fecundity has had severalresults. There
is littlequestionthatit has helpedin somedegreein keepingthe
populationpoor and uneducated. It has also made colonization
necessary;indeedit inspireda cultled by L'Abbe Casgrain,whose
beliefit was that throughtheirnaturalfertility, encouragedin
everywaypossible,theywouldultimately dominateNorthAmerica
and "lead back underthe aegis of Catholicismtheerrantpeoples
oftheNew World." Thisso-calledmissionevengraspedmindsthat
wereapparentlynon-clerical, forinstance,the poet M. Frechette,
whoin La Legendd'un peuple expresses it thus:
La plante,qui va natireetonnera
le monde;
Car,ne1'oubliezpas,noussommes en ce lieu
Les instrumentschoisisde grandceuvrede Dieu.
How like it soundsto the ancientIsraelites,or even our Puritan
forefathers,and perhapsone mayrecalla veryrecentpeoplewhose
Kulturmission was equallyimportant.Whether ornottheFrench-
Canadianswill dominatethe Continent,or even Canada, where
theirbirth-rate is offsetby Englishimmigration as well as the
immigration of non-Englishand Americanpeople into thewest,
also by thelowerdeath-rate bothinfantile
and adultoftheEnglish
provinces, theysurelyintendto dominatetheirownprovince,and
fromthenceto make theirsolidphalanxfeltin Dominionaffairs.
At presentsix membersof the King cabinetare fromQuebecand
all are French,and Sir LomerGuoin,the leadingmemberof the
cabinet,some say even morepowerfulthan the premierhimself,
706 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

represents the solidFrenchvote controlled quite as muchby the

hierarchy, as hisopponents say thathe is by theBank ofMontreal,
the Canadian PacificRailway,and othervestedinterests, whose
investiture comesfroma lesssacredsource. Incidentally, it should
be notedthatmanyofthereligious ordersand someofthechurches
are enormously wealthy,and unquestionably the custodiansof
"Peter'spence" have someinterests in commonwiththeguardians
ofotherstrongboxes. So faras localpoliticsgo the87 percentof
thepopulationof Quebecabsolutelycontrolsthesituation,and in
theruraldistricts at anyratethismeansthatthecures,and through
themthehierarchy, dominate.
I have oftenwishedthatmycontactsin Quebechad beenmore
withthe habitant; the dwellerin the countrydistricts;as he is
unquestionablythe typicalFrench-Canadian.All unprejudiced
observers agree,however, in characterizinghimas a typicalpeasant,
thrifty above all, a hard-workingtillerof the soil,religiousto the
pointofsuperstition, ignorant-there is no real compulsory educa-
tionin theprovinceand thepercentage of illiteracyis exceedingly
high-neitherintemperate norimmoral, but fondof his "vin" and
apparentlywitha verystrongprocreativeinstinct. Even when
broughtinto the cities,givena smattering of education,and set
to workin shop or factory,he remainsessentiallythe same, an
agricultural laborertemporarily employedas a mechanicor mill-
hand. He is stillthrifty and hard-working, and thetemptations of
citylifeare forhim"on thecheap." Even in thecitieswherethe
malesin commonwithmost primitive peopleslose manyof their
finequalities,thewomenstillremainsimple"habitants"to a much
largerdegree. Andevenin thecitiesthechurchexertsits holdon
bothmenand women.
Perhapstheachievements of theFrench-Canadians can be best
estimatedwhen one considerstheireducation, ratherlack of it.
or
As I have said before,thereis no publicschoolin oursenseof the
term in the province. The schools for the French-speaking
populationwereleftin the controlof the church,and theyare
strictlyCatholic. The provincialeducationalcouncilis composed
of the bishopsand archbishops of theprovinceand laymennomi-
nated by the government;incidentally, the ProtestantEnglish-
 FRENCH-CANADIAN PATRIOTISM 707

speakinggroup is composedof clergymenalso. In the local

municipalities the schoolboard consistsof threepriestsand three
aldermen;thelatter,however,amongProtestantor Catholicleave
all educationalmattersto the clergy,onlyoffering theiropinions
on mattersof buildings,etc. These schools are tax-supported,
Catholicssupporting Catholicschoolsand Protestants, Protestant,
butcorporations, " havingno soul,"arein a neutralpanel,no matter
ifall thestockis ownedby Protestants, and three-fourths of their
taxesgo to the Catholicschools. Then,too,in the ruraldistricts
a fewscatteredProtestantsare in difficulties as to supporting a
school. Religionis thepre-eminent subjectin theCatholicschools.
The teachersare underpaidand untrainedand manyare members
ofreligiousorderswithout diplomas. Andas therearenotsufficient
schoolseatsevenin themetropolis ofMontreal,whatis thesituation
in the outlyingdistricts? As a matterof fact,the educational
systemof the provinceis deplorable,and only accomplishesone
end, viz., the inculcationof religiousideas throughits constant
controlby the clergy. As far as beinga factorin teachingan
intelligentpatriotism,even comparablewith our much-abused
Americanschools,it is non-existent.This is especiallyharmful
where,as in Montreal,thereare largenumbersof Catholicimmi-
grants,whomustperforce go to theseschools,ornoneat all. This
forus hereinNewEngland; forexample,Southbridge,
is significant
said to be the mostilliteratecommunity in the state of Massa-
chusetts,is from6o to 70 per centFrench-Canadian.It is only
fairto say thatthisilliteracyis not by any meansentirely due to
nativestupidity. In fact,the brighter boys who are chosenfor
religiousorders,especiallytheJesuits,showa greatdeal of native
intelligence.The secondaryschoolsand universities are entirely
underthe controlof the clergy,and the scientific spiritis utterly
absent. At thesametime,everyattemptis made to pointout the
strengthof the church; the entiresystemof educationis such
as to call forthloyaltyand devotion-patriotism, if you like-
towardthe churchand the ideals pointedout to aspiringyouth
are thoseof the Middle Ages. When "la vielleFrance" comes
in forits shareofgloryit is largelyas the eldestdaughterof the
church.
708 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

Aside fromthisexaltationof thechurchthereis perhapsone,

possiblytwo,othersourcesfromwhichthe Canadian of French
originderiveshisintenseiflimitedpatriotism.One is thefolk-lore
of his forefathers,partlybroughtoverfromFrance,and someof
it theoutgrowth ofhisearlyand indeedever-present struggleswith
a frugalnature-whichhe nevertheless loveswiththatpassionfor
thelandeverpresentin theFrenchman-andsomea modified form
of adoptionfromthe Indians. In thebackcountry, thisfolk-lore
stillis a vital factor,and the verynecessarylullabyesare often
survivalsfromancientNormandy, and thestorysongsrecountthe
daringdeedsof Iroquoisor Huron. Fromthe moderninterestin
folk-songs therehas been a revivalof manyof theseold songsin
literarycirclesin Canada as elsewhere.Anothersourceis his
constantpoliticalstruggleswith theirensuingoratory,all of a
definitelynational,not to say chauvinistic, temper. The French
are born orators; it is interestingto note that theirtwo great
leaderswerePapineau and Laurier,both giftedwith tonguesof
fire,and Bourassa,the eminentNationalist,is equally eloquent.
The literature of FrenchCanada is meagerin volume,it is true,
but makesup its lack of size by intensityof race and religious
patriotism, and is anothersourceforpatriotismand race pride.
Garneau'sHistoryofCanada,which,althoughit has manydefects
as a history,is probablythe best historywrittenin Frenchby a
Canadianof his country, is eminently an apologia. He statesin
his Prefacethathe was tauntedas a boy as belongingto a race
that had no history,and that he made it his life-work to refute
that taunt. Gerin-Lajoie,Cremazie,L'Abbe Casgiainall singof
"the love ofmothercountry(theold France),motherchurch,and
Canada." Frechette,the leadingpoet of Canada, whileat times
somewhattoo liberalforthe hierarchy, in his "La legendd'un
peuple" became the writerof the epic of his race. However,
owingto theilliteracyofthepeopleitis a questionas to theinfluence
of thisliterarygroupon therankand fileof thepeasantry. That
ofthefolk-songs, withtheirattachment to thesoil,and thepolitical
orateursare, in my judgment,the onlyimportant incitements to
patriotism, and theypale into insignificance beforethe weekly,
 FRENCH-CANADIAN PATRIOTISM 709

and possiblydaily,admonitionof cur6or churchlyschoolmaster

ormistress. Quebecis truly"in partisfidelis"and theblack-robed
priestor barefooted friar,so commona sightin the streetsof her
townsand cities,is indeedan indicationofherrealpatriotism.
FrenchCanadapresents questionin futures
a mostinteresting to
the studentofracesand nations. Here we have a racewithroots
reachingbackintoan evenoldercivilization;a primitive folkwith
manyof the sturdycharacteristics whichmankindneeds,thrift,
industry,morality,fecundity-justthe class that Karl Pearson
statesis neededforthe commonpeople of the humanrace-but
ignorant,superstitious,
witha limitedidea ofnationality,and aside
froma mostpraiseworthy devotionto theirland,pouringout their
unstintedloyaltyto an ancientreligiousorganization.Insteadof
cultivatingloyaltyto the Dominion,and encouragingfriendly
relationswith theirfellow-citizens, theirleadersspare no efforts
to keep thema people apart,withthe resultthatunderneath all
assurancesofCanadianunityand all optimistic hopesforCanada's
future,eitheras a unit in an international state, a component
part of the Empire,or even"goingit alone,"thereis thelurking
constantdoubt as to what the Frenchwill do, or think,or say.
Consequently Canada'sleadershavetoplaypoliticswiththechurch,
and witha churchold at the game,and whileCanada boastsno
mean politicians, one oftendoubtsif theyare as skilledas those
trainedat theVaticanor in theSocietyofJesus.
How will the French-Canadian break the chain whichbinds
him doublythroughpatriotismand superstition?Certainlynot
nowthrough interferenceby hisEnglishfellow-citizens;he is much
too numerousfor one thing. Apparentlynot throughclerical
education. Perhaps-and this is only a perhaps,temperedby
observation of French-Canadians in New England,wherein one
city theypublisha paper whose mottois "Notre eglise,notre
langue,notremceurs"-itmaycomefromtheirdispersedsonsand
daughters in ourowncountry, whereperforce theycomein contact
withEnglish-speaking peoples,withothernationalideals,and even
witha moreliberalchurchof theirown faith. At any rate,they
come to realizethatchurchand statecan existseparately, as they
7IO THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

do not in FrenchCanada. Distancesare not greatand contacts

are many; perhapssome of thesemay bringback withthema
broaderconception ofEnglish-speaking peoples,a widerconception
ofnationality,and above all, someidea oftheabsoluteimportance
of educationand science. Be that as it may, they furnishan
excellentopportunitynearat hand to studythedevelopment of a
conqueredrace preserving its race-consciousness,
not through
per-
secution,but throughspecialprivilege;and the consequenteffect
on racepatriotism.