Food Chemistry 296 (2019) 29–39

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Review

Egg quality and safety with an overview of edible coating application for egg T
preservation
Abdulhakim Sharaf Eddin, Salam A. Ibrahim, Reza Tahergorabi
⁎

Food and Nutritional Sciences Program, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, United States

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Eggs are staple food in the human diet and are consumed globally. They represent a complete food required for
Egg well-being and are recognized by consumers as versatile and wholesome with a balance of essential nutrients.
Quality However, eggs are perishable and susceptible to contamination with certain microorganisms. Past studies
Safety concluded that edible coatings have been successful to maintain the interior quality and reduce the microbial
Edible coating
load on the eggshell surface. This paper provides an overview of the egg quality and safety and discusses the
application of various types of lipid-, polysaccharide-, and protein-based edible coating systems on eggs. Edible
coatings could be a viable alternative to existing techniques for maintaining the internal quality and safety of
fresh eggs during long-term storage.

1. Introduction
The United States is the world’s third-largest producer of table eggs
and the production of table eggs in the United States has remained
dynamic during the past decade compared to Europe or China (Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations – FAO, 2013). Ac-
cording to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), estimated
egg consumption in the United States was 278.8 eggs per capita in 2018
and it was predicted to reach 279.8 eggs per capita in 2019 (USDA,
2019). Over the past two decades, the production and consumption of
table eggs have increased all over the world. The FAO predicts pro-
duction of 89 million tons of eggs in 2030 (Magdelaine, Braine,
Gonnier, & Spiess, 2010).
The popularity of egg is rooted from its nutritional value. The water
content of a hen’s egg is almost 74.4%, while the content of proteins
and lipids are 12.3% and 11.6%, respectively (Tahergorabi & Jaczynski,
2016). The hen’s egg is also a rich dietary source of easily digestible
fats. The easily digestible fats that are isolated from the hen’s egg in-
clude choline, unsaturated fats, cholesterol and cephalin-rich phos-
pholipids. Such lipids are essential for ensuring the structural integrity
of the cell membrane. Moreover, the digestible fats found in hens’ eggs
are essential for the development of the nerve cells. Hens’ eggs are
usually considered to be a low energy source of proteins. Approximately
148 kcal are obtained from 100 g of the hen’s egg (Mann, Maček, &
Olsen, 2006). The protein quality of eggs is considered as standard for
evaluating other foods since it is high (91%) if cooked. Hens’ eggs are
also a rich dietary source of lysine and sulfur-containing amino acids.
Hence, hens’ eggs provide essential amino acids for human consump-
tion (Sparks, 2006). Apart from proteins and lipids, hens’ eggs are also
rich dietary sources of different vitamins including A, D, E, and K and
water-soluble B vitamins. It also contains minerals such as iron, cal-
cium, magnesium, selenium, sodium, zinc and phosphorous (Watson,
2008). However, eggs are highly perishable and can rapidly lose their
quality due to loss of moisture and carbon dioxide through nearly
10,000 tiny pores. These pores in the eggshell also facilitate the pene-
tration of certain microorganisms into the interior of eggs and con-
taminate the internal content (Van Immerseel, Nys, & Bain, 2011).
Currently in food industry variety of methods are used for decon-
taminating the surface of eggs, such as dry cleaning or washing with
water which usually containing a sanitizing agent (e.g., sodium hypo-
chlorite). Washing of shell eggs for retail sale is a common practice with
on-line systems in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Japan.
However, this method is a matter of continuous debate. Eggshell
washing is usually followed by chilled storage. This method could da-
mage the cuticle which may favor moisture loss and transmission of
bacteria through the shell. On the other hand, thermal pasteurization is
not applicable to the whole shell egg because the heat would simply
cook the egg (Caudill et al., 2010). This is why non-thermal processing
methods such as electron beam has been suggested as an alternative
method of preservation for the whole shell egg quality and safety.
However, irradiation under aerobic conditions caused the development
of off-flavor and undesirable radiation-induced oxidative changes in

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rtahergo@ncat.edu (R. Tahergorabi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.05.182
Received 12 March 2019; Received in revised form 22 May 2019; Accepted 26 May 2019
Available online 27 May 2019
0308-8146/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Sharaf Eddin, et al.
whole egg powder and egg yolk solids at > 3 kGy (Tahergorabi, Matak,
& Jaczynski, 2012).
To overcome the aforementioned problems, considerable attention
has been given to the development of edible coating materials for
preservation of eggs, from polysaccharides, proteins, or lipids, or their
blends (Rhim, Weller, & Gennadios, 2004; Xie et al., 2002; Knight,
Bowrey, & Cooke, 1972; Yüceer & Caner, 2014; Waimaleongora-Ek,
Garcia, No, Prinyawiwatkul, & Ingram, 2009). An edible coating has
been defined as a harmless (edible) thin layer of food materials that is
directly formed on food surfaces (Ananey-Obiri et al., 2018). Therefore,
the edible coating is recognized as Generally Recommended as Safe
(GRAS). Such coatings prevent the penetration of micro-organisms into
shell eggs. As a result, they extend their storage time and reduce eco-
nomic losses. Earlier studies concluded that the coatings helped main-
tain interior quality, add strength to shell, and reduce microbial load on
the shell surface (Falguera, Quintero, Jiménez, Muñoz, & Ibarz, 2011).
To the best of our knowledge, no literature information is available that
comprehensively reviews the edible coating materials used for im-
proving shelf life of eggs. This review article discusses the quality and
safety of eggs and summarizes research findings on the effectiveness of
and the problems associated with various types of coatings.
2. External structure of hens’ eggs
The shape of an avian egg is usually oval and is represented as shape
index. Shape index is the ratio between the diameter and the length of
an egg. The shape index of an avian egg usually ranges from 0.65% to
0.85% (Li-Chan & Kim, 2008). The structures of avian eggs are similar
across various species. Birds are oviparous and produce cleidoic eggs.
The contents inside the egg are isolated from the external environment.
The eggs contain all the essential nutrients for the developing embryo
and are surrounded by an external coat called the eggshell (Sultana,
Yokoe, Ito, Mao, & Yoshizaki, 2003). The shell provides physical pro-
tection for the contents of the egg. The avian eggs also possess different
chemical components that help them to overcome the challenges of
hostile environments. These chemical components could be isolated
from both the external and internal structures of the egg. Eggshell
primarily represents the external structure of avian eggs (Novak &
Scheideler, 2001). The egg yolk and the egg white comprise the internal
structures of an avian egg.
2.1. Composition of the eggshell
The external structure of the egg is comprised of a hard, poly-
crystalline and calcified covering known as the shell. The shell mem-
branes prevent interaction of the egg white with the external environ-
ment. The mineral portions of the eggshell are nucleated on
mammillary bodies, located on the outer shell membrane. The calcite
crystals within these sites could grow in multiple directions (Mann
et al., 2006). The growth of calcite crystals towards the inner side of the
membrane is responsible for the formation of the palisade layer. The
palisade layer consists of rhombohedral calcite crystals of various sizes.
The orientation of the calcite crystals determines the crystalline mor-
phology of eggshells. The palisade layer forms a thin crystalline vertical
layer that is aligned at right angles to the shell surface (Wang, Ford,
Praul, & Leach, 2002). The cuticle is an organic layer that is found on
the outer surfaces of the shell. The cuticle contains superficial pigments
that are responsible for the pigmentation of eggshells. The eggshell
contains around 10,000 pores that are plugged by the cuticle. These
pores allow the exchange of gases and water during the extra-uterine
development of the chick embryo (Wang et al., 2002).
3. Internal structure of hens’ eggs
Hens’ eggs are comprised of 59% egg white and 31% egg yolk by
weight. The eggshell makes up the remaining 10% of a hen’s egg. The
30
Food Chemistry 296 (2019) 29–39
egg yolk is released from the ovary into the oviduct during ovulation.
The oviduct secretes various components that help to form the vitelline
membrane, egg white and shell membranes that surround the mature
egg yolk (Li-Chan & Kim, 2008). The pituitary gland interacts with the
ovary and controls different steps in egg formation. Domestic hens
produce almost 300 eggs per year, and the proportion of different egg
components varies from one species to another. The proportion of egg
compartments is genetically predetermined.
3.1. Composition of the egg yolk
The egg yolk forms the central component of an egg. It is wrapped in
a very thin, transparent, and acellular membrane called the vitelline
membrane (Wang et al., 2002). The vitelline membrane limits the ex-
change of materials between the egg yolk and egg white. Moreover, the
vitelline membrane also protects the egg yolk from bacterial con-
tamination. The surface of the egg yolk contains a structure known as
the blastodisc. The blastodisc contains the female chromosomes and is
the site of the multiplication of embryonic cells during fertilization of
the egg while it is in the infundibulum. Two spiral filaments known as
chalazae hold the egg yolk at the center of the egg. They link the op-
posite sides of the egg yolk to each pole of the eggshell (Bausek,
Waclawek, Schneider, & Wohlrab, 2000).
3.2. Composition of the egg white
The egg white, or albumen, consists of three heterogeneous com-
ponents. The inner liquid layer (consisting of 17% of egg white) of the
egg white is in contact with the egg yolk and is surrounded by a thick
egg white (consisting of 57% of egg white). The thick layer connects the
rest of the egg white with the eggshell. The proportion of these layers
varies with storage conditions. The weight of the thick layer increases
during the laying of the egg (Mine & D’Silva, 2008). The egg yolk and
the egg white are surrounded by shell membranes. The shell mem-
branes determine the size of the egg while the eggs are within the
uterus. Hence, the shape of avian eggs is determined before the de-
position of eggshells. There is a globular non-fibrous layer between the
inner shell membrane and albumen. This layer is known as the peri-
albumen that prevents the penetration of bacteria within the egg white.
The inner and outer shell membranes are composed of glycoprotein that
provides mechanical rigidity to the inner components of the egg
(Abeyrathne, Lee, & Ahn, 2013).
4. Assessment of the quality of hens’ eggs
Avian eggs are an important food staple around the world. The
nutritional value of a hen’s egg is well acknowledged by scientists and
nutritionists. However, avian eggs have to compete with other food
items for sales and marketing in the modern food industry (Roberts,
2004). The nutritional quality and viability of avian eggs are areas of
major concern in the food processing and food packaging industry. The
major disadvantages of avian eggs include high fragility and loss of
essential nutrients with advancing age or storage. Moreover, the phy-
sicochemical property of the major contents of eggs (that includes the
shell, egg-yolk, and albumen) is highly variable and yet this natural
variability of the nutritional and storage properties of hens’ eggs is
unacceptable to today’s highly discerning consumers. Consequently,
ensuring the quality of avian eggs is a major priority for the food
packaging industry (Caner, 2005a). Different automated and manual
methods are employed for assessing the quality of avian eggs since the
assessment of egg quality is essential for grading eggs with respect to
their safety and nutritional value. Automated methods are preferable to
manual assessments due to their high reliability and viability and are
mainly based on sensor technology. Egg quality measurements are
made to examine different components of the egg (De Ketelaere,
Bamelis, Kemps, Decuypere, & De Baerdemaeker, 2004).
A. Sharaf Eddin, et al.
4.1. Assessment of external egg quality
The quality of table eggs could be assessed from different external
features. This section reviews the components that influence the ex-
ternal quality of table eggs. The external quality of table eggs could be
assessed from the color, strength, and crack features of eggshell. This
section also elucidates the different methods that are deployed for as-
sessing the external quality of table eggs.
4.1.1. Shell color
Although the color and texture of shells do not influence the nu-
tritional value of eggs, these external characteristics are important from
a sales and marketing perspective (Roberts, 2004). Consumers are in-
creasingly concerned with the health implications of food items. Hence,
egg customers are going to be interested in both the external and in-
ternal quality of eggs. Most often, the internal quality of an egg is
considered to have a direct correlation with its external features.
Therefore, the shell color could act as an essential marker of various
diseases within an egg (Alleoni & Antunes, 2004a). The shell color of
commercial table eggs is brown, white or tinted. The brown color stems
from the protoporphyrin-IX, biliverdin-IX and Zinc chelates content.
Odabaşi, Miles, Balaban, and Portier (2007) pointed out that the in-
tensity of the shell color of an egg diminishes with the egg’s age or
storage time. Traditionally, shell color is measured through re-
flectometry. Traditional reflectometry is based on the principles of
photoelectric colorimetry. In this technique, the reflected light is re-
corded at three specific wavelength bands. The three specific wave-
length bands at which the assessments are undertaken include the red,
green and blue spectra. The three values are combined to define a
specific color value as a percentage between the reference black and
white colors. Conventionally, the black reference is considered as 0%
while the white reference is considered as 100% (Odabaşi et al., 2007).
Recently, transmission color value (TCV) has been used to denote
the color of brown eggs (Mertens et al., 2010). Visible/near-infrared
spectroscopy (VIS/NIR) is used to estimate the TCV. The TCV is esti-
mated from the smoothed VIS/NIR transmission spectra. The absor-
bance peak of the spectra is mainly attributed to the concentration of
protoporphyrin-IX within the shell. The TCV is expressed as a ratio
between T643/T610. T643 represents the relative transmission of light
through the egg at 643 nm, while T610 represents the relative trans-
mission of light through the egg at the reference wavelength at 610 nm.
Higher TCV values would indicate a greater transmission rate of light
through the eggshell and a lower content of protoporphyrin-IX. Hence,
higher TCV values would indicate that the eggshells are less pigmented
and vice-versa (Mertens et al., 2010).
The quality of the cuticle is also an important attribute that influ-
ences bacterial contamination (Messens, Grijspeerdt, & Herman, 2005).
The cuticle is an essential structure that prevents the penetration of
bacteria into an egg. The cuticle quality is assessed through a combi-
nation of manual and automated techniques. In the manual phase, the
egg is immersed for 1 min in an aqueous solution of tartrazine and
Green S. Quantification of the cuticle is estimated from the color
measurement before and after staining with tartrazine and Green S. The
color measurements are undertaken through traditional colorimetry
(Messens et al., 2005).
4.1.2. Shell strength
The strength of the shell is an essential attribute for consumable
eggs. High shell strength is associated with low fragility and increased
viability for carriage and storage. Fragile eggs lead to economic loss and
increase the risk of bacterial contamination (Liu, Zheng, Zhang, & Lu,
2013). Shell strength is significantly correlated to shell thickness and
organization of the shell matrix. Mertens et al. (2006) indicated that
shell strength diminishes with the advancement of age in commercially
laying flocks. Such changes are attributed to changes in calcium me-
tabolism that are dependent on the size and growth of the egg. As a
31
Food Chemistry 296 (2019) 29–39
result, more eggs are broken down at the end of the lay, so handling
eggs from older flocks is more difficult than those from younger flocks.
Different direct and indirect methods are employed to assess the me-
chanical quality (strength) of eggshells.
4.1.3. Eggshell crack detection
Damaged eggshells reduce the economic viability of commercial
table eggs. A hairline crack within the eggshell is sufficient to induce
microbial contamination across the contents of an egg (Zhao, Wang, Lu,
& Jiang, 2010). Hence, commercial eggs should be appropriately as-
sessed for the presence of cracks or leaks in the eggshell. Different
factors increase the risk of cracking of eggshells. Such factors include
the quality of the shell, genetic predisposition to cracking, manual
handling of eggs, the quality of water in which the eggs are rinsed or
washed and the temperature at which the eggs are stored (Jindal &
Sritham, 2003). In routine practice, the strength of the eggshells is as-
sessed by clamping the eggs between two pressure plates. The breaking
strength is represented in Newtons. Visual inspection is the main
quality control initiative that is implemented for detecting cracks
within eggshells during the grading process (Mertens et al., 2006).
Different automated methods are implemented for detecting cracks
within eggshells. High-speed electronic grading machines could ex-
pedite the candling process during egg grading. Acoustic resonance
frequency analysis has also been successfully implemented for detecting
cracks or leaks in eggshells.
4.2. Assessment of internal egg quality
The internal quality of table eggs is determined by the quality of egg
yolk and egg albumen. The composition of such components is re-
sponsible for the internal quality of table eggs.
4.2.1. Albumen quality
The quality of the albumen is estimated from the height of the al-
bumen as a distance of 1 cm from the edge of the egg yolk. The height of
the albumen is used to assess its viscosity. Albumens with lower visc-
osity are rated as poor quality (Karoui et al., 2006). Egg albumen
contains 12% protein. The major proteins that are present in egg al-
bumen include ovotransferrin, ovomucoid, ovalbumin, and lysozyme.
Various factors influence the internal quality of avian eggs. Such factors
include storage conditions and the presence of contamination within
the egg yolk or albumen. Different nutritional factors also influence the
quality of egg albumen (Coutts & Wilson, 2007). It has been shown that
albumen quality decreases with increased content of dietary proteins
and amino acids. On the other hand, albumen quality increases with an
increase in dietary lysine concentration. Dietary consumption of neem
kernel meal by avian species could negatively impact the quality of
their egg albumen whereas albumen quality is significantly improved
upon supplementation of ascorbic acid and vitamin E at high ambient
temperatures. Ingestion of crude oil and vanadium also reduces the
quality of albumen across avian eggs. Moreover, the albumen quality of
avian eggs is decreased in the presence of infective bronchitis. Infective
bronchitis reduces the synthesis of albumen proteins across affected
avian species (Eisen, Bohren, & McKean, 1962).
4.2.2. Yolk quality
The internal egg quality of an avian egg is determined from the
composition of egg-white, egg yolk or egg albumen. Better quality eggs
are characterized by the low presence of internal blemishes within the
egg yolk (Gast & Holt, 2001). Internal blemishes that deteriorate the
internal quality of avian eggs include blood, pigment and meat spots.
Yolk quality is an essential determinant of the internal quality of an egg.
The color of the egg yolk and the strength of the perivitelline membrane
determine the quality of the egg yolk. A weak perivitelline membrane
predisposes the risk of cracks across avian eggs. Yolk color also de-
termines the economic viability of table eggs. In Australia, the preferred
A. Sharaf Eddin, et al.
color of the yolk is estimated to be 11 on the Roche scale. However, the
preference of color of the egg yolk varies across different countries
(Huyghebaert, Daeseleire, Grijspeerdt, & Van Renterghem, 2002).
5. Grade of eggs
Grade requirements are set for table eggs in order to protect con-
sumers from health risks. In grading eggs, factors like interior quality,
weight, cleanliness and shell integrity are determined. Table eggs are
graded across registered egg stations in order to ensure the safety of
packaged eggs. Eggs that are graded as “A” are clean and free from
cracks. Moreover, they do not impose an additional risk to consumers.
The gradation of eggs deteriorates with the presence of cracks and
leaks. In an egg grading station, the eggs are received, washed, candled
and weighed and packaged. All such operations are conducted within
strict sanitary environments (EFSA, 2009).
6. Safety and microbiology of eggs
Microbial contamination is a key concern that limits the consump-
tion of table eggs. Hence, table eggs should be appropriately deconta-
minated before they are used as food items. The regulatory guidelines
aim to reduce exogenic and endogenic contamination of table eggs.
Various microorganisms are responsible for the contamination of
eggs and egg products. Contamination of eggs and egg products with
microorganisms predisposes the risk of various infectious diseases in
humans. In Europe, Salmonella species account for almost 90% of the
food borne diseases that stem from the consumption of egg and egg
products. Among Salmonella species, Salmonella enteritidis is a major
concern for the food production industry (EFSA, 2009). The contents of
a hen’s egg are usually sterile under normal breeding conditions.
However, they can be contaminated by diverse micro-biota either ex-
ternally or internally. External contamination reflects the contamina-
tion of the eggshell, while internal contamination refers to the con-
tamination of the egg yolk and albumen. Different types of
contamination are witnessed across a hen’s eggs. The major types of
contamination include endogenic contamination and exogenic con-
tamination.
Table eggs that would be consumed should be free from microbial
contamination and adverse health risks (EFSA, 2009). Different reg-
ulations are implemented for ensuring the safety of table eggs, and
these regulations are framed by different regulatory agencies such as
food safety and inspection services, agricultural research services and
animal and plant health inspection services. Different regulations re-
quire that eggs be appropriately refrigerated during storage. Moreover,
the eggs should be cooked until the yolks are firm. Compliance with
such regulations could decrease the risk of food-borne infections that
are associated with the consumption of table eggs.
6.1. Endogenic contamination
Endogenic contamination refers to contamination that occurs
during egg formation in the oviduct or ovary of infected hens. Such
contamination is also referred to as vertical contamination and is pri-
marily attributed to Salmonella species. The percentage of contaminated
eggs from an infected egg varies from 0 to 8.1% (Cox, Berrang, & Cason,
2000). These data suggest that the contamination of eggs varies from
one hen to another. Endogenic contamination could occur during dif-
ferent stages of egg development. Moreover, contamination of the
contents of the egg depends upon the anatomical site of the infection.
For example, the frequency of contamination of egg white is sig-
nificantly higher than that of egg yolk if the infection is present in the
upper part of the oviduct. Gast and Holt (2001) contended that en-
dogenic contamination primarily occurs in the ovary. The authors noted
that the contamination levels in egg yolk and vitelline membrane were
significantly higher in eggs that were deposited in the ovary of infected
32
Food Chemistry 296 (2019) 29–39
hens. The age of the hen is an essential attribute that also influences
endogenic contamination. It is estimated that with the advancement of
age, resistance against Salmonella infection increases in hens (Akyurek
& Okur, 2009).
Thus, older flocks are more resistant to Salmonella infections than
younger ones. This age-related increase in resistance could be attrib-
uted to the development of gut micro flora and enhanced immunity.
Since Salmonella infections are more frequent in egg yolk and egg-white
compared to eggshells, it may be concluded that endogenic con-
tamination occurs prior to the formation of the matured eggshell.
However, eggshell contamination is not dependent on the age of the
hens (Protais et al., 2003).
6.2. Exogenic contamination
Exogenic contamination is contamination of the eggshell. Exogenic
contamination is also referred to as horizontal contamination and is
more frequent than endogenic contamination. Such contamination oc-
curs after the eggs are laid and have come in contact with the hen’s
fecal matter. Exogenic contamination also results from bacterial species
present in the farm environment or during transport through the supply
chain. The contamination of eggshells by mesophilic bacteria ranges
from 103.8 to 106.3 CFU/egg (Musgrove, Jones, Northcutt, Cox, &
Harrison, 2005). The conventional bacterial species that are responsible
for exogenous contamination include Streptococcus, Staphylococcus,
Aerococcus, and Escherichia. Escherichia and Staphylococcus are most
prevalent across different bacterial species (De Reu et al., 2008). The
health of the pellets and the sanitary state of the farm environment are
essential for preventing the risk of bacterial contamination across hen
flocks. However, Salmonella can thrive in various breeding environ-
ments and could increase the risk of contamination. Lice, rodents and
other pests are other putative reservoirs of bacterial species. Contain-
ment of infected hens through suitable interventions can reduce the risk
of exogenic contamination in eggs (Wales, Breslin, Carter, Sayers, &
Davies, 2007).
6.3. Penetration of the microorganisms through the eggshell
The cuticle, shell, and shell membrane of the egg are effective
barriers against bacterial penetration. Hence, even if the surface of the
egg is contaminated; the contents of the egg can remain un-
contaminated. The cuticle is composed of mucoproteins and prevents
the penetration of water or microorganisms into the contents of the egg
(De Reu et al., 2005). However, cracking of the eggshell could break-
down the layer of cuticle and predispose egg contents to the risk of
contamination. The eggshell is made up of a calcified layer of protein,
yet actually contains pores that can increase the risk of bacterial con-
tamination of egg contents (Coucke, 1998). Eggshells contain lysozyme,
B-N-acetylglucosaminidase, and ovotransferrin. These compounds are
effective antibacterial filters and usually prevent the contamination of
eggs by bacterial species. In spite of such mechanisms, microorganisms
are known to contaminate the contents of an egg (Messens et al., 2007).
Messens et al. (2007) noted that the factors that contribute to the
penetration of microorganisms within the egg contents include con-
tamination of the shell surface and cracks in the shell. Abnormal cal-
cification is another attribute that could increase the permeability of
the eggshell to microorganisms. In contrast, the weight of the egg, the
porosity of the shell, and the quality and thickness of the cuticle do not
influence the degree of contamination.
The milieu of the egg white is similar to the intracellular fluid and
provides immunity against invading bacteria. It also serves as a major
nutritional reserve for the embryo and contains potent antimicrobial
compounds like lysozymes and ovotransferrin (Jin, Gurtler, & Li, 2013).
Lysozymes have potent bactericidal activity against various bacterial
species and are responsible for the hydrolysis of the peptidoglycan layer
that is present in the cell wall of gram-positive and gram-negative
A. Sharaf Eddin, et al.
bacteria. Lysozymes hydrolyze the cell wall by cleaving the B1-4, gly-
cosidic bonds between N-acetylglucosamine (NAGA) and N-acet-
ylmuramic acid (NAMA) (Jin et al., 2013). As a result, lysozymes pre-
vent the polymerization of NAGA and NAMA residues in the cell wall of
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. However, gram-negative
bacteria are able to resist such bactericidal activity due to a thin pep-
tidoglycan layer and the presence of an outer membrane. The altered
chemical structure of peptidoglycan is also responsible for its microbial
resistance against lysozymes. Lysozymes exert bactericidal action by
disruption of the cell membrane and through the induction of auto-
lysins (Callewaert & Michiels, 2010).
Ovotransferrin is a protein in the transferrin family. It chelates
metal ions inside microbial cells and reduces the availability of iron to
bacterial species. As a result, ovotransferrin exhibits potent bacterio-
static activity against different bacterial species. However, some bac-
terial species like Enterobacter and Salmonella synthesize high -affinity
iron chelators known as siderophores which can overcome the chelating
action of ovotransferrin and resist its bacteriostatic activity. However,
the antimicrobial actions of lysozyme and ovotransferrin are influenced
by the physicochemical properties of egg white (Aminlari, Hashemi, &
Aminlari, 2014). These properties include pH, viscosity, and hetero-
geneity of the egg white. Nutrient availability to microorganisms is
limited in egg white. Hence, under appropriate conditions, microbial
growth in the egg white is unlikely. However, microbial contamination
of egg white could occur under altered environmental conditions. The
quality of the egg and storage conditions such as temperature and time
are the major determinants of bacterial contamination of egg white
(Murase, Holt, & Gast, 2005).
Changes in the contamination dynamics of egg white are attributed
to the alterations in the vitelline membrane and dissociation of the
ovomucin-lysozyme complex at a pH range of 7.6 to 9.3. As a result,
nutrients enter the egg white from the egg yolk and favor the growth of
bacterial species. Hence, bacterial species like Salmonella could mul-
tiply and migrate into the egg yolk causing contamination (DeWinte,
Ross, Couture, & Farber, 2011). The chalazae and egg white liquefy
over a period. As a result, the distance between the eggshell and the egg
yolk is reduced. This reduction in the distance between the eggshell and
the egg yolk enhances the risk of contamination of the egg yolk.
Moreover, the vitelline membrane is permeable to egg yolk iron and
amino acids. Murase et al. (2005) highlighted that the permeability of
the vitelline membrane favors the growth of Salmonella in the egg
white. However, the permeability of the vitelline membrane depends
upon the storage temperature, and Salmonella contamination is pre-
vented at 8 °C. In contrast, a storage temperature of 25 °C favors the
growth of bacterial species.
6.4. Foodborne diseases associated with the consumption of table eggs
Egg and egg products can be contaminated by different pathogens
during any stage of the production chain. Salmonella enteritis infection
is the most common foodborne pathogen that is associated with the
consumption of a hen’s eggs (Gantois et al., 2009). Food poisoning is
often classified as food intoxication and food infection. Food infections
are caused by microbial communities that are present in various food
items and by bacterial exotoxins that are consumed with the respective
food items. Until the 1980s, egg and egg products were considered to be
one of the safest foods. This was because the egg contents were con-
sidered to be highly sterile for the development of the chick embryo.
However, the incidences of Salmonellosis in laying eggs changed the
conception about the safety of egg products (Greig & Ravel, 2009).
Since bacterial species are transmitted vertically within a hen spe-
cies, Salmonellosis has generated a global concern regarding the safety
of table eggs (Sadeyen et al., 2006). Zoonotic organisms like Salmonella
and Campylobacter often inhabit the intestine of avian species. In 2006,
the prevalence of Salmonella enteritidis in laying flocks across the Eur-
opean Union ranged from 0 to 79.5%. Different risk factors increase the
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Food Chemistry 296 (2019) 29–39
risk of Salmonellosis in laying flocks (Sadeyen et al., 2006). These risk
factors include the size of the flock, housing and farming environment,
seasonal influences and the age of the poultry. Campylobacter con-
tamination is mainly found in poultry meat and broiler flocks. Although
Listeria is not widely present across poultry flocks, it accounts for the
second major cause of listeriosis in humans. Listeriosis caused by
poultry in humans is attributed to the 1/2a serotype. Listeria can easily
transfer through eggshells and imposes a risk to consumers of table eggs
(Jones, Anderson, & Guard, 2012).
Salmonella enteritidis has the ability to colonize ovarian and re-
productive tissues in avian species. Hence, Salmonella can often colo-
nize eggshells and be transmitted to humans. The risk of transmission of
Salmonella to the egg yolk is marginal, but this risk of contamination
can increase due to cracks or thinning of the eggshells. Eggshells can
also be contaminated through uterine infections and environmental
conditions, and they can become contaminated with Salmonella or
Campylobacter during packing and storage. However, horizontal trans-
mission of Salmonella species remains controversial. The risk of
Salmonella contamination in eggshells increases after oviposition
(Gantois et al., 2009).
6.5. Methods to control egg contamination
Microbial contamination of the contents of an egg should be pre-
vented from both a commercial and health perspective. Various
methods are implemented to prevent the microbial contamination of
eggs. Both upstream and downstream methods are employed to prevent
such contamination. The upstream methods include a selection of hens,
appropriate breeding practices, and effective farm management prin-
ciples. Downstream methods pivot around the quality of packaging,
transport and storage conditions of eggs. From the perspective of an-
imal husbandry, the genetic signature of different hen species could
provide the basis for selecting and breeding hens (Rzedzicki & Stępień-
Pyśniak, 2009).
Rzedzicki and Stępień-Pyśniak (2009) indicated that some hen
species exhibit inborn resistance against Salmonella species. Such hen
species encode specific proteins that prevent the colonization of the
Salmonella in the egg-milieu. Some authors contend that the anti-
microbial properties of eggshells could also have a genetic basis. Al-
though genetic screening could provide a basis for selecting microbe
resistant hens for breeding purposes, it cannot ensure the nutritive
quality of eggs from the respective hen species. The quality of animal
husbandry also seems to influence the risk of contamination of the egg-
milieu (Rzedzicki & Stępień-Pyśniak, 2009). Stress can be a pre-
determining factor for increased susceptibility to Salmonella infection
across hen species. The presence of stress across hen species could also
lead to abnormal calcification of eggshells. Stress can also weaken the
immune system of hen species and augment the risk of bacterial in-
fection. Farmers should employ appropriate animal husbandry techni-
ques for reducing stressors within the farm environment (Gomes et al.,
2014).
Inappropriate breeding practices also play a role in increasing the
risk of bacterial contamination in hen species. For example, the size of
the hen flock increases the risk of Salmonella enteritidis infection.
Moreover, the number of broken or cracked eggs within a farm is also
associated with the prevalence of Salmonella infection across hen spe-
cies. Flock sizes should be minimized, and cracked eggs should be
contained or appropriately disposed of in order to reduce the risk of
bacterial infection. In addition, the breeding environment should be
appropriately disinfected to reduce the risk of contamination (Messens
et al., 2007). For example, De Reu et al. (2005) noted that con-
tamination of eggshells by mesophilic bacteria actually depends upon
the quality of the ambient air. Appropriate equipment should be in-
stalled to limit dust and promote good hygiene practices within the
farm environment. Vaccination against Salmonella enteritidis plus the
addition of anti-Salmonella food additives could help to prevent the risk
A. Sharaf Eddin, et al.
of herd contamination. Such food additives include short chain and
medium chain organic acids such as formic and caproic acids, respec-
tively. Such organic acids reduce the colonization of Salmonella within
the gastrointestinal tract of susceptible hen species (Sugiarto & Yu,
2004).
Good manufacturing practices related to the collection, sorting, and
storage of eggs can also help to reduce the risk of bacterial con-
tamination. The staff and employees in the food processing and food
packaging industries should be vigilant with regard to minimizing the
risk of cross-contamination of eggs. These professionals should also be
competent in preserving the integrity of the eggshells. The temperature
of egg-milieu is also an essential physical condition that aids in effective
storage, collection, and sorting of eggs (EFSA, 2009). Maintenance of an
isothermal environment is strongly mandated during such procedures.
Moreover, it is equally important to maintain the quality of the cold
chain during the transport of eggs. Some countries such as the United
States, China, and Japan have emphasized the importance of appro-
priate washing of eggs. In these countries, egg shells are appropriately
washed and graded before they are packaged for commercial purposes.
Egg washing was earlier discouraged in some countries due to the fact
that washing eggs with water colder than the egg increased the risk of
microbial contamination. However, eggs that are contaminated with
bacteria or have high iron content should be washed prior to con-
sumption (Caudill et al., 2010).
The Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) guidelines have re-
commended appropriate techniques for washing eggs. Inappropriate
washing techniques are associated with a loss of protective microbial
from the shell of commercial eggs. Although surface rinse methods are
rapidly performed, they are inappropriate for recovering the natural
microbial flora of the egg shells. Thus, shell crush methods are often
employed to wash eggs across commercial settings (Eskin, 2004). Pas-
teurization of eggs can help to reduce the risk of Salmonella infection.
Different methods of pasteurization are implemented across industrial
settings. Such methods include hot water, dry heat, UV irradiation and
the use of electrolyzed water. Edible coatings are preferred because the
microstructure and shelf-life of the food items are affected by dena-
turation temperature, molding pressure, and enzyme concentrations.
On the contrary, such parameters are preserved with edible coatings.
Moreover, edible coatings also preserve the natural sensory features of
different food products (Malaka, Hatta, & Baco, 2015).
7. Edible coatings
Edible coatings are often used to extend the shelf-life and quality of
foods during storage. The major edible coatings that are used in the
food processing industry are protein-based, lipid-based, and poly-
saccharide-based. Polysaccharide-based coatings are preferred due to
their low-thickness, high flexibility, and greater transparency (Pavlath
& Orts, 2009). Summary of application of different types of edible-
coatings that were used for the egg quality and safety preservation are
given in Table 1.
7.1. Application methods of edible coating in egg preservation
The edible coating can be applied either by spraying, enrobing,
electrostatic spraying or by dipping of the food product in the coating
solution. It can also be applied as a single layer or a multilayer edible
coating. The choice of application method is dependent on the viscosity,
texture, and availability of equipment. Dipping and spraying are the
commonly used methods for applying the coating. When the product is
dipped into the coating solution for sometimes, it is then allowed to
drain off. This method does not require a sophisticated machine, and it
is cheap and easy to use. Spraying techniques gives uniform coating and
also prevents the likelihood of contamination of the coating solution
(Zhong, Cavender, & Zhao, 2014). This method can also be controlled.
In the spraying process, the food product is placed on a plate rotating at
34
Food Chemistry 296 (2019) 29–39
a controlled speed under a hand-held spraying gun. This can be re-
peated until the desired coating thickness is achieved.
Forming a uniform coating on the product’s surface is important in
maintaining the quality of safety of the food (Huse, Mallikarjunan,
Chinnan, Hung, & Philips, 1998). There should also be good adhesion
between the product surface and the coating solution. The effectiveness
of an edible coating in performing its function strongly depends on its
barrier property to moisture, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, which in turn
depends on the chemical composition and structure of the coating-
forming polymers, the characteristics of the produce, and the storage
conditions (Zhao & Lin, 2007).
7.1.1. Types of edible coatings
The following section reviews previous studies related to the ap-
plication of different biopolymers used for coating to maintain the
quality and safety of eggs during storage time.
7.1.1.1. Protein-based edible coatings. Edible coatings are often
prepared from plant and animal proteins like gelatin. Gelatin is
obtained by the partial hydrolysis of collagen. Collagen is a fibrous
protein that is abundant in animal tissues. Porcine sources are the most
common source of gelatin that is used in the food processing industry;
however, the use of porcine gelatin is discouraged due to the risk of
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (Gennadios, 2002). Thus, fish
proteins and milk proteins are often used to prepare edible coatings.
Egg products are also significant sources of proteins and are often used
for manufacturing desserts.
Plant proteins like whey, soy, and wheat gluten are also often used
as edible coatings. For example, zein is commonly used to prepare
edible coatings for different food items and is the major storage protein
of corn, representing 40% to 50% of corn’s total protein content
(Gennadios, 2002). Zein is obtained as a by-product of corn during the
production of starch. Soy protein and soy oils are also used to manu-
facture edible films and coatings. Proteins also have important phy-
siochemical properties that make them suitable for the packaging of
food items. Plant or animal proteins are used as edible coatings due to
their superior barrier properties. Whey and zein have good barrier
properties against oxygen, carbon-dioxide, aroma, and lipids. These
protein-based edible coatings are preferred because they help to retain
the physical and chemical qualities of food.
Caner and Yüceer (2015) evaluated the efficacy of zein protein-
based films in enhancing the quality of table eggs. The authors showed
that uncoated eggs had higher albumen pH (9.56), greater weight loss
and lower viscosity. The zein-coated eggs exhibited higher albumen
viscosity and yolk-index (p < 0.001) and significantly prevented
weight loss compared to uncoated eggs (p < 0.01). This coating also
increased the shell-strength compared to uncoated eggs (p < 0.05).
Thus, zein protein-based coatings were effective in enhancing the sto-
rage quality of table eggs.
Protein-based edible coatings do have certain limitations that limit
their use in the food packaging industry (Vieira, da Silva, dos Santos, &
Beppu, 2011). For example, protein-based edible coatings have limited
resistance to water vapor. As a result, the barrier and mechanical
properties of protein-based edible coatings are inferior to poly-
saccharide-based edible coatings. Proteins have inherent hydrophilic
properties that limit their barrier and mechanical functions (Vieira
et al., 2011). Hence, animal and plant proteins are often modified be-
fore they are used as edible coatings.
The limitations of protein-based edible coatings in increasing the
shelf-life and quality of eggs were highlighted by Khattak, Sharma, and
Sanghi (2016). The authors showed that table-eggs that were coated
with soy protein suffered significant weight loss after the storage period
of 30 days (p < 0.05). Moreover, the shelf-life of soy protein-coated
eggs was significantly lower than uncoated eggs that were collected on
day 1 of the study. Such findings reflect that protein-based coatings are
not a suitable option for increasing the shelf-life of table eggs.
A. Sharaf Eddin, et al. Food Chemistry 296 (2019) 29–39

Table 1
Summary of different components used for egg coating.
Type of coating Storage condition Effect References

WPI 4 weeks, and 6 weeks at Shelf-life extension Caner (2005a); Caner (2005b)
25 °C
WPC 28 days at 25 °C Improved Haugh unit and weight loss, maintained S- Alleoni and Antunes (2004b); Alleoni and
Ovalbumin content Antunes (2004a)
SPI , WPI, wheat gluten, CMC Improved puncture strength, reduced bacterial penetration Xie et al. (2002)
WPI, WPC, zein, shellac 6 weeks at 24 °C improved albumen viscosity, Haugh unit, yolk index, and Caner and Yüceer (2014)
shell strength
SPI, WPI, mineral oil, paraffin wax 12 weeks at 7 °C Improved Haugh unit, higher CO2 and lower albumen pH, Biladeau and Keener (2009)
higher vitelline membrane strength
SPI 4 week at 25 °C and 4 °C Shelf-life extension Rhim et al. (2004), Yüceer and Caner
Chitosan and lysozyme-chitosan (10, 20, 6 weeks at 25 °C Improved puncture strength, shelf life extension (2014)
and 60%)
Chitosan-lysozyme, WPI, Bake sheen 6 weeks at 10 °C 4 log reduction of Salmonella, total inhibition of mold Kim, Daeschel, and Zhao (2008)
growth, reduction of coliforms and total plate count
Chitosan (HMw, MMw, LMw) 5 weeks at 25 °C LMw was more effective and extended shelf-life Bhale et al. (2003)
Chitosan- acetic, -propionic and -lactic 4 weeks at 25 °C Increased albumen viscosity, chitosan-lactic acid: shell Caner and Cansız (2008)
acids strength
Chitosan-soybean oil 7 and 15 weeks at 25 °C Maintained grade A after 5 weeks at 25 °C, lower albumen Wardy et al. (2011); Wardy et al. (2013)
and 4 °C pH, weight loss, higher purchase intent
α-chitosan, and β-chitosan 4 weeks at 25 °C Shelf-life extension with α-chitosan Kim et al. (2007); Pujols et al. (2014)
Chitosan-glycerol (0.5, 1, 1.5, 2%) and 5 weeks at 25 °C Chitosan-2% glycerol and acetic acid extended shelf-life Kim, No, Kim, and Prinyawiwatkul (2006)
acetic and lactic acid
Chitosan-acetic, lactic, propionic acids 4 weeks at 24 °C Lactic and propionic acid improved Haugh unit, yolk Caner and Cansiz (2007)
index, weight loss and shelf-life
Chitosan (0.25%, 1%, 2%) 3 days at 25 °C 2% extended shelf-life Leleu et al. (2011)
Pullulan 10 weeks at 25 °C and Shelf-life extension Morsy et al. (2015)
4 °C
MC, HPMC 28 days at 25 °C Shelf-life extension Suppakul et al. (2010)
Mineral oil 15 weeks at 4 °C and Shelf-life extension Jirangrat et al. (2010)
25 °C
Mineral oil-chitosan 5 weeks at 25 °C and Shelf-life extension Torrico et al. (2011)
20 week at 4 °C
Mineral oil 5 weeks at 25 °C Shelf-life extension Waimaleongora-Ek et al. (2009)
Shellac 30 days at 4 °C Shelf-life extension Musa et al. (2011)

WPI = Whey protein isolate.

WPC = Whey protein concentrate.
SPI = Soy protein isolate.
MC = Methylcellulose.
HPMC = Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose.
HMw = High molecular weight.
MMw = Medium molecular weight.
LMw = Low molecular weight.
CMC = Carboxymethylcellulose.

Moreover, the pH of the soy protein-coated eggs was significantly
higher than their uncoated counterparts. This finding indicated that
protein-based coatings do not significantly improve the internal quality
and composition of table eggs. Such limitations might have stemmed
from increased hydrophilicity of protein-based coatings. Similarly,
Biladeau and Keener (2009) in a comparative study showed that soy
protein isolate (SPI) is not as effective as whey protein isolate (WPI) for
maintaining vitelline membrane strength of eggs during storage time.
However, Xie et al. (2002) showed that coated eggshells with SPI, WPI,
wheat gluten or carboxymethyl cellulose had greater puncture strength
than those of non-coated eggs. The film-coated eggs reduced post-wash
bacterial penetration as measured by dye penetration method. WPI
coating completely inhibited blue dye penetration on average.
Plasticizing is carried out to reduce the hydrophilic properties of
plant and animal proteins that are destined to be used as edible coat-
ings. Different protein modification techniques such as denaturation,
aggregation and plasticizing increase the mechanical properties of
protein-based edible coatings (Vieira et al., 2011). Chemical cross-
linking with aldehydes is carried out to increase the tensile strength of
protein-based edible coatings. However, proteins are often processed at
a suitable pH and transition temperature before being used in edible
coatings. Appropriate pH and transition temperature are essential pre-
requisites for determining the shape of protein molecules that are used
in edible coatings.
Hanani, O’Mahony, Roos, Oliveira, and Kerry (2014) showed that
increased extrusion temperature improved the tensile strength and
water vapor permeability of composite protein films that were in-
corporated with corn oil. Protein-based edible coatings and films have
been broadly used in active coatings and biodegradable films. Active
coatings are materials that are intended to increase the shelf-life or
quality of packaged foods. Such coatings are directly applied to the
surface of food items and are based on solvent casting mechanisms. In
this process, a diluted protein solution is applied to the surface of the
food items, and coatings are formed after the solvent evaporates. Active
coatings are preferred because they improve food quality by controlling
the mass transfer, moisture content and oxygen content. Such coatings
also preserve the aroma and other physiochemical properties of the
food (Hanani et al., 2014).
Various antimicrobials and antioxidants are often incorporated into
active coatings. Such properties protect food items from microbial
spoilage and oxidative damage. Both of these properties increase the
quality and shelf-life of packaged food items. Biodegradable films are
also used to increase the shelf-life of different food items (Molavi,
Behfar, Shariati, Kaviani, & Atarod, 2015). These films degrade after
the termination of the food item’s shelf-life. These biodegradable films
are degraded under suitable environmental conditions based on the
moisture content, temperature range and oxygen content of the ambient
environment. The films are degraded into non-toxic end products and

35
A. Sharaf Eddin, et al.
do not impose additional harm to the ambient environment.
7.1.1.2. Lipid-based edible coatings. Lipid-based edible coatings are
commonly applied to fresh fruits and vegetables. Lipid-based coatings
are hydrophobic and prevent moisture loss from fruits and vegetables.
Waxes are the most common form of lipid used in edible coatings
(Cindric, Zeiner, & Steffan, 2007). Waxes have a high melting point and
high specific gravity that helps to increase the mechanical and tensile
strength of edible coatings. Carnauba waxes are commonly used in
lipid-based edible coatings. Refined Carnauba waxes are 24–32
hydrocarbon saturated wax esters with saturated long-chain alcohols
and are considered safe for human consumption. Polyethylene wax is
often used as an alternative to carnauba wax (Barman, Asrey, Pal, Kaur,
& Jha, 2014; Dantas, Magalhães, Matos, Gouveia, & Lopes, 2013).
Polyethylene waxes are basic resins that are produced upon mild
oxidation of polyethylene. Oxidized polyethylene is often used as a
protective coating for fresh produce. Beeswax and Candellia waxes are
also used as edible coatings. Such waxes are comprised of long chain
mono-functional alcohols and are more plastic than carnauba waxes
(Hepburn, Pirk, & Duangphakdee, 2014).
Although these waxes are plastic at room temperatures, they be-
come brittle at lower temperatures. Hence, storage temperature is an
essential factor that determines the efficacy of wax-based edible coat-
ings (Rojas-Graü et al., 2007). Resins such as wood resins are approved
by the USFDA for preparing edible coatings. Wood resins are often
modified through hydrogenation, isomerization, and polymerization
processes that make the resins less susceptible to oxidation and dis-
coloration. Moreover, such modifications enhance the thermoplastic
properties of wood resins (Rojas-Graü et al., 2007). Musa, Ulaiwi, and
Al-Hajo (2011) evaluated the effect of shellac-based coating on the
internal quality of table eggs. Shellac is a natural resin that originates
from insect species. The authors treated the table eggs with different
concentrations of shellac-based coatings. Musa et al. (2011) highlighted
that there is a positive relationship between weight loss and pH across
eggs that were uncoated. However, the authors reported an inverse
relationship with shellac-coated eggs. The authors concluded that
shellac-based coatings improve the internal quality of chicken eggs.
However, lipid-based coatings may increase the lipid content of con-
sumable eggs. Hence, such coatings may be commercially or clinically
discouraged.
Waxes and oils are often used as emulsions in edible coatings.
Jirangrat, Torrico, No, No, and Prinyawiwatkul (2010) showed that
without refrigeration, the non-coated and mineral oil-coated eggs ra-
pidly changed from AA to C and B grades as measured by Haugh unit,
respectively, after 5 weeks of storage. However, at 4 °C, the mineral oil-
coated eggs preserved the initial AA grade for at least 15 weeks with
l.19% weight loss. Similarly, Waimaleongora-Ek et al. (2009) studied
the impact of different viscosities (7, 11, 14, 18, 22, and 26 cP) of
mineral oil on quality and shelf life of eggs during 5 wk of storage at
25 °C. Their results showed that after 5 wk of storage, eggs coated with
11, 14, 18, 22, or 26 cP oil possessed better quality than the control
non-coated eggs and eggs coated with 7 cP oil. Oil coating, irrespective
of viscosities, did not improve the emulsion capacity. There was an
observable trend that coating with 26 cP oil was more effective in
preventing weight loss and in maintaining the Haugh unit of eggs
compared with the coating with other viscosities of mineral oil.
7.1.1.3. Polysaccharide-based edible coatings. Polysaccharide-based
edible coatings are routinely used for processing confectionary,
desserts, dairy products, ready-to-eat foods, and bakery items. Water-
soluble-gel forming polysaccharides are preferred in edible coatings as
they substantially increase the shelf-life of food. Polysaccharide-based
coatings exhibit poor barrier to moisture yet have a moderate and
selective permeability to oxygen and carbon dioxide. Hence,
polysaccharides are used in the form of hydrocolloids to coat fruits
and vegetables. Such coatings help to prevent ripening of fruit by
36
Food Chemistry 296 (2019) 29–39
creating a modified atmosphere for them. Moreover, water-soluble
polysaccharide coatings have a thickening and viscous effect on the
food items. These properties increase the mechanical potential,
adhesiveness, gel-forming ability, and mouthfulness effects of
polysaccharide-based edible coatings (Molavi et al., 2015). Different
types of polysaccharides are used in edible coatings. Cellulose is the
most common polysaccharide used in edible coatings (Suppakul,
Jutakorn, & Bangchokedee, 2010).
Cellulose contains a high percentage of hydroxyl groups that form
stable intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen
bonding is an essential prerequisite for the formation of linear ag-
gregates and for imparting mechanical strength to the cellulose mole-
cule (Molavi et al., 2015). However, modified celluloses like micro-
crystalline cellulose and non-ionic cellulose ethers are often used as
alternatives to natural cellulose. Such modifications include changing
the levels of methoxyl, hydroxypropyl, and carboxymethyl moieties of
natural cellulose. Modified cellulose has superior water retention
properties, a lower dissolution temperature, improved gelation poten-
tial and greater sensitivity to electrolytes (Molavi et al., 2015).
Suppakul et al. (2010) evaluated the effects of cellulose-coatings on the
quality of table eggs after 28 days storage period. Grade AA 1-day old
table eggs were either uncoated or coated with the cellulose-based so-
lution. The authors concluded that table eggs that were coated with
cellulose exhibited lower weight loss compared to the uncoated eggs
(4.28% versus 8.33%, p < 0.05). Moreover, the eggs that were coated
with cellulose retained their Grade-A rating. However, the uncoated
eggs were rated as “Grade B” after the storage period of 28 days.
Chitosan coating, a deacetylated form of chitin, is a polysaccharide
obtained from shellfish waste. It has attracted notable interest since it
provides excellent oxygen barrier properties as well as some level of
antimicrobial activity. Many researchers have conducted research on
the application of chitosan as an edible coating for eggs (Caner &
Cansiz, 2007; Kim, No, & Prinyawiwatkul, 2007; No, Prinyawiwatkul, &
Meyers, 2005). Studies on different molecular weights of chitosan have
shown that coating eggs with low (LMw, 470 kDa) molecular weight of
chitosan was more effective in preventing weight loss than with
medium (MMw, 746 kDa), and high (HMw, 1100 kDa) (Bhale et al.,
2003). Caner and Cansiz (2007) also indicated that chitosan and the
lactic acid mixture may increase the shelf-life of coated eggs without
adverse effects on their consumer acceptability. In another study,
Wardy et al. (2011) explored the role of chitosan-soybean oil edible
coating on the sensory qualities of table eggs. The authors evaluated the
perception of 150 study participants. The quality of table eggs that were
uncoated deteriorated from AA to B category at the end of the study
period. However, table eggs that were coated with chitosan-soybean oil
maintained their AA rating at the end of the study period. Wardy et al.
(2011) concluded that chitosan-soybean oil emulsion edible coatings
are effective in preserving the sensory qualities of table eggs.
Starch is the predominant form of polysaccharide that is used to
manufacture polysaccharide-based edible coatings (Falguera et al.,
2011). However, the quality of starch-based edible films or coatings
depends on the amylose and amylopectin content within the starch
molecule. Amylose represents a linear glucose chain that is formed from
the alpha 1, 4-glycosidic linkage between adjacent glucose molecules.
Amylose has a helical structure within the starch molecule. On the
other hand, amylopectin is a branched polymer of glucose with a higher
molecular weight than amylose. The ratio of amylose and amylopectin
is responsible for the mechanical and crystalline properties of starch
molecules. However, the source of starch also influences the mechanical
and crystalline properties of starch-based edible coatings (Gennadios,
Hanna, & Kurth, 1997).
Starch is not a true thermoplastic. However, it can melt and flow
under high temperatures and high shear forces. Starches are classified
as raw and modified. Raw starches have limited use in the food pro-
cessing industry as they are difficult to disperse them in water. Raw
starches have rapid gelation and retrogradation properties upon
A. Sharaf Eddin, et al.
cooling. To overcome these issues, raw starches are modified by the
disruption of hydrogen bonds through a reduction in their molecular
weights. Modified starches have lower gelatinization temperatures and
are stable at refrigerated temperatures. Acid hydrolysis of starch con-
verts amylopectin into amylase. Such modifications increase the amy-
lose/amylopectin residue within the starch molecules. However,
chlorinated starches are often used as alternatives to acid-hydrolyzed
starch because chlorinated starches are more resistant to thickening
than acid-hydrolyzed starch. Such features improve the digestibility of
starch-based edible coatings (Falguera et al., 2011).
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam) is an inexpensive and readily
available vegetable that is cultivated extensively for its nutritious value
across many regions of the world. Sweet potato starch (SPS) with a
58–76% starch content (on a dry basis), has properties that are similar
or better than those of potato starch (Issa, Ibrahim, & Tahergorabi,
2017). Previous studies in our laboratory have demonstrated that SPS
has promising film forming ability (Issa et al., 2018). Alotaibi and
Tahergorabi (2018) showed that SPS-based edible coating with thyme
essential oil (TEO) could be useful in extending the shelf life of shrimp
meat during refrigerated storage. Thus, Sharaf Eddin and Tahergorabi
(2019) studied the impact of SPS-based edible coatings with variable
levels of TEO (0, 2.0, 4.0 and 6.0%) during 7 weeks of storage at 25 °C.
For uncoated eggs, as storage time increased, albumen pH and weight
loss increased but yolk index and Haugh unit values decreased. Appli-
cation of 4.0 and 6.0% TEO in SPS-based coatings maintained the in-
ternal quality of eggs 2 weeks longer than non-coated eggs at 25 °C.
A fungal organism, Aureobasidium pullulans produces pullulan, an
extracellular polysaccharide which is used to make edible coatings.
Pullulan is colorless, tasteless, resistant to oil, and exhibits very low
oxygen permeability and appropriate barrier properties (Singh, Saini, &
Kennedy, 2008). Morsy, Sharoba, Khalaf, El-Tanahy, and Cutter (2015)
showed that application of pullulan as an edible coating can preserve
the internal quality, extend the shelf-life and reduce the weight loss of
eggs during 10 weeks of storage at room or refrigerated temperature.
8. Challenges associated with industrial application of edible
coatings
Although edible coatings have been successfully used on eggs at lab-
scale level. However, there are still some challenges to upscaling the
edible coatings for industrial applications. According to USDA and
European regulations, edible coatings are considered as food in-
gredients and food additives. Therefore, the materials used for this
purpose must be non-toxic, food grade and the whole process of coating
should be conducted under high standard hygiene. Also, many mate-
rials used for edible coating preparations are made of allergenic food
components such as milk, soybeans, fish, peanuts, and wheat.
Therefore, labeling is a must to avoid safety issues. Last but not least,
food coating materials and coating process itself increases the cost of
the food product. Hence, alternative methods and materials are ne-
cessary to be used which reduces the final price of the commodity
(Dhall, 2013). This necessitates the importance of further research at
commercial scales so that more realistic information can be used to
commercialize edible coated eggs.
9. Conclusions
Eggs are nutritious food commodity that are consumed all around
the world. However, they are susceptible to quality losses and bacterial
contaminations from different routes. Therefore, it is logical to devise a
strategy to maintain the quality and safety of eggs during storage time.
Various types of edible coating have been used for this purpose. Most of
the developed edible coatings have been used at the lab-scale level.
Further research is needed to present the numerous benefits that edible
coatings may offer to food processors and consumers.
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Food Chemistry 296 (2019) 29–39
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgment
This work did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies
in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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