Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

A review of egg replacement in cake production: Effects on batter and

cake properties
Gamze Nil Yazici *, Mehmet Sertac Ozer
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In recent years, there is a growing demand for and interest in egg replacement, due mainly to health problems
Egg replacement (phenylketonuria, egg allergy) or health-related concerns (cholesterol, avian influenza), dietary preferences
Eggless cake (vegan, vegetarian), and/or religious beliefs of consumers; and also to issues concerning sustainable food supply
Phenylketonuria
and economic factors for producers. In this regard, the food industry is searching for egg alternatives to produce
Egg allergy
Vegetarian
partially or totally egg-replaced, in other words, eggless goods. Therefore, recent studies have focused on using
Aquafaba egg replacers obtained from different sources in bakery products, particularly in cake formulations.
Several research studies have obtained promising results, even though egg proteins play a crucial role in cake
quality, and hence, replacing eggs is a significant challenge. In particular, whey and soy-based proteins are the
most preferred egg replacers. Their utilization, in combination with some other food additives, such as emul­
sifiers and/or hydrocolloids, can imitate egg properties. Furthermore, the cooking water of pulses (called
“aquafaba”), especially chickpea aquafaba has been shown to have great potential for egg replacement. Thus,
using such egg replacers in cake production could represent a practical, sustainable, clean label, and cost-
effective alternative; they are also easy to store and have long shelf-life, compared to fresh eggs.
This review provides information about the reasons for egg replacement, highlights the most commonly used
egg replacers in cake production, and describes their effects on some batter properties (specific gravity, viscosity,
textural properties, rheological properties, and bubble size distribution) and cake quality parameters (moisture
content, baking loss, specific volume, external properties, color, texture, crumb structure, and sensory
properties).

1. Introduction (Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016). Moreover, yellow color originates from

The egg has an important place in the human diet, because of its high
nutritional value, especially in terms of protein content (Mine, 2015).
Therefore, it is known as one of the richest protein sources, like meat,
poultry, fish, and milk (Lomakina & Mikova, 2005). Apart from its high
nutritional value, the main functions of egg in foods are foaming,
coagulating, emulsifying, controlling sugar crystallization, and also
developing color and aroma properties (Baldwin, 1986). The foaming
ability of egg is related to egg white (albumen), and is even accepted as a
reference with regard to foaming capacity (Anton et al., 2009). Addi­
tionally, egg yolk behaves as an emulsifier, because of its lecithin con­
tent, and thus, tenderizes the structure of cake (Palav, 2016). Both egg
white and egg yolk proteins are also responsible for gelling properties
(Anton et al., 2009), and, in particular, egg yolk proteins assist in the
development of cake structure by enhancing crumb cell stability
compositions of egg yolk carotenoids, consisting mainly of carotene and
xanthophylls (Wu, 2014), which also contribute to the characteristic
yellowish color of the various bakery products. Although eggs are
multifunctional and are one of the essential ingredients in cake pro­
duction (Godefroidt et al., 2019; Slade et al., 2021; Wilderjans et al.,
2013), there are several reasons behind the need for egg replacement in
food products. In particular, certain health problems or health concerns
and also some lifestyle choices are the driving forces behind consumers’
purchases of commercial egg replacers (ERs) or eggless (egg-free) food
products. As summarized in Fig. 1, the reasons behind the desire for egg
replacement can be categorized into three main aspects: health, dietary
preferences, and economic factors.
Among the reasons behind egg replacement, phenylketonuria (PKU)
is an amino acid metabolism disorder that, if not treated, may cause
irreversible mental disability (Pimentel et al., 2014). A

* Corresponding author. Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Cukurova University, Saricam, Balcali, 01330, Adana, Turkey.,.
E-mail addresses: gnboran@cu.edu.tr (G.N. Yazici), msozer@cu.edu.tr (M.S. Ozer).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.071
Received 19 October 2020; Received in revised form 24 January 2021; Accepted 26 February 2021
Available online 5 March 2021
0924-2244/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer
phenylalanine-restricted diet still constitutes the mainstay of PKU
treatment (Blau, 2016), which is based on the avoidance of
high-protein-content foods such as meat, seafood, eggs, milk, nuts, and
their products (Soltanizadeh & Mirmoghtadaie, 2014). To date, as far as
we know, no researchers have also mentioned the possibility of using
ERs in food products for patients who suffer from PKU. This may be due
to the fact that ERs are mostly based on animal- and/or plant-origin
protein sources, which may not suitable for PKU patients. In this re­
gard, it might be preferable to use food additives such as hydrocolloids
together with emulsifiers, instead of any animal- or plant-origin protein
sources, as ERs in the development of eggless food products for con­
sumers with PKU, in order to enlarge their range of acceptable food
products.
Another health-related problem is egg allergy, which is one of the
most common immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated food allergies (Saifi
et al., 2016), after cow’s milk allergy in infants and children (Caubet &
Wang, 2011). The major egg allergens are present mainly in egg white
and can trigger symptoms that can bring about life-threatening
anaphylaxis (Zhu et al., 2018).
Concerns about the cholesterol content of eggs still exist, because of
cholesterol’s association with cardiovascular diseases (Elkin, 2017).
Although they were not included in the latest 2015–2020 Dietary
Guidelines for Americans, key recommendations from the 2010 Dietary
Guidelines limited the consumption of dietary cholesterol to 300
mg/day (HHS, 2016), even though fresh raw egg yolk contains 1085 mg
cholesterol per 100g (USDA ARS, 2018). Another concern and fear of
consumers is avian influenza (AI), which is an asymptomatic infection or
disease that gives rise to Influenza virus A, which has resulted in re­
ductions in egg sales internationally (Chmielewski & Swayne, 2011).
Thus, outbreaks of AI have affected not only the consumption but also
the production of eggs, which have caused severe financial problems in
the global poultry industry (Windhorst, 2006).
Different dietary preferences and needs, based on attitudes and
Fig. 1. The reasons behind the need for egg replacement in foods.
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359
religious beliefs, influence consumption and purchase choices that could
lead to the development of new food products and their distribution to
markets (Heiman et al., 2019). Nowadays, many people follow a vege­
tarian diet all over the world. Vegetarians are mainly characterized as
those who do not eat meat, poultry, or fish, and they are subdivided into
lacto-vegetarians, ovo-vegetarians, and vegans. Therefore, a vegetarian
diet can be widely diversified. The common point of the lacto-vegetarian
and vegan diets is the exclusion of eggs (Key et al., 2006). Food selec­
tions by consumers can also be dictated by religion and certain beliefs
that establish dietary rules about permitted and prohibited foods (Hei­
man et al., 2019), as exemplified by principal Hindu regulations and
Jewish dietary laws related to the prohibition of egg consumption
(Meyer-Rochow, 2009). Economic factors associated with egg replace­
ment take into consideration high cost and difficulties in transporting
and storing fresh eggs, based on limited cold-chain distribution (Lin
et al., 2017a) and their short shelf life, which have led producers to
search for egg alternatives.
According to an ‘Egg Replacers Market’ report, the ERs market is
valued at approximately USD 1.4 billion in 2020, and it is predicted to
reach USD 1.6 billion by 2025 (Market Data Forecast, 2019). Conse­
quently, it is evident that demand from consumers and requirements of
food producers for ERs are increasing; thus, the ER market is growing
day by day. However, as far as we know, there is no commonly agreed
categorization of ERs in the literature. Therefore, we suggest that ERs
can be classified into three main groups, as illustrated in Fig. 2: one
based on concentrate and isolate forms of proteins, composed of two
sub-groups that include plant- or animal-origin protein sources; food
additives, namely, hydrocolloids and/or emulsifiers; and other food
materials such as chia, flaxseed, and banana.
Initially, previous researchers investigated the possibility of using
bovine plasma (Johnson et al., 1979; Lee et al., 1991, 1993) as an ER in
cake producing. However, during recent years, many other published
studies have dealt with partial or total replacement of eggs in cakes,
G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359

Fig. 2. Types of egg replacers used in partial or total replacement of egg in cake production. AR: gum arabic; CG: carrageenan; CMC: carboxymethyl cellulose; GG:
guar gum; GMS: glycerol monostearate; HPMC: hydroxypropyl methylcellulose; MDG: mono- and diglycerides; PGE: polyglycerol ester; SMS: sorbitan monostearate;
SSL: sodium stearoyl lactylate; XN: xanthan gum.

using ERs from different sources. In this regard, the most commonly
used ERs in cake producing have been based mainly on whey (Jyotsna
et al., 2007; Tan et al., 2015; Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016); legume,
especially soy (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2015; Matos et al., 2014), lentil
(Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017), pea (Shah et al., 2019), and lupin (Salem &
Hanan, 2012); and combinations of hydrocolloids (e.g., xanthan gum
(XN), guar gum (GG), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose (HPMC), carrageenan (CG), and/or gum Arabic (AR))
with or without emulsifiers (e.g., lecithin, mono- and diglycerides
(MDG), glycerol monostearate (GMS), sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL),
sorbitan monostearate (SMS), or polyglycerol ester (PGE)), as summa­
rized in Table 1. Among these ERs, XN is the most commonly used hy­
drocolloid, as shown in Table 1. Some researchers have evaluated the
possibility of using chia gel (Borneo et al., 2010) or banana
(Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016, 2018) as an ER, while others have
assessed using commercially available ERs in cake production (Geera
et al., 2011; He et al., 2015; Ratnayake et al., 2012). lt has also been
found out that ultrasonically treated squid ovary powder can be used as
a new source of ER in cake production, with no negative effect on sen­
sory properties (Singh et al., 2019). Moreover, an increasing trend in ER
technology involves the potential use of aquafaba, which is a viscous
liquid obtained from the cooking water of, in particular chickpeas
(Bakerpedia, 2020). It was first stated by Loël Roessel in 2014 that
aquafaba can be used as a foaming agent (Révolution végétale, 2014). In
addition to foaming, aquafaba also has emulsifying and thickening
features (Mustafa et al., 2018), which have been attributed to its protein,
carbohydrate, and saponin contents (Stantiall et al., 2018), at appro­
priate pH and NaCl concentration (Buhl et al., 2019). Thus, aquafaba has

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G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359

Table 1
Sources of egg replacers and extent of egg replacement.
Origin Source of Egg Replacer Extent of Reference
Replacement

PULSE SOY SM or combination with SL TR Hedayati and Mazaheri

Tehrani (2018)
SM powder TR Aghrahar-Murugkar et al.
(2016)
SM PR and TR Rahmati and Tehrani (2015)
SM in combination with emulsifiers (DGMS, SMS, lecithin, and their combinations) TR Rahmati and Tehrani (2014)
SPI or combination with either hydrocolloid (XN) or emulsifiers (MDG, SL), and also their mixtures TR Lin et al. (2017b)
The mixture of SPI, XN, and maize starch TR Julianti et al. (2016)
SPI TR Matos et al. (2014)
SPI and emulsifier (GMS) mixture with/without hydrocolloid (XN); enrichment with black carrot TR Singh et al. (2016)
fiber
SPI and emulsifier (GMS) mixture with/without hydrocolloid (XN); enrichment with Jambolan fruit TR Singh et al. (2015)
pulp
SF-FS or combination with emulsifiers (GMS, SSL) TR Abhay Kumar et al. (2017)
SF in combination with GG TR Zeidanloo et al. (2014)
PEA Pea protein (hydrophobically modified) TR Shah et al. (2019)
PPI or combination with either hydrocolloid (XN), or their mixture with emulsifiers (MDG or SL) TR Lin et al. (2017a)
PPI TR Matos et al. (2014)
OTHERS Lupin protein isolate in combination with hydrocolloid (XN) and emulsifier (MDG, SL) mixture TR Arozarena et al. (2001)
Lupin flour or lupin protein isolate PR Salem and Hanan (2012)
Lentil protein concentrate PRa and TRb Jarpa-Parra et al. (2017)
Aquafaba (from chickpea canning) TR Mustafa et al. (2018)
Aquafaba (from chickpea) PR and TR Aslan and Ertaş (2020)
Aquafaba (from lima beans applied different cooking methods) PR and TR Nguyen et al. (2020)
WHEY WPC in combination with skimmed milk powder TR Singh, Singh, Raju, and Rani
(2017)
WPC in combination with skimmed milk powder TR Singh, Singh, Rani, et al.
(2017)
WPC in combination with hydrocolloid (CMC) and emulsifier (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate) TR Puranik and Gupta (2017)
WPC in combination with emulsifiers (PGE, DMG, lecithin, and their combinations) TR Movahhed et al. (2016)
WPC (ultrasonically treated) TR Tan et al. (2015)
WPC in combination with emulsifier mixture (mono and diglycerides, sucrose stearic acid ester, TR Shao et al. (2015)
glycerin fatty acid ester, SSL, D-sorbitol, propylene glycol) with/without hydrocolloids (XN, CMC)
WPC TR Jyotsna et al. (2007)
WPI PR and TR Díaz-Ramírez et al. (2016)
WPI, or combination with/without hydrocolloid (HPMC) and emulsifier (SSL) PR and TR Paraskevopoulou et al. (2015)
WPI, wheat starch or their combinations with hydrocolloids (XN, GG) PR and TR Kohrs et al. (2010)
WPI or combination with hydrocolloids (XN, MC) PR Arunepanlop et al. (1996)
Whey powder TR Mane & Khandekar, 2017
Whey protein, lupin protein, or their combinations with/without SL PR and TR Hussain and Al-Oulabi (2009)
HYDROCOLLOIDS Hydrocolloids (AR, GG, XN, CG, HPMC) or combination with emulsifiers (GMS, SSL) TR Ashwini et al. (2009)
OTHERS Mixture of banana (over-ripe) and yoghurt TR Agrahar-Murugkar et al.
(2018)
Banana, chia TR Agrahar-Murugkar et al.
(2016)
Chia gel TR Gallo et al. (2020)
Chia gel PR Borneo et al. (2010)
Casein, vital wheat gluten TR Matos et al. (2014)
Squid ovary powder (ultrasonically treated) PR and TR Singh et al. (2019)
COMMERCIAL Commercial egg replacer* PR He et al. (2015)
Mixture of SF, wheat gluten, corn syrup solids, and algin or sodium alginate PR Geera et al., 2011; Ratnayake
Mixture of sugar cane fiber and hydrocolloids (XN and GG) et al., 2012
WPC

*of unspecified composition; a: for angel cake; b: for muffin.

AR: gum arabic; CG: carrageenan; CMC: carboxymethyl cellulose; DGMS: distilled glycerol monostearate; FS: flaxseed; GG: guar gum; GMS: glycerol monostearate;
HPMC: hydroxypropyl methylcellulose; MC: methylcellulose; MDG: mono- and diglycerides; PGE: polyglycerol ester; PPI: pea protein isolate; PR: Partial replacement
of egg; SF: soy flour; SL: soy lecithin; SM: soy milk; SMS: sorbitan monostearate; SPI: soy protein isolate; SSL: sodium stearoyl lactylate; TR: Total replacement of egg;
WPC: whey protein concentrate; WPI: whey protein isolate; XN: xanthan gum.

gained a reputation for having gone from food waste material to
value-added product (Mustafa & Reaney, 2020). In this regard, it has
been suggested that aquafaba could represent an inexpensive and
accessible ER for several food products, such as ice cream and mayon­
naise, and also for bakery products, in the future (He et al., 2017). Even
though aquafaba has already been categorized as a functional ingredient
for bakery products (Birch & Bonwick, 2019), it has been used by only a
few researchers for cake production, up to now (Aslan & Ertaş, 2020;
Mustafa et al., 2018; Nguyen et al., 2020). Using different pulses as
potential sources of aquafaba for cake production is also something
worthy of future investigation. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge,
there are no studies reported in the literature to date involving
gluten-free cake production using aquafaba as an ER. Therefore, future
studies on this subject would be worthwhile.
This review aims to briefly describe the reasons behind the need for
egg replacement in food production, discuss the most commonly used
ERs that have the potential to imitate the functional properties of egg in
cake production, and examine the impact of partial or total egg
replacement, in terms of cake batter and cake product properties.
2. Effects of egg replacement on eggless and partially egg-
replaced cake batter properties
The effects of a number of ERs on some cake batter properties and

349
G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer
cake quality parameters are summarized in Table 2.
2.1. Specific gravity
Specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of the weight of a specified volume
of batter to the weight of the same volume of water, which correlates
with the amount of air incorporated during the batter mixing process.
Thus, the optimum SG of a batter plays a crucial role in obtaining the
desired volume and texture of a cake (Palav, 2016). In this regard, it has
been emphasized in many egg-replaced cake studies that lower SG is
desired, signifying greater air incorporation into the cake batter (Abhay
Kumar et al., 2017; Ashwini et al., 2009; Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014; Shao
et al., 2015; Turabi et al., 2008).
Egg-replaced cake batters generally show a tendency toward higher
SG values than those for corresponding control samples made with eggs
(Abhay Kumar et al., 2017; Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016, 2018; Ash­
wini et al., 2009), because egg proteins play a role in facilitating the
incorporation of a large amount of entrapped air, resulting in more fluffy
and foamy batters, in comparison to egg-replaced batters (Agra­
har-Murugkar et al., 2018). In this regard, the effects of different added
hydrocolloids, such as AR, GG, XN, CG, or HPMC, on the SG values in for
eggless cake batters have been evaluated. The SG values for the eggless
cake batters were highest for samples made with, CG, and lowest for
those made with AR (Ashwini et al., 2009). A similar tendency was
observed for egg-replaced angel food cake batters made with increasing
amounts of lentil protein, but this tendency was not significantly (p >
0.05) observed for eggless muffin batter samples (Jarpa-Parra et al.,
2017). In contrast, the SG values for eggless cake batters decreased in the
presence of added whey protein concentrate (WPC) as an ER, due to the
foaming ability of WPC (Jyotsna et al., 2007). Additionally, it has also
been determined that using emulsifiers together with ERs generally
decreased the SG values of such eggless cake batters, in comparison to
those batters in which the same ERs were used without added emulsi­
fiers (Abhay Kumar et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2017a, 2017b). This finding
was attributed to the ability of emulsifiers to decrease the surface ten­
sion between liquid and gas phases, resulting in facilitated incorporation
of air into the batter (Sahi & Alava, 2003). The use of emulsifiers such as
MDG or soy lecithin (SL) led to decreased SG, in comparison to corre­
sponding batters made with pea protein isolate (PPI) alone or in com­
bination with XN. However, the observed decrease in SG was
independent of emulsifier type, such that the batters had similar SG
values in the presence of MDG or SL (Lin et al., 2017a). Similarly, eggless
cake batters made with soy protein isolate (SPI) and emulsifiers such as
SSL or MDG had the same SG values. Furthermore, the use of a
protein-emulsifier combination, together with or without XN, generally
resulted in significantly (p < 0.05) decreased SG values, compared to
both the control egg-containing sample and an eggless cake batter made
wtih SPI but no other any food additives (Lin et al., 2017b). Similarly,
the use of a soy flour and flaxseed blend (SF-FS), along with emulsifiers
such as SSL or GMS, led to reduced SG, in comparison to corresponding
eggless cake batters without emulsifiers. For these batter samples, the
decrease in SG was more significant in those with added GMS (Abhay
Kumar et al., 2017).
2.2. Viscosity
Determination of cake batter viscosity is essential, because it is
related to other batter properties, namely, specific gravity and bubble
distribution (Shao et al., 2015). Thus, batter viscosity indirectly affects
end-product quality, especially with regard to cake volume and texture
parameters, due to its influence on the expansion and stability of air
bubbles in the batter throughout baking (Shao et al., 2015). Addition­
ally, due to their high viscosity, eggless cakes lack a crack-like pattern,
which otherwise results from diffusion pathways of convection (Lin
et al., 2017a).
The addition of hydrocolloid gums has been found to increase batter
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359
viscosity, resulting in the avoidance of structural collapse of eggless
cakes, and this effect was greater in formulated with XN rather than
CMC (Shao et al., 2015). Additionally, a negative relationship between
batter viscosity and the protein content of the wheat flour used has been
reported (Shao et al., 2015). Furthermore, although there were no sta­
tistically significant (p > 0.05) differences found between viscosity
values for a control group of batters and those partially egg-replaced by
whey protein isolate (WPI) at low percentages (12.5, 25%), a progres­
sive trend of decreasing batter viscosity began above 12.5% WPI sub­
stitution, and thus, the lowest viscosity values was observed for 100%
egg-replaced cakes (Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016).
It has been determined that the use of emulsifiers in combination
with ERs generally resulted in decreasing batter viscosity, as well as SG,
values although those values were still significantly higher than for the
control batter (Lin et al., 2017b). Those viscosity values, for eggless cake
batters formulated with SPI or PPI, were measured using a rapid visco
analyzer (RVA) (Lin et al., 2017a, 2017b). According to those results, the
viscosity values for the eggless batters were significantly higher (p <
0.05) than that for the egg-containing control (Lin et al., 2017a, 2017b).
Whereas the combination of SPI or PPI with XN led to further increased
batter viscosity, due to the high water-binding capacity of the hydro­
colloid gum, the use of emulsifiers (MDG or SL) in combination with SPI
or PPI resulted in decreased batter viscosity, especially for SL (Lin et al.,
2017a, 2017b). It was reported that the liquid form of SL produced more
fluid batter, apart from SL’s aeration capacity arising from its emulsifier
properties (Lin et al., 2017a). The influence of the use of different hy­
drocolloid gums (AR, XN, GG, CG, and HPMC), and also in combination
with emulsifiers (GMS or SSL), on batter viscosity was evaluated using a
viscometer (Ashwini et al., 2009). The addition of each hydrocolloid,
without emulsifier, led to increased viscosity, compared to that of the
control batter (Ashwini et al., 2009). Among these samples, the
XN-added batters showed the highest viscosity, even in the presence of
either emulsifier or in their absence, owing to XN’s rod-like conforma­
tion, which, in contrast to a coil conformation, makes XN more
responsive to shear during batter mixing (Ashwini et al., 2009). More­
over, the viscosity values for all the eggless, hydrocolloid-containing
(except for HPMC) cake batters were much higher in the presence of
GMS rather than in the presence of SSL (Ashwini et al., 2009). However,
the viscosity values for the eggless batters made with AR, CG, and
HPMC, plus added SSL, were all lower than that for the egg-based
control batter (Ashwini et al., 2009).
Batter viscosity measurements on eggless or partially egg-replaced
cake batters have also been carried out using a method, adapted from
the use of a Bostwick consistometer, based on the distance of batter flow
(Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014, 2015). Viscosity values were found to be
increased, when soy milk (SM) was used in place of egg, and the highest
viscosity values were obtained when egg was totally replaced, due to the
thickness and high viscosity of SM, resulting from its higher
water-absorption capacity, compared to that of egg (Rahmati & Tehrani,
2015). However, the effect of added emulsifier, such as lecithin, SMS, or
DGMS (distilled glycerol monostearate), on the viscosity of eggless
batter made with SM led to different results. I.e., the lowest batter vis­
cosity was obtained with added lecithin, while the highest viscosity was
obtained with added SMS in the batter formulation, due to SMS’s high
HLB value (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014).
2.3. Textural properties
Textural properties of egg-replaced cake batters have generally been
assessed by extrusion tests, using a texture analyzer equipped with an
extrusion cell. However, as with rheological properties, there have been
only limited studies on textural properties (e.g., index of viscosity,
firmness, cohesiveness, consistency) of egg-replaced cake batters
(Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016, 2018; Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani,
2018). Neverthless, a close link between batter textural properties and
the final quality of cake products has been reported (Agrahar-Murugkar
G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359

Table 2
Impact of some egg replacers on batter and cake properties.
Egg Replacer Batter Properties Cake Properties Reference
Type
↓ ↑ ↔ ↓ ↑ ↔

PPI Specific gravity Moisture Firmness Color: b* Lin et al. (2017a)

Initial viscosity Specific volume Color: a*
Springiness
Color: L*
SPI Specific gravity Moisture Firmness Sensory: overall Lin et al. (2017b)
Initial viscosity Specific volume Color: a* appearance
Springiness
Color: b*
Sensory: overall aroma
SM n Density Height Density Hedayati and
Batter texture Apparent Volume Texture (crumb): Mazaheri Tehrani
(consistency, viscosityx Color: L, a, b (crust) hardness, (2018)
cohesiveness) K cohesiveness,
Number of air Batter texture springiness, chewiness
bubblesx (firmness, index Sensory: taste, color,
Size of air of viscosity) texture, overall
bubblesx acceptability)
Lentil protein n (angel cake, K (angel cake, Specific Baking loss (angel cake, Number of air cells per Height (angel cake, Jarpa-Parra et al.
concentrate muffin) muffin) gravity muffin) mm2 (angel cake, muffin) (2017)
Specific gravity (muffin) Mean area of air cells muffin) Moisture (muffin)
(angel cake) (muffin) Color: L* (angel cake,
muffin)
Mean area of air cells
(angel cake)
WPC Specific gravity Firmness (crumb) Specific volume Jyotsna et al. (2007)
Apparent Sensory attributesy
viscosityx
Chia Volume (except for 25% Symmetry (except for Borneo et al. (2010)
replacement) 75% replacement)
Central height (except Baking lossz
for 25% replacement)
Sensory: acceptability,
taste, color, texture
(except for 25%
replacement)
Banana Baking lossx Specific gravity Volume Moisture a* (crumb) Texture properties: Agrahar-Murugkar
Volume index cohesiveness, et al. (2016)
L* (crust, crumb) b* springiness, chewiness
(crust) b* (crumb)
Hydrocolloid Viscosity Volume (CG, GG) Moisture (XN, GG, CG, Volume (AR, XN) Ashwini et al. (2009)
Specific gravity Crumb firmness HPMC) Crumb firmness (AR)
(HPMC) Volume (HPMC) Sensory: overall
Sensory: overall quality Crumb firmness (XN, quality (AR, XN)
(CG, GG) CG, GG)
Sensory: overall
quality (HPMC)

↓ indicates increment is statistically different; ↑ indicates decrease is statistically different.; ↔ indicates increment or decrease is not statistically different; X: not
statistically defined; Y: Sensory attributes are given as total score regarding crumb cell uniformity, cell size, cell wall, grain, moistness, tenderness, softness, crumb
color, and flavor; Z: deduced from the ‘weight’ parameter.
AR: gum arabic; CG: carrageenan; CMC: carboxymethyl cellulose; GG: guar gum; HPMC: hydroxypropyl methylcellulose; K: consistency index; MC: methylcellulose; n:
flow-behavior index; XN: xanthan gum.

et al., 2018).
According to results obtained from force-time curves, a control cake
batter made with fresh egg had the lowest firmness value and the highest
consistency value, compared to those for eggless cakes (Hedayati &
Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018). Moreover, the addition of SL made no sig­
nificant difference (p > 0.05) in the consistency of eggless cakes made
with SM (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018). In another study
(Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016), all the textural attribute values (i.e.,
firmness, cohesiveness, consistency, index of viscosity) of an eggless
cake batter made with chia as the ER were significantly (p < 0.05)
higher than those for other eggless batters made with ERs such as ba­
nana or soy milk powder (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016). Moreover,
the textural property values for the eggless cake batters made with chia
or soy milk powder were much higher than those for the control group of
batters, made with egg white and egg yolk, and with either refined
wheat flour or a gluten-free, composite flour (i.e., a mixture of finger
millet, sprouted soy, and sprouted amaranth) (Agrahar-Murugkar et al.,
2016). However, similar textural properties were determined for the
control batters and the egg-replaced batter made with banana (Agra­
har-Murugkar et al., 2016). Similarly, no statistical differences in
textural properties were found between the control batter made with
refined wheat flour and egg and a gluten-free, eggless cake batter made
with banana as the ER, together with yogurt (Agrahar-Murugkar et al.,
2018). This result was attributed to the high affinity of banana for water
and oil, as well as to that eggless batter’s moisture retention ability,
provided by the sprouted flours (soybean and amaranth) (Agra­
har-Murugkar et al., 2018).
2.4. Rheological properties
The determination of the rheological properties of cake batters is
important, because, like batter viscosity, batter rheology has an impact
on the end-product quality attributes of cakes, such as volume and
texture (Sakiyan et al., 2004). However, there have been only limited

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G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer
studies that have assessed the flow and viscoelastic properties of
egg-replaced cake batters.
To evaluate batter flow behavior, steady-shear properties (e.g., shear
rate-shear stress and shear rate-apparent viscosity) have been measured
in egg-replaced cake batters and fitted to different rheological models,
such as Casson, Herschel Bulkley (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016, 2018),
power-law (Tan et al., 2015), and the Ostwald–de Waele model based on
the power-law equation (Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017). In terms of batter
flow behavior, shear-thinning has been observed for different ER levels
of WPC (Jyotsna et al., 2007), for ultrasonically treated WPC (Tan et al.,
2015), lentil proteins (Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017), SM with/without leci­
thin (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018), and banana, chia, and SM
(Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016).
Consistency index (K) values increased, while flow-behavior index
(n) values decreased, with the increasing concentration of lentil protein
in eggless muffins, indicating a more entangled lentil protein structure at
higher protein concentrations (Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017). Similarly,
increasing WPC concentration also led to increased K values, suggesting
an air retainment capacity (Tan et al., 2015). Additionally, the ultra­
sound treatment of WPC resulted in a further increase in K values,
particularly for maximum amplitude and sonication time, but n values
decreased with ultrasound treatment of WPC at 15% and 20% concen­
trations (Tan et al., 2015). These effects were explained in terms of
WPC’s altered water-binding capacity, due to the protein’s structure and
conformation having been changed by the ultrasound treatment (Tan
et al., 2015). However, no significant differences were found, with re­
gard to n and K values, among the control group of batters (made with
refined wheat flour or a composite flour and egg) and an eggless batter
made with a composite flour (a mixture of wheat, malted finger millet,
sprouted soy, and amaranth) and banana as the ER (Agrahar-Murugkar
et al., 2016). Similarly, no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05)
were found in the K and n values for a gluten-free, eggless batter made
with banana as the ER, in combination with yoghurt, and a control cake
batter sample made with refined wheat flour and egg (Agrahar-Mur­
ugkar et al., 2018).
The storage modulus (G′ ) and loss modulus (G′′ ), which represent the
elastic (solid) and viscous (liquid) behaviors of batters, respectively, and
the loss tangent (tan δ), calculated from the ratio of G′′ over G′ values
(Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2018), have been assessed for use to evaluate
the viscoelastic behavior of egg-replaced cake batters. According to re­
ported results, G′ values were higher than G′′ , which was characteristic
of a soft gel in egg-replaced cake batters made with SPI, PPI, or casein
(Matos et al., 2014), banana, chia, or SM powder (Agrahar-Murugkar
et al., 2016), and a banana and yoghurt combination (Agrahar-Mur­
ugkar et al., 2018). The corresponding tan δ values were less than 1,
indicating the predominance of elastic behavior over viscous behavior
(Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2018). Control samples, made with egg, also
showed low tan δ values, representing more elastic, solid-like behavior
(Tan et al., 2015). Also, it was noted that the higher G′ values observed
associated with better air-holding capacity and stability of the air bub­
bles in such low-density aerated batter systems (Tan et al., 2015).
G′ and G′′ values were lower at lower angular frequencies, for control
egg-containing batters and egg-replaced cake batters, made with the
combination of banana and yoghurt (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2018).
Additionally, G′ and G′′ values were higher at lower angular frequencies
for egg-replaced batters, made with chia seed, compared to that for two
control batters, made with egg and a refined wheat flour or a composite
flour (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016). In another study (Matos et al.,
2014), using plant-based protein sources such as vital wheat gluten, but
especially leguminous proteins such as PPI and SPI, increased G′ and G′′
values correlated with a hardening effect on eggless batter structure. The
impact of temperature on batter viscoelastic properties has also been
assessed (Matos et al., 2014). The thermal profiles of G′ values for
eggless batters made with PPI showed different upward and downward
stages with increasing temperature (Matos et al., 2014). This behavior
was explained in terms of distinct protein fractions of PPI (Matos et al.,
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359
2014). However, a progressive increase in the G′ storage modulus with
increasing temperature, which indicated the formation of a more rigid
structural network, was observed for eggless batters made with SPI.
Moreover, the tan δ values for those SPI-containing batters were con­
stant up to about 80 ◦ C, where a decrease was observed, indicating
greater viscoelasticity (Matos et al., 2014). In contrast, the tan δ values
for the eggless batters made with vital wheat gluten showed a gradual
decrease with increasing temperature (Matos et al., 2014). Additionally,
total replacement of egg white protein (EWP) in a batter was achieved
with WPC ultrasonically treated at three different amplitude ratios (20,
40, or 60%) and sonication times (5, 15, or 25 min) (Tan et al., 2015).
The highest G′ and G′′ values were attained with the highest amplitudes
and longest times of sonication (Tan et al., 2015). These results were
explained in terms of the altering effect that sonication caused on the
structural properties of such proteins, which gave rise to physical
changes in these eggless batters (Tan et al., 2015).
2.5. Bubble size distribution
The size and number of air bubbles, incorporated in a cake batter- via
a batter-mixing process, influence the volume and structure of the baked
cake, because the incorporated air bubbles also help to hold the CO2 gas
produced by the activity of chemical leavening agents during baking
(Abhay Kumar et al., 2017). Buoyant and extremely large air bubbles are
prone to rise out of a batter, which can lead to coarse-grained cake
structure and lower cake volume. (Abhay Kumar et al., 2017). In
contrast, individual small-sized bubbles in a batter can lead to better
cake crumb structure and higher cake volumes (Abhay Kumar et al.,
2017). It has been reported that the use of emulsifiers can enhance air
bubble stability by helping to entrap small bubbles in a batter
(Movahhed et al., 2016). Nevertheless, only a few studies have exam­
ined the number, size, and distribution of air bubbles in egg-replaced
cake batters, and those studies have generally been focused on the ef­
fects of emulsifiers (Abhay Kumar et al., 2017; Hedayati & Mazaheri
Tehrani, 2018; Movahhed et al., 2016).
The effects of three different emulsifiers (PGE, distilled mono­
glyceride (DMG), and lecithin), in the presence of WPC as the ER, on the
structure of an eggless cake batter were evaluated (Movahhed et al.,
2016). According to photomicrographs shown, although the size and
distribution of the air bubbles in the batter were uniform, the number of
air bubbles was lower in the batter made with lecithin, compared to
corresponding eggless batters made any of the other emulsifiers
(Movahhed et al., 2016). Moreover, the numbers of total and small-sized
air bubbles were higher in batter samples made with PGE than in those
made with DMG (Movahhed et al., 2016). In another study (Abhay
Kumar et al., 2017), an eggless cake batter made with SF-FS and no
added emulsifier had more air bubbles than an eggless batter, made
without both SF-FS and emulsifiers (e.g., GMS and SSL). Also, the use of
GMS in combination with SF-FS resulted in a relatively larger amount of
small-sized air bubbles, compared to the use of the same concentration
of SSL (Abhay Kumar et al., 2017). While a control batter made with egg
showed the largest amount and size of air bubbles, the formation of air
bubbles having larger size was also increased in an eggless batter made
with SM as the ER and added SL (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018).
3. Effects of egg replacement on eggless and partially egg-
replaced cake product properties
3.1. Moisture content
The final moisture contents of egg-replaced cakes have been found to
vary over a wide range in various reported studies (Arunepanlop et al.,
1996; Ashwini et al., 2009; Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016; Lin et al., 2017a,
2017b; Movahhed et al., 2016; Mustafa et al., 2018; Singh, Singh, Raju,
& Rani, 2017). Such variability may depend on several factors (Cauvain
& Young, 2008), such as ER types and usage levels, other functional
G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer
ingredients and their interactions in a cake formulation (Godefroidt
et al., 2019; Slade et al., 2021; Wilderjans et al., 2013), batter weight,
and baking parameters (temperature, time, etc.).
When EWP was replaced with WPI at four different percentages
(12.5, 25, 50 and 100%), no significant (p > 0.05) differences were
found in the moisture contents of the center parts of the baked cakes,
including the 100%-EWP control sample, which had a moisture content
of about 39% (Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016). The moisture contents of
cakes made with WPI partially replacing egg and baked in a conven­
tional oven were found to be significantly higher than for those cakes
baked in a dual microwave/conventional oven (Arunepanlop et al.,
1996). In comparison, the moisture contents of eggless cakes, formu­
lated with WPC as the ER in combination with skim milk powder, were
found to be as low as approximately 16.5% (Singh, Singh, Raju, & Rani,
2017). The use of emulsifiers such as lecithin and DMG, in combination
with WPC as the ER, also led to decreased cake moisture content, despite
the increased water-holding capacity typically promoted by those
emulsifiers (Movahhed et al., 2016). This apparently paradoxical
behavior was rationalized in terms of increasing cake volume and the
formation of a spongy cake structure in the presence of the emulsifiers,
which actually resulted in increased water loss throughout the baking
process (Movahhed et al., 2016).
The moisture contents of cakes, made with, egg white were found to
be slightly higher than that for egg-replaced cakes produced with
aquafaba, obtained from chickpea, as the ER (Mustafa et al., 2018).
Control yellow cakes were found to have higher moisture contents (of
nearly 29%) than corresponding eggless cakes, formulated with, SPI as
the ER, either alone or in combination with additives such as XN and/or
emulsifiers such as MDG or SL (Lin et al., 2017b). Similar results were
obtained in another study, in which PPI rather than SPI was used as the
ER, and this outcome was credited to the insufficient moisture-retention
capability of the eggless cake formulations (Lin et al., 2017a). In
contrast, the moisture contents of eggless cakes, formulated with hy­
drocolloid gum (such as AR, GG, XN, HPMC, or CG) as the ER, either
alone or combined with an emulsifier (i.e., GMS or SSL), were found to
be higher than that for a corresponding control sample, with the
exception of the cake containing AR as the ER alone or in combination
with SSL (Ashwini et al., 2009). This result was explained in terms of the
high hydration capacity of such hydrocolloid gums at ambient temper­
ature, and their self-interactions with the water available in the cake
system, without competing for that water with the gluten protein and
starchy polysaccharides in the wheat flour (Ashwini et al., 2009).
Among those eggless cakes, the highest moisture content was observed
for the one containing HPMC as the ER alone or in combination with
SSL; this finding can be associated with high gas cell stability, interfacial
film formation in the presence of HPMC (Ashwini et al., 2009).
3.2. Baking loss
Baking loss (BL), also referred to as cooking loss or weight loss, has
been defined as the loss of weight due to the removal of moisture and
other volatiles during baking (Geera et al., 2011). It is noted that very
high and very low BL values would typically result in extremely dry and
extremely moist cakes, respectively (Geera et al., 2011). Therefore, both
of those situations would adversely affect the quality of the final product
(Geera et al., 2011). In addition to the aspect of regulatory requirements
(Geera et al., 2011), the impact of BL on the freshness of bakery products
(Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017) makes BL an essential processing parameter
for the production of egg-replaced cakes. Also, economic factors may
become unfavorable, when BL values are too high, by increasing the cost
of production, due to losses in end-product weight (Ratnayake et al.,
2012).
The enrichment of muffins with different kinds of animal- and plant-
based proteins as ERs did not result in a significant difference in BL
values, with the exception of casein, which led to the lowest BL values,
credited to casein’s high water-holding capacity (Matos et al., 2014).
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359
Similarly, no statistically significant differences were found between BL
values for partially egg-replaced cakes (12.5, 25, and 50% replacement),
with BL values that ranged between 15.6 and 16.4%, and for control
cakes (with BL = 15.4%) (Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016). However, BL
values were higher for totally egg-replaced samples (19.4%), compared
to that for the control group of cakes (Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016).
Similarly, BL values of about 15% were also determined for eggless
cakes made with either a gluten-free composite flour or a
wheat-containing composite flour, and with a banana and yoghurt
combination as the ER (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2018). Another study
(Shao et al., 2015) reported that, BL values were affected adversely by
the protein content of the wheat flour used in a cake formula. Wheat
flours with higher protein contents (i.e., bread flours) yielded the lowest
BL values for eggless cakes, particularly those made with XN as the ER.
In contrast, the highest BL values were found for the eggless cakes made
with cake flour (lowest protein content) and with CMC as the ER (Shao
et al., 2015). However, use of chickpea aquafaba as the ER was reported
to not result in significant difference in BL values for a control sample
and partially or totally egg-replaced cakes (Aslan & Ertaş, 2020).
3.3. Specific volume
Cake volume is related to stabilization by proteins, which form a
strong thermal gel that ensures cake structure during baking (Godefroidt
et al., 2019; Slade et al., 2021; Wilderjans et al., 2013). Thus, high cake
volume generally requires good gel forming in the presence, especially,
of egg proteins. Therefore, it has been expected that egg-replaced cakes
would be deficient in this gel-forming property (Lin et al., 2017b).
Egg-replaced cake volume is generally measured by a seed displacement
method, and specific volume (SV) is calculated by dividing the volume
of the final product by its weight (AACC, 2001).
Previous studies have reported that batter properties, mainly SG and
viscosity, have an impact on cake volume (Lin et al., 2017b). Batter SG is
generally associated with the amount of air incorporated in the batter
during mixing, while batter viscosity contributes to gas cell stability
(Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016), which reflects the batter’s capacity for air
retainment during baking (Palav, 2016). Thus, it has been reported that
lower batter SG leads to higher volume of the baked cake (Agra­
har-Murugkar et al., 2018). It has also been reported that higher batter
viscosity, due to the addition of hydrocolloid gums to an eggless cake
formulation, could decelerate the rate of gas diffusion, thus allowing gas
retention during the early stages of baking (Ashwini et al., 2009).
However, if the viscosity of the batter is too high, it may impede aeration
during mixing (Lin et al., 2017a) and restrict the expansion of air bub­
bles during baking (Sahi & Alava, 2003), thus resulting in small baked
cakes. Conversely, a lower viscosity batter might not be capable of
trapping CO2 and water vapor in the air cells during baking, thus
resulting in low cake volume (Ashwini et al., 2009), due to structural
collapse during baking (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014).
Use of SPI alone as the ER led to decreased SV values for eggless
yellow cakes, compared to the SV of the control cake made with egg (Lin
et al., 2017b). This result was interpreted in terms of SPI having limited
foam stability and gelling properties (Lin et al., 2017b). However, the
addition of emulsifiers such as MDG or SL to those eggless cake formu­
lations led to SG and SV values comparable to those for the control cake
(Lin et al., 2017b). It was speculated that the use of such emulsifiers led
to decreased batter viscosity, as well as retarded wheat flour starch
gelatinization during baking, thus facilitating increased expansion of the
cake batter during baking, which in turn resulted in increased cake
volume (Lin et al., 2017b). Thus, the use of SPI as the ER in combination
with MDG or SL resulted in increased SV values (Lin et al., 2017b), such
that no significant differences (p > 0.05) in SV values were found be­
tween control cakes and eggless cakes made with, an ER combination of
SPI, XN, and MDG (Lin et al., 2017b). Similarly, SV values for eggless
cakes made with PPI as the ER in combination with emulsifiers, such as
SL or MDG, were found to be increased, which was attributed to
G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer
decreased SG values, although the SV values of these eggless cakes made
with both PPI and emulsifiers were still lower than control cake, made
with egg (Lin et al., 2017a). Moreover, it has been noted (Rahmati &
Tehrani, 2014) that the HLB values of emulsifiers are also important in
affecting egg-replaced cake quality, because emulsifiers with higher HLB
values are said to be able to hold more water (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014)
and thereby increase batter viscosity, which in turn restricts water
vaporization and the expansion of cake volume prior to cake structure
setting, thus resulting in more water retention during baking. In one
reported study, SM, was used as the ER in combination with three
different emulsifiers (DGMS, SMS, or lecithin), and the lowest SV values
were determined for eggless cakes made with SMS, which had the
highest HLB value among the emulsifiers (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014).
3.4. External structural properties of cakes
Volume index (VI), symmetry index (SI), and uniformity index (UI)
are parameters used to describe the external structural properties of cake
samples, based on a standardized cake measuring template (AACC,
1999). However, there have been few studies (Agrahar-Murugkar et al.,
2016, 2018; Arozarena et al., 2001; Arunepanlop et al., 1996; Aslan &
Ertaş, 2020; Borneo et al., 2010; Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018;
Matos et al., 2014; Mustafa et al., 2018; Puranik & Gupta, 2017; Rahmati
& Tehrani, 2014, 2015) examining the effects of ERs on these external
structural properties or on cake height and shrinkage values.
VI values are associated with the amount of entrapped air in a cake
structure (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014). Thus, low VI values typically
correlate with heavy end products with less desirable structural char­
acteristics, although high VI values may not necessarily always be
compatible with desired cake qualities (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014). In
general, control cakes made with egg have been reported to manifest
higher VI values than those for egg-replaced cakes made with the banana
as the ER (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016, 2018). This result has been
explained in terms of the superior foaming, coagulating, leavening, and
water vaporization-facilitating characteristics of egg proteins (Agra­
har-Murugkar et al., 2016, 2018).
Three different ERs (banana, chia, or SM powder) were used indi­
vidually in cake making (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016). The VI values
for all those egg-replaced cakes were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than
the corresponding VI values for two different control groups of cakes,
made with a combination of egg and a refined wheat flour or a com­
posite flour (i.e., a mixture of whole wheat, malted finger millet,
sprouted soy, and sprouted amaranth). Although no statistically signif­
icant differences were found (p > 0.05), the lowest VI value was
observed for the eggless cake made with SM powder, whereas the cake
made with banana had the highest VI (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016).
Similarly, the VI values for angel food cakes, in which EWP was partially
replaced (at a 25 or 50% replacement level) by WPI alone as the ER, or
combined with a different hydrocolloid gum (XN or HPMC), and the
cakes were baked in a conventional oven, were lower than the VI value
for the control cake made with 100% EWP (Arunepanlop et al., 1996).
Furthermore, decreased VI values were determined to result from the
increase in egg replacement percentage from 25 to 50% (Arunepanlop
et al., 1996). Similarly, VI values decreased with increasing levels of
chickpea aquafaba used as the ER, but there was no significant differ­
ence found in the VI values for a control cake and a sample cake with
25% replacement of egg by chickpea aquafaba (Aslan & Ertaş, 2020).
However, it has also been reported that the VI values for control cakes
made with egg white were slightly higher than those for totally
egg-replaced cakes made with, chickpea aquafaba as the ER (Mustafa
et al., 2018).
Replacement of egg by SM at different levels (25, 50, 75, and 100%
replacement) did not result in significant differences (p > 0.05) in the SI
or UI values for the egg-replaced and eggless cakes (Rahmati & Tehrani,
2015). Moreover, an admixture of different emulsifiers, such as SMS,
DGMS, or lecithin, with SM as the ER also did not lead to significant
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359
differences in the SI and UI values for the resulting eggless cakes
(Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014).
Shrinkage value has been expressed as the reduction in the diameter
a cake batter, from before to after baking (Dizlek et al., 2008). Arozarena
et al. (2001) reported that shrinkage value could be a useful variable for
evaluating the shrinkage of cakes, when it is defined as the ratio of
central height to peripheral height (Slade et al., 2021). This parameter
should be equal to or greater than 1, indicating that no significant
structural collapse occurred during baking and/or cooling, whereas
values less than 1 would indicate that the cake structure collapsed to a
significant extent during baking and/or cooling (Slade et al., 2021). In
the study reported by Arozarena et al. (2001), use of XN in combination
with lupin protein as the ER led to decreased shrinkage value, due to a
positive influence on cake height, but maximum cake diameter was
adversely affected, which reflected XN’s thickening effect.
Hedayati and Mazaheri Tehrani (2018) reported an gradually in­
crease in cake height values with increasing emulsifier concentration, up
to 4% SL, because of SL’s positive impact on foam formation in eggless
cakes made with SM as the ER, although those height values were lower
than that for the control cake. High concentrations of SL were reported
to not so much as influence cake height values, and this effect was
explained in terms of the high density and viscosity of the batter, which
restricted cake expansion during baking (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani,
2018). The heights of egg-replaced cakes, made with, aquafaba as the
ER, were found to be slightly lower than that for control cakes made
with egg white. Even though aquafaba has heat-stable proteins, which
can manifest delayed denaturation and coagulation, this reported lower
cake height was attributed to the collapse of the cake’s internal foam
structure, before attaining the necessary temperature for protein dena­
turation during baking (Mustafa et al., 2018).
Height values for cakes partially egg-replaced by chia gel were re­
ported to be decreased, for formulations with above a 25% egg
replacement level (Borneo et al., 2010). In comparison, cake height
values were found to increase with increasing concentrations (from 5%
to 7% but constant at 9%) of WPC as the ER (Puranik & Gupta, 2017). In
another study, eggless cakes formulated with added vital wheat gluten
had the highest height values, after which EWP-enriched cakes, while
cakes made with SPI as the ER had the lowest height values, which were
also lower than the heights of the control cakes made without any added
protein sources (Matos et al., 2014).
3.5. Cake color
Color is an important cake quality parameter to consumers (Slade
et al., 2021). Color formation (also referred to as ‘browning’), during the
baking of sweet baked goods such as cakes and cookies, is a consequence
of non-enzymatic chemical reactions, including Maillard browning and
caramelization, which affect not only color, but also flavor, aroma, and
nutritional aspects, and which are influenced by the functional in­
gredients in product formulations, product specifications, and process­
ing conditions such as baking time and temperature (Godefroidt et al.,
2019; Slade et al., 2021; Wilderjans et al., 2013). Thus, in addition to all
of the explicitly mentioned factors above, formula pH and ingredient
water level also play a role in color-forming reactions (Purlis, 2010).
However, as far as we know, no studies published to date have dealt, for
example, with the relationship between batter pH, and the so-called
“water activity” (Aw) (Slade & Levine, 1991) of egg-replaced cakes.
According to reported color analysis results, cake crumb color,
described in terms of L*, b* and a* values, was not affected by replacing
egg white with chickpea aquafaba (Mustafa et al., 2018). Nevertheless,
a* values for the cake crust were higher (indicating redder color) in
eggless cakes made with aquafaba as the ER, in comparison to control
cakes made with egg white, due to the contents of simple sugars and
polysaccharides in aquafaba, which contribute to caramelization and
Maillard reactions (Mustafa et al., 2018). In another reported study
(Ratnayake et al., 2012), no statistically significant differences (p >
G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer
0.05) were found for the L* and a* values for the crusts of egg-replaced
yellow cakes made with different commercial ERs based on soy/wheat,
WPC, or hydrocolloid gum/fiber (XN or GG in combination with sugar
cane fiber) and of two different control cakes made with either dry
whole egg or liquid whole egg. Even though the two control cakes and
the WPC-based egg-replaced cake had relatively yellower crust color
(which would correspond to higher b* values) than that for the other
egg-replaced cakes, this apparent visual difference was not detected in
an analysis by sensory panelists (Ratnayake et al., 2012). Instead, these
color results could be attributed the presence and effect of the same
amounts of artificial food colorings, used in the formulas of the eggless
cakes made with all of the commercial ERs, and of the control cakes
made with dry or liquid whole egg (Ratnayake et al., 2012).
The use of different emulsifiers (i.e., SMS, DGMS, or lecithin), indi­
vidually or inter se with SM as the ER, did not affect the L* values
(representing lightness-darkness) for the crusts of eggless cakes (Rah­
mati & Tehrani, 2014). However, the crust of the control cake, made
with egg but no added emulsifiers, had the lowest L* (darkest color) but
highest a* (reddest color) values (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014). This
finding was explained in terms of the higher protein content of egg, in
comparison to SM, which resulted in greater promotion of Maillard re­
actions (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014). Furthermore, partial or total egg
replacement by SM did not substantially affect the a* and b* values for
cake crust (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2015). It was suggested that this finding
could be explained in terms of the greater importance of processing
parameters such as baking temperature and time, in comparison to SM
concentration (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2015). The crumb portion of control
cake samples had the highest L* values (corresponding to the lightest
color), in contrast to that for the crust. This result was attributed to the
lighter color of whole egg, compared to that of SM (Rahmati & Tehrani,
2015). The crust portions of control cakes made with fresh egg and no
additives had higher L, a, and b values than those for eggless cakes made
with SM alone, as the ER (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018). This
result was explained not only in terms of caramelization and the Mail­
lard reactions driven by the high protein level of SM, but also the high
water affinity of SM, which was suggested to result in decreased water
mobility (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018). Also, the use of SL
together with SM as the ER in such eggless cakes was suggested to
contribute to an increase in a and b values (corresponding to redder and
yellower color), but to, decreasing L values (darker color) for the crumb
portions of these egg-replaced cakes, due to the naturally dark color of
SL (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018).
In another study (Matos et al., 2014), different protein sources (i.e.,
vital wheat gluten, SPI, PPI, or casein) were used individually in the
production of egg-replaced cakes. Thus, the observed L* values for the
cakes resulted in part from the original colors of the rice flour and
different protein ingredients (Matos et al., 2014). The lowest L* values
(darkest color) for cake crumb were observed for eggless cakes made
with PPI as the ER (Matos et al., 2014). Additionally, the PPI-containing
cake crumb was reported to have the highest b* (corresponding to yel­
lower color) and chroma values, followed by those for the
SPI-containing cake crumb, which were said to be “rooted in yellowish
raw material color” (Matos et al., 2014).
3.6. Cake crumb characterization
It has been reported that a porous cake structure is generally related
to softer and lighter cake crumb, which correlates with higher sensory
quality (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015). Thus, pore quality is a significant
aspect of crumb structure, in the context of improving ERs for eggless
cake-making (Lin et al., 2017a). Image analysis has been employed in
several studies to evaluate the crumb characteristics, in terms of pore
cell size and distribution, of egg-replaced cakes (Díaz-Ramírez et al.,
2016; Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2017a; Movahhed et al., 2016;
Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015).
It was reported Díaz-Ramírez et al. (2016) that the pore area in cake
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359
crumb increased, while pore density decreased significantly (p < 0.05),
for 12.5% and 25% levels of egg replacement by WPI; these changes
were associated with reductions in crumb firmness and cohesiveness and
an increase in cake specific volume. In contrast, the opposite results
were found for 50% and 100% egg replacement. Moreover, the use of
WPI as the ER, for 100% egg-replaced cakes, led to increased signifi­
cantly (p < 0.05) shape factor parameter, which used to describe the
similarity of pore shape to a circle. This finding was explained with
lower thermal resistance of whey protein to heat transfer (Díaz-Ramírez
et al., 2016).
The ratio of total cell area to the total area and number of cells per
cm2 of cake crumb was significantly lower for egg-replaced cakes than
for control samples, especially for 100% egg-replaced cakes made with
aqueous WPI as the ER (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015). However, both
crumb cell parameters increased and generally showed values similar to
those for the control sample, for the egg-replaced cakes also made with
added emulsifiers (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015). With regard to the
effect of different emulsifiers on crumb porosity, the effect was reported
to be highly significant for eggless cakes made, e.g., with WPC as the ER
and lecithin as the emulsifier; furthermore DMG exhibited a greater
effect than PGE (Movahhed et al., 2016). However, it was also observed
that PGE and DMG manifested antagonist interactions with lecithin,
even though the shape uniformity of pore cells in the egg-replaced cake
crumbs was better than that for cake samples made without emulsifier
(Movahhed et al., 2016).
Another study reported that mean crumb pore sizes were smaller in
eggless cakes made with PPI alone or in combination with XN but
without emulsifier, in comparison to that for control samples (Lin et al.,
2017a). However, similar crumb characteristics, in terms of the pore size
distribution, for traditional cakes and eggless cakes were found, when
PPI and XN together with SL were used as the ER system. This result was
credited to the effect of lecithin and its whippability properties similar to
those of egg yolk (Lin et al., 2017a). For this reason, the use of MDG
instead of SL as the emulsifier in this ER combination did not demon­
strate similar effect (Lin et al., 2017a).
3.7. Cake texture
In general, cake texture analysis has mainly been carried out by
texture profile analysis (TPA), typically using a texture analyzer to
determine the hardness (firmness), cohesiveness, springiness, and
chewiness properties of egg-replaced cakes (Abhay Kumar et al., 2017;
Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016, 2018; Arozarena et al., 2001; Arune­
panlop et al., 1996; Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016; Geera et al., 2011;
Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018; Tan et al., 2015).
The hardness parameter, as related to the maximum resistance to the
first compression and obtained from the height of the peak in the TPA
test (Abhay Kumar et al., 2017), has been widely used for assessing the
textural softness of egg-replaced cakes (Shao et al., 2015).
Generally, it has been recognized that hardness values are lower in
cakes with high volume (Arozarena et al., 2001). For example, one study
reported a negative correlation between the volume and hardness pa­
rameters (R2 = -0.86) for WPC-based eggless cakes (Movahhed et al.,
2016). It has also been determined that the incorporation of emulsifiers
is generally responsible for decreases in the hardness values for the final
cake products (Abhay Kumar et al., 2017; Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani,
2018; Movahhed et al., 2016). This effect of added emulsifiers has been
suggested to be due to the formation of amylose-lipid complexes by
certain emulsifiers and the amylose in wheat flour starch, which results
in changes to starch gelatinization during cake baking (Lin et al.,
2017a). In one reported study, the variation in a cake hardness model
was mostly affected by the linear impact of added emulsifiers, according
to the model’s regression coefficients (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014).
Furthermore, it has been reported that lecithin was more effective, at
lower concentrations, than PGE and DMG in decreasing the hardness of
WPC-based eggless cakes (Movahhed et al., 2016). In another study
G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer
(Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015), the change in cake crumb hardness with
increasing storage time was examined, in the context of an evaluation of
staling, likely due to starch retrogradation (Slade & Levine, 1991), in
egg-reduced pound cakes. While the use of WPI alone as the ER was
found to delay cake firming, this effect on firming was greater, after four
days of storage under ambient conditions, when WPI was used in com­
bination with an emulsifier (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015). This
anti-staling behavior was explained in terms of the water affinity of
emulsifiers and also their interactions with starch, which that influence
starch retrogradation and its rate (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015). The
explanation behind the effect of the mentioned “water affinity” aspect
could involve cakes having higher final moisture contents, resulting in
softer (so, less firm) cake texture, due to a greater extent of plasticization
by water (Slade et al., 2021; Slade & Levine, 1991).
In the production of eggless cake, the use of lima bean aquafaba of
the ER was reported to result in remarkably reduced hardness values,
and this effect increased with increasing level of egg replacement
(Nguyen et al., 2020). Similarly, the use of aquafaba obtained from
chickpea canning as the ER also led to reduced hardness values for
egg-replaced cake crumb, compared to those for the crumb of control
cake made with egg white (Mustafa et al., 2018). However, in another
reported study, the use of chickpea aquafaba as the ER produced an
adverse effect on cake crumb hardness values (Aslan & Ertaş, 2020).
Chewiness is defined as a measure of the energy required for chewing
semi-solid foods (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018). It has been noted
that the chewiness parameter showed a similar trend as hardness in
egg-replaced cakes (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2016). Additionally,
Rahmati and Tehrani (2014) found a highly positive correlation (R2 =
0.98) between firmness and chewiness values for SM-based eggless
cakes. And, it was confirmed by Rahmati and Tehrani (2015) that
chewiness is a function of firmness, with an R2 value of 0.99.
The use of SM as an ER led to increased chewiness values for eggless
cakes, but for SM combined with SL, chewiness decreased, but did not
reach the values for the control cake (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani,
2018). Another study reported no significant differences between the
chewiness values for egg-replaced cakes enriched with plant-based
protein sources such as SPI, PPI, or vital gluten and for the corre­
sponding cakes made without protein sources (p > 0.05) (Matos et al.,
2014). Chewiness values for egg-reduced pound cakes made with WPI as
the ER were higher than those for the control cakes produced with fresh
eggs (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015). Also, chewiness increased with
increasing WPI concentration and was highest in cakes made with 20%
(w/v) WPI but no emulsifier (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015). In contrast,
chewiness values were reported to be lower for partially (12.5, 25, and
50% replacement levels) egg-replaced cakes made with WPI as the ER,
but not for the 100% egg-replaced cake, in comparison to that for the
egg-based control cakes (Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016). In another study,
chewiness values were reported to be lower for both the crust and crumb
portions of egg-replaced cakes prepared with aquafaba as the ER, in
comparison to those for the control group of cakes made with egg white
(Mustafa et al., 2018).
Cohesiveness values are obtained from the ratio of the positive force
area under the second compression to the first compression in the TPA
test (Geera et al., 2011). Together with springiness, these two parame­
ters are said to be an indicator of the internal resistance of a food
structure to compression, when this resistance is associated with the
development of bonding within a three-dimensional protein network
structure (Paraskevopoulou et al., 2015). Thus, it is said to be essential
for a product to have a high cohesiveness value, indicative of greater
resistance to structural collapse during the first compression in the TPA
test, in order to reduce the possibility of product damage during the
entire manufacturing process up to packaging (Geera et al., 2011). The
decay of cohesiveness values during product storage was observed in
egg-replaced cakes made with WPC- or soy-based ERs, indicating a loss
of crumb structural integrity (Geera et al., 2011). However, no signifi­
cant differences were found between cohesiveness values for
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359
egg-replaced cakes made with different percentages (25, 50, 75, or
100% replacement levels) of SM as the ER (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2015),
or for eggless cakes made with SM as the ER in combination with
different emulsifiers such as lecithin, GMS, or SMS (Rahmati & Tehrani,
2014). In contrast, the use of SM alone as the ER resulted in significantly
increased cohesiveness values for eggless cakes, in comparison to cor­
responding values for control cakes made with egg, although lower
cohesiveness values were found when SM was used together with SL
(Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018). Control cakes made with egg or
EWP had higher cohesiveness values than egg-replaced cakes made with
soy-based ERs (Geera et al., 2011; Ratnayake et al., 2012),
chickpea-based aquafaba (Mustafa et al., 2018), or whey-based ERs
(Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016; Tan et al., 2015). On the other hand, ultra­
sound treatment of a whey protein ER was reported not to affect the
cohesiveness values for the resulting eggless cakes (Tan et al., 2015).
High springiness values, as related to high cake product quality, have
been reported to be indicative of fresh, aerated, and elastic end-products
(Matos et al., 2014). When different kinds of protein sources (vital wheat
gluten, SPI, PPI, or casein) were used as the ER, springiness values
increased, except that for the SPI-based cake, in comparison to that for
the control cake made without any added protein sources (Matos et al.,
2014). Moreover, the use of animal-based protein source as the ER was
reported to result in springier eggless cakes than those made with
plant-based proteins (Matos et al., 2014).
3.8. Sensory evaluation
It is recognized that a good quality, high acceptability cake should
have high volume, delicate crumb, and soft crust, and desirable crust
color and appearance (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014). In this regard, an
appropriate balance of ingredients is crucial (Godefroidt et al., 2019;
Slade et al., 2021; Wilderjans et al., 2013), especially for the improve­
ment of eggless cakes (Shao et al., 2015). Some researchers have re­
ported high correlations between sensory and instrumental
measurements on egg-replaced cakes (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2015). For
example, in another study, cake firmness and stickiness attributes,
determined in a sensory evaluation, were found to be in accord with a
textural analysis conducted by instrumental measurements (Shao et al.,
2015).
ERs from leguminous sources have been evaluated for their impact
on the sensory properties of egg-replaced angel cakes and eggless muf­
fins (Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017). In that study, although consumers
detected a beany flavor at a high level of lentil protein, used to totally
replace egg in muffins, the use of a low level of lentil protein resulted in
higher acceptability values in almost all sensory attributes than those for
the egg-based control muffin. However, the texture and appearance of
angel food cakes were adversely affected and showed lower scores than
those for the control cake, with increasing of the lentil protein ER
ingredient (Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017). When the effects of soy-based ERs
on the sensory properties of egg-replaced cakes were examined, it was
found that up to 75% replacement of egg with SM was acceptable, even
though the taste of SM adversely affected the cakes’ overall acceptability
(Rahmati & Tehrani, 2015). The effect of the use of emulsifiers along
with SM on the sensory properties of eggless cakes was also evaluated,
and the egg-based control cakes were found to have better overall
acceptability scores than those for the egg-replaced cakes (Rahmati &
Tehrani, 2014). The lowest overall acceptability was shown by cakes
made with SM and DGMS, but the incorporation of lecithin into that
SM-DGMS blend resulted in cakes having the highest scores in almost all
sensory attributes (Rahmati & Tehrani, 2014). The addition of up to 4%
SL into SM-based eggless cakes led to an enhancement of all sensory
parameters and resulted in sensory scores similar to those for egg-based
control cakes (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018). However, above
that 4% SL concentration, cake crumb color and taste parameters, in
particular, were affected adversely (Hedayati & Mazaheri Tehrani,
2018). Thus, overall quality scores decreased, apparently because of the
G.N. Yazici and M.S. Ozer
unpleasant dark color and taste of SL at high concentrations (Hedayati &
Mazaheri Tehrani, 2018). However, such unfavorable effects on overall
cake acceptability were not found, when chickpea aquafaba was used at
up to a 50% egg-replacement level (Aslan & Ertaş, 2020).
It was reported (Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016) that EWP could be
partially replaced by WPI at 12.5% or 25% replacement levels, with
regard to flavor or to the appearance and overall quality of sponge cakes.
In contrast, totally egg-replaced cakes made with WPI were found to
have the lowest appearance, color, and overall quality scores, with
significant differences (p < 0.05) (Díaz-Ramírez et al., 2016). Similarly,
WPI could be used in place of up to 25% of the EWP in a product
formulation, without any unfavorable impact on sensory features such
as flavor, color, and texture, for angel food cakes baked in a conven­
tional oven (Arunepanlop et al., 1996). Also, the sensory acceptability
scores were found to be slightly lower in those egg-replaced cakes that
were baked in a dual microwave/conventional oven rather than a con­
ventional oven (Arunepanlop et al., 1996). In another study, it was re­
ported that chia gel could be used, at up to a 25% egg replacement level,
in cakes having acceptable sensory attributes and no significant differ­
ences from egg-based control cakes (Borneo et al., 2010). Moreover, cold
storage, such as by refrigeration (at +4 ◦ C) or freezing (at − 18 ◦ C), was
found to positively influence the ER functionality of chia gel, without
impairing the sensory acceptability of egg-replaced chocolate cakes
(Gallo et al., 2020).
The effects of the use of different hydrocolloid ERs (e.g., AR, XN, GG,
CG, or HPMC) on eggless cakes made with or without added emulsifiers
were examined (Ashwini et al., 2009). The use of HPMC, in particular,
resulted in increased overall cake quality, due to improved crumb color,
texture, and mouthfeel, whereas the use of GG or CG resulted in
decreased quality. With the addition of SSL, the use of each hydrocol­
loid, and again HPMC in particular, resulted in positively influenced
overall cake quality scores, to such an extent that the lowest overall
quality score was shown by the egg-based control cake. However, the
use of GG or AR together with GMS led to decreased overall quality
scores, compared to those for the control cake (Ashwini et al., 2009).
Movahhed et al. (2016) reported that high levels of lecithin (>0.5%),
used in the presence of WPC as the ER, led to reduced total acceptance of
eggless cakes, due to adverse effects on taste, aroma, and color. How­
ever, the use of WPC in combination with other emulsifiers such as PGE
and DMG produced eggless cakes with enhanced total acceptance
(Movahhed et al., 2016).
4. Conclusions and future trends
In recent years, trends in current food consumption have been
directed toward finding alternatives for egg-, milk-, gluten-, and meat-
based food products. Among those trends, the requirement for egg
replacement is driven by several factors, including health problems that
can be addressed by dietary restrictions, dietary preferences based on
different religious or lifestyle choices consumers, as well as sustain­
ability, and economic factors associated with food production. For those
reasons, food scientists are looking for egg replacers capable of avoiding
quality-deteriorating effects, mainly on the taste and texture properties
of finished products.
From a technological point of view, one ingredient with a single
functionality, intended for use as an egg replacer, generally may not
exhibit properties sufficiently similar to those of eggs. Nevertheless,
there have been promising results reported in the literature, which
suggest that eggs can be successfully replaced in cakes. In this regard,
combinations of plant- or animal- origin protein sources with hydro­
colloid gums and emulsifiers have come into prominence. However, the
selection of an ideal egg replacer, at an optimum usage concentration,
for baked products such as cakes, requires comprehensive research and
development studies. Thus, such studies have to be performed con­
cerning the optimization of eggless cake product formulas, through the
use of experimental designs based on different types of egg replacers,
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 111 (2021) 346–359
their combinations, and their concentrations, in order to meet consumer
expectations for such cake products, gain their acceptance, and also
succeed in the market. It has been found that aquafaba has good po­
tential to gain a place in the egg replacers market. Thus, further studies
are needed to evaluate the effects of using aquafaba, derived from
different legumes, in eggless cake production, and also to optimize
aquafaba’s soaking and cooking conditions. Also, as far as we know,
there have been no studies to date on the potential use of aquafaba as an
egg replacer in gluten-free cake production. Similarly, the possibility of
egg replacement through the use of tofu has not yet been evaluated at
all. Additionally, only a few published studies available on egg-replaced
cakes made with other egg replacers, such as chia, banana, and casein.
Thus, these egg replacers need for further thought on the impact of cake
batter and cake product quality.
In this review, we have focused on the influences of different egg
replacers on the major physical, organoleptic, and sensory properties of
eggless and egg-reduced batters and cakes. However, as reviewed here,
most studies reported to date have lacked detailed information about or
results for: the textural and rheological properties and bubble size dis­
tribution of egg-replaced cake batters, the crumb characteristics, and
structural properties (indices of volume, symmetry, and uniformity) of
partially or totally egg-replaced cakes, and evaluations about product
shelf-life. Thus, much still remains to be done in the future and learned
about the subject of egg replacement in cake production.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors report no conflict of interest. This research did not
receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, com­
mercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to Prof. Dr. Hamit KOKSEL, Prof. Dr. Serkan
SELLI, and Dr. Erdal AGCAM for their overview of this paper.
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