PAPER CODE: BBA 217, ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

SYLLABUS
L-4, T-0, Credits: 4
Objective: The basic objective of this paper is to understand the basic fundamental to
environmental science, complexity of ecosystems, major environmental problems including their
causes and consequences. This course endeavors to provide a background to current and
controversial environmental issues and possible solutions to environmental problems.

Course Outcomes:
1. Explore ecosystem, sustainability and International efforts for environmental protection
and also understands how ecosystems work.
2. Examine water pollution and air pollution and acquire skills to resolve the issue.
3. Demonstrate skills to manage solid waste concern.
4. Acquire skills to assess the impact of environment and environmental management
system.
5. Contribution towards environment protection and ecological balance

Course Contents

Unit I (14 Hours)

Ecosystems and how they work: Types of Eco-Systems, Geosphere — Biosphere and
Hydrosphere introduction. Major issues of Biodiversity, Conservation of Bio-Diversity.
Concept of sustainability and international efforts for environmental protection: Concept of
Sustainable Development, Emergence of Environmental Issues. International Protocols, WTO,
Kyoto Protocol, International Agreement on Environmental Management.

Unit II (14 Hours)

Water Pollution: Water Resources of India, Hydrological Cycle, Methods of Water
Conservation and Management, Rain Water Harvesting and their legal aspects, River Action
Plan, Ground and Surface Water Pollution; Waste Water Management.
Air Pollution: Air Pollution and Air Pollutants, Sources of Air Pollution and its Effect on
Human Health and Vegetations. Green House Effect, Global Warming and Climate Change.

Unit III (14 Hours)

Solid Waste: Management — and Various Method Used, Composting, Land Fill Sites etc.
Hazardous Waste Management, Biomedical Waste Management.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental Management System Introduction and its
Impact.

Unit IV (14 Hours)

Introduction to Indian Environmental laws: Legal framework, The Indian Penal Code, Role
of Judiciary in Environmental Protection, Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974, Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution ) Act, 1981.

Suggested Readings: (All latest editions to be referred)

1. MillerTyler, G.Jr., Environmental Science: Working with the Earth, Cengage Learning India Ltd..
2. Mishra, S.P., and Panday, S.N., Essential Environment Studies, Ane Books Pvt. Ltd.
3. Chhatwal, Rajni Johar , Environmental Science, UDH Publishers & Distributers (P) Ltd.

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4. Ghosh Roy, M.K, Sustainable Development, Ane Books Pvt. Ltd.
5. Asthana, D.K. and Meera, Textbook on Environmental Studies. S.Chand.
6.Arumugam.N, &Kumaresan.V, Environmental Science & Engineering, Saras Publication.

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UNIT-1

What is an Ecosystem?
The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist,
in 1935. An ecosystem is a community of living things interacting with the
non-living parts of their environment.
There are two primary parts of an ecosystem are :
1. Biotic Components.
2. Abiotic Components.

The biotic part is made of all of the living things, like plants and animals,
fungi, and bacteria and viruses. The abiotic part is made of non-living
things, like rocks and minerals, water, and energy.

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based
on nutrition, biotic components can be categorised into autotrophs,
heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

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 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called
autotrophs as they can produce food through the process of
photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the
food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other
organisms for food. Consumers are further classified into primary
consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.

o Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on

producers for food.
o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for
energy. They can either be carnivores or omnivores.
o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary
consumers for food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores
or omnivores.
o Quaternary consumers OR Top consumers are present in some
food chains. These organisms prey on tertiary consumers for
energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain
as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers or Reducers

Decomposing is a process of breaking down the complex organic substances

(eg, fallen leaves or animal wastes) into small organic or inorganic substances
like nutrients, water and carbon dioxide is known as Decomposition.

Bacteria and Fungi are the organisms mainly involved in the decomposition
process, where they secrete enzymes which help in digestion of the dead
organic matter. It can later be used by the plants as a source of nutrients. The
rate of the decomposition process increases when the temperature and
moisture is high.

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Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It
includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind
etc.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean,
spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are
different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various
geological zones. They are as follows:

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 1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals
and microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth
and are the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and
herbs. Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are
examples of grassland ecosystems.
Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or
where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year.
Tundra type of ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little
rainfall and scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can
be further divided into two types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem

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Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes,
ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in
contrast with the marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more
substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the
freshwater ecosystem.

DEFINITION OF EARTH’S SPHERES

The spheres are the four subsystems that make up the planet Earth. They
are called spheres because they are round, just like the Earth.

The four spheres are :

1.The geosphere (all the rock on Earth)

2.The Hydrosphere (all the water on Earth)

3.The Atmosphere (all the gases surrounding Earth)

4.The Biosphere (all the living things on Earth).

Geo means “earth.” The Earth’s geosphere (sometimes called the

lithosphere) is the portion of the earth that includes rocks and minerals. It
starts at the ground and extends all the way down to Earth’s core.

We rely on the geosphere to provide natural resources and a place to

grow food. Volcanos, mountain ranges, and deserts are all part of the
geosphere. Put simply, without the geosphere, there would be no Earth!

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Hydro means “water.“ The hydrosphere includes the oceans, rivers, lakes,
groundwater, and water frozen in glaciers. 97% of water on Earth is found
in the oceans. Water is one of the most important substances needed for
life and makes up about 90% of living things. Without water, life would not
be possible.

Atmos means “air.” The atmosphere includes all the gases surrounding the
Earth. We often call the atmosphere “air.” All planets have an atmosphere,
but Earth is the only planet with the correct combination of gases to
support life.

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The atmosphere consists of five layers and is responsible for Earth’s
weather. Even though it seems like air is made of nothing, it consists of
particles too small to be seen. All these particles have weight that push
down on Earth. The weight of air above us is called air pressure.

Bio means “life.” The biosphere is made up of all the living things on Earth
and it includes fish, birds, plants, and even people. The living portion of
the Earth interacts with all the other spheres. Living things need water
(hydrosphere), chemicals from the atmosphere, and nutrients gained by
eating things in the biosphere

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What do you mean by the term biodiversity?
Biodiversity is a term used to describe the enormous variety of life on
Earth. It can be used more specifically to refer to all of the species in one
region or ecosystem. Biodiversity refers to every living thing, including
plants, bacteria, animals, and humans.

Causes of Loss of Biodiversity

Some of the major causes that have resulted in the loss of biodiversity are
mentioned below:
(overexploitation of natural resources, deforestation and habitat
destruction and climate change)

1. The natural habitat of the ecosystem plays a major role in

maintaining the ecological balance. Several trees are cut down every
year for the construction of industries, highways, settlement and so
on to fulfil the human demands. As a result, the species become the
target of predation and eventually dies.
2. Hunting of the wild animals for commercialization of their products
has been a major reason for the loss of biodiversity. Since the year
2013, more than 90 rhinos were killed by the poachers for their
horns and as per the records of 2016, 9 Indian Rhinos have been
killed in Kaziranga National Park of Assam.
3. The exploitation of the medicinal plants for several laboratory
purposes has resulted in the extinction of these species. Also, several
animals are sacrificed for various research in science and medicine.
4. Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, forest fires also lead to
the loss of biodiversity.
5. Air pollution has a major role in the loss of biodiversity. Rapid cutting
down of the trees has resulted in the increase of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere leading to climate change. As a result, there has

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 been an increase in the land and ocean temperature leaving an
inimical impact on species.

Biodiversity and its Conservation Methods

Biodiversity refers to the variability of life on earth. It can be conserved in
the following ways:

 In-situ Conservation
 Ex-situ Conservation

In-situ Conservation
In-situ conservation of biodiversity is the conservation of species within
their natural habitat. In this method, the natural ecosystem is maintained
and protected.
The in-situ conservation has several advantages. Following are the
important advantages of in-situ conservation:

1. It is a cost-effective and convenient method of conserving

biodiversity.
2. A large number of living organisms can be conserved simultaneously.
3. Since the organisms are in a natural ecosystem, they can evolve
better and can easily adjust to different environmental conditions.

Certain protected areas where in-situ conservation takes place include

national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.
National Parks
These are small reserves maintained by the government. Its boundaries
are well demarcated and human activities such as grazing, forestry, habitat
and cultivation are prohibited. For eg., Kanha National Park, and Bandipur
National Park.

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Wildlife Sanctuaries
These are the regions where only wild animals are found. Human activities
such as timber harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods and other forest
products are allowed here as long as they do not interfere with the
conservation project. Also, tourists visit these places for recreation.
Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere reserves are multi-purpose protected areas where the wildlife,
traditional lifestyle of the inhabitants and domesticated plants and animals
are protected. Tourist and research activities are permitted here.

Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity involves the breeding and
maintenance of endangered species in artificial ecosystems such as zoos,
nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. There is less competition for
food, water and space among the organisms.
Ex-situ conservation has the following advantages:

1. The animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity.
2. The species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild.
3. Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered
species.

Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation

Following are the important strategies for biodiversity conservation:

1. All the varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes and

agricultural animals should be conserved.
2. All the economically important organisms should be identified and
conserved.

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 3. Unique ecosystems should be preserved first.
4. The resources should be utilized efficiently.
5. Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be prevented.
6. The reserves and protected areas should be developed carefully.
7. The levels of pollutants should be reduced in the environment.
8. Deforestation should be strictly prohibited.
9. Environmental laws should be followed strictly.
10. The useful and endangered species of plants and animals
should be conserved in their nature as well as artificial habitats.
11. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity
conservation and its importance.

Why should you conserve Biodiversity?

It is believed that an area with higher species abundance has a more stable
environment compared to an area with lower species abundance. We can
further claim the necessity of biodiversity by considering our degree of
dependency on the environment. We depend directly on various species
of plants for our various needs. Similarly, we depend on various species of
animals and microbes for different reasons.
Biodiversity is being lost due to the loss of habitat, over-exploitation of
resources, climatic changes, pollution, invasive exotic species, diseases,
hunting, etc. Since it provides us with several economic and ethical
benefits and adds aesthetic value, it is very important to conserve
biodiversity.
What is Sustainable Development?
Sustainable development can be defined as an approach to the economic
development of a country without compromising with the quality of the
environment for future generations. In the name of economic
development, the price of environmental damage is paid in the form of
land degradation, soil erosion, air and water pollution, deforestation, etc.

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This damage may surpass the advantages of having more quality output of
goods and services.

Sustainable Development Goals

 To promote the kind of development that minimises environmental

problems.
 To meet the needs of the existing generation without compromising
with the quality of the environment for future generations.
Steps involved in attaining sustainable development in India are
outlined below:
 (i) Population Control - Limiting the human population to a level

within the carrying capacity of the environment is the first step to be

followed for attaining sustainable development as the population is
exerting tremendous pressure in terms of demand for resources
which is more than the absorptive capacity of the environment
leading to an environmental crisis.
 (ii) Efficient Utilisation of Resources - Technological progress and

industrialisation should be input efficient and wastage of resources

should be minimised by proper utilisation. This will help to produce
more with lesser amount of resources and thus depletion of
resources will be slower.
 (iii) Control of Over Extraction - Rate of extraction of renewable

resources should not be exceed the rate of regeneration so that they

are extracted on a sustainable basis.
 (iv) Control of Depletion - Rate of depletion of non-renewable

resources should not exceed the rate of creation of renewable

substitutes so that environmental crisis does not emerge and
resources are available for the future generations.
 (v) Pollution Control - Pollution in all forms has a negative

environmental impact which has a high opportunity cost. Hence,

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 control of pollution is a must to maintain the quality of natural
resources such as air and water for sustainable development.
 (vi) Use of Non-Conventional Energy - India is hugely dependent on
thermal and hydropower plants to meet its power needs which have
adverse environmental impacts. Wind power and solar rays are
cleaner and greener energy sources which should be explored on a
large scale by developing technological devices along with non
conventional sources like nuclear energy.

Emergence of Environmental Issues

An environment is generally defined as the surroundings or conditions in
which a person, animal or plant survives or operates. From this, it must be
relatively easy for one to comprehend its importance in the famed cycle of
life.
Our environment is constantly changing, and as our environment changes
so does the need to become increasingly aware of the environmental
issues that are causing these changes. With a massive increase in natural
disasters, warming and cooling periods, and different types of weather
patterns, people need to be a lot more cautious with the way they lead
their lives in conjunction with the types of environmental issues our planet
is facing.

Environmental Issues
Environmental issues are the harmful effects of human activities on the
environment. These include pollution, overpopulation, waste disposal,
climate change, global warming, the greenhouse effect, etc.
Various environment protection programs are being practised at the
individual, organizational and government levels with the aim of
establishing a balance between man and the environment.

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Some of the current environmental issues that require urgent attention
are:

Climate Change
Climate change is a great concern in today’s scenario. This problem has
surfaced in the last few decades. Greenhouse gases are the major cause of
climate change. Environmental changes have several destructive impacts
such as the melting of glaciers, change in seasons, epidemics, etc.

Global Warming
The burning of fossil fuels, emissions from automobiles and
chlorofluorocarbons add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This
has led to an increase in the earth’s temperature causing environmental
changes. This increase in temperature across the globe is known as global
warming.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer is a layer of concentrated ozone gas. It protects us from
the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. This very important layer is being
destroyed by CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), which are used in industries and
everyday life (e.g. aerosol cans).
The chlorine in these compounds destroys the ozone layer. The hole in the
ozone layer leaves humans and wildlife exposed to harmful UV rays
resulting in several skin diseases including cancer.

Water Pollution
The introduction of harmful substances into rivers, oceans, lakes and
ponds, which changes the physical, chemical or biological condition of the
water is called water pollution. The polluted water lacks oxygen and
therefore the organisms die.

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Water is the main source of life and therefore it is our prime duty to
prevent it from any kind of pollution.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is the result of emissions from industries, automobiles, and
the increasing use of fossil fuels. The gaseous emissions have added to an
increase in the temperature of the earth. Not only this, but it had also
increased the risk of diseases among individuals.

Solid Waste Management

Solid-waste management is defined as the discipline associated with the
generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and
disposal of solid waste in a manner that it does not have a harmful effect
on the environment.

Deforestation
Deforestation is the depletion of trees and forests at an alarming rate. The
trees provide us with oxygen, and several raw materials and also maintain
the temperature of the earth. Due to the depletion of trees for
commercial purposes, there has been a drastic change in the earth’s
climate.
Forests are an abode to a large number of wild animals and plants.
Destruction of forests has led to the elimination of a large number of
plants and animal species affecting biodiversity.

Overpopulation
The earth’s population is increasing drastically. It is estimated to be more
than seven billion. The increasing population has led to a shortage of
resources. If this continues, it will be very difficult to sustain such a huge
population. The other environmental issues including pollution, waste

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management, deforestation, climate change and global warming are all
associated with overpopulation.

Solutions to Environmental Issues

Following are some of the most common solutions to the environmental
issue:

1. Replace disposal items with reusable items.

2. The use of paper should be avoided.
3. Conserve water and electricity.
4. Support environmental friendly practices.
5. Recycle waste to conserve natural resources.

Environmental issues are a warning of the upcoming disaster. If these

issues are not controlled, there will soon be no life on earth.

What Is the World Trade Organization (WTO)?

Created in 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international

institution that oversees the rules for global trade among nations. It
superseded the 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
created in the wake of World War II.

The WTO is based on agreements signed by a majority of the world’s

trading nations. The main function of the organization is to help
producers of goods and services, as well as exporters and importers,
protect and manage their businesses.

As of 2021, the WTO has 164 member countries, with Liberia and
Afghanistan the most recent members, having joined in July 2016, and 25
“observer” countries and governments.

Understanding the World Trade Organization (WTO)

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The WTO is essentially an alternative dispute or mediation entity that
upholds the international rules of trade among nations. The organization
provides a platform that allows member governments to negotiate and
resolve trade issues with other members. The WTO’s main focus is to
provide open lines of communication concerning trade among its
members.

The WTO has lowered trade barriers and increased trade among member
countries. It also has also maintained trade barriers when it makes sense
to do so in the global context. The WTO attempts to mediate between
nations in order to benefit the global economy.

Once negotiations are complete and an agreement is in place, the WTO

offers to interpret the agreement in case of a future dispute. All WTO
agreements include a settlement process that allows it to conduct neutral
conflict resolution.

Why Is the World Trade Organization Important?

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the body that keeps global trade
running smoothly. It oversees the rules and mediates disputes among its
member nations. It now has 164 member nations and 25 observer nations
(out of a total 195 nations in the world).

What Are the Main Functions of the World Trade Organization?

The World Trade Organization (WTO) administers the trade agreements

made among its member nations. It also mediates any trade disputes that
arise.

The Kyoto Protocol - The Kyoto Protocol, also known as the Kyoto Accord,
is an international treaty among industrialized nations that sets mandatory
limits on greenhouse gas emissions.

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The greenhouse effect is the warming effect of the sun on greenhouse
gases, such as carbon dioxide, that act to trap this heat in our
atmosphere. The more of these gases that exists, the more heat is
prevented from escaping into space and, consequently, the more the
earth heats.

Although the greenhouse effect is necessary for survival on earth, an

overabundance of greenhouse gas emissions increases global warming
beyond what is desirable. The purpose of the Kyoto Protocol is to stabilize
human-generated emissions at a level that will not inflict further harm on
the atmosphere.

The initial treaty was signed in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. That agreement
outlined emissions targets. Implementation required participating
members to create policies and measures to reduce and offset domestic
emissions and increase absorption of greenhouse gases. Other
specifications included requirements for accountability, compliance and
reporting. That agreement expired at the end of 2012. Members agreed
upon an extension of the protocol, effective from 2013 to 2020.

The Kyoto Protocol is overseen by the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). As of late 2013, all UN member
states except for Andorra, Canada, South Sudan and the United States had
signed and ratified the treaty. All 28 nations in the European Union have
also signed the accord.

What is an international environmental agreement?

International environmental agreements (IEAs) are signed treaties that

regulate or manage human impact on the environment in an effort to
protect it.

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International

To qualify as international, the treaty must be

intergovernmental; bilateral agreements are between two governments,
and multilateral agreements are between more than two.

Environmental

The term environmental is broad. Some agreements encompass a range of

environmental protections, while others are extremely specific.
The International Environmental Agreements Database ProjectExternal
link:open_in_new separates agreements into the following environmental
categories:
 Nature: conservation and protection of resources and systems

 Species: interaction with mammals, agriculture, and marine life

 Pollution and climate: pollution of the air, land, oceans, and

freshwater systems

 Habitat and oceans: maintaining ecosystems

 Freshwater resources: regulation of lakes and rivers
 Energy, nuclear issues, and conflict: energy production, nuclear-
weapon-free zones, and environmental weapons (bacteriological,
chemical, toxin)

Agreement

The names of IEAs can be confusing—why are some protocols and others
are conventions?

A convention can refer to an actual meeting or conference between

parties where they reach an agreement on the final terms of a treaty.
However, it is also broadly used to describe wide-scale agreements
between governments.

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A protocol is usually supplemental: It further amends an existing
convention and creates additional restrictions or standards. Original
signatories of a convention are not automatically bound to protocols
without a separate ratification.

Who participates in international environmental agreements?

Representatives from countries can accept and sign the terms of an

international agreement on behalf of their government, making their
country a signatory. The European Union (EU) also has the authority to
sign treaties under international law and is often party to environmental
agreements, in addition to the countries within it.

Unit- 2

Water
Water is a precious natural resource. All living things need water for their
survival. We cannot imagine life without water. Let it be animals or plants
they require water to complete their daily metabolic activities. Plants
require water to synthesize their food from the process of photosynthesis.
On average, an individual uses 600 to 700 litres in a day. We all can live
without food for days together but cannot even imagine surviving without
water, even plants become dry and shed their leaves without water.
Let us learn some more importance to water.

What is Water?
Water is one of the natural resources, which are found in an adequate
amount. It is an essential source for the existence of life on the planet
earth. It is widely used for various purposes such as drinking, washing,

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bathing, cleaning, cooking, irrigation, and other industrial and domestic
uses.

Sources of Water
There are various sources of water. About 97% of the water on the Earth’s
surface is covered with water. The three main sources of water are:

 Rainwater.
 Groundwater – This includes water bodies like Wells and Springs.
 Surface water – This includes different water bodies like Sea, Oceans,
Reservoirs, Rivers, Streams, Ponds, Lakes and Tanks.

Importance of Water
We all need water for different daily activities including:

 Domestic Purposes include bathing, cleaning, cooking, drinking, and

washing.
 Agricultural applications include irrigation, farming, gardening, and
frost control.
 Other Industrial Applications.
Apart from this, we drink water to:

 Stay hydrated
 Lubricate Joints
 Regulate the body’s temperature
 Transport nutrients and other waste in the body.
 Balance the loss of water from the digestive tract and body tissues.

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What is the Water Cycle?
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological
cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below
the surface of the Earth.

Water Cycle Diagram

During this process, water changes its state from one phase to another,
but the total number of water particles remains the same. In other words,
if it were possible to collect and boil 100 gms of water, it will still retain a
mass of 100 gms as steam. Likewise, if 100 gms of steam is collected and
condensed, the resultant water would still weight 100 gms.
Water changes its state through a variety of processes from evaporation,
melting and freezing, to sublimation, condensation, and deposition. All
these changes require the application of energy.

Stages of Water Cycle

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There are many processes involved in the movement of water apart from
the major steps given in the above water cycle diagram. Listed below are
different stages of the water cycle.
Water never stops moving. The water cycle mainly describes the process
of the continuous movement of water from the surface of the earth and it
is usually carried out in four different stages. The entire cycle is controlled
by the sun and is also known as the hydrological cycle
Evaporation: In this stage, the heat from the sun heats up the water from
oceans and other water bodies and evaporates the water in the form of
vapours which rises up and form clouds.
Condensation: The water vapour’s in the clouds cools down.
Precipitation: The cooled water vapours in the clouds form droplets and
released in the form of Precipitation back to the earth surface in the form
of rain or snow.
Collection: The rainwater runs off to the ground and gets collected into the
river, ponds, well, and back to the sea.
As mentioned above, about 97% of the water on the Earth’s surface is
covered with water. Only 2 to 3% is available and safe for drinking. Rest of
the water is saltwater and other two-thirds of the Earth’s freshwater is
frozen in glaciers and these water resources are mostly inaccessible for
human use.
This is the reason, we all need to reduce wasting this natural resource and
conserve water for future requirements.
Water Management & Water Conservation Methods

Introduction - The activity of movement and control of water resources

to minimize the damage to property and life and also to maximize the
efficient beneficial use is known as water management. If the

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management of water is good in dams and levees it reduces the risk of
harm caused due to flooding.
Water management is a process of developing, optimizing and planning of
water resources via many practices which are defined by many policies
and regulations. With the increase in the population which has been
doubled to over 6 billion people from 1900, the use of water has popped
up to 600%. According to the statistics, the health of people is threatened
by inadequate access to clean water for drinking and sanitation.

Water Conservation Methods

With a well-planned system, water is supplied to many places regularly in
a city. This is generally planned by civic authorities in a city. But many
times we observe that some amount of water is wasted through leakage
of pipe and many other reasons. As we know that proper water
management is necessary for the conservation of water. Thus, it is
important for civic authorities to take care of these issues while supplying
water to our homes.
We usually observe that most of the rainwater gets wasted although it is
one of the most precious natural resources. This rainwater can be used to
recharge the groundwater levels by a technique known as rainwater
harvesting. Farmers can play an important role in water management by
using a water conservation method for irrigation known as drip irrigation.
In this technique, plants are watered using narrow tubes and this water is
directly delivered at the base of the plant.
We can also play an important role in minimizing the wastage of the water
we use. Some of those habits can be turning off the taps while brushing,
mopping the floor instead of washing. A little water conservation methods
that can be practised by individuals to reduce the wastage of water are
provided below.

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  Installing flow-restricting shower heads to save water during
showers.
 Taking bucket-baths instead of showers.
 Turning off the tap while shaving or brushing teeth.
 Immediately fixing any leaking taps and pipes in our homes.
 Practising rainwater harvesting to reduce the wastage of rainwater.

Water Conservation Methods

One of the oldest sites of the Indus Valley civilization, Dholavira in the
state of Gujarat has well-documented lake-shaped storage reservoirs to
store surface water during the rainy season.
Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh, hosts the unique and elaborate network of
well-connected water drainage and storage systems. Today the place is
not so popular and is a must-visit for any hydrology student. Every fort
which survives today has well-organized storage systems. This was
important since forts were built to provide supplies during long-drawn
wars where movement outside was constrained.
The Indian practice of cleaning water using brass vessels is well known and
continues until today. Even today having water filter systems made from
brass is not unusual. Older people in India use brass pots in the evening to
store water and drink it during daytime.
While many technological devices are being developed to minimize water
wastage, the impact will be greater if each individual contributes to water
conservation by minimizing or optimizing the use of groundwater for daily
work. Today, water conservation is becoming extremely critical at an
individual level.
Each year our water supplies are depleting. Therefore, we can not produce
artificial water and must be reliant on the available water sources on our
planet earth. Water shortage is felt all over the world due to population

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growth and the unsustainable need for water to suit our ever-expanding
modern lifestyle. It has given rise to substantial concerns about water
conservation.

Types of Water Management

Water resource management traditionally involves managing water
storage and water flows. Clients will need to invest in institutional
reinforcement, information management, and (natural and man-made)
infrastructure development to enhance water security against this
backdrop of rising demand, water scarcity, growing uncertainty, greater
extremes, and fragmentation challenges.
Information systems are needed for resource management, uncertain
decision taking, system analysis and hydro-meteorological forecasting and
warning. Investments in advanced technology to improve efficiency,
preserve and protect energy, recycle storm water and wastewater and
establish non-conventional water sources should be explored in addition
to finding opportunities for improved water storage, including
regeneration and recovery of aquifers.

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Rain Water Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve
rainwater by collecting, storing, conveying and purifying of rainwater
that runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open grounds, etc. for later use.

How to Harvest the Rainwater?

Rainwater harvesting systems consists of the following components:

 Catchment- Used to collect and store the captured rainwater.

 Conveyance system – It is used to transport the harvested water
from the catchment to the recharge zone.
 Flush- It is used to flush out the first spell of rain.
 Filter – Used for filtering the collected rainwater and removing
pollutants.
 Tanks and the recharge structures: Used to store the filtered water
which is ready to use.

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The process of rainwater harvesting involves the collection and the storage
of rainwater with the help of artificially designed systems that run off
naturally or man-made catchment areas like- the rooftop, compounds,
rock surface, hill slopes, artificially repaired impervious or semi-pervious
land surface.
Several factors play a vital role in the amount of water harvested. Some of
these factors are:

 The quantum of runoff

 Features of the catchments
 Impact on the environment
 Availability of the technology
 The capacity of the storage tanks
 Types of the roof, its slope and its materials
 The frequency, quantity and the quality of the rainfall
 The speed and ease with which the rainwater penetrates through
the subsoil to recharge the groundwater.

Why do we Harvest Rainwater?

The rainwater harvesting system is one of the best methods practised and
followed to support the conservation of water. Today, scarcity of good
quality water has become a significant cause of concern. However,
rainwater, which is pure and of good quality, can be used for irrigation,
washing, cleaning, bathing, cooking and also for other livestock
requirements.

Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting

The benefits of the rainwater harvesting system are listed below.

 Less cost.

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  Helps in reducing the water bill.
 Decreases the demand for water.
 Reduces the need for imported water.
 Promotes both water and energy conservation.
 Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.
 Does not require a filtration system for landscape irrigation.
 This technology is relatively simple, easy to install and operate.
 It reduces soil erosion, stormwater runoff, flooding, and pollution of
surface water with fertilizers, pesticides, metals and other
sediments.
 It is an excellent source of water for landscape irrigation with no
chemicals, dissolved salts and free from all minerals.

Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting

In addition to the great advantages, the rainwater harvesting system has a
few disadvantages like unpredictable rainfall, unavailability of the proper
storage system, etc.
Listed below are a few more disadvantages of the rainwater harvesting
process.

 Regular maintenance is required.

 Requires some technical skills for installation.
 Limited and no rainfall can limit the supply of rainwater.
 If not installed correctly, it may attract mosquitoes and other
waterborne diseases.
 One of the significant drawbacks of the rainwater harvesting system
is storage limits.

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Ganga Action Plan - GAP

Ganga Action Plan abbreviated as (GAP) is one of the longest and

ambitious government interventions which have significantly influenced
policies for controlling water pollution in India.

Ganga Action Plan – Background

1. Water pollution problem, especially of river water, has been rising

continuously because of industrialization along the river stretches,
open defecation and many other issues.
2. This problem is manifested in the dire state of Ganga river. Efforts
have been made in this regard since 1985 with the launch of the
Ganga Action Plan (GAP).
3. The idea of cleaning river Ganga was initiated by the Government of
India in 1979, however, the Ganga Action Plan could only be initiated
in 1985 after a comprehensive survey of the river Ganga by CPCB.

Ganga Action Plan Overview

1. Ganga action plan was started in 1986 with the objective of pollution
abatement from river Ganga.
2. GAP – Ganga Action Plan is a 100% centrally sponsored scheme.
Under this plan, the National River Ganga basin authority was
established and declared Ganga as a national river of India. Read
more on the National River Ganga on the page linked here.
3. Ganga Action Plan was directed by Rajiv Gandhi. The authority is
headed by the prime minister and chief ministers of all the states in
which river Ganga flows.
4. GAP was divided into two phases. Phase-I started in 1985 and
covered the then three states, Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar and West
Bengal (WB).

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 5. Phase-II of GAP was launched in 1993, which covers seven states that
include Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Delhi and
Haryana.
6. In the second phase, Ganga action plan was created for all these
tributaries. The national river conservation plan was started under
the same program for the 2nd phase.
7. It included tributaries of Ganga as well like Yamuna, Mahananda,
Gomti, Damodar.
8. The Ministry of Environment and forests (MoEF) was made in charge
of the overall design and implementation of GAP. Central Ganga
Authority (CGA) came into existence under the Environment
Protection Act 1986, headed by the Prime Minister of India.

In 2014 the present government started Namami Gange Mission to ensure

clean Ganga. Namami Gange Yojana is implemented by the National
Mission for Clean Ganga along with its State Programme Management
Groups (SPMGs). Union Finance Minister, Arun Jaitley announced the
implementation of Namami Gange on 10 July 2014.
The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) was implemented by the
National Council for Rejuvenation, Protection and Management of River
Ganga also known as the National Ganga Council. To know more about
the National Ganga Council, refer to the linked page. The NMCG mission
was established on 12th August 2011 under the Societies Registration
Act,1860 as a registered society.
Government schemes are an important part of the UPSC syllabus.
Aspirants must be thorough with the objectives and the activities of these
major schemes for the IAS exam.

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Ganga Action Plan – Objectives
The GAP was aimed at controlling the pollution of the most significant
river in a systematic and planned manner.

1. The objective, at the time of launching the Ganga Action Plan in

1985, was to improve the water quality of Ganga to acceptable
standards by preventing the pollution load from reaching the river.
2. The Ganga Action Plan gave importance to abate pollution and
improve water quality. With the major focus in GAP I on sewage
interception and treatment facilities.
3. It also gave importance to conserve biodiversity, developing an
integrated river basin management approach, conducting
comprehensive research to further these objectives, and gaining
experience for implementing similar river clean-up programs in other
polluted rivers in India.
4. Besides abatement of pollution Ganga action plan had the broad
objective of restoration of biodiversity along the course of river
Ganga.

Groundwater

Groundwater is the water present below the earth’s surface and is a vast
resource of water. Almost 22 percent of water is below the surface land in
the form of groundwater. Groundwater is important as it is used for water
supply in rural and urban areas. It is also often used for municipal,
industrial and agricultural use by building and operating extraction wells.

 The groundwater is more convenient and less exposed to pollution.

So, it is commonly used as water supplies for the public.

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  Groundwater makes up about twenty percent of the freshwater
supply of the entire world’s water, including oceans and permanent
ice.

Groundwater Pollution
Generally, groundwater is good for drinking. Groundwater that is polluted
is less visible and difficult to clean up than lakes and rivers. Most often
groundwater pollution results from the disposal of wastes improperly
including household and industrial chemicals, wastewater from mines,
leaking underground oil storage, oil field brine pits, garbage landfills, and
sewage systems.
Prevention of groundwater pollution can be done by:

 storing rainwater
 watertight materials
 collecting leachate with drains

What is Surface Water Pollution?

Surface water pollution is a type of pollution that occurs above ground,
such as in oceans, streams, lakes and rivers. These waters become
polluted due to contaminated rainwater runoff that gets transported into
nearby water sources. Some of the leading causes of water contamination
include runoff from things like fertilizers from farms and homeowner lawn
care and salts and chemicals from city and highway roads. Surface water
can also become contaminated through sewage leaks and waste products
from animal factories. These types of pollutants are extremely harmful
and even be deadly for human consumption as it carries with it high levels
of pathogens and waterborne diseases. Health problems such as giardia,
typhoid and hepatitis are extremely common when unfiltered
contaminated water is drunk, even in the smallest doses. Even swimming

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in these polluted waters can cause these health issues as the water can
easily enter the mouth or infect the skin and eyes.
Another type of pollution caused by nutrients and fertilizers is
called nutrient pollution. This type of water contamination is caused when
too many nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, are absorbed
into waterways and an excessive growth of algae is created. The reason
that nutrient pollution is so dangerous to freshwater sources is due to the
fact that the overabundance of plants and algae created by nutrient
pollution covers the water surface and prevents sunlight from reaching the
plants underwater. As a result, less oxygen is produced, causing harm to
any organism that needs oxygen to breath, like fish.
As you will see in the next section, the consequences of surface water
pollution are many. Therefore, in order to mitigate or prevent the
widespread epidemic of surface water pollution we will need to learn ways
in which we can contribute to the betterment of the planet as a whole.

Consequences of Surface Water Pollution

As previously mentioned, surface water pollution is detrimental to the
health and well-being of not only humans but all living creatures, as well.
When freshwater sources become contaminated, every living plant and
animal that depends on water for survival start to degrade and possibly
even die off. As a result, our food chain starts to dwindle and we as
humans can suffer from lack of fresh, healthy food supplies. This equates
to our health also declining.

Furthermore, despite best efforts to decontaminant water, when water

supplies are heavily polluted there is little solution to restoring it back to
health. Because no decontamination process can fully remove all of the
chemicals and pollutants absorbed by the water this means that,
unfortunately, we end up drinking water that isn’t fully clean and pure.
Once again, if water isn’t clean from contamination, our health starts to go

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downhill. What’s even more disturbing is the fact that there are 2.1 billion
people around the world who do not have access to safe, clean water. This
means that as the quality of water starts to diminish, more people around
the world will begin to suffer from the health consequences resulting from
drinking unsafe water.
But before you start thinking that surface water pollution only affects the
health of lower-income or third world countries, you better think twice.
Although the U.S. has one of the safest drinking water systems in the
world, there are still an estimated 4-32 million people affected by some
sort of disease or sickness resulting from drinking unclean water. As such,
it is vital that each one of us do our part in ensuring we take better care of
our planet and, thus, the water supplies so that we can live longer and
healthier lives moving forward.

How to Reduce Surface Water Pollution

It is our responsibility as humans to make more conscious choices that
bring about a healthier planet and waterway system. In order to start
taking action against surface water pollution each of us needs to start
making small, impactful decisions on a daily basis. One way you can go
about doing this is to clean up your trash and recycle when you can.
Furthermore, if it’s safe to do so, cleaning up other trash you see can
greatly improve the quality of the planet.

Another way to significantly reduce surface water pollution is to switch

from using plastic water bottles to a reusable aluminum bottle. Plastic
water bottles are among the greatest offenders to waterway health as a
majority of it never gets recycled and instead ends up in freshwater
sources where it takes hundreds of years to degrade. As such, utilizing
aluminum water bottles, which easily decompose and are more often
recycled and reused is a great way to contribute to the vitality of our
environment.

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If you are looking to start aiding in the health of our planet and, thus, the
freshwater sources make the switch from plastic water bottles to
aluminum water bottles today. Not only will the environment thank you
for making the switch but your body will be grateful that it’s getting
the cleanest, purest water on the planet.

Sewage - Wastewater and its Management

Water is used for almost every activity. This water gets dirty during usage.
Dirty water contains lather, mixed with oil, black and brown water that is
drained down the showers, toilets, laundries, etc. Wastewater is also
known as sewage. Water is an important resource and should not be
wasted. Sewage treatment is done in order to obtain water for future
uses.
Clean water is a very basic need for all human beings. It is needed for
drinking, cooking, washing and many other purposes. Population growth,
pollution, industrial growth and mismanagement of resources have led to
the scarcity of water. Water is necessary to sustain life on this planet.

Sewage
Sewage is actually the wastewater that is released from houses, hospitals,
industries, offices and other sources. It also includes the rainwater that
runs down the streets in a storm. The water that washes off the roads and
rooftops contains many harmful substances. Sewage is a liquid waste.
Wastewater has dissolved and suspended impurities in it. These impurities
are known as contaminants.
The process of removing pollutants from water before it enters any water
body or is reused is termed cleaning of water. The process of wastewater
treatment is commonly known as sewage treatment. There are
many sewage management methods wherein each treatment method of

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sewage takes place in several steps. In domestic cases, one set of pipes
carries clean water and the other set carries the used water. The network
of pipes used for sewage treatment is known as sewers. It is basically a
transport system that carries the sewage from the point it is produced to
the point of disposal or treatment through Drainage Systems.

Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater is collected and passed through bar screens where plastic
bags, sticks, cans, napkins, etc. are removed. This water then enters a grit
and a sand removal tank. The speed of the water is decreased so that the
sand particles get settled at the bottom. After this, the water is allowed to
settle in a large tank which is sloped towards the centre. Solid wastes are
settled and removed by a scraper. This water is known as clarified water.
Air is pumped into this water to help aerobic bacteria to grow. The
bacteria consume the wastes by microbial action. These microbes settle
down after several hours and the water at the top is removed. This water
is discharged into rivers and oceans or is put to other uses.

What is Air Pollution?

Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air.
It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which
affects plants, animals and humans drastically.
There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An
increase or decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to
survival. This imbalance in the gaseous composition has resulted in an
increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming.

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Types of Air Pollutants
There are two types of air pollutants:

Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary
pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.

Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary
pollutants are known as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the
intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary pollutant.

Causes of Air Pollution

Following are the important causes of air pollution:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide.
Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also
results in air pollution.

Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc.
pollute the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases
and also result in diseases among individuals.

Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural
activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful
chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.

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Factories and Industries
Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic
compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air,
degrading its quality.

Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using
large pieces of equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the
process not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of the
workers and people living in the nearby areas.

Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that
are released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell
of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also
affects breathing.

Effects of Air Pollution

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart
diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the
last few decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to
pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or
indirect effects of air pollution.

Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the
gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the

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temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known
as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an
increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.

Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides
and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these
pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human,
animal and plant life.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
in the atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The
depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays
coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among
individuals.

Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life.
Pollution also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new
place. This renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large
number of animal species.

Air Pollution Control

Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:

Avoid Using Vehicles

People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they
should prefer public modes of transport to travel from one place to
another. This not only prevents pollution, but also conserves energy.

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Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore,
do not forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus,
you can save the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-
efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.

Use of Clean Energy Resources

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a
larger level. Various countries, including India, have implemented the use
of these resources as a step towards a cleaner environment.
Other air pollution control measures include:

1. By minimising and reducing the use of fire and fire products.

2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air
pollution, the pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source
itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the reactions of a certain
raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be
substituted with other less polluting materials.
3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many
parts of India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG –
Compressed Natural Gas fuel vehicles. These are mostly adopted by
vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing
the quality of air, most of them are either forgotten or not being
enforced properly. There are still a lot of vehicles on roads which
haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to
modify and maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the
emission of pollutants is minimised.

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 6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that
case, we can have process control equipment to control the
pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air
pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is
tree plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants
in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will
be extremely effective.

Greenhouse Effect

How does the greenhouse effect work?

As you might expect from the name, the greenhouse effect works … like a
greenhouse! A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass roof.
Greenhouses are used to grow plants, such as tomatoes and tropical
flowers.

A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the daytime,
sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside.
At night time, it's colder outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm
inside. That's because the glass walls of the greenhouse trap the Sun's
heat.

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The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases in the
atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat similar to the glass roof of a
greenhouse. These heat-trapping gases are called greenhouse gases.

During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface
warms up in the sunlight. At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat
back into the air. But some of the heat is trapped by the greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our Earth a warm and cozy 58
degrees Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius), on average.

How are humans impacting the greenhouse effect?

Human activities are changing Earth's natural greenhouse effect. Burning

fossil fuels like coal and oil puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere.

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NASA has observed increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and some
other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Too much of these
greenhouse gases can cause Earth's atmosphere to trap more and more
heat. This causes Earth to warm up.

What reduces the greenhouse effect on Earth?

Just like a glass greenhouse, Earth's greenhouse is also full of plants! Plants
can help to balance the greenhouse effect on Earth. All plants — from
giant trees to tiny phytoplankton in the ocean — take in carbon dioxide
and give off oxygen.

The ocean also absorbs a lot of excess carbon dioxide in the air.
Unfortunately, the increased carbon dioxide in the ocean changes the
water, making it more acidic. This is called ocean acidification.

More acidic water can be harmful to many ocean creatures, such as

certain shellfish and coral. Warming oceans — from too many greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere — can also be harmful to these organisms.
Warmer waters are a main cause of coral bleaching.

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What is Global Warming?

Global warming is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the

temperature near the earth’s surface. This phenomenon has been
observed over the past one or two centuries. This change has disturbed
the climatic pattern of the earth. However, the concept of global warming
is quite controversial but the scientists have provided relevant data in
support of the fact that the temperature of the earth is rising constantly.
There are several causes of global warming, which have a negative effect
on humans, plants and animals. These causes may be natural or might be
the outcome of human activities. In order to curb the issues, it is very
important to understand the negative impacts of global warming.

Causes of Global Warming

Following are the major causes of global warming:

Man-made Causes of Global Warming

Deforestation
Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and
release oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. Forests are
being depleted for many domestic and commercial purposes. This has led
to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global warming.
Use of Vehicles
The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various
gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of
carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a
temperature increase.

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Chlorofluorocarbon
With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have
been adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric
ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful
ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer
depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the
temperature of the earth.
Industrial Development
With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has
been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to
the increasing temperature of the earth.
In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that
the increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been
0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to
the pre-industrial mean temperature.
Agriculture
Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These
add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the
temperature of the earth.
Overpopulation
An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an
increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global
warming, in the atmosphere.
Natural Causes of Global Warming
Volcanoes - Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global
warming. The ash and smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out
into the atmosphere and affects the climate.

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Water Vapour - Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the
increase in the earth’s temperature, more water gets evaporated from the
water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.
Melting Permafrost - Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental
gases trapped in it for several years and is present below Earth’s surface. It
is present in glaciers. As the permafrost melts, it releases the gases back
into the atmosphere, increasing Earth’s temperature.
Forest Blazes - Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-
containing smoke. These gases are released into the atmosphere and
increase the earth’s temperature resulting in global warming.

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:

Rise in Temperature
Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature.
Since 1880, the earth’s temperature has increased by ~1 degrees. This has
resulted in an increase in the melting of glaciers, which have led to an
increase in the sea level. This could have devastating effects on coastal
regions.

Threats to the Ecosystem

Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to the loss of
plant and animal lives. Increase in global temperatures has made the
fragility of coral reefs even worse.

Climate Change
Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are
droughts at some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the
result of global warming.

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Spread of Diseases
Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity.
This has led to the movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread
diseases.

High Mortality Rates

Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the
average death toll usually increases. Also, such events can bring about the
spread of diseases that can hamper human life.

Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants
and animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural
habitat and many of them even become extinct. This is yet another major
impact of global warming on biodiversity.
What is climate change and its causes?
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather
patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the
solar cycle. Human actions are causing Earth to warm by increasing the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
The main causes of climate change include:

1. Emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere

2. Deforestation for human settlements
3. Overutilization and exploitation of natural resources
4. Pollution caused by human activities
5. Changes in solar output which is associated with sunspot activities
6. The aerosols that reach the atmosphere after volcanic eruptions

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Unit 3
Solid Waste Management

The term solid waste management mainly refers to the complete process
of collecting, treating and disposing of solid wastes.
In the waste management process, the wastes are collected from different
sources and are disposed of. This process includes collection,
transportation, treatment, analysis and disposal of waste. It needs to be
monitored so that strict regulations and guidelines are followed.

Sources of Solid Wastes

 Solid domestic garbage.

 Solid waste material from various industries.
 Solid agricultural waste.
 Plastics, glass, metals, e-waste, etc.
 Medical waste.
 Construction waste, sewage sludge

Solid Waste Management Diagram

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Disposal of Waste
The process of waste handling and disposal varies in different countries. In
India, the processes differ according to the source of solid waste. They can
be classified as:
⦁ Municipal Solid Waste.
⦁ Hazardous Solid Waste.
Municipal solid waste can further be divided into biodegradable,
recyclable and hazardous domestic wastes. The biodegradable waste
includes rotten food, vegetable peel and mostly wet kitchen waste.
Recyclable waste includes plastic and hazardous wastes include, bulb,
batteries, etc.
The industry generated waste from chemical factories, medical waste from
hospitals are considered as Hazardous Solid Waste and they need special
settings to dispose of them.
In any region, solid waste management is very important for the safe
disposal of wastes and to reduce environmental pollution and avoid any
health hazards that it may cause.
Landfills are the most common method of disposing of solid wastes.
Modern-day landfills are designed by taking care of various environmental
factors and types of wastes, so as to minimise pollution and health risks.

Effects of Poor Solid Waste Management

Due to improper disposal of solid waste particularly by waste management
organizations, the collected wastes gets heap up and become a problem
for both the environment and also for the public.
By dumping of huge garbage, drives biodegradable materials to decay and
decompose under abnormal, uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions.
After a few days of decomposition, it becomes a breeding ground for

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different types of disease-causing insects as well as infectious organisms. A
foul smell is produced and it also spoils the aesthetic value of the area.
The solid wastes collected from different industries include toxic metals,
chemicals, and other hazardous wastes. When these wastes are released
into the environment, they can produce biological and
physicochemical problems to the environment, the chemicals may drain
into the soil and pollute the groundwater and also alter the productivity of
the soils in that particular area.
In rare cases, the hazardous wastes may get mixed up with the ordinary
garbage and other combustible wastes causing the disposal process even
harder and risky.
By burning the paper and other scraps along with the hazardous wastes,
dioxins and poisonous gasses are produced and released into the air which
results in causing various diseases including chronic disease, skin
infections, cancer, etc.

What is Compost?

Gardeners and farmers add compost to soil to improve its physical

properties. They may even use compost instead of soil to grow plants.
Mature compost is a stable material with a content called humus that is
dark brown or black and has a soil-like, earthy smell.

Compost is created by:

 Combining organic wastes, such as wasted food, yard trimmings, and

manures, in the right ratios into piles, rows, or vessels.
 Adding bulking agents such as wood chips, as necessary to accelerate
the breakdown of organic materials; and

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  Allowing the finished material to fully stabilize and mature through a
curing process.
Mature compost is created using high temperatures to destroy pathogens
and weed seeds that natural decomposition does not destroy.

Benefits of Composting

There are a number of benefits to compost that not everyone is aware of.
Some examples are listed below:

 Organic waste in landfills generates, methane, a potent greenhouse

gas. By composting wasted food and other organics, methane
emissions are significantly reduced.
 Compost reduces and in some cases eliminates the need for chemical
fertilizers.
 Compost promotes higher yields of agricultural crops.
 Compost can help aid reforestation, wetlands restoration, and
habitat revitalization efforts by improving contaminated, compacted,
and marginal soils.
 Compost can be used to remediate soils contaminated by hazardous
waste in a cost effective manner.
 Compost can provide cost savings over conventional soil, water and
air pollution remediation technologies, where applicable.
 Compost enhances water retention in soils.
 Compost provides carbon sequestration.

What is a landfill site?

A landfill site is an area of land that is used to dump rubbish, either

directly on the ground or filling an unwanted hole in the ground.

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Why do we need landfill sites?

We need landfill sites to dispose of rubbish that cannot be reused or

recycled. New technologies are being developed to reduce the amount of
rubbish that is sent to landfill each year, for instance Energy Recovery
Facilities (ERF) and composting.

What type of rubbish does a landfill site contain?

Landfill sites contain both household and commercial rubbish.

Household rubbish is mostly organic, for example food, paper, cardboard

or wood. Other household rubbish contains plastic or tin packaging. Sites
filled up before 1960 contained very little organic matter. This is because
most people burned their rubbish on open fires at home. Find out more
about what’s in our rubbish.

Most of the rubbish put in landfill sites today is from construction and
commercial businesses, such as soil, concrete and brick rubble. This is
known as inert waste because it is unlikely to react with other rubbish,
making it relatively safe for landfill.

A lot of inert waste is used for building roads on the landfill site or to cover
the site when it is full.

Why does the rubbish produce gas and liquids?

Organic waste produces bacteria which break the rubbish down. The
decaying rubbish produces weak acidic chemicals which combine with
liquids in the waste to form leachate and landfill gas.

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What is leachate?

Leachate is the liquid produced in a landfill site. As the acids from decaying
waste react with other rubbish, the leachate can become toxic. To prevent
leachate contaminating nearby streams, it is collected and disposed of at a
waste water treatment plant.

What is landfill gas?

Landfill gases contain methane and carbon dioxide, plus small amounts of
other gases that produce a sweet, sickly smell. Methane is flammable and
can cause explosions, so some landfill sites burn off the gas or use it to
generate electricity.

One tonne of degradable rubbish produces about 400–500 cubic metres of

landfill gas. As a result the gas emissions from landfill sites are monitored
for many years after the sites have stopped accepting rubbish.

What Is Hazardous Waste Management?

Both companies needed better hazardous waste management systems.
Hazardous waste management is a process to ensure the storage,
treatment and disposal of dangerous waste is conducted in a manner that
protects the health and safety of people and the environment.
What Types of Hazardous Waste Exist?
Businesses are responsible for determining if their waste is hazardous.
Hazardous waste is most commonly classified as:
 Toxic — This includes poisons with immediate, long-term

and/or chronic health effects.

 Reactive — This type of waste violently reacts with elements

like air or water.

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  Ignitable — This includes materials flammable at low
temperatures.
 Corrosive — This type of waste eats away at other materials like

metal.
Beyond these common categories, hazardous waste may also be
infectious, such as needles disposed of at hospitals, or radioactive, such as
spent nuclear reactor fuel.
How Is Hazardous Waste Managed?
Businesses that generate hazardous waste are responsible for managing
the final outcome of those materials, whether that’s recycling, storage,
treatment or disposal. Waste management procedures are industry-
specific, and regulations also depend on the quantity of waste produced.
Ideally, businesses will reduce and recycle as much as possible. Remaining
material must be carefully disposed of or stored.
The process typically begins with transport, when waste is sent to a
separate facility or company for management. Transport is carefully
monitored, and many countries require careful documentation every step
of the way. Next, waste is often treated to reduce the quantity, prepare it
for recycling and/or to lower toxicity levels. Treatment methods are
diverse, and may include burning, chemical reprocessing, bacterial
biodegradation or physical solidification, among other methods.
Waste storage is just as diverse. Some storage is temporary, for waste
awaiting treatment or another use. Temporary storage includes ponds,
lagoons or waste piles designed to prevent dispersion and seepage. Waste
that cannot be recycled, treated or destroyed is permanently stored or
disposed of in secure landfills, or it may be injected deep underground
into porous rock.
Conclusion - Hazardous waste management systems have major
environmental, health and safety ramifications. From a business
perspective, hazardous waste must be managed efficiently and effectively

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to limit those risks and avoid legal and financial implications. This requires
a robust management system, including processes to test and designate
hazardous waste, record outcomes and respond to incidents.

What is Biomedical Waste?

Biomedical waste is any waste containing infectious or potentially
infectious materials. These wastes are generated during the diagnosis,
treatment, and immunization of humans and animals.
Biomedical wastes can be in both solid and liquid forms. Examples of
biomedical wastes include:

 Waste sharps such as needles, lancets, syringes, scalpels, and broken

glass
 Human tissues or identifiable body parts (as a result of amputation)
 Animal tissues and waste from veterinary hospitals
 Used bandage, dressings, gloves, and other medical supplies
 Liquid waste from infected areas
 Laboratory wastes
Biomedical wastes are distinct from regular garbage and require particular
disposal and treatment.

Types of Biomedical Waste

The World Health Organization (WHO) has categorized biomedical waste
into eight categories. They are:

1. Infectious Waste – Any biomedical waste that is infectious or

contaminated.
2. Sharps – Sharps objects like needles, scalpels, broken glass, and
razors.

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 3. Pathological Waste – Body parts of humans or animals, including
tissues, fluids, or blood.
4. Pharmaceutical Waste – Unused drugs, medicine, or creams that are
expiring.
5. Genotoxic Waste – Toxic drugs and hazardous toxic waste
6. Radioactive Waste – Any waste containing potentially radioactive
materials
7. Chemical Waste – Liquid waste from machines, batteries, and
disinfectants is chemical.
8. General/Other Waste – All other non-hazardous waste.

Further, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPBC) has designated

separate colour-coded bins to dispose of biomedical wastes as per their
nature.

1. Yellow Bin: For anatomical waste, chemical waste, soiled waste,

chemotherapy waste, discarded linen and medicines, and laboratory
waste.
2. Red Bin: For contaminated plastic wastes
3. Blue Bin: For glass waste and metallic implants
4. Black Bin: For hazardous and other waste

The wastes in each of the bins have different treatment and disposal
methods.

What is Environmental Impact Assessments?

It is a process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed
project or development, taking into account inter-related socio-economic,
cultural, and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse. EIA is a
tool used to assess the positive and negative environmental, economic,
and social impacts of a project. This is used to predict the environmental

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impacts of a project in the pre-planning stage itself so that decisions can
be taken to reduce the adverse impacts.

Evolution & History of EIA

EIA is termed as one of the best policy innovations in the 1900s. The main
aim of EIA is to conserve the environment and bring out the
best combination of economic and environmental costs and benefits. Read
the below-mentioned points to understand the Environmental Impact
Assessment evolution and history:

1. The birth of EIA is dated back to the 1970s. In 1969, The USA had
brought its first National Environment Policy Act (NEPA) 1969.
2. The EIA was initially practised by developed nations but slowly it was
also introduced in developing nations including India.
3. Columbia and the Philippines are the earliest examples of developing
nations who introduced EIA in their policies. Columbia brought it in
1974 while the Philippines in 1978.
4. Worldwide, EIA is now practised in more than 100 countries. By the
mid-1990s, some 110 countries applied EIA as a major environmental
policy.
5. In 1989, EIA was adopted as the major development project by
the World Bank.

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Objectives of Environmental Impact Assessment

1. Identifying, predicting, and evaluating economic, environmental, and

social impacts of development activities.
2. Providing information on the environmental consequences for
decision making.
3. Promoting environmentally sound and suitable development by
identifying appropriate alternatives and mitigation measures.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process

The table below will mention the EIA Process in brief:

Environmental Impact Assessment

(EIA) Process

Process Details in Brief

Screening Which projects need

a full or partial
assessment study is
decided in this stage

Scoping  Which impacts

are necessary to
be assessed is
decided in this
stage. While
doing so, legal
requirements,
international

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 conventions,
expert
knowledge, and
public
engagement are
also considered.
 Alternative
solutions that
avoid or at least
reduce the
adverse impacts
of the project
are also studied
in this stage
 Investigation of
alternate
designs or sites
that avoid or
mitigate impact
takes place

Assessment & Environmental

Evaluation of impacts of the
Impacts and proposed project are
Development analyzed and light is
of Alternatives thrown upon the
alternatives present
to such projects

EIA Report also An environmental

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called management plan
Environmental (EMP) and also a non-
Impact technical summary of
Statement the project’s impact
(EIS) is prepared for the
general public in this
stage

Decision The fate of the

Making project is decided.
Whether the project
is to be given
approval or not and if
it is to be given,
under what
conditions

Monitoring, Monitoring whether

compliance, the predicted impacts
enforcement and the mitigation
and efforts happen as per
environmental the EMP
auditing

Importance of Environmental Impact Assessment

1. EIA is a good tool for prudent environment management.

2. It is government-policy that any industrial project in India has to
secure EIA clearance from the Environment Ministry before approval
for the project itself.

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Environmental Management Systems (EMS)

An Environmental Management System (EMS) is a set of processes and

practices that enable an organization to reduce its environmental impacts
and increase its operating efficiency. This site provides information and
resources related to establishing an EMS for small businesses and private
industry, as well as local, state and federal agencies. The EPA continues
with its progress in developing and maintaining an environmental
management system at each of its offices, laboratories, and other facility
operations, focusing on the reduction of the agency's environmental
footprint.

Unit - 4

What are environmental laws?

Environmental law is the collection of laws, regulations, agreements and
common law that governs how humans interact with their environment.
The purpose of environmental law is to protect the environment and
create rules for how people can use natural resources.

What are the important environment laws in India?

The six laws related to environmental protection and wildlife are: The
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986; The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972; Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974; Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
and The Indian Forest Act, 1927.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

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The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 the first of a
series of legislation passed by the Government of India pertaining to
regulation of environmental aspects in the country. Rising water pollution
due to industrial and domestic activities became a cause of concern,
leading to the enaction of this legislation. This Act was followed by the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, Environment Protection
Act, 1986, Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000, and
Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 (the last
one was recently replaced by Solid Waste Management Rules (SWM),
2016). This post is a summary of the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974.

The main feature of the Water Act is the control of pollution through a
permit or “consent administration” procedure. Discharge of effluents into
water bodies was only allowed by obtaining the consent of the State
Board, within restrictions it poses.

It is important to note that under the Indian Constitution, Water is a state

subject. The Central Government cannot pass any legislation pertaining to
state subjects unless such a legislation is approved by State Governments.
This Act was passed after a majority of states of India (Assam, Bihar,
Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and the
Union territories) accepted this legislation.

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 Phot
o from a cleanliness drive in Forest Research Institute, India. Credits: IFSA
Local Chapter, FRI.

Aim of the Water Act

This is an Act to “provide for the prevention and control of water pollution
and the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the
establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of
Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring on
and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and
for matters connected therewith.“

Environment Protection Act (EPA) 1986

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India’s original Constitution did not contain any provision for the
protection of the natural environment. However, the Fundamental Duties,
which were added by the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution,
prescribed the protection of the environment including forests, lakes,
rivers and wildlife as a duty of the citizens of the country.
This amendment also added new Directive Principles of State Policy, one
of which was Article 48A, which directed the State to protect and improve
the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife.
These developments were a result of the United Nations Conference on
Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972. First, the Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972 was enacted. Then, the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was passed, followed by the Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act 1981. Then in 1986, the EPA was passed by
the Parliament, in the wake of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, which occurred
on Dec 2, 1984

Aims and Objectives of the EPA

The chief aims and objectives of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 are
listed below.

1. Implementing the decisions made at the United Nations Conference

on Human Environment held in Stockholm.
2. Creation of a government authority to regulate industry that can
issue direct orders including closure orders.
3. Coordinating activities of different agencies that are operating under
the existing laws.
4. Enacting regular laws for the protection of the environment.
5. Imposing punishments and penalties on those who endanger the
environment, safety and health. For each failure or contravention,
the punishment includes a prison term of up to five years or a fine of

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 up to Rs. 1 lakh, or both. This can also be extended for up to seven
years in cases.
6. Engaging in the sustainable development of the environment.
7. Attaining protection of the right to life under Article 21 of the
Constitution.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981, or the Air Act, in
short, was a law passed by the Parliament of India to prevent and control
the harmful effects of air pollution in India. This act is seen as the first
concrete step taken by the government of India to combat air pollution.
Why should you read about the Air Act 1981?

 A study has been released in the Lancet Journal in January 2021

about air pollution and its effects on pregnancy. According to the
report, air pollution in India increases the risk of pregnancy losses in
India and a few other nations in South Asia.
 India cities of Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai make in the list of top 10
world’s most polluted cities. It has been reported in the recent
IQAir’s World Air Quality Report.
 The issue of stubble burning is a recurrent topic in the news.

Why was the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 passed?
The effects of climate change caused by all forms of pollution became all
too apparent in the early 1970s. To mitigate their harmful effects it was
believed that nations would need to pass their own laws. Thus during
the United Nations General Assembly on Human Environment held in
Stockholm in June 1972, a resolution was passed which implored the
nations of the world to preserve natural resources such as air.

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India itself had issues regarding air pollution due to a wide variety of
factors such as stubble burning, improper industrial practices,
environmental factors etc. To combat these factors a special law was
enacted under the Constitution of India, which was the Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act of 1981.

Penalties and Procedure under the Air Act

The failure to comply with the Central Pollution Control Board directives
would result in imprisonment of 1 year. It can be extended to 6 years with
a fine with the additional fine of 5000Rs per day added provided the
directives are still not met.

What are the key features of the Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981?
The key features of the Act include:

 Advising Central Government of Air and Air Pollution related issues

 Research about the causes and impact of Air Pollution
 Spread awareness to stop air pollution
 To establish central and State Boards and empower them to monitor
air quality and control pollution

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