Contents lists available at

ScienceDirect flowability of grout and

properties of preplaced
Journal of
aggregate concrete
Building
Engineering Kunal Krishna Das a, b, Eddie Siu-Shu Lam a,
Jeong Gook Jang b,*
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong, China
b
Division of Architecture and Urban Design, Urban
Sciences Institute, Incheon National University, 119
Academy-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, 22012, Republic of

Effects of modified binders on Korea

A B S T R A C T consid- ered, where, flowability and superplasticizer dosage were

In preplaced aggregate concrete (PAC), it is important yet complex to
achieve a grout with high flowability and bleed resistance
simultaneously. Supplementary cementitious materials, typically
incorporated to impart desired properties to concrete and to
complement economic and envi- ronmental benefits, may uniquely
alter the properties of PAC to that of conventional concrete.
Therefore, comprehensive knowledge of incorporating supplementary
cementitious materials, considering alterations in their flowability
and constituent materials to improve the overall performance of PAC
is essential. The present study investigates the properties of PAC,
incorpo- rating ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and
varied with and without incorporating sand. Grout properties were
evaluated in terms of flowability and compressive strength and PAC
properties were evaluated in terms of mechanical strength, durability,
and dimensional stability. The findings revealed that the combination
of GGBS and SF in grout displayed suitable flowability and acceptable
strength. Removal of sand from grout improved the properties of
grout while deteriorating the properties of PAC. PAC produced
using grout with 10% SF and sand to binder ratio of 0.5, exhibiting
effluX time of less than 20 s, displayed the highest compressive
strength. GGBS and SF significantly improved chloride ion
penetration of PAC with the drawback of increased drying shrinkage.
Nevertheless, all PAC miXes could still be classified as low shrinkage

silica fume (SF) as partial replacement of cement at 0–40% and 0– concrete. PAC produced with 40% GGBS and 10% SF exhibited
10%, respectively. Different proportions of GGBS and SF were comparable compressive strength and enhanced resistance to
chloride ion penetration to that of PAC without GGBS/SF.

1. Introduction
Preplaced aggregate concrete (PAC) is produced by first
pre-placing coarse aggregates into formwork and then filling
in the voids between the coarse aggregates with suitable
grouts. As the coarse aggregates are preplaced, they occupy
nearly 60%–70% of the total volume, leaving 30%–40% of
the voids to be filled by grout [1]. High coarse aggregate
content in PAC reduces the consumption of cement [2],
thereby reducing the shrinkage and heat of hydration [1,3],
making it suitable for application to mass construction [4].
Over the years, PAC has been applied in underwater
construction, restoration and rehabilitation of structures,
large-scale concrete structures, and structures that requires
dense steel reinforcements with complications in applying
compaction or vibration [5,6]. In

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jangjg@inu.ac.kr (J.G. Jang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106235
Received 25 September 2022; Received in revised form 10 February
2023; Accepted 2 March 2023
Available online 5 March 2023
2352-7102/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 K.K. Das et
recent years, the feasibility of applying PAC to concrete-filled
steel tubes was investigated by Lv et al. [7] with the aims of
lowering the consumption of cement, increasing stiffness,
and reducing shrinkage.
Advances in PAC inspired the use of rocks as coarse
aggregates with grout being replaced by self-consolidating
concrete. This is known as rock-filled concrete [8]. Rock-
filled concrete gained wide acceptance in China, especially in
the past decade [9–11]. It has been applied in more than 60
hydraulic engineering projects, such as the Changkeng third
reservoir project in Guangdong, Shihe reservoir project in
Hebei, Maopohe hydropower project in Yunnan, etc. [12]. In
recent studies, alkali activated grout was used to replace the
traditional cement sand grout to produce PAC with
environmental benefits [13,14]. Also, fibres were
incorporated to improve the flexural properties of PAC
[6,15,16]. As fibres were miXed with the coarse aggregates
and not with the grout, the complexities associated with
workability were eliminated.
Grouting in PAC is usually conducted by pumping process or
gravity process. In the pumping process, the grout is pumped
from the base of the formwork through a network of pipes
until it rises to the desired depth. In the gravity process, the
grout is poured on the upper face of the coarse aggregates
and is allowed to penetrate through the coarse aggregate
skeleton under the action of gravity [1,6]. The minimum size
of coarse aggregate is a key factor in selecting the appropriate
grouting process [6]. While the gravity process can be
successfully applied for larger sized coarse aggregates, the
pumping process is recommended when smaller sized coarse
aggregates (less than 20 mm) are employed [17]. The
necessity of complex equipment for pumping leads to an
upscale of resources, as well as underutilization of PAC
[18,19]. Reducing the reliance on sophisticated pumping
equipment for efficient production of PAC is important for
its wider application.
The influence of binding grout along with its flowability
affects the compressive strength of PAC [14]. Thus, the
flowability of grouts is a vital factor in forming a monolith
with the preplaced coarse aggregate and producing quality
PAC [20]. ACI 304.1 [21] recommends an effluX time of 22 ± 2
s for walls and structural repairs, 18–26 s for massive sections
and underwater constructions, and 35–40 s for high strength
PAC. In addition to the above considerations, an earlier study
suggests that the size of coarse aggregates has a significant
effect on the required effluX time and that the grouting
process (i.e. via gravity or pumping) may also influence the
required effluX time [17].
The use of supplementary cementitious materials for
partial replacement of cement reduces the weight of cement
in concrete in addition to imparting desirable properties to it
[22]. Fly ash has been successfully used to improve the
properties of PAC [4,23–28]. ACI 304.1 [21] recommends
partial replacement of cement by fly ash of up to 33%, as it
reduces the heat of hydration significantly. Nowek et al. [23]
found 10% and 6% partial replacement of cement by fly ash
and SF, respectively, to be the optimum percentages of
replacement in PAC. PAC incorporating SF displayed
superior physical properties to those of fly ash. Abdelgader
and El-Baden [29] recommended using SF in combination
with a superplasticizer to improve the compressive strength
of PAC. Najjar et al. [26] observed that while SF increases the
2
Journal of Building Engineering 68 (2023)
mechanical strength of PAC, it reduces the workability of the
grout. The detrimental effect of SF on the flowability of grout
hinders its application to PAC. While some studies, including
those noted above, on the incorporation of GGBS [4] and SF
[26,29,30] in PAC have been conducted, its durability along
with dimensional stability has yet to be explored. In PAC, as
both fresh and hardened properties of grout significantly
influence the mechanical properties of PAC produced, a
balance between flow- ability and strength of grout is
essential to exploit the full potential of the resources being
used. GGBS and SF have been used in mortar [31],
conventional concrete [32], and self-compacting concrete
[33]. However, in PAC, as the coarse aggregates do not take
part in the miXing process and the production technique of
PAC is distinct from that of other concrete, properties
exhibited by grout/mortar may not necessarily reflect the
overall performance of PAC. Further, it must be noted that the
production of quality PAC also depends on the filling ability of
the grout, rather than on external or internal compaction of
the overall concrete matriX, making it unique to that of other
concrete. In conventional concrete, partial replacement of
cement by GGBS improves the ultimate strength, cohesive
charac- teristics [34], and resistance to chloride ion
penetration [35]. Partially replacing cement with SF
enhances the strength [36] and durability [37] of concrete.
The utilization of GGBS and SF is considered the economical
and environmentally-friendly approach to improving the
properties of concrete [38]. Further, given that the
production of cement alone accounts for the third-largest
anthro- pogenic emissions of CO2 [39], utilization of
industrial by-products such as GGBS and SF in PAC is
attractive to reduce the carbon footprint, along with other
environmental and economic benefits.
In this study, an experimental investigation was
conducted to determine the effect of incorporating GGBS
and/or adding SF as partial replacement of cement. The sand
to binder ratio (S/B) was varied between 0.00 and 0.50.
Grouts with assessment of the flowability to form PAC was
evaluated at a constant superplasticizer (SP) dosage and at
regulated effluX time. To develop a user- friendly approach,
grouting was performed via the gravity process. The
influence of miX proportions of grout and the grout proper-
ties on mechanical properties, durability, and dimensional
stability of PAC was evaluated.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials
Type I ordinary Portland cement conforming to ASTM C
150 [40] was used. The mean particle size of cement,
determined using a laser diffraction particle size analyser
(LS13 320), was 17.5 μm. Locally available GGBS and SF
were employed. Chemical compositions of cement, GGBS,
and SF were analysed by X-ray fluorescence and are shown
in Table 1. PolycarboXylate-type polymer-based SP (ADVA
109) was applied. River sand with a specific gravity of 2.65,
complying to Grade 3, ACI 304.1 [21], was used as fine
aggregates. The particle size distribution of cement, GGBS,
SF, and sand is shown in Fig. 1. Singly graded crushed
granite of siliceous mineralogy passing through a 20 mm
sieve and retained on a 14 mm sieve was used as coarse
 K.K. Das et
aggregates. This range of coarse aggregates was selected to
ensure efficient penetrability of grout through the coarse
aggregate skeleton via the gravity process. The maximum
size of coarse aggregates was limited to less than a quarter of
the diameter of the cylindrical moulds that were used. The
measured void content of coarse aggregates is 38% and this
refers to the voids between the coarse aggregates to be later
occupied by grout.
2.2. Mix proportion of grout
For conventional concrete, the suitable range for the
replacement of cement by GGBS and SF varies between 30%–
60% [41–44] and 5%–10% [43,45,46], respectively. However,
these ranges of values may not be apt for producing PAC as
along with the mechanical properties, the fresh properties of
grout are also a key parameter. For filling the voids between
the preplaced aggregates, it is important yet complex to
produce grout with high flowability and bleed resistance
simultaneously. Therefore a preliminary investigation was
conducted to determine suitable limits for partially
replacing cement by GGBS and SF.
Based on a previous study [17], S/B 0.50 and W/B 0.37
= =
were applied to form grouts with and without adding GGBS
and SF. Properties of grout, i.e. effluX time and compressive
strength, were used to optimize the ratios for GGBS and SF.
Bleeding of grout was ensured to be well within the permissible
limits. To ascertain the desired GGBS to binder ratio (GGBS/B)
and silica fume to binder ratio (SF/B), samples were prepared
through trial and error. For grout with partial replacement of
cement by GGBS above 40%, the compressive strength of
grout decreased significantly (by more than 30%). Hence, the
replacement of cement by GGBS was limited to 40%. For
grout with partial replacement of cement by SF above 10%,
flowability was reduced. With 10% SF as partial replacement
of cement, it was difficult to achieve an effluX time smaller
than 20 s. Hence, the SF/B ratio was not increased further.
Therefore, based on the above, cement was partially replaced
by GGBS and SF at 0–40% and 0–10%, respectively. MiX
proportions of grout constituting different combinations of
GGBS and/or SF were considered.
Table 2 shows the miX proportion of grout. Three sets of
miXes were prepared. For Set 1, the flowability of grout was
evaluated at a SP dosage of 0.5%, whereas for Set 2, the
effluX time was regulated to less than 20 s by modifying the
SP dosage. Set 3 was a modification of Set 2 with the S/B
ratio reduced to zero. As for the miX IDs, S1, S2, and S3
represent Set 1, Set 2, and Set 3, respectively, and this is
followed by an alphabet (e.g. S1–C) where A, B, C, D and, E
represents different proportions of GGBS and SF in the miX.
Journal of Building Engineering 68 (2023)
process, i.e. first filling the moulds with coarse aggregates
followed by applying grout from above. Table 3 shows the
tests and schedule of PAC. Mechanical properties were
assessed by a compression test and a splitting tensile test.
Durability was assessed by a chloride ion penetration test,
and dimensional stability was evaluated by a drying
shrinkage test. Cylinders of 100 mm 200 mm in size were
prepared to determine the 28 days’ compressive strength
and splitting tensile strength as per ASTM C 39 [50] and
ASTM C 496 [51], respectively. Subsequently, 50 mm thick
slices were cut to size from cylinders to determine the
chloride ion penetration to ASTM C 1202 [52] at 28 days. In
addition, 75 mm × 75 mm X 285 mm prisms
were prepared to determine the drying shrinkage of PAC as per
BS ISO 1920-8 [53]. For all the above mentioned testing
procedures, a minimum of three specimens were considered.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Grout properties
Table 4 shows the properties of grout. For Set 1, the effluX
time decreased with the incorporation of GGBS and
increased greatly with the incorporation of SF. A decrease in
effluX time by 22% was observed between mi X ID S1-A (without
GGBS or SF) and S1–B (40% GGBS), while an 81% increase in
effluX time was observed between miX ID S1-A and S1–C
(10% SF). The former could be ascribed to the lubricating
effect of GGBS while the latter could be attributed to the fine
particle size of SF, which increases the overall water demand.
According to Johari et al. [54], GGBS improves workability
by improving particle dispersion. Smooth and dense surface
characteristics of GGBS particles lead to the absorption of
less water during miXing. MiXes incorporating both GGBS
and SF displayed effluX time within a suitable range, i.e.
closer to 22 ± 2 s which is recommended by ACI 304.1
[21] for application to walls and

2.3. Testing of grouts

Table 3 shows the testing schedule of grout. Grouts were
subjected to bleeding tests as per ASTM C 940 [47] and were
all well within the permissible limits, i.e. bleeding less than
2% after 120 min. Grout consistency was determined by the
flow cone test in terms of effluX time to ASTM C 939 [48]. A
smaller effluX time results in a higher flowability. Cubes with
50 mm sides were prepared to determine the compressive
strength of the grout at 7, 28, and 56 days as per ASTM C
942 [49].

2.4. Testing of PAC

Cylinders and prisms were produced via the gravity

3
×
 K.K. Das et
structural repairs. MiX ID S1-E, incorporating GGBS and SF at
their highest levels, displayed an efflu X time similar to that of
miX ID S1-A, which was devoid of any GGBS or SF. For Set 2
and Set 3, the flowability of grout varied in a similar fashion.
However, as the effluX time was controlled within a constant
range to less than 20 s in these sets, the SP dosage was
adjusted to maintain the required effluX time. Compared to Set
2, the flowability of grout was significantly improved in Set 3.
The decrease in flowability with an increase in sand content
was due to the angular and rough surface area of sand, which
traps free paste between interlocking particles and thereby
increases the viscosity of the mi X [25]. When subjected to
shear stress, as sand particles do not deform, the shear rate
within sand remains zero. To obtain a certain shear rate in the
whole composite, the shear rate in paste is higher compared to
pure cement paste [55]. This shear rate results in higher stress
and resistance to flow in the paste, increasing the effluX time
of grout.
Compressive strength of grout at 7 days, 28 days, and 56
days is shown in Fig. 2. GGBS reduces the compressive
strength of grout at 28 days. This could be attributed to the
significant reduction of cement content in the grout.
Incorporation of SF improves the 28 days’ compressive
strength of grout due to the increase in the pozzolanic
reaction between SiO2 in SF and Ca(OH) 2 from the hydration
products [56]. Table 5 shows the strength development of
grout from 7 days to 28 days and 28 days to 56 days. Mi Xes
incorporating GGBS displayed slower strength development
from 7 days to 28 days, with significant strength
development from 28 days to 56 days. This could be
attributed to latent-hydraulic reaction and the longer period
required for the formation of calcium hydroXide in cement
grout incorporating GGBS [42]. On the other hand, miXes
incorporating SF exhibited significant strength development
from 7 days to 28 days, with insignificant strength
development from 28 days to 56 days.
Based on the above, GGBS reduces the 28 days’
compressive strength but enhances the flowability of grout
whereas SF improves the 28 days’ compressive strength but
reduces the flowability of grout. By combining GGBS and SF,
they complement each other, pro- ducing grouts with
acceptable compressive strength and suitable flowability.
This indicates that industrial by-products such as GGBS and
SF can be optimized to achieve acceptable flowability and
strength. Grout miXes with equivalent GGBS and SF
replacements in Set 1 and Set 2 displayed comparable
compressive strengths despite different flowability. To
improve the flowability of the grout, the S/B ratio was
reduced to zero in Set 3. MiXes from Set 3 displayed a higher
compressive strength than miXes from Set 2. This was
attributed to the higher binder content in the miXes without
sand.
3.2. PAC properties
3.2.1. Compressive strength
Table 6 shows the compressive strength of PAC. EXcept
for miX ID S1–C (fiXed SP dosage, 10% SF), SF enhances the
compressive strength of PAC at 28 days. SF eliminates weak
links between paste and aggregates at the interfacial
transition zone by forming a homogenous and dense
microstructure at the interfacial region, thereby
4
Journal of Building Engineering 68 (2023)
strengthening the binder-aggregate bond [57]. The reduction
of the compressive strength in miX ID S1–C could be
attributed to the decrease in flowability of grout by the fine
particle size of SF and this caused inefficient filling of voids
in PAC, leaving behind honeycombs. Fig. 3 shows the
presence of honeycombs in the interior and exterior surface
of miX ID S1–C in comparison to miX ID S1-A (fiXed SP
dosage, without GGBS or SF). GGBS reduces the compressive
strength of PAC at 28 days. PAC with 40% GGBS exhibited
the lowest compressive strength in each set. The reduction in
the compressive strength could be ascribed to the slow
reactivity of GGBS and high dilution levels due to the high
replacement of cement by GGBS [54]. Nevertheless, PAC
incorporating 40% GGBS and 10% SF exhibited comparable
compressive strength to that of PAC without any GGBS or SF.
This was attributed to the combined effect of enhanced
compressive strength due to the presence of SF and
improved flowability due to the presence of GGBS. This
suggests that GGBS and SF can be successfully used to
replace up to half of the cement in the binder without
compromising the compressive strength.
Comparing Set 1 and Set 2, except for miX ID S1–C and
S2–C (miXes with 10% SF), PAC with equivalent grout miX
proportion displayed comparable compressive strength,
which is ascribed to suitable effluX time. The reduction in
compressive strength by 18% between miX ID S2–C and S1–
C was ascribed to the increase in effluX time from 20.25 s
to 36.66 s, (shown in Table 4), leading to inefficient
penetrability of the grout, as discussed earlier. This
indicates the necessity to ensure grout with suitable
flowability in addition to strength. Hence, it is essential to
regulate the effluX time within a suitable range when specifying
a miX proportion for grout. Comparing Set 3 with Set 1 and
Set 2, with the exclusion of sand, the compressive strength of
PAC decreases. This is in contrast to the compressive
strength of grout, which increases with the exclusion of
sand. This indicates that sand plays a unique role in the
strength development of grout and PAC. Although exclusion
of sand improved the flowability and compressive strength of
grout, the compatibility of grout with the coarse aggregate
skeleton, together forming a composite concrete, was
inadequate. This could be explained by the packing theory of
intermittent grading. According to Furnas [58], the amounts
of successive sizes of constituent materials in a system
depend on the voids in the coarsest size of the aggregate
present. A large void content indicates larger amount of fines
to fill them. To secure efficient packing, a system of
intermittent grading (gap grading) was applied. The solution
of intermittent grading was given graphically, and the results
obtained were plotted as curves for maximum possible voids
ranging between 30% and 60% for two to four component
sizes. The type of curve for maximum packing density was
determined by voids in the bed of uniformly packed material
and the ratio of the size limits of the system.
In this case, miX ID S2-A and S3-A (miXes without GGBS or
SF) were considered as a three-component (containing cement,
sand, and coarse aggregates) and two-component (containing
cement and coarse aggregates) sizes, respectively. Since the
effluX time of grouts for both miXes was regulated to less
than 20 s, the penetrability of grout through the coarse
aggregates was similar. In this study, the void content of
coarse aggregates was 38%. The ratio of smallest to largest
 K.K. Das et Journal of Building Engineering 68 (2023)
particle size was 0.000875, where the smallest and the
largest size were the size of cement (0.0175 mm) and coarse
aggregates (20 mm), respectively. Fig. 4 shows computed
possible minimum voids in the bed of two and three
component sizes for internal voids in the bed of uniformly
sized material of 40% [58]. It indicates that the possible
minimum voids of concrete for the three-component system
are lower than that of the two-component system. This
suggests that a denser structure is produced in the presence
of sand, resulting in higher compressive strength.
Fig. 5 shows the compressive strength of grout and PAC
along with the factor alpha (α). A compatibility factor α
(shown in Eq. (1)),
the ratio between compressive strength of grout and PAC,
was used to express the compatibility of grout with the
skeleton of coarse aggregates forming the PAC. α determines
the efficiency of grout in imparting mechanical properties to
the PAC. Grouts with high compressive strength and a high α
imply high PAC compressive strength. Comparing Set 1 and
Set 2, PAC with effluX time regulated to less than 20 s (Set 2)
displayed smaller variation of α. α for Set 3 was lower than
that of Set 2, signifying the influence of sand on the
compressive strength of PAC. For instance, while miX ID S3–
C (without sand, 10% SF) displayed a higher grout
compressive strength than that of miX ID S2–C (with sand,
10% SF), it produced a smaller α and the PAC compressive
strength was 18% lower. Although an increase in binder
content improves the compressive strength of grout, it does
not necessarily increase the compressive strength o

5
 K.K. Das et
PAC. The above is in agreement with Abdelgader [5].
PAC compressive strength Grout
Alpha compressive strength
3.2.2. Splitting tensile strength
Table 6 shows the splitting tensile strength of the PAC.
With the incorporation of GGBS, splitting tensile strength of
the PAC de- creases. This can be attributed to high
replacement ratio of cement by GGBS. Similar to
compressive strength, except for miX ID S1–C (without sand,
10% SF), PAC incorporating SF displayed an increase in
splitting tensile strength, ascribed to a high pozzolanic
reaction in the presence of SF. This exception could be
related to the high effluX time of grout, resulting in
inefficient penetrability of the grout through the coarse
aggregate skeleton, and this reflects the significance of
regulating the effluX time of grouts within a suitable range, i.
e. less than 20 s in this case. The PAC with 40% GGBS and
10% SF displayed comparable splitting tensile strength to
that of the PAC without any GGBS or SF, owing to the
combined effect of improved strength and enhanced
flowability due to SF and GGBS, respectively.
Abdelgader and Elgalhud [59] suggested that variation of
the S/B ratio did not have a significant impact on the
splitting tensile strength of PAC at a high W/B ratio (0.4–
0.6). This was ascribed to a weak grout matri X due to
excessive free water that leads to bleeding, resulting in the
formation of capillary voids in the interface and underneath
the coarse aggregates [25]. However, the effect of variation of
sand on the splitting tensile strength was observed to be
distinct at low W/B ratios [25]. In Set 3, with a reduction of
the S/B ratio to 0.00, the splitting tensile strength of PAC
decreases. This could be ascribed to the high energy required
to overcome the resistance in crack propagation and crack
growth due to larger and angular shapes of sand particles.
Fig. 6 shows the relationship between the splitting tensile
strength and compressive strength of the PAC. Most of the
splitting tensile strength values are in close pro Ximity to the
results yielded by the equation used for predicting the
splitting tensile strength of con- ventional concrete, given by
ACI 318 [60]. This indicates that the relationship between
splitting tensile strength and compressive strength in PAC
follows a similar trend to that of conventional concrete and
that the equation given by ACI 318 [60] for conventional
concrete can be used to predict the splitting tensile strength
of PAC.
3.2.3. Chloride ion penetration
Fig. 7 shows the chloride ion penetration of PAC.
Classification of chloride ion penetrability ranging from
“very low” to “moderate”
[52] is indicated in the figure. PAC containing both GGBS
and SF at their highest levels displayed “very low” to “low”
chloride ion penetrability. This could be attributed to the
high replacement of cement by GGBS and SF. The results are
consistent with those of Cheng et al. [61] and Poon et al. [37]
for conventional concrete. GGBS in concrete improves the
pore structure by introducing an additional C–S–H gel in the
paste, forming a denser microstructure and thereby reducing
the porosity [61]. SF in concrete acts as micro-fillers and
densifies the miX, reducing chloride ion penetration [37]. It
further enhances the microstructure of concrete by
6
Journal of Building Engineering 68 (2023)
(1)
accelerating the hydration rate and improving the packing
density [29].
The PAC employing grout miXes from Set 2 displayed a
higher resistance to chloride ion penetration than that of Set 1,
especially for 10% SF (miX ID S2–C and S1–C), indicating that
suitable flowability of grout produces a PAC with improved
resistance to chloride ion penetration. High flowability of
grout results in inefficient filling of voids between the coarse
aggregates, reducing honeycombs and thereby reducing the
permeability in the PAC.
Comparing Set 2 and Set 3, miX ID S2–C (10% SF) and
S2-E (40% GGBS and 10% SF) displayed “very low” chloride
ion pene- trability, whereas miX ID S3–C (10% SF) and S3-E
(40% GGBS and 10% SF) displayed “low” chloride ion
penetrability, indicating that miXes incorporating sand
provide greater resistance to chloride ion penetration. This
was further evidenced by miX ID S3-A (cement water grout),
which showed the highest coulombs of charge passed. This
could be attributed to an increase in the water and binder
content per cross-sectioned area with the removal of sand. Mi X
ID S3-E, constituting the same cement content as that of mi X ID
S1-A and S2-A, displayed a higher resistance to chloride ion
penetration. This indicates that replacing sand with a binder
comprising GGBS and SF enhances the durability of the
PAC.
3.2.4. Drying shrinkage
Fig. 8 demonstrates the variation in drying shrinkage
against the age of PAC for Set 1 (Fig. 8 (a)), Set 2 (Fig. 8
(b)), and Set 3 (Fig. 8
(c)). By adding GGBS and SF, the drying shrinkage of the PAC
increased. The finer pore structure of GGBS in the mi X lowers
the relative humidity and increases the degree of self-
desiccation in the cement paste [62]. The incorporation of
GGBS results in a denser miX with fine capillary pores. This
increases the capillary pore water pressure, which leads to
higher shrinkage strains [63]. SF exhibited higher drying
shrinkage than that of GGBS and more than twofold greater
drying shrinkage than that of PAC without any GGBS or SF.
The increase in drying shrinkage due to the incorporation of SF
could be attributed to the introduction of a high pozzolanic
reaction and the pore size refinement mechanism of SF [64].
With the incorporation of SF, a large amount of C–S–H is
formed, which in turn holds a large amount of gel water. As
drying shrinkage occurs due to the expulsion of gel water
from concrete, the large amount of gel water released by
concrete incorporating SF results in higher drying shrinkage
[65].
Drying shrinkage of the PAC increased with the removal
of sand in Set 3. At 30 days, an increase in drying shrinkage
by 48%, 35%, 20%, 8%, and 14% were observed between miX
ID S2-A and S3-A, S2–B and S3–B, S2–C and S3–C, S2-D and
S3-D, and S2-E and S3-E, respectively. The increases in
drying shrinkage were attributed to the increased binder and
water content in Set 3, due to exclusion of
 K.K. Das et Journal of Building Engineering 68 (2023)

sand. With higher binder and water content, shrinkage While the exclusion of sand from the grout (comparing
increases as the water and binder represent the shrinkage miX ID S2-A and S3-A) improves the flowability and strength
phase, whereas sand remains inert. of grout, it reduces the compressive strength, flexural
Based on Emmons [66], shrinkage lower than 500 μm at strength and resistance to chloride ion penetration of PAC by
30 days is classified as low shrinkage. Fu et al. [67] 19%, 20%, and 55%, respectively. The drying shrinkage of
proposed a shrinkage PAC increased by 48% at 30 days. This was attributed to the
limit of 450 microstrain at 28 days to ensure satisfactory improved packing density of PAC in the presence of sand.
resistance to cracking. Therefore, even though the drying
shrinkage increases with the incorporation of GGBS and/or SF, 5. Conclusions
or the removal of sand, the drying shrinkage of all PAC mi Xes
was well within the acceptable limit. This suggests that the The present study investigated the properties of PAC,
strength and/or durability of PAC can be improved with a incorporating GGBS and SF as partial replacement of
compromise of the drying shrinkage within an acceptable cement. Cement was partially replaced by GGBS and SF at 0–
limit. 40% and 0–10% by weight of binder, respectively. The sand
to binder ratio was varied between
4. Discussion 0.0 and 0.50. The main conclusions drawn from the study are
as follows.
Three sets of miXes were produced, where, cement was
1) Partial replacement of cement by GGBS enhanced the
partially replaced by GGBS and SF at 0–40% and 0–10% by
flowability with a reduction in the compressive strength
weight of the binder, respectively. For Set 1, the SP dosage
of grout, whereas partial replacement of cement by SF
was maintained at 0.5% by weight of the binder, whereas for
improved the compressive strength with a reduction in
Set 2, the effluX time was regulated to less than 20 s by
the flowability of grout. By combining GGBS and SF, they
modifying the SP dosage. Set 3 was a modification of Set 2
complement each other, producing grouts with
with the S/B ratio reduced to zero. E Xper- imental results
acceptable compressive strength and suitable flowability.
demonstrated that, for Set 1, partial replacement of cement
2) PAC produced with the effluX time of grout regulated to
by GGBS improved the flowability of grout by 23% with a
less than 20 s displayed enhanced properties compared to
reduction in 28 days compressive strength of grout by 24%,
PAC produced with the SP dosage of grout maintained at
whereas, partial replacement of cement by SF slightly
a constant rate.
improved the 28 days compressive strength of grout with a
3) Removal of sand (S/B 0) improves the flowability and
= of grout by 81%.
reduction in the flowability
compressive strength of grout but reduces the compressive
As to the PAC properties, comparing mi Xes between Set 1
strength of PAC, indicating that the influence of sand on
and Set 2, with flowability regulated to less than 20 s,
PAC is unique to that of grout.
efficient pene- trability of the grout through the coarse
4) PAC with 40% GGBS and 10% SF exhibits comparable, if
aggregate skeleton was ensured resulting in improved PAC
not higher, compressive and splitting tensile strength to
properties. This was evident from miX ID S1–C and S2–C
that of PAC without any supplementary cementitious
(10% SF), where the compressive strength, flexural strength,
materials.
and resistance to chloride ion penetration improved by 22%,
5) Inclusion of GGBS and SF enhances the resistance to
16%, and 60%, respectively.
chloride ion penetration of PAC. PAC produced using
For Set 2, GGBS reduced the compressive strength of PAC
40% GGBS and 10% SF displayed “very low” to “low”
by 25% whereas SF increased the compressive strength of
chloride ion penetrability. Removal of sand decreases the
PAC by 12%. PAC produced with 40% GGBS and 10% SF
resistance to chloride ion penetration in the PAC.
(miX ID S2-E) displayed a comparable compressive strength
6) Incorporation of GGBS and SF increases the drying
to that of PAC produced without any GGBS or SF (miX ID S2-
shrinkage of PAC, with SF exhibiting higher influence. PAC
A). This could be attributed to the combined effect of
with sand displayed lower drying shrinkage than that of
enhanced strength development due to the presence of SF
and improved flowability due to the incorporation of GGBS. PAC without sand. However, drying shrinkage values of
This suggests that GGBS and SF can be successfully used to all specimens were within the acceptable limit.
produce PAC without any compromise in their mechanical
properties. GGBS and SF enhance the resistance to chloride CRediT authorship contribution statement
ion penetration by 17% and 76%, respectively. PAC produced Kunal Krishna Das: Conceptualization; Methodology;
using 40% GGBS and 10% SF (miX ID S2-E) displays Investigation; Data Curation; Writing- original draft;
improved resistance to chloride ion penetration by 79%, Writing-review and editing. Eddie Siu-Shu Lam:
ascribing to high cement replacements. In terms of drying Methodology; Visualization, Supervision, Conceptualization,
shrinkage, GGBS increases the drying shrinkage of PAC by Project administration, Writing-review &
33% and SF increases the drying shrinkage of PAC by 92%, at
30 days. MiXes incorporating 10% SF (miX IDs S1–C, S2–C,
and S3–C) displayed the highest drying shrinkage in their
respective sets. However, the drying shrinkage values for all
the PAC miXes were well within the acceptable limit (less
than 500 μm), encouraging enhancement in strength and
durability with a compromise in drying shrinkage within an
acceptable limit.

1
 K.K. Das et Journal of Building Engineering 68 (2023)

editing. Jeong Gook Jang: Conceptualization; Methodology;
Resources; Funding acquisition; Project administration;
Supervision; Writing-review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea
government (MSIT) (No. 2021R1C1C1013864). Also, the
authors wish to express their gratitude for the financial
support provided by The Hong Kong Poly- technic
University. The authors are thankful for the technical
support provided by the laboratories of the Department of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University.
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