Cofffe

The Rate of Coffee Production in the Philippines – A Study based on
Demand and Supply

Maria Tricia C. Sta. Barbara
mikyak13@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Coffee is part of the Filipino culture for centuries and one of the major incomes for
many farmers in the Philippines. This research study seeks to understand the
dynamics of the coffee industry and identify the different types of coffee that is existing
and in demand in the market and production location in different regions in the country.
The domestic coffee is studied if there is a sustainable industry for coffee farmers and
if it would be a wise investment for those who are planning to put up a coffee production
business. Related studies and secondary sources are used for statistics and
information regarding coffee production.
Keywords: Coffee Production, coffee industry, coffee consumption, demand for coffee
INTRODUCTION
Coffee has been a mainstay in the Philippines for hundreds of years. Commercial
robust beans have been cultivated across the nation for many years, although specialized
arabica production is a small component of the local coffee industry. The rise of Philippine
specialty coffee was hampered by a lot of factors. Natural calamities, environmental
concerns, and shifting economic situations have all influenced production. In 2018, the
Philippines drank 170,000 metric tons of coffee, while only 35,000 kg were produced.
Philippine coffee, like its flavor, has a long history. A Spanish Franciscan friar planted the
first coffee tree in Lipa, Batangas, in 1740. From then, coffee cultivation expanded across
Batangas, helping the province to prosper throughout time. Lipa later became the
Philippines' coffee capital. Batangas had been supplying coffee to America through San
Francisco since the 1860s, and with the inauguration of the Suez Canal, the European
World Citi Colleges – Graduate School
MBA 206 – Advanced Managerial Economics [Working Paper, 2022]
1
market became available. By 1880, the Philippines had surpassed Brazil as the world's
fourth-biggest exporter of coffee beans, and when coffee rust struck Brazil, Africa, and
Java, it became the world's only supply of coffee beans. While 2020 may bring new
problems, such as the Covid-19 epidemic and the eruption of the Taal Volcano, it may
also usher in a new age for Philippine specialty coffee. A locally made coffee won the
2020 Philippine National Barista Championship for the first time in history (PNBC).
Continue reading to find out why this achievement is so critical for the future of Philippine
coffee production. In 1740, Spanish monks brought coffee to the Philippines, establishing
Lipa as the country's coffee center. Coffee was rapidly being produced across the country,
and by the 1800s, it was being sold to the United States via San Francisco, and to Europe
via the Suez Canal.
Unfortunately, coffee rust had reached the Philippine shores by the end of the
decade, wiping off all of Batangas' coffee plantations. Following then, the Philippine
coffee industry saw ups and downs and never recovered its former glory. However, the
Philippine coffee industry is not doomed. Coffee is cultivated in 50 countries in the
equatorial zone's "Bean Belt." Surprisingly, the Philippines is located inside the Bean Belt.
Due to its exceptional temperature and soil conditions from the lowlands to the mountains,
the Philippines is one of the few countries that produce all four commercially relevant
coffee varieties, Liberica, Excelsa, Robusta, and Arabica. By the late 1800s, the
Philippines was the world's fourth-largest coffee exporter. When coffee rot devastated
crops in Africa, Java, and Brazil in the nineteenth century, it became the world's sole
supplier of coffee. In the early 1900s, coffee rust found its way to the Philippines,
decimating the country's coffee production. It destroyed nearly all of the country's coffee
plants, prompting many growers to abandon the crop completely. Throughout the
twentieth century, output steadily recovered, and the Philippine government introduced a
disease-resistant cultivar into the country in the 1950s. The Philippines joined a global
organization that deals with irregular migration in 1980. Associate Association of
Occasional Importation and Mercantilism Nations is a group of countries that hire
employees to import and export on a sporadic basis. Despite the region's ongoing drop-
in product availability, demand still outnumbers supply. According to the Agriculture
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Department, the United States imports between 75,000 and 100,000 metric tons of rice
from Vietnam and the Republic of Indonesia each year. J.C., the company's chief
executive officer Martinez, is also a joint owner and operator. According to him, strong A
was the most important full-grown occurrence in 2019, followed by Arabic A, Excelsior,
and African nation. Farmers have been targeted for expanding specialty Arabica's
occasional output during the last 3 to 5 years. To make matters worse, the year 2020 has
brought whole new hurdles for Philippine coffee producers. When the Taal Volcano
erupted in January 2020, around 450,000 inhabitants were advised to evacuate their
homes and crops. Damage to cropland, crops, and cattle was projected to cost 577 million
Philippine pesos (about $11 million USD), with almost 5,000 metric tons of coffee lost.
Agricultural Cooperative Development International and the According to

Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance (ACDI-VOCA), an American
nongovernmental organization that provides technical assistance to Philippine coffee
farmers, there are positive trends for the Philippine coffee industry – coffee consumption
is increasing, and there are more skilled farmers. According to the ACDI/VOCA, Philippine
coffee has already entered markets in Canada, Japan, and New Zealand, while the home
market remains strong, particularly for specialist coffee (Arabica coffee with a cup score
of at least 80 points). While Philippine coffee output remains poor and unable to meet
demand even if it cannot meet local consumption demand (coffee production was 62,062
metric tons of green coffee beans in 2019 but Filipinos consume 100,000 metric tons of
coffee per year and drink nearly as much coffee as the people of the United States, Brazil,
Japan, and the European Union). The Philippines is aiming to be one of the world's
leading producers of high-quality coffee. The Philippine Coffee Industry Roadmap 2017-
2022 outlines the country's plans for the coffee industry. Coffee output is predicted to
more than sevenfold by 2022, bringing the coffee industry comparable to those of Brazil,
Colombia, Vietnam, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Indonesia. The Philippine government
hopes to achieve its goals through the coffee roadmap. Provide a coffee sector that is
cost-competitive, in line with global quality standards, dependable, and environmentally
friendly, providing long-term advantages to growers, processors, traders, and exporters,
as well as Philippine food security and poverty reduction.
3
METHODOLOGY
A quantitative research design was adopted in this study. A time-series regression
approach, specifically. There are four types of quantitative research designs: descriptive,
correlational, causal-comparative, and experimental, which all identify the manipulation
of variables and whether the independent variable affects the chosen dependent variable
(Regoniel, 2020). It consists of the measurement and presumption of occurrence in the
context of the research to be measured. It defines the goal of evaluating data for
correlations and patterns to verify the measurements taken (Watson, 2015). The current
researcher could determine the association between the chosen dependent variable,
which is local coffee production, and the chosen independent factors using a quantitative
study design. Using a time-series regression model to analyze the impact of the former,
this study determined if the variables discussed affects local coffee output favorably or
adversely. The current researcher analyzed the information acquired to determine if local
coffee bean production is sustainable in contributing to the country's GDP. The current
researcher used data gathered to establish whether sustainable coffee production had a
positive or negative association with the independent variables by analyzing data
acquired from many sources to see if these factors reflect the influence on the country's
GDP.
The current researcher could interpret the current observations using the acquired
data over a specified period by employing the time-series regression approach. The
current researcher employed a time-series data regression model to find the disparities
in coffee output in the Philippines using the data collected. The production and quality of
coffee have improved throughout time. This study obtained secondary data for the study
from a variety of trustworthy sources that were freely available on the Internet. The total
number of coffee beans produced domestically, domestic consumption, total exports,
coffee yield, total coffee harvest area, the total amount of agricultural irrigation (in mm —
millimeter), and similarly, the number of fertilizers is among the data acquired. The
Department of Agriculture, the Philippine Statistics Authority, and the International Coffee
Organization were used to perform this research. By examining the variables of domestic
4
consumption, total coffee exports, coffee yield, harvest area, agricultural irrigation, and
agricultural fertilizers, this study could identify the likely repercussions of the fall in local
coffee production in the Philippines. Local coffee production has a long-term economic
impact when these variables are used in conjunction with the data collected. These
economic tests will be used to assess the relationship between the study's dependent
and independent variables. Local coffee production has a major contribution in our
economic development in the long run.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This study illustrates the local consumption of coffee, coffee production and the
coffee yield have a notable relationship. The performance of coffee in the market are
determined by consumer behavior in the consumption of coffee and the local coffee
production. The researcher of this study found that in order to increase the sustainability
of coffee production in the Philippines, the local farmers should be supported by the
government in making improvements in their coffee farming and production and apply
innovative techniques to contribute to the country’s economy.
Local Coffee Production and Consumption

The International Coffee Organization (ICO, 2020) published figures on total coffee
output in the Philippines for the first time in 30 years, indicating that the country produced
974,000 60 kg bags in 1990, then fell from 1992 to 1996. However, it only recovered for
a year to increase output, and since then, coffee production in the Philippines has been
unpredictable. Coffee output declined from 78.63 thousand metric tons in 2013 to 62.08
thousand metric tons in 2017, according to the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA, 2018).
In contrast, due to marketing campaigns and brand awareness operations, coffee
consumption in Indonesia is continuously growing. Furthermore, the country's
consumption is being bolstered by an increase in the number of coffee shops, which
include franchises and local businesses (2017). The preceding is significant because the
strategies or efforts might be adopted in the Philippines, where coffee consumption is
high. Domestic coffee consumption in the Philippines (in thousands of 60kg bags) has
progressively increased from 1990 to the present, according to statistics from the
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International Coffee Organization (ICO, 2021). Domestic coffee consumption reached 3.3
million 60kg bags from 2018 to 2019, up from around 720,000 60kg bags in 1990 and
1991. Coffee consumption in Indonesia is still increasing, and the country has risen to
become the world's eighth-largest consumer. (2017) employed gray system modeling to
forecast the real data acquired, and the findings were correct, indicating that coffee
consumption in Indonesia will continue to rise year after year. Most of the profit generated
by coffee production is not maintained by the producing countries. Consumer demand is
unavoidably changing, and the market will likely continue to adjust to meet those changes.
The report also claims that wealthy countries have higher coffee consumption as a
percentage of total world production (De Lima, et al., 2020). The tables below show the
world coffee consumption and the crop year production by country that includes the
Philippines.
Figure 1 Shows the world coffee consumption from 2017 to 2020 which includes the
Philippines.
Source: International Coffee Organization (ICO)

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Figure 2 Crop year production by country from 2017 to 2020.
Source: International Coffee Organization (ICO)
Coffee Varieties
There are four major types of coffee namely, Robusta, Arabica, Excelsa and
Liberica. The most viable type of coffee on that is commercially viable is the Arabica and
Robusta. There are so many types of coffee varieties around the globe but these four
major types are the most commonly grown by farmers.
The Robusta coffee is the type that is dominant and has high yield and mostly used
in espresso and instant coffee. Arabica is best when planted in high altitudes and the
most expensive kind while Excelsa is drier and more resistant to pest and the last is
Liberica has the strongest taste and smell.
Coffee Manufacturers in the Philippines

There are many manufacturers of roasted and ground coffee beans in the
Philippines. Some of them include Nestle Philippines which is the biggest local

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manufacturer of instant coffee, which comprises 80% of the coffee industry and followed
by Universal Robina Corporation and Commonwealth Foods Corporation.
Many domestically made ground coffee are being sold in the market like the
Kalinga Musang Coffee, the Civet Coffee from Mount Apo and from Sagada. Local
businesses produce these types of coffee, most of them are doing small scale business.
The increase of the coffee demand and primary concentration on the source of
origin, there are new local coffee manufacturers that is being recognized in the coffee
industry.
Figure 3 Shows the volume of production of coffee by variety in the Philippines.
Based on the calculation from the Philippine Statistics Authority, the Robusta type
of coffee have a total production of 24,924 metric tons or approximately 69% of total
production while Arabica followed with 8,717 metric tons with an approximate of 24% total
production of coffee.
Domestic Prices
The prices of coffee beans in the Philippines are changeable where there are
increases for the past years. Price of Robusta coffee increased by 5.93% per year, the

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price of Arabica increased by 6.85% per year while the Excelsa coffee increase by 6.23%
per year.
Coffee Exports
Total coffee bean exports are steadily dropping, as is total coffee bean output,
despite the latter being able to stabilize about 2010. (ICO, 2021). Improved policies aided
in the development and quality of the coffee industry, both for domestic consumption and
market exports. Given that Indonesia is a large producer of coffee, it primarily exports to
the worldwide market. Policies are proposed to promote productivity and empower
smallholder farmers' performances to improve the competitiveness and sustainability of
the coffee business (Arifin, 2013). In 2014, the Philippines' coffee exports were US$3.2
million. Furthermore, it accounts for less than 0.009% of the global trade supply. Although
instant coffee is the Philippines' greatest export, with an 82 percent value export in 2014,
the extract has dropped from US$6.2 million in 2005 to US$2.6 million in 2014. During
the same time, the Philippines' total raw, semi-processed, and processed coffee exports
fell by US$4 million, from US$7.2 million to US$3.2 million (Bamber et al., 2017). Fairtrade
is a welfare enhancement program that addresses market failures in coffee production,
as illustrated in the short-term, partial equilibrium model that accounts for market failures
(Tedeschi & Carlson, 2011).
Coffee Yield and Harvest Area

According to selected agricultural statistics, the average metric tonnage for coffee
output is 112,000.30 metric tons, and the average harvest area is 130,000.89 hectares.
When the mean harvest area was divided by the mean metric tons, the coffee output was
0.86 metric tons per hectare (Philippine Statistic Authority, 2021). Furthermore, the effect
of climatic variables is one of the most critical elements in controlling the output and
quality of Arabica coffee beans (De Oliveira et al., 2017). From 1984 to 2016, the
harvested coffee area in Brazil was 2.51 million hectares, which was reduced to barely
1.99 million hectares in 2016, representing a 20.3 percent loss in the area. Gains in
Brazilian coffee output result from technological advancements and the adoption of new
varietals and procedures (Volsi et al., 2019). Pre-harvest and post-harvest actions such
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as selecting the highest quality coffee, processing, drying, hulling, storing, roasting,
grinding, and brewing can all have an impact on coffee quality. Environment, genetics,
agronomic activities, harvesting, and post-harvest procedures all have an impact on the
chemical compositions and physical attributes of coffee beans (Haile & Hee Kang, 2020).
Of the eight programs tested, two are said to be urgently required, namely plant
rehabilitation and coffee price stabilization; both are believed to be significant programs
to increase coffee production since Indonesia's productivity declined, which effectively
reduced the harvest area for coffee plants, and the said programs are important for the
next production (Nuddin, et al., 2019).
Agricultural Irrigation
According to one study, it is possible to reduce the amount of watering technique
without affecting coffee production. There is a potential of reducing irrigation of
consumptive water consumption and increasing yields in coffee cultivation in Vietnam. As
a result, it still calls for induced water stress in the form of a lack of irrigation water,
depending on the scheduling of techniques such as irrigation management, other input
management, and agronomic practices. It is also noted that water can be provided for the
plants. Agricultural crops, on the other hand, require irrigation to ease water stress during
Vietnam's dry seasons, which extend from February to March. Overall, irrigation has a
significant impact on the sustainability of coffee production (Amerasinghe et al., 2015).
The Smart Irrigation Decision Support System was created to manage agricultural
irrigation, since managing the irrigation system is critical for crop sustainability. Based on
soil and climatic variables, the approach determines the weekly irrigations necessary for
a plantation. Previous researchers have presented the concept to examine if using
machine learning techniques with weather and soil as factors is relevant or whether it
might give an automated closed-loop system to anticipate the irrigation demands of each
crop (Navarro et al., 2016). With irrigation as the primary factor influencing agricultural
productivity and environmental resources, worldwide interconnections of agricultural
output and access to land and water resources are being assessed. Previous researchers
have merged alternate irrigation techniques into a novel model to analyze water use
adjustments in agriculture for diverse development events.
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In contrast, a suggested agricultural irrigation system based on internet
technology, by regulating the water-saving irrigation system, maximizes water
consumption, and improves water use, enhancing water productivity (Li, 2012).
Innovation addresses the complexities of climate circumstances, which correspond to
agricultural production dryness. The goal of innovation is not just to improve the agri-food
sector's competitiveness, but also to raise productivity (Oliveira et al., 2019). However,
developing the irrigation system requires significant financial investment and is difficult to
implement. However, to address agricultural issues, notably the management of novel
irrigation, the researchers created a closed pipe water distribution network that increases
crop productivity while saving water (Bhalage et al., 2015).
The findings show that irrigation has a significant influence on agriculture and that
irrigation is critical in tropical Asian nations (Lee, et al., 2012). Agriculture's resilience to
climate change propels agricultural production forward by providing long-term growth.
Using irrigation and rainfall as variables had diverse results in estimating the various
implications on agricultural productivity. Irrigation has a beneficial and large impact on
total agriculture productivity. Climate-smart agriculture increases agricultural productivity
for long-term sustainable agriculture and food production. As a result, it offers policies
and methods to enhance agricultural irrigation and water management (Olayide et al.,
2016). Finally, despite differences in irrigation systems, a tiny number of smallholder
coffee producers in Vietnam refused to adopt either drip or sprinkler irrigation. Mostly
because of the significant expenditure required. As a result, smallholder coffee producers
who are unable to gain access to the irrigation system would likely resort to traditional
growing methods to save money and resources. Although there are no differences
between applying the sustainable method and the traditional system for coffee production,
it has been demonstrated that sustainable irrigation is more lucrative and cost-effective
than the latter (Hung Anh et al., 2019).
Overall, the prior researcher used a more advanced irrigation system technique. It
should also include the role of irrigation and water resources in the future of food security
11
and general socioeconomic well-being (Sauer et al., 2010). One prerequisite for
sustainable agricultural production is water from irrigation systems, which must meet the
demands of the crops to produce the maximum yield. According to the study, to maximize
the efficiency of water use in agriculture, it must not waste water resources and prevent
exceeding water requirements for each crop production (Saccon, 2018).
Fertilizer
The influence of fertilizers on coffee production costs led to the idea that
evaluating fertilizer transversal distribution on coffee crops is practical and efficient
(Andrade, et al., 2020). Nitrogen (N) dynamics in plants during agricultural crop growth.
15N buildup in distinct plant sections of mature coffee was detected over time in labeled
fertilizer field research. This study looked at how N absorption in plant compartments
changed over time in a coffee crop planted in the Brazilian "cerrado" that had previously
been farmed with high N fertilizer rates (Bruno et al., 2011). Another study looked at the
effect of fertilizer credit on crop input consumption, crop choice, crop yield, and family
income. Because of loan availability, organic fertilizer consumption increases by 35 kg
per household. Furthermore, financial access raises teff production by 37% but not the
yields of other main crops such as maize and wheat. The findings raise questions
regarding the efficiency of Ethiopia's loan program in improving farmers' living conditions
(Matsumoto & Yamano, 2011). Coffee husk, a rich organic agricultural waste, and
potassium source is a useful material for composting to minimize composting time and
enhance compost quality. Furthermore, partial substitution of chemical fertilizer with
compost improved coffee soil fertility, nitrogen absorption in the leaves, and branch
development rate (Dzung, et al., 2013).
Fertilizer is an essential component of contemporary agriculture. The extensive

use of fertilizers, together with advances in crop and animal qualities, irrigation and
drainage, and pest and disease control, have largely contributed to the massive growth
in food and feed output globally during the previous six decades. It was expected that
fertilizer usage and nitrogen losses to the environment would rise steadily in the next
decades (Li et al., 2012). Because of using modern technology in Philippine agriculture
12
since the 1950s, the fertilizer sector has risen substantially. This allowed fertilizer
application to reach the high production potential of current technology and varieties,
which had superior fertilizer response to previous types (Briones, 2014).
CONCLUSION
This study would advocate implementing the possible changes described in the
study's results to boost the sustainability of growing coffee crops in the Philippines. The
agricultural sector contributes to a country's economy, and boosting government
investment in the coffee industry in the Philippines would improve the agricultural sector's
contribution to the Philippine economy (Murindahabi et al., 2019). Coffee farmers should
adopt the productivity of Cavite farmers to sustain their locally produced coffee, and as
more municipalities have adopted the system, the coffee sector will increase its
productivity to help contribute to the Philippines' agricultural sector (Cubillo, 2018).
RECOMMENDATION
It is suggested that for coffee growers in the Philippines to use coffee waste as an
alternative fertilizer instead of chemical fertilizers while establishing coffee plantations.
This would not only increase coffee output but also serve as a near-standard for
environmental and economic sustainability. Additionally, coffee waste gathered in various
methods, such as coffee brewing, can be pyrolyzed to make industrial commodities such
as charcoal and biogas (Ktori, et al., 2018). According to the experiments, domestic
consumption, coffee output, harvest area, and irrigated service area all have positive
relationships with local coffee production. While fertilizer exports and supply, in general,
have minimal impact on local coffee output. The four characteristics that have a good
association with Local Coffee Production will decide its lifespan. Because domestic
consumption is one of the factors that have a positive association with Local Coffee
Production, we can assume that Local Coffee Production will continue or, better still,
improve in the long term. If domestic demand continues to rise, so will local coffee
production, as they have a positive connection, provided the factors improve in the long
term.

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Coffee productions stakeholders should also unite to develop a coffee industry
roadmap to bring the latest situation of the country’s coffee industry to sustain the supply
chain for international recognition in the coffee industry for its consumers and producers.
Many challenges must be taken into account in making the roadmap, following the supply
chain analysis from farm inputs, production, processing, manufacturing and distribution
of coffee products around the country.
REFERENCES
Amaldo, S. (2019, October). THE PHILIPPINE COFFEE INDUSTRY. Retrieved from

https://www.vancouverpcg.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/2-The-Philippine-Coffe-
Industry-Rev3.pdf
De Lima, L. M., de Pellegrini Elias, L., e Silva, M. M. C. D., da Silva, K. V., & Pacheco, A. S. V.
(2020). Behavioral aspects of the coffee consumer in different countries: The case of
Brazil. Coffee Consumption and Industry Strategies in Brazil, 321–341.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-814721-4.00016-0
Department of Agriculture, local coffee production and consumption statistics
https://www.da.gov.ph
ICO (International Coffee Organization). (2021), International Coffee Organization trade statistics.
Retrieved from https://www/ico.org/historical/1990%20onwards/PDF/1b-domestic-
consumption.pdf
Ktori, R., Kamaterou, P., & Zabaniotou, A. (2018b). Spent coffee grounds valorization through
pyrolysis for energy and materials production in the concept of circular economy. Materials
Today: Proceedings, 5(14), 27582–27588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.09.078
Luat, Y. et.al. (2022, January). A Study on the Economic Sustainability of Local Coffee Production
in the Philippines. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357556643_A_Study_on_the_Economic_Sust
ainability_of_Local_Coffee_Production_in_the_Philippines
Philippine Statistics Authority, Coffee Production,
https://www.psa.gov.ph/gsearch?%2F=Coffee+Production#gsc.tab=0&gsc.q=Coffee%20
Production&gsc.page=1
Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA). (2018). Crops Statistics of the Philippines 2017-2021.
Retrieved from
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https://www.psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Crops%20Statistics%20of%20Philippines%202
017-2021.pdf
Soque, N. (2020, August). The Success of Locally-Produced Coffee In The Philippines. Retrieved
from https://perfectdailygrind.com/2020/08/the-success-of-locally-produced-philippine-
coffee-barista-championship-2020-specialty/
Tolentino, T. & Hernandez, A. (2018, November). Assessment of Predictive Models for Coffee
Production in the Philippines. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330477119_Assessment_of_Predictive_Model
s_for_Coffee_Production_in_the_Philippines
THE AUTHOR
Maria Tricia C. Sta. Barbara is from Muntinlupa City. She is a
graduate of Bachelor of Science in Commerce major in
Management from Colegio de San Juan de Letran. She is
currently working in the government sector as a Regulations
Officer and pursuing a Master’s Degree in Business Administration
(MBA) at World Citi Colleges, Quezon City.

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The Rate of Coffee Production in the Philippines – A Study based on

Demand and Supply

Agricultural Cooperative Development International and the According to

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Local Coffee Production and Consumption

Source: International Coffee Organization (ICO)

World Citi Colleges – Graduate School

Source: International Coffee Organization (ICO)

Coffee Manufacturers in the Philippines

World Citi Colleges – Graduate School

Figure 3 Shows the volume of production of coffee by variety in the Philippines.

World Citi Colleges – Graduate School

Coffee Yield and Harvest Area

Fertilizer is an essential component of contemporary agriculture. The extensive

World Citi Colleges – Graduate School

Amaldo, S. (2019, October). THE PHILIPPINE COFFEE INDUSTRY. Retrieved from

World Citi Colleges – Graduate School

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