GEOTECHNOLOGY-I(CEPC-33)

Unit 1 Sub-Surface Exploration

Dr. Jitendra Singh Yadav

Assistant Professor-I
Dept of Civil Engineering
NIT Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Haryana

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 CONTENT
• Purpose
• Stages in soil exploration
• Depth and lateral extent of exploration
• Guidelines for various types of structures
• Ground water observations
• Excavation and boring methods
• Soil sampling and disturbance
• Major types of samplers
• Sounding methods-SCPT, DCPT, SPT and interpretation
• Geophysical methods
• Pressure-meter test
• Exploration logs

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Site Investigation

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➢ What is site investigation (SI)?
The design of foundations of structures (such as buildings, bridges, and dams) generally requires information
about:
• Structure
• Ground

• Site investigation (SI) or soil exploration is the process of gathering

information, within practical limits, about the stratification (layers) and
engineering properties of the soils underlying the proposed construction
site. Structure
• The principal engineering properties of interest are the strength,
deformation, and permeability characteristics.
Ground

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 Why site investigation (SI)?
• Many engineering failures could have been avoided if a proper site investigation had been carried out.
• The success or failure of a foundation depends essentially on the reliability of the knowledge obtained
from the site investigation.

The site has a sinkhole risk which

might have been discovered in a
proper site investigation Sinkhole
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 Objectives of site investigation

The knowledge about the ground of the proposed construction site is obtained by Site Investigation, and used
to determine:

Suitability: of site for

the proposed Design parameters:
Effect of construction? such as strength,
changes: How will compressibility,

Site Investigation
the design affect permeability & other
adjacent properties parameters used for
and the ground geotechnical design
water?

Type of design Geo-materials:

solution: e.g. type available on site
of foundation: which can be re-
shallow or deep. used?

Ground or Ground-water conditions: that would affect

the design and construction? e.g. expansive soil,
collapsible soil, high ground water…
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 OBJECTIVES
➢Selection of the type and the depth of foundation suitable for a given structure.
➢Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
➢Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
➢Determination of potential foundation problems (for example, expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and so on).
➢Establishment of ground water table.
➢Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like retaining walls, sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
➢Establishment of construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.
➢ To assess the general suitability of the site with the proposed works.
➢To help produce a design which is adequate and economic.
➢To help overcome possible difficulties & delays that may arise during construction period due to ground and other local
conditions.
➢To predict possible changes that may occur/cause of all changes in site condition.
➢To maximize potential of the site

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Information required from a site investigation:

• Information affecting the design of the structure: shear strength and compressibility of the soil

• Information affecting the construction of the works: the extent and properties of material to be excavated, or

to be used for fill or for road bases or concrete aggregates.

•Information on ground water conditions: the level and seasonal variation of the water table, the pressures in the

soil water, and the permeability of the soil.

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 The sequence of Site Investigation: Short Overview
• Soil exploration is a requirement for the design of foundations of any project.
• In large construction projects, 2 site investigations (SI) are carried out:
– Preliminary SI, followed by

Sequence of Site Investigation

– Detailed SI.
Planning
• Whether investigation is preliminary or detailed, there are three important
phases: planning, implementation and reporting.

Implementation
Planning
➢Why planning
Reporting
➢ Depth of investigation
➢ Spacing of boreholes

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Why planning?

Borehole
• How many borings do we need?
• How deep the borings should be?

The more the better, but what about the cost?

Planning for site investigation is required to:

• Minimize cost of explorations and yet give reliable data.
• Decide on quantity and quality depending on type, size and importance of project and whether investigation is preliminary
or detailed.
• Decide on minimum depth and spacing of exploration.

Borehole Spacing

Borehole
Depth of

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Implementation

Sequence of Site Investigation

➢ Overview
➢ Boring Planning
➢ Sampling
➢ Testing

The implementation phase of site investigation usually includes three important Implementation
aspects:
1 2 3
Boring Sampling Testing Reporting

Trial pits Soil Sampling In-situ tests

Laboratory
Boreholes Rock Sampling
tests

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Reporting
➢ Preparation of Borehole

Sequence of Site Investigation

➢ Site Investigation Report
Planni
ng

Implementa
tion
Report
ing

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Geotechnical Design Reports
• At the end of all subsoil exploration programs, the soil and/or rock specimens collected from the field are subjected to
visual observation and appropriate laboratory testing.

• After the compilation of all of the required information, a soil exploration report is prepared for the use of the design office
and for reference during future construction work.

• Although the details and sequence of information in the report may vary to some degree is depending on the structure under
consideration and the person compiling the report.

Subsoil Exploration Report

The following graphical presentations should he attached to the report:
1. A site location map
2. A plan view of the location of the borings with respect to the proposed structures and those nearby
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations
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Subsoil Exploration Report : In detail
1. A description of the scope of the investigation
2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration has been conducted
3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures nearby, drainage conditions, the nature of vegetation
on the site and surrounding it, and any other features unique to the site
4. A description of the geological setting of the site
5. Details of the field exploration — number of borings, depths of borings, types of borings involved, and so on
6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined from soil specimens and from related laboratory tests,
standard penetration resistance and cone penetration resistance, and so on
7. A description of the water-table conditions
8. Recommendations regarding the foundation, including the type of foundation recommended, the allowable hearing
pressure, and any special construction procedure that may he needed; alternative foundation design procedures should
also be discussed in this portion of the report
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations

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IS 1892:1979

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 Reporting
Preparation of Boring Logs

Subsurface stratification: which can be

obtained by visual observation of the soil
brought out by auger, split-spoon sampler,
and thin-walled Shelby tube sampler.

Groundwater: Elevation of water table

and date observed, use of casing and mud
losses, and so on

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 Reporting
Preparation of Boring Logs

In-situ tests: Standard penetration

resistance and the depth of SPT

Samples: Number, type, and depth of soil

sample collected; in case of rock coring, type of
core barrel used and, for each run, the actual
length of coring, length of core recovery, and
RQD.

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Example Table of
Contents for a
Geotechnical
Investigation
(Data) Report

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Possible range of subsurface exploration cost (Ref: Legget and Karrow, 1983)

Note: Above range are average values. In special cases the cost can be as high as 7% also.

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 Codal Provisions
Guideline regarding depth of exploration, spacing of boreholes and spacing can be found in;
•IS: 1892-1979 for the case of multistory buildings.
•IS: 6955-1973 for the case of dams
•IS: 4651-1974 (Part 1) for the case of tunnels.
•IAE (International Atomic Energy Agency)NS-G-3.6 for Nuclear Power Plants.
•RDSO/2007/ GE: 0014 for embankment of heavy axle load in case of railways
•IS 6935 for determination of water table in boreholes.

SP 36-1 (1987): Compendium of Indian Standards on Soil Engineering: Part-1 Laboratory Testing of Soils for
civil Engineering Purposes [CED 43: Soil and Foundation Engineering]
SP 36-2 (1988): Compendium of Indian Standards on Soil Engineering: Part-2 Field Testing of Soils For Civil
Engineering Purposes [CED 43: Soil and Foundation Engineering]

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Spacing of exploration:
• The spacing of exploration depends on many factors like:
➢the nature and condition of soil,
➢shape and extent of the structure,
➢load and other factors.
• However spacing should be such that it is possible to detect the various soil layers in
sequence, to determine their extent, course and dip over the foundation area.
• Often spacing of borings given in Table 2.1, are useful.

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• Obviously more the boreholes are sunk, the more is known of the soil
conditions and greater economy can be achieved in foundation
construction, but at the same time it depends on the relative cost of the
investigation and the project for which it is undertaken.
• It is suggested that for all the smallest structure, at least 2 and preferably
3 boreholes should be sunk.
• Typical layouts of boreholes are shown in Figure:

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1. In marine deposits, the deposition is fairly uniform and in such deposit, the number
of borings will be comparatively less. But in such cases care should be taken in
sampling because such coils can be easily disturbed.
2. In alluvial soils depositions are not uniform both in vertical and lateral directions.
Hence, In such cases number of borings will be more to get the proper profile.
3. In cases of residual soil variation expected in a location will be less. In such cases
also number of borings will be lesser,
4. According to I.S. 1892-1979, a building site covering an area of 4000 m2 one bore
hole at each corner and one at centre will be adequate. Suggested spacing of
borehole for different type of constructions are given in Table 2.2,

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Spacing of boreholes
• There are no strict rules for the spacing of the boreholes.

• These spacing can be increased or decreased, depending on the subsoil condition.

• If various soil strata are more or less uniform and predictable, the number of boreholes can be reduced.

• At least three borings should be made on a project site where the surface is level.

• Four to five borings are sufficient to determine if the soil is erratic (sudden change).

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 Number of boreholes : SP 36 –Part :2 & IS 1892-1972

•For a compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectare or building site of an area of 10,000 sq metres, one
bore hole or trial pit in each corner and one in the centre should be adequate.
•For smaller and less important buildings even one bore hole at the centre.
•For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the geological nature of the terrain will help in
deciding the number of bore holes or trials pits.
•Cone penetration tests may be performed at every 50 m by dividing the area in a grid pattern and number of bore holes or
trial pits decided by examining the variation in the penetration curves.
•The cone penetration tests may not be possible at sites having gravelly or boulderous strata. In such cases,
geophysical methods may be useful.

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Depth of exploration
• The borehole must penetrate all the deposits which are going to be affected by the
new construction.
• Two major factors which control the depth of explorations are:
1. the magnitude and distribution of the loads imposed by the structures under
consideration
2. the nature of the subsurface conditions.
• In all projects the borings as minimum must extend to a depth sufficient to reveal
the nature of all materials which are significantly affected by the loads from the
structures.
• Safety against excessive settlement and particularly differential settlement usually
governs the design of foundation and required depth of boring.
• So exploration should go to a depth where the increase in stress due to proposed
structure will be negligible (less than 10%).

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• IS:1892-1979 recommends the depths of borings for different types of
footings.
• For isolated footing or raft, the depth of exploration is 1.5 times the
width of the foundation. For multi-storeyed buildings, the depth of
exploration is indicated in Table 2.3.

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• The minimum depth of exploration may be taken as that at which the
vertical stress p, caused by the proposed structure is 10% of the original
vertical stress i.e., Pz < 0.1 Peo.
• But the relation fails to take into consideration the stiffness and
compressibility of the strata.
• As per rule of thumb, the depth of boring should be 1.5 to 2 times the
least dimension of the structure.
• For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies,
penetration tests may be performed at every 100 m by dividing the area
into grid pattern.

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 Depth of Exploration: According to IS 1892: 1979
•The depth of exploration depends on type of proposed structure, its total weight, the size, shape and disposition of the
loaded areas, soil profile, and the physical properties of the soil that constitutes each individual stratum.
•Normally, it should be 1.5 times the width of the footing below foundation level.
•In weak soils, the exploration should be continued to a depth at which the loads can be carried by the stratum in question
without undesirable settlement and shear failure.
•An estimate of the variation with depth of the vertical normal stress in the soil arising from foundation loads may be made on
the basis of elastic theory.
•The net loading intensity at any level below a foundation may be obtained approximately by assuming a spread of load of
two vertical to one horizontal from all sides of the foundations, due allowance being made for the overlapping effects of load
from closely spaced footings.

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Cntd..

The depth of exploration at the start of the work may be decided as given in Table 1, which may be modified as exploration
proceeds, if required

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Depth of Exploration (After Tomlinson 1986)

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 Depth of Exploration: Few thumb rules based on experience

For hospitals and office buildings, the following rule could be use to determine boring depth

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DETAILED EXPLORATION

The principal objectives of the detailed soil test/investigation are as follows:

•To determine in detail the geological structure of the site, including the thickness, sequence and
extent of the strata.
•To determine the ground water conditions
•To obtain disturbed and undisturbed samples for identification and laboratory testing
•To carry out tests to determine the mechanical properties of the soil insitu.

There are two principal methods of investigating the ground conditions, trial pits and boreholes

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METHODS OF EXPLORATION
➢ Direct methods
 Trial pits or Trenches
 Borings: Displacement boring, Wash boring, Auger boring, Rotary drilling, Percussion drilling,
Continuous sampling
➢Semi-direct methods:
•Ground water measurment
•Vane shear test (VST)
•Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
•Flat Dilatometer Test (DMT)
•Pressure-meter Test (PMT)
• Plate Load Test (PLT).
➢ Indirect methods
•Geophysical methods: Seismic refraction method, Electrical resistivity method, Magnetic measurements method,
Gravitational measurements method.
• Sounding methods: Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

We will study about these tests in detail in coming classes.

Direct Method:
•The direct method of soil exploration usually consists of sinking a borehole at a predetermined location to the
required depth by a method suitable for the site and to obtain fairly intact samples of soils from every stratum
encountered or at suitably selected depths.
•The samples obtained are utilized to get necessary information about the soil characteristics by means of
laboratory tests.
Indirect methods:
•These methods include various sounding and geophysical methods.
•In sounding methods, the variation in penetration resistance of sample or cone is utilized to interpret some
of the physical properties of the strata.
•In geophysical methods, the change in subsoil strata are identified by measuring certain physical
characteristics, e.g. electrical conductance, wave velocity of subsurface deposits.
•In addition to these methods, projectiles, probes, and aerial photographs are also useful in interpreting the soil
characteristics.
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Thank You!!!

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