AECOM

AECOM
8 July 2013
Structures "How To"

Guide
Integral Abutment Bridges
AECOM Structures "How To" Guide - Integral Abutment Bridges
Structures "How To" Guide

Integral Abutment Bridges
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8 July 2013
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Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 Regulatory and design standards 1
3.0 Common types of integral bridge 2
3.1 Embedded abutment on pile foundation 2
3.2 Semi-integral bridges 3
3.3 Portal frame 4
4.0 Construction methods 4
4.1 Bottom-up construction and top-down construction 4
4.2 Use of falsework or temporary supports in superstructure construction 6
4.3 Staging of construction 7
5.0 Design approach 8
5.1 Design loads 8
5.1.1 Stage 1 Dead load 8
5.1.2 Additional dead load, superimposed dead load and live load 8
5.1.3 Thermal effects 9
5.1.4 Long term effects 10
5.1.5 Earth pressure 10
5.1.6 Other loads 11
5.1.7 Load factors 11
5.2 Soil-structure interaction 12
5.2.1 Lateral passive earth pressures for embedded abutment on pile foundation 13
5.2.2 Lateral passive earth pressures for semi-integral bridge 14
5.2.3 Lateral passive earth pressures for portal frame 15
5.3 Modelling 15
5.3.1 Modelling the structure 15
5.3.2 Applying load cases to the model 17
5.4 Foundation design 22
5.4.1 Longitudinal movement of structure 22
5.4.2 Pile design 23
5.4.3 Spread footing design 23
5.5 Deck design 24
5.6 Abutment design 24
5.7 Miscellaneous 25
5.7.1 End diaphragm 25
5.7.2 Wing wall 25
5.7.3 Approach slab 26
5.7.4 Bearing 26
5.8 Detailing 26
5.8.1 Deck to abutment 26
5.8.2 End of girders 27
5.8.3 Backfill behind abutments 27
5.8.4 Sleeve to the piles 28
5.9 Consulting with geotechnical engineers 29
6.0 Issues for design and construction 30
7.0 Examples 31
7.1 Embedded abutment on pile foundation 31
7.2 Semi-integral bridge with end diaphragm 47
7.3 Semi-integral bridge with debond layer at deck ends 60
8.0 References 73
Appendix A: Backfill properties 74
Appendix B: Value of Kp 77

AECOM Structures "How To" Guide - Integral Abutment Bridges 1
1.0 Introduction
Integral bridges are designed without any expansion joints or sometimes bearings. This avoids costly repairs to
expansion joints or bearings. The abutments of integral bridges are attached to the bridge (see Figure 1), and
they have to move horizontally in response to temperature fluctuations and other horizontal loads in the bridge.
Due to these movements, passive earth pressures build up behind the abutment on the resisting side(s).
Therefore, interaction between the bridge and the soil should be estimated for the design of integral bridges.
Figure 1: Integral abutment bridge
The deck of the integral bridge is typically constructed with cast in-situ reinforced concrete or precast prestress
concrete beams with cast in-situ deck. When prestress concrete beams are used, the structure would be checked
further with secondary long-term effects such as shrinkage and creep. It will be discussed in the following
sections. There are a few types of integral structure forms including portal frame, embedded abutment and semi-
integral bridge.
A general design approach will be shown, followed by considerations regarding in construction and detailing.
Examples of the integral bridge design are demonstrated based on past projects. Calculation is only shown for
items required special consideration in integral bridge.
2.0 Regulatory and design standards

There is no specific design standard for integral abutment bridge in Australia at this moment. Foreign design
standards, together with Australian Standards, can be used for design:
• BA 42/96 The Design of Integral Bridges (2003)
• Eurocode 7 Geotechnical (2004)
• AS5100-2004 Bridge Design
• AS1170-2011 Structural Design Actions
Besides, there are some guidelines stated in Bridge Technical Note BTN 2012/003 - Design of Integral and Semi-
Integral Bridges published by VicRoads. It stated that integral bridge should have:
• Maximum overall length not exceed 70m;
• Maximum skew angle not greater than 30°.

3.0 Common types of integral bridge

3.1 Embedded abutment on pile foundation
Embedded walls are installed in undisturbed ground and are more likely to be used in clayey condition. The deck
is fully integrated into the embedded wall, and the embedded walls are supported on piles (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Embedded abutment on pile foundation
Bridge expansion and contraction will impose displacements on the head of the piles, resulting in large bending
moments in the piles. Therefore, flexible piles would be used, or a free length is provided to reduce the curvature
(and hence the moment) in the piles. The pile can be sleeved or wrapped in compressible materials for a certain
length as shown in Figure 3. Piles should be constructed in a single row in each abutment and in vertical to allow
flexibility.
Expansion
High curvature
of pile
(a)
Expansion
Sleeve
(b)
Figure 3: Embedded abutment on pile foundation under thermal expansion: (a) without sleeve, (b) with sleeve around piles

3.2 Semi-integral bridges

Semi-integral bridges are designed without an expansion joints, but including bearings. The bearings eliminate the
problems associated with moment continuity and rotation due to creep. An end diaphragm or end screen is cast
on to the beams to give an abutment wall for transferring horizontal loads to the soil. Semi-integral bridges may be
more suitable than other integral bridge types for long span application. However, bearing replacement could be
difficult in some cases for this type of bridge. A consideration should be taken in the bridge design.
The common types of semi-integral bridges are shown in Figure 4.
(a)
Debond layer
(b)
Figure 4: Semi-integral bridges: (a) with end diaphragm, (b) with debond layer at deck ends

3.3 Portal frame

A portal frame, or full height frame abutment, uses a reinforced wall on a spread footing or a piled embedded wall
to support the vertical loads from the bridge and acts as a retaining wall for the embankment earth pressures. The
walls are structurally connected to the deck. When the wall is comparable in stiffness to the deck, it can provide
significant restraint to creep rotations without picking up impossibly high moments, or undergoing large rotation. A
general layout of portal frame is shown in Figure 5 below.
Figure 5: Portal frame
Because the backfill is filled to full height behind the wall, the magnitude of the passive pressures acting on the
back of the wall is likely to be significant. It is important to ensure the structure is strong enough to resist the
lateral pressure built up behind the wall and yet flexible enough to accommodate the longitudinal movement.
4.0 Construction methods

There are many ways to construct an integral bridge. The methods of construction need to be considered in the
analysis, as it will influence the design actions on the structure.
4.1 Bottom-up construction and top-down construction

Bottom-up construction is a conventional method to build bridges. For integral bridges, construction commences
with constructing the foundations and forming the substructures, and then the superstructure is erected on the
substructures at elevated level. Finally, the embankments are filled up after the superstructure and the
substructures are made integral.
Top-down construction is usually applied for underpass construction. After the substructures are constructed, the
bridge deck is constructed on existing ground level. Then the deck is made integral into the substructures.
Excavation is then carried out below the deck and earth is filled behind the abutment finally. Usually this
construction method is preferred for construction of underpass, in which the deck can act as a prop to the
retaining walls.
The general construction sequences of both methods are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Construction methods for integral bridges
Bottom-up construction Top-down construction

Step 1: Construct substructures Step 1: Construct substructures
Step 2*: Erect precast beams on substructures Step 2: Construct deck and make integral
Step 3*: Make integral Step 3: Excavate below deck
Step 4: Construct embankments Step 4: Fill behind abutments
* Step 2 and step 3 can be done in the same step if superstructure is cast in-situ on falsework.

Due to the nature of the construction methods, a girder/deck system using precast concrete beam is mostly
applied in bottom-up construction, while cast in-situ deck would be used in top-down construction. However, there
are some exceptions, for example:
• Deck is cast on falsework in the bottom-up construction;
• Post-tensioned slab is used in the top-down construction.
This is important as it defines the applied loads on the structure in a certain stages according to the structural
systems of the overall structure and the properties of the structural member. The bridge should be structurally
adequate in each construction stages and in operation.
4.2 Use of falsework or temporary supports in superstructure construction

When a precast beam is placed on the substructures, it is simply supported at both ends. The deck slab is then
cast onto the precast members. The precast member is supporting its self-weight and the weight of the wet slab.
After the beams become composite and integral to the abutments, the further design loads on the structure will be
supported and resisted by the composite section and the induced rotation at the ends of the deck is restrained. In
other words, In this case, less bending moment is expected in the piles (or wall in portal frame).
If falsework or temporary support is used and it is removed after the deck is integral to the abutments, the dead
load of the deck members will also cause a restraint moment at the deck-abutment connections. However, there
would be less sagging moment at mid-span compared to the construction without falsework as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Bending moment of deck member
Without falsework With falsework

Erect precast beams on substructures Cast beams on falsework
M=0
M+ve
After integral After integral and release of falsework
M-ve M-ve
M-ve M-ve
M+ve
M+ve

Although the deck is cast on the formwork in top-down construction, it is not always supported on the formwork
before integral if it is post-tensioned. This is because the deck hogs due to the post-tension force and lifts it up
from the formwork. The deck is then simply supported on the abutments.
4.3 Staging of construction

Construction of bridges is defined into several stages, as stated in section 4.1. There is one critical moment in the
construction of integral bridges as it changes the structural system, which is the integration of the deck members
to the abutments. Therefore, it can define two main stages in the structural analysis usually:
• Stage 1: Before integral
• Stage 2: After integral
Stage 1 indicates that only vertical load from dead load and construction load is applied on the abutments; stage 2
identifies that the final structural form of the bridge is completed and all loads including additional dead load,
superimposed dead load, live load, and etc. are applied.
However, there are not always only two stages defined. Depending on the size and construction method of the
bridges, more stages can be defined. For example, the deck slab would be poured in several stages and multiple
spans are erected span by span. An example is shown in Figure 6. A structural analysis model should be set up
for each stage with corresponding structural system to study the bridge behaviour.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 6: Example of construction of a two-span bridge: (a) Erection of precast beams, (b) deck continuous over pier, (c)
Integral to abutments

5.0 Design approach

There are a few steps in designing an integral abutment bridge:
1. Determine proposed bridge type and construction method.
2. Calculate design loads.
3. Set up structural analysis models necessary to the selected bridge type and construction method with
loads applied accordingly.
4. Check longitudinal movement of the structure.
5. Design foundation details.
6. Design deck details (main beams and transverse slab).
7. Design abutment details.
8. Detail up sections.
5.1 Design loads

5.1.1 Stage 1 Dead load
Stage 1 loads indicate loads on the girders and the foundation before it integral with the abutment. Dead loads in
stage 1 include:
• Dead weight of the girder
• Dead weight of the deck slab
• Dead weight of the substructure
In this stage, the girder is considered to be simply supported and there is no influence from the adjacent girders.
The deck should be cast before the girders are integral with the abutments by the fender walls to avoid built-in
hogging moment at the supports.
For fully integral bridge, girders are supported on the seating pad or the temporary falsework at erection. The gap
between the soffit of the girder and the abutment is then grouted after the deck cast. Therefore, the support
condition of the girders is considered as simply supported for stage 1 loads.
5.1.2 Additional dead load, superimposed dead load and live load
After the deck is made integral with the abutments, further loads on the deck include other concrete features on
the deck (e.g., road barrier, ballast wall), superimposed dead load (e.g., deck wearing surface, ballast), and
various live loads according to AS5100.2. Depended on the construction sequences, more stage loads are
defined depended on the support condition and the structural members, for example, multi-span construction
(refer section 4 for details).
A recommended unit weight of dead load and superimposed dead load is shown below:
Table 3: Reference of unit weight of dead load and superimposed dead load
Load types Unit weight

Precast concrete (assumed with 5% v/v reo and strands) 26.5 kN/m3
In-situ concrete (assumed with 3% v/v reo) 25.5 kN/m3
Asphalt 22 kN/m3
Ballast 19 kN/m3

The live loads due to road traffic, railway traffic or pedestrian can refer to AS5100.2-2004. Note that the dynamic
load allowance for the railway traffic is derived from the span length of the bridge. For actions other than bending,
the dynamic load allowance for the railway traffic should be factored by 2/3.
The longitudinal live load such as braking forces and traction forces are particularly relevant in the design of the
abutments of the integral bridges. These loads cause longitudinal movements of the bridge. These loads should
be calculated according to AS5100.2-2004 clause 6 (for road traffic) or 8 (for railway traffic).
5.1.3 Thermal effects

Because of the restraint condition of the ends of the deck, the deck is not free to move and rotate under
temperature loads. This generates a restraint moment and a restraint force in the deck, and also affects the
abutments and the piles. In addition, the temperature difference through the thickness of the deck (differential
temperature) can generate significant stresses. The positive differential temperature refers to top hot and the
reverse differential temperature refers to top cold. All thermal loads (thermal expansion and contraction, top hot
and top cold) should be calculated from AS5100.2-2004 clause 17.
Expansion Contraction
Top Hot Top Cold

Figure 7: Deflections under thermal effects
Figure 7 shows the general response of the structure to each thermal effect. The above loads should be applied
to the structural model reflecting the final stage. The secondary effects due to the restraint condition are obtained
and combined with the primary effect (input load) for the final effect at serviceability limit state, but only the
secondary effects are considered at ultimate limit state. Note that top hot or top cold can occur with either thermal
expansion or contraction to create worse scenario for the structural members. For example, top hot with thermal
contraction: a sunny cold day.

5.1.4 Long term effects

Long term effects include shrinkage and creep, differential shrinkage and residual creep effect due to
prestressing. These effects are subjected to the time of erection (cast of deck) and need to be calculated
accordingly.
Shrinkage and creep are calculated according to AS5100.5-2004 clauses 6.1.7 and 6.1.8. Only the effects after
erection should be applied to the structure model at the final stage. The effects on the girder before erection
should be analysed with the precast unit only.
The calculations of differential shrinkage and residual creep effect are referred to Appendix E of AS5100.5-2004.
Similar to differential temperature, the differential shrinkage is first applied to the structure model. The secondary
effects due to the restraint condition are obtained and combined with the primary effect (input load) for the final
effect at SLS for stress analysis, but only the secondary effects is considered for ULS strength design.
For residual creep effect, the calculation specified for continuous members can be applied to integral bridge due
to the restraint ends of the deck. According to Appendix E of AS5100.5-2004, the final stresses at any section
shall be the sum of:
[those occurring in each simply supported span calculated in accordance with Item (a)] + [those caused
by [1 - e-Φcc.j] x the continuity restraint moments resulting from the application of both the dead load and
prestress to the continuous composite section described in Item(a)(ii)]
The first item above refers to the stress distribution of the girder due to dead load after all losses under simply
supported condition at the time of interest. This can be calculated by using prestress design spreadsheets or
SAM.
The second item is calculated based on the residual creep factor, Φcc.j, which is the difference of creep factors
between final and at erection, calculated according to AS5100.5-2004 clauses 6.1.8 separately. The prestress
moment after all losses and the dead load of the girder are applied to the structural model. The resultant moment
is then obtained as the restraint moment. These two items are finally combined for the residual creep effect.
The differential shrinkage is applied as a primary sagging moment (similar to top cold) and the residual creep
effect due to prestressing usually causes the deck to hog (similar to top hot).
5.1.5 Earth pressure

Earth is backfilled behind the abutments. It exerts lateral pressures to the abutments. For simply supported
bridges, this pressure is resisted by the foundations only. But for integral bridges, both deck and abutments work
together in resisting earth pressures.
Due to the nature of the integral bridge, the amount of earth pressures at the ends of deck and abutments
depends on the longitudinal movement. At rest pressure, active pressure and passive pressure are determined on
the abutments depending on the applied loads and load direction. This will be discussed in detail in section 6.
To calculate the lateral earth pressure, the unit weight of the soil is required. It is usually assumed to be 19 kN/m3.
This number varies with the type of chosen backfill or residual soil.

5.1.6 Other loads

Other loads applied on the structure should be calculated according to AS5100.2-2004 and AS1170-2011. These
include Earthquake load, wind load, flood load, collision load, etc. Note that the longitudinal loads would be more
critical in this case.
Differential settlement between abutments should be analysed and estimated based on the structure details and
the geotechnical profile and thus input from geotechnical engineers is required to indicate the maximum possible
value. This would cause additional action at the integral abutments.
5.1.7 Load factors

An extraction of load factors for the design loads above from AS5100.2-2004 is shown below.
Table 4: Load factors for bridge design loads
Ultimate limit state

Serviceability limit
Types of load
state
Reduces safety Increase safety
Dead load
Concrete 1.2 0.85 1.0
Steel 1.1 0.9 1.0
Superimposed dead load
Asphalt 2.0 (or 1.4 controlled) 0 1.3 (or 1.0 controlled)
Ballast and track 1.7 0.7 1.3
Transom track 1.4 0.9 1.2
Other permanent structures 2.0 0.7 1.3
Live load
SM1600 1.8 1.0
HLP 1.5 1.0
300LA 1.6 1.0
Pedestrian 1.8 1.0
Service live load 2.0 1.0
Thermal effects 1.25 1.0
Shrinkage and Creep 1.2 1.0
Residual prestress effects 1.2 1.0
Earth pressures 1.5 0.85 1.0
Differential settlement 1.5 1.0

5.2 Soil-structure interaction

Due to the nature of the integral bridge, the earth pressures at the ends of deck and abutments depend on the
longitudinal movement. At rest pressure, active pressure and passive pressure are determined on the abutments
depending on the applied loads and load direction.
BA 42/96 provides a guideline on the soil pressure applied on the structure. It also specifies the backfill material to
the integral abutments. The backfill material should be free draining selected granular fill with properties and
grading complying with Class 6N or 6P of table 6/1 of Specification for Highway Works. The relevant information
is provided in Appendix A.
The range of angle of internal friction (Φ’) of the backfill would be largely depending on the selected material. The
peak angle of the internal friction can be as low as 35°. This allows the bridge to accommodate thermal expansion
without experiencing high earth pressure. Backfill with an angle of internal friction of 55° can provide a very high
resistance to thermal expansion. Granular backfill to integral bridges exceeding 40m length should have a peak
angle of internal friction not greater than 45°. The zone of the granular backfill should extend up from the bottom
of the abutment wall to at least a plane inclined at an angle of 45° to the wall as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Typical detail of backfill behind abutments
After the deck is made integral into the abutments, filling earth behind the abutments is carried out. The backfill
should be done in layers and compacted behind both abutments simultaneously to avoid longitudinal load in the
early stage of the structure. Layers of 300mm deep are recommended.
The at rest earth pressure condition can be calculated with

Ko = (1 – sin Φ’)
Where Φ’ is the effective angle of friction of the backfill material.

The at rest earth pressure is applied when there is no

longitudinal movement for some load cases. When a Applied load
longitudinal load is applied to the structure, the movement
of the structure in the load direction is restrained. The
structure moves toward one abutment, and the earth filled
behind this abutment resists the applied load. Because of Ka or
that, the earth pressure behind this abutment is taken as Ko K*
passive pressure. For the abutment on another side, the
structure moves away from the backfill. This abutment is on
the active side (see Figure 9).
The active earth pressures on abutment during thermal

contraction and long term effects can be ignored. Instead, Figure 9: Lateral earth pressures on abutments
at rest earth pressure is applied due to the quick response
from the granular material.
Passive earth pressures (Kp) is obtained based on δ= Φ’/2 and taken from Eurocode 7 (refer Appendix B).
However, the value of Kp reflects the state when the soil is fully mobilised. This hardly happened on the integral
bridge as excessive movement of the bridge is reached. A value of K* is used instead. This value is calculated
based on the longitudinal movement at the top of the abutment, and the method of calculation varies with types of
structure. This will be discussed in the following sections.
In some cases, the value of Kp can be very high for integral bridges. Values in excess of 10 are not
recommended. A friction reducing layer between abutment concrete and backfill can be included to reduce Kp.
Also, it is recommended to consult with the geotechnical engineers for an appropriate value.
For passive earth pressures resisting longitudinal movement, a material partial safety factor of 0.5 is applied to
minimise advantageous force from the backfill. A material partial safety factor of 1.0 is applied when the earth
pressures is considered as load which creates disadvantageous effect.
5.2.1 Lateral passive earth pressures for embedded abutment on pile foundation
For embedded abutment on pile foundation, the distribution of lateral passive earth pressures suggested by BA
42/96 is:
• A uniform value of K* over the top two-thirds of the retained height of the wall, with
• Lateral earth pressure then remaining constant with depth as K* drops towards Ko
• If the lateral earth pressure falls to Ko then below that depth pressures are according to the in-situ value
of Ko.
The distribution of lateral passive earth pressures is shown in Figure 10.

2H/3
H
Pressure by K*
Pressure by Ko
Figure 10: K* for embedded abutment
The value of K* is calculated by using the following equation:

K* = (d/0.05H)0.4Kp
Where d is the displacement at top of the retained earth, H is the retained height of the wall.
5.2.2 Lateral passive earth pressures for semi-integral bridge

The distribution of lateral passive earth pressures of semi-integral bridge is similar to that of embedded abutment
(see Figure 11).
2H/3
H
Pressure by K*
Pressure by Ko
Figure 11: K* for semi-integral bridge
The value of K* is calculated by using the following equation:

K* = (d/0.05H)0.4Kp

5.2.3 Lateral passive earth pressures for portal frame

The movement at the top of the abutment is always larger than that at the bottom of wall, so a higher value of
lateral earth pressure coefficient is expected. However, the earth pressures increase with increasing depth as
well. For this, BA 42/96 suggested a distribution of lateral passive earth pressures as:
• A uniform value of K* over the top half of the retained height of the wall, with
• Lateral earth pressure then remaining constant with depth as K* drops towards Ko
• If the lateral earth pressure falls to Ko then below that depth pressures are according to the in-situ value
of Ko.
H/2
H
Pressure by Ko Pressure by K*
Figure 12: K* for portal frame
The value of K* is calculated by the following equation:

K* = (d/0.05H)0.4Kp
For portal frames hinged at the base of its legs, the value of K* is calculated by the following equation:
K* = Ko + (d/0.03H)0.6Kp
5.3 Modelling
5.3.1 Modelling the structure
The substructure and the superstructure of integral bridges should not be designed in two separated models as
the simply supported structures. Structural model including both substructure and superstructure should be used
for all loads analysis. One model with hinge deck ends is applied for the stage 1 dead loads and another one with
integral abutments is used for further loads.
The connection between the end of deck and the abutment is critical in the design. Depending on the structure
types, the abutments can be modelled in a few ways. Some examples are shown on next page.

Deck grillage
Stiff member
Abutment beam
Stiff member
In sleeve
No lateral
support Piles
Spring supports
Figure 13: Recommended model for embedded abutment
Deck grillage
End screen
Support equivalent
to bearing used
(a)
Link slab
Deck grillage
Fender wall
Hinge or Stiff member
bearing
In sleeve
No lateral
Piles
support
Spring supports
(b)
Figure 14: Recommended model for semi-integral bridges: (a) with end diaphragm, (b) with debond layer at deck ends

Deck grillage
No lateral Vertical grillage or

support plate elements
Spring supports
Figure 15: Recommended model for portal frame
The length with no lateral support in Figure 13 depends on the actual length of the sleeve. The length with no
lateral support for portal frame in Figure 15 covers the height of wall from top of footing, and the earth pressures is
applied on this length.
It is important to obtain the input from the geotechnical engineers for the soil spring stiffness required.
5.3.2 Applying load cases to the model

5.3.2.1 Stage 1 loads
Stage 1 loads are applied as UDL on the simply supported beam individually. This can be applied on the
structural model containing single beam member only, or on the structure model with rotation release at the beam
supports on the substructures. Note that no transverse member is included in the structure model at this stage.
5.3.2.2 Further loads on deck

Other loads including additional dead loads, superimposed dead loads, live loads, etc. are applied on the final
model accordingly. Among these loads, the longitudinal loads, such as braking force, should be calculated based
on the load arrangement.
For road traffic braking force, equations are specified in AS5100.2-2004 for both single vehicle stopping and multi-
lane moving traffic stopping. Both are related to the total vertical vehicle load on the deck. The minimum length of
a vehicle described for M1600 moving traffic is 25m. If the total length of the span of the integral bridge and the
approach slabs is longer than 25m, a full braking force is applied (e.g. 720kN for single vehicle). If the integral
bridge is shorter than 25m, it would be calculated based on the possible maximum traffic load on the bridge.
For example, an integral bridge of 20m long can support up to 9 axles of M1600. Therefore,
WBS = 120 x 9 + 6 x 20 = 1200kN
FBS = 0.45 x WBS = 540kN
For rail traffic braking force, it is determined with the loaded length only as specified in AS5100.2-2004. The
braking force would be very large as loaded length increases in long span bridges and multi-span bridges.

5.3.2.3 Thermal effects

Thermal expansion and contraction are applied as thermal loads on all deck members and abutment beams.
Thermal load in the transverse members would have a small effect on narrow bridge generally. However, it would
have an adverse effect on pile design for the bridges with wide deck.
Differential temperature is only applied on the longitudinal deck member. Because of the restraint at ends of deck,
a secondary effect is generated. There are two ways to model it.
For models in SpaceGass, the primary moment and the axial force of the differential temperature can be applied
as a concentrated load at the ends of the deck for each beam. The analysis result is a final outcome which
consists of both primary effect and secondary effect. The secondary effect is required for input to the prestress
beam design spreadsheet. Therefore,
[Secondary effect] = [Final result] – [Applied primary effect]
This method is valid if the cross section of the longitudinal members remains unchanged over the whole span.
(a)

(b)
Figure 16: Applied thermal effects in SpaceGass: (a) Applied load, (b) Resultant moment (Primary + Secondary)
In Figure 16, Secondary effect = Final result − Primary effect

= −103 − (−252)
= 149 kNm
# Extract the bending moment diagram and subtract by the applied primary effect.
For models in SAM, the primary moment is applied to the whole length of the longitudinal members in the
structure module. This is different to SpaceGass as this results the secondary effect directly. This result can then
be used in the beam module of SAM for prestress beam analysis. An example is shown in Figure 17.
Please note that the guide of using SAM will not be shown in this guide.

(a)
(b)
Figure 17: Applied thermal effects in SAM: (a) Applied load, (b) Results of secondary effect

Other structural members, such as piles and abutments, should also be designed with the secondary effect,
because it is a response moment by the restraint to the deck from the abutment.
For semi-integral bridge, it is assumed that there is no rotation restraint at the ends of the deck hence there is no
secondary effect. However, the longitudinal movement and the rotation would be critical for bearing design.
5.3.2.4 Long term effects

A different model is suggested to study the long term effect. The long term modulus of elasticity is used for the
support members. According to AS5100.5-2004, the long term modulus of elasticity is calculated with the effective
modulus of elasticity (Ec) divided by (1 + Φcc),
EL = Ec/(1 + Φcc)
where Φcc is the final value of creep factor.
Shrinkage and creep are applied to the model in a similar way to the thermal loads. Shrinkage strain and creep
strain are transferred to the equivalent thermal loads in degree Celsius (°C) or kelvin (K) by using the temperature
coefficient of the selected materials. The temperature coefficient of concrete is 11x10-6 per degree Celsius
suggested by AS5100.5-2004. For example, a thermal load of -20°C would be applied on the structure when the
shrinkage is calculated as 220x10-6. The shrinkage of the deck in the transverse direction would increase cracking
near the supports, because of the increased fixity and the low shrinkage of the abutment.
The creep strain is applied on the longitudinal members only, while shrinkage is applied on both longitudinal
members and transverse members. The load application of the differential shrinkage and the residual creep effect
is similar to differential temperature discussed in previous section, in which the primary moment and the axial load
are applied to the model.
5.3.2.5 Lateral earth pressures

The lateral earth pressures are applied on the wall of portal frame, abutment of embedded abutment on pile
foundation or end screen of the semi-integral bridge based on the load profile discussed in section 5.2. Because
the passive earth pressure is closely related to the movement, this requires iterations starting with a value based
on the assumed movement. The final passive earth pressure is obtained when the iterations converges.
It is suggested to apply a basic load case on model, for example passive pressure for K* = 1, on the abutment
and the associated torsion resulted from the difference between the force centre and the abutment centroid. The
passive pressure can be achieved by adjusting the factor to the basic load in a combination of load cases
throughout the iterations. The earth pressure on the active side is remained same in the iterations.

5.4 Foundation design

5.4.1 Longitudinal movement of structure
Stability of the structures is essential. The integral structures should not displace in longitudinal more than 20mm
as specified in BA 42/96. This maximum serviceability movement can be obtained with a load combination of
permanent effect, live load including braking force.
The earth filled behind one abutment resists the longitudinal forces. Passive earth pressure estimated with the
coefficient of K* is applied to this abutment and active earth pressure is applied to another abutment (At rest
pressure can be used if the movement on the active side is not large due to live load). A material partial safety
factor of 0.5 is applied to the passive earth pressure in this case.
Because of the restraint from the integral abutments, restraint bending moment would be large in the foundation
or the supporting members. Stiffness of those members should be reduced based on the cracked condition under
the load combination. Cracked section properties are applied for axial load and bending moment at such state.
This avoids the structural members attracting too much action. However, more longitudinal movement is then
expected.
Iterations are then carried out to determine K* and the design longitudinal movement. It is then checked with the
horizontal capacity of the earth behind the abutment. The iteration process is shown in Figure 18.
Calculate K* based on initial

guess of longitudinal
movement by braking force
only
Apply lateral earth pressure

by K* to the model
Calculate K* based on Obtain longitudinal

longitudinal movement movement from model
Check if longitudinal
movement converges
NO
YES
Stop iterations and

output results
Figure 18: Flow chart of K* iterations
Besides, VicRoads also specified the maximum range of thermally induced cyclic movement at each abutment
shall not exceed ±20mm. In this case, passive earth pressure is applied on both abutments for thermal expansion
and active earth pressure is applied on both abutments for thermal contraction.

5.4.2 Pile design

For structures supported on pile foundation, the pile is designed to both ultimate limit state and serviceability limit
state. The stiffness of the pile is reduced. It is suggested to use concrete section analysis spreadsheet to estimate
the reduced stiffness at certain load states.
• For SLS, an analysis of EI vs. moment is recommended
• For ULS, an analysis of moment curvature is recommended
Generally, the pile would be softer in ULS than SLS.
The following load combinations are checked:

1) PE + maximum live load with braking + maximum thermal expansion + top cold (+ long term shrinkage
and creep effect)
2) PE + minimum live load (with braking) + maximum thermal contraction + top hot (+ long term shrinkage
and creep effect)
3) PE + earthquake load or other ultimate load
Depending on the project requirements, the differential settlement can be included to provide adverse effect. The
material partial safety factor for earth pressure should be applied to calculate maximum bending moment in the
pile. Any passive pressure on the abutment should be estimated with K* through the iterations demonstrated in
Figure 18.
The top of pile would usually be the critical section in bending moment. It is also important to check the section at
rock socket.
Because the top part of the pile is in sleeve, the clearance between the wall of sleeve and the pile should be
checked against the maximum pile movement to allow flexible bending of the pile.
5.4.3 Spread footing design

The load combinations used to the spread footing design are the same as the pile design. However, since the
spread footing is designed to give no rotational restraint to the structure, only bearing pressure and friction
resistance are checked.
For portal frame, cracked section properties would be applied to the wall if the bending moment is found large.
Further analysis is required since only the wall section within certain depth below the deck experiences maximum
bending moment (as moment reduces to zero at spread footing).

5.5 Deck design

The deck of the integral bridges can be constructed with prestress concrete beams, reinforced concrete beams or
in-situ concrete deck. The detail of the prestress concrete beam design will not be discussed here. There are a
few critical sections for deck design:
For ULS design:
1) Maximum sagging moment in span.
2) Maximum hogging moment at ends of beam.
3) Maximum shear & torsion interaction along the beam.
4) Transverse deck design.
For SLS design:

1) Stress increment in reinforcements and strands in span for maximum sagging and hogging moments.
2) Deflection at mid-span.
Fatigue design (more critical for railway bridges):

1) Fatigue stress range in reinforcements and strands for maximum sagging and hogging moments.
2) Maximum compressive stress in concrete.
All bridge loads are applied in the load combinations which produce the above effects. Staging in permanent
effect should be applied carefully on the precast section and the composite section. It is recommended to extract
the results for each load case from the analysis model to a table, and then combine them with the load factors. It
is also convenient to use the analysis software SAM for prestress beam design.
Both primary and secondary effects of the long term effects and the thermal effects are included in the stress
assessment for SLS, but only secondary effect of those is included in ULS design. This is because the secondary
effect is caused by the moment restraint at the ends of the deck.
5.6 Abutment design

Abutment beam or pile cap should be checked with bending, shear and torsion by the load combinations of all
bridge loads. This is constructed with reinforced concrete. There are a few critical sections for detailing:
• Connection between the deck and the pile cap (abutment) via fender wall.
• Main reinforcements in the abutment.
• Torsional and shear reinforcements.
A strut and tie model would be used if the clear span between the piles is shorter than 4 times the overall depth as
specified in AS5100.5. Refer to work examples for setting of the strut and tie model. Besides, splice should be
checked with sufficient development length of the reinforcement.

5.7 Miscellaneous
5.7.1 End diaphragm
The passive lateral earth pressures can be very high if the movement of the bridge is large. For semi-integral
bridges, it exerts a very high pressure on the end diaphragm. A local check on the end diaphragm is required for
structural adequacy.
The end diaphragm can be designed through a conservative

calculation and considered as a beam member spaning before two
girders. The pressure applied laterally causes the end diaphragm to
bend in horizontal. In this case, lateral earth pressure based on Kp is
used. Refer to Figure 19, it is then designed for: Z
L
1) Maximum sagging moment in span
M* = wL2/8
2) Maximum shear
V* = w(L/2-t)
w = KpγZ x ½ x 1.5 Figure 19: End diaphragm
5.7.2 Wing wall

Usually the wing walls for integral bridges should be as small as possible, or no wing wall. If wing wall is required,
it is designed for an appropriate passive earth pressure depended on the bridge geometry.
For bridges with no skew, the wing walls are set in parallel to the bridge design line to avoid large passive earth
pressure. In this case, the wing wall is designed for a passive earth pressure based on K = 1. The design actions
are horizontal bending and shear force due to passive earth pressure (see Figure 21).
For skew bridges up to 30°, a passive earth pressure based on Kp is applied on the wing wall as shown in Figure
20. For larger skew, special treatment is required and it is not recommended.
M* V* Wing wall
Wing wall
K=1
K=1
Abutment
Kp Kp
Abutment
K=1 Kp
Figure 21: Lateral earth pressures on wing walls (no skew) Figure 20: Lateral earth pressures on wing walls (skew up to 30°)

5.7.3 Approach slab

Approach slab is supported at the end of the deck on the fender wall, or on the end diaphragm for the semi-
integral bridges sometimes. The design of approach slab can refer to the Structures “How to” Guide – Approach
Slabs.
5.7.4 Bearing
Elastomeric bearing is used on some types of semi-integral bridges. The design of this element for semi-integral
bridges is no different to design for simply supported spans. The design of elastomeric bearing can refer to the
Structures “How to” Guide – Bearing.
5.8 Detailing
5.8.1 Deck to abutment
The deck of the integral bridges is integral into the abutment through the fender wall. There are a few notes for
detailing in this region:
1. The main reinforcements in the deck are designed for the maximum tension due to the maximum
hogging moment at deck end. These reinforcements are bended 90° into the fender wall. A minimum
reinforcement spacing of 100mm would be adopted to avoid congestion in this area.
2. Sufficient lapping between the deck reinforcements and the starter bars from the abutment should be
achieved. The lap length shall not be less than 1.3 times the development length as the splice is not
staggered.
3. Space shall be reserved to land the approach slab (at least 200mm long).
An example of the design details of this region is shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22: Reinforcement details at end of deck
For some semi-integral bridges, a debond layer is applied between the girder and the deck at the ends. This deck
is then acting as a link slab. The debond length is depended on the span length and rigidity of the structure. It is
usually around 1.2m to 1.5m. A detail analysis is required for the suitable debond length.

Besides, sufficient gap is provided between the end of girder and the fender wall. It should be large enough to
accommodate the movement and provide flexibility. An example is shown in Figure 23.
Figure 23: Details for end of deck of semi-integral bridges with debond layer
5.8.2 End of girders

The bottom reinforcement or strands from the main girders is to be projected into the fender wall or the end
diaphragm. This provides continuity effectively between the deck and the abutments. Special detail to the end of
the strand is applied to improve anchorage, such as onion shaped as shown in Figure 24.
Figure 24: Onion shaped anchorage for strands projected into fender wall
5.8.3 Backfill behind abutments

BA 42/96 specifies the backfill material to the integral abutments. The backfill material should be free draining
selected granular fill with properties and grading complying with Class 6N or 6P of table 6/1 of Specification for
Highway Works. In Australia, type A backfill is usually specified. The zone of granular backfill should extend up
from the bottom of the abutment wall or top of footing for portal frame to at least a plane inclined at an angle of
45° to the wall.
Drainage is placed at the bottom of the backfill to avoid pore pressure building up. A friction reducing layer
between the abutment concrete and the backfill can be included to reduce the value of Kp. It can be a layer of
bitumen paint coating on the back face of the abutment. A typical example is shown in Figure 8.

5.8.4 Sleeve to the piles

Sleeve is used surrounding the piles of the integral bridges to provide flexibility of piles to the movement. The
piles can be encased in compressible material or in a performed hole which provides void around the pile.
The actual method depends on the types of pile in use. For bored piles, an oversize hole is prepared. Liner is then
placed surrounding the case. The thickness of the liner is depended on the required movement. Pictures of this
design are shown in Figure 25.
(a) (b)
Figure 25: Pictures of pile sleeve for bored piles: (a) Case with liner, (b) Installation
There are a few ways to install the sleeve to the driven piles. For the filled embankment, the driven piles can be
encased in compressible material and then filled up. An oversize hole can be pre-drilled and cased, after that the
pile is driven through the hole into the founding layer(s). Pictures of these designs are shown in Figure 26.
(a) (b)
Figure 26: Pictures of pile sleeve for driven piles: (a) Encased in compressible material, (b) In performed hole

The length of the sleeve is critical to the design of integral bridges. There is no quick answer on the length
required. It varies with the structure types, the expected movement, the foundation types, the ground profile and
etc. It shall be long enough to provide flexibility. A detail analysis is required. Usually, the sleeve is extended down
to the founding material to the piles. This is related to the foundation design and the geotechnical engineers shall
be engaged.
5.9 Consulting with geotechnical engineers

Because integral abutment bridges highly relay on the interaction with soils, it is recommended to consult with the
geotechnical engineers for a full understanding of the ground behaviour. The geotechnical input, such as soil
spring stiffness of each supporting layer and an appropriate value of Kp, is important to the integral bridge design.
For some structures where a more accurate assessment of the magnitudes of the earth pressures is important,
such as cut and core structure, a geotechnical analysis of the structure may be warranted. This is usually involved
use of Plaxis or Wallap. A snapshot from Plaxis is shown in Figure 27.
Figure 27: Geotechnical analysis in Plaxis

6.0 Issues for design and construction

There are a few issues for integral bridge design which should be in mind:
1. If rock is shallow in the site, foundations on rock will not be flexible enough to accommodate the imposed
displacements as the bridge expands and contracts. In this case, semi-integral bridge shall be used.
2. As the bridges expands and contracts, it is wise to
leave a clearance between the bridge structure
and off-structure, such as barriers, kerbs, and
footpaths to avoid crushing (see Figure 28). It is a
good idea to specify a marker on the kerb at the
end of the bridge as it is difficult to look for after
bridge completion.
3. Backfill must be placed in balanced lifts behind
each abutment so the bridge does not sway in one
direction.
4. Buried approach slabs should be used to provide a
depth of pavement that can shear to accomodate
the longitudinal movement. This minimises
cracking in the surfacing.
5. For driven piles driven through a preformed hole, Figure 28: Crushing of footpath
the construction tolerance of the straightness of

the piles shall be considered in the sizing of the
hole. The pile shall not make contact with the wall
of the hole as shown in Figure 29.
6. Grouting under the beams requires access to be
provided. It is very difficult to do for precast planks
as space is limited. It is suggested to grout from a
few spots, starting from the lowest point.
7. Forming, reinforcing and pouring the integral
abutment are tricky. It is easier to have the
abutment flush with the ends of the beams (Figure
30a), rather than to have the abutment goes
between the beams (Figure 30b).
Figure 29: Insufficient gap between pile and wall of hole
(a) (b)
Figure 30: Forming of abutment: (a) Flush with the ends of the beams, (b) goes between the beams

7.0 Examples
7.1 Embedded abutment on pile foundation
General details:
Bridge details:
• Two lanes carriageway, 9.9m wide.
• 16.9m span.
• 3.45m wide footpath each side, total trafficable width is 13.5m.
• 6 no. 750mm deep troffs.
• 180mm minimum thick deck.
• 5 no. bored piles for each abutment, top 3m sleeved.
Ground condition on site:

• Residual soil to 2m depth.
• Rock from 2m depth downward, estimated lateral spring, Kh = 50,000kN/m per m length.
Backfill details:
• 1.5m depth to soffit of abutment.
• Internal friction angle, Φ’ ≈ 35°.
• Unit weight, γ = 19kN/m3.
General arrangement:

Construction sequences:
1. Drill oversize holes down to rock level, and then continue with normal size for rock socket.
2. Place liners then construct bored piles.
3. Cast abutment beams at existing ground level.
4. Excavate within span.
Stage 1 Dead load applied
5. Erect precast units on abutments.
6. Cast in-situ deck slab and fender walls.
7. Backfill behind abutments.
8. Construct approach slab, barriers, footpaths and surfacing. Further loads applied
Design loads:
Two stages of loading are defined according to the construction sequences. Calculation of the loading is done
based on Section 5.1 and step is omitted below.
Stage 1 dead load –

Precast beam: 11.8kN/m
In-situ slab: 10.8kN/m
Abutment: 57kN/m

Barrier: 13kN/m
Footpath: 8kPa
Superimposed dead load –

Asphalt: 1.3kPa

Live load –
4 design lanes SM1600 within 13.5m wide deck.
Braking force: 720kN
Thermal effects –
For Region II, coastal, < 1000m above sea level,
Shade air temperature: -1°C ~ 44°C
Average bridge temperature: 5°C ~ 48°C
Assuming bridge constructed at 20°C ~ 25°C,

Thermal expansion: +30°C
Thermal contraction: -20°C
Differential temperature:
For Region 2 and bridge type 1,
# Red: Top hot Blue: Top cold
Top hot: Restraint force = 3055kN

Restraint moment = 568kNm
Top cold: Restraint force = -1057kN
Restraint moment = -270kNm
Long term effects –

For prestress beams, assuming erection at 60 day,
Shrinkage at erection: εcs.t1 = 305x10-6
Shrinkage at 30 year: εcs.t2 = 535x10-6
Shrinkage after erection: εcs = 230x10-6

Creep factor at erection: Φcc.t1 = 0.852

Creep factor at 30 year: Φcc.t2 = 1.585
Residual creep factor: Φcc.j = 0.733

Residual creep strain: εcc.j = Φcc.j x (σci / Ec)
≈ 360x10-6
Differential shrinkage:
Differential shrinkage strain: Φcs.j = 306x10-6
Primary moment = 954kNm
Residual creep effect:

Residual prestress moment after all loss:
Mps = -1795kNm
[1 - e-Φcc.j] = 0.52
-Φcc.j
[1 - e ] Mps = -933kNm -> Apply to model
Long term modulus of elasticity of pile –

For 750mm dia. pile,
Hypothetical thickness, th = 375mm
Final creep factor, Φcc = 1.56
Long term modulus of elasticity, Ecl = Ec/(1 + Φcc)
= 39%Ec
Earth pressures –
At rest pressure,
Lateral Earth pressure coefficient, Ko = 0.43
Lateral Earth pressure on U/S abutment = 0.43 x 19 x 1.5
= 12.26kPa
Net force on abutment = (12.26 x 1.5)/2
= 9.2kN/m
Passive pressure,
Lateral Earth pressure coefficient, Kp = 6.0 (see Appendix B)
0
Lateral Earth pressure coefficient, K* = (d/0.05H)0.4Kp
= 6(d/75)0.4 1
1.5
Net force on abutment, Fp = (K* x 19 x 1) x (1 x ½ + 0.5) K*
= 19K* kN/m Ko
Apply 19kN/m on abutment in the model as the basic load.

SAM Model :
Structure module:
Free length

Assess pile stiffness:

With fully pile stiffness initially, maximum actions (PE+LL) at top of pile:
SLS: Ns = 1200kN Ms = 820kNm
ULS: N* = 1800kN M* = 1360kNm
For 750mm dia. pile with 14N28 and f’c = 40MPa,
ΦMu = 950kNm < M*
Reduce pile stiffness with cracked section:

For SLS,
Because the action will reduce with the pile stiffness, assume Ms would be close to 600kNm.
➢ Try reducing to 35%
With this reduced pile stiffness, maximum actions (PE+LL) at top of pile:
SLS: Ns = 1200kN Ms = 560kNm
It is close to the prediction, so the reduction to 35% is valid.

For ULS,
Assuming M* reaches the capacity 950kNm.
EI = ΦMu/k = 950/0.0075 = 128000kNm2

➢ Try reducing to 20%
With this reduced pile stiffness, maximum actions (PE+LL) at top of pile:
ULS: N* = 1800kN M* = 820kNml
EI = ΦMu/k = 820/0.0057 = 144000kNm2
It is approximately 22% of full stiffness, so the reduction to 20% is valid.

Longitudinal movement:
Apply passive earth pressure on the resistance side to braking force with a material partial safety factor of 0.5,
apply at rest earth pressure on another side with a material partial safety factor of 1. With braking force only, the
bridge displaces by 5mm. Use 5mm as an initial value for iterations.
Calculate K*,
K* = 0.5 x 6(d/75)0.4
= 1.01
Fp = 19K*
= 19.3kN/m
For a load combination of PE, LL and lateral earth pressures,

Iteration 1: Bridge movement, d = 4.1mm
K* = 0.5 x 6(4.1/75)0.4
= 0.94
Resistance = 17.8kN/m
Update passive earth pressure.

K* = 0.5 x 6(4.3/75)0.4
= 0.96

K* = 0.5 x 6(4.25/75)0.4
= 0.95

K* = 0.5 x 6(4.27/75)0.4
= 0.95
The result converges. The bridge longitudinal movement is 4.3mm, which is acceptable.

Pile design:
Load cases are combined to obtain the maximum effects on the pile as shown below. Passive earth pressure by
K* is calculated when load combination includes braking force and thermal expansion.
Design actions at top of pile from SAM:
Combination N* (kN) Mx* (kNm) My* (kNm) M* (kNm) Vx* (kN) Vy* (kN) V* (kN)
ULS
N*max 1876 789 -63 791 27 301 302
M*max 1367 867 -59 869 25 327 328
N*min 173 -357 45 359 -27 -159 161
SLS
Ns 1231 603 -65 607 25 215 217
Ms 1042 659 -63 662 25 234 235
Ns min 191 -256 65 264 -32 -106 111
For 750mm dia. pile with 14N28 and f’c = 40MPa, the ultimate bending moment capacity under axial load:
With N12 helix ligs at 150mm pitch, the ultimate shear resistance, ΦVu = 900kN > V*

For SLS check, the steel stress:

Combination N* (kN) M* (kNm) σ (MPa)
Ns 1231 607 195
Ms 1042 662 254
Ns min 191 264 131
The maximum steel stress = 254MPa < limit = 300MPa (Spacing of reo ≈ 120mm)
The pile design is adequate structurally. It is then checked against the geotechnical resistance by the
geotechnical engineers.
Final design for piles:
Deck design:
Live load of SM1600 is positioned on the deck to generate maximum effects. Results are collected and
superimposed with the other effects.
Prestress beam design:

This is done with the use of SAM – beam module.
Prestress beam: 750mm troff
In-situ deck: 180mm min. thick
Concrete strength: 50MPa (precast)
40MPa (in-situ deck)
This is a simplified calculation for prestress beam. Please refer to related “How-to” guide for more details.

At transfer check:
With 32 prestress strands, it satisfies the stress requirement at transfer.
Maximum compressive stress at bottom = 21.5MPa < limit = 0.6f’c = 22.2MPa
Maximum tensile stress at top = -2.6MPa < limit = 0.5√𝑓′𝑐= -3.04MPa
Ultimate limit state design:

The maximum sagging moment at mid-span,
M*sag = 4760kNm < ΦMusag = 5130kNm

The maximum hogging moment at support,

M*hog = 2680kNm < ΦMuhog = 4390kNm
The maximum shear and torsion at D from the support are shown below. With shear ligs of N16 at 100mm
spacing,
Maximum V* (kN) T* (kNm) ΦVus (kN) ΦTus (kNm) Interaction
effect
V*/ΦVus + T*/ΦTus
V*max 1219 113 1388 1416 0.96
T*max 1052 127 1388 1416 0.85
Therefore, the girder is adequate for the ultimate design load.
Serviceability limit state check:

Stress -
Maximum sagging moment at mid-span = 3140kNm
Stress increment of reinforcement = 146MPa < limit = 200MPa
Stress increment of prestress strand = 120MPa < limit = 200MPa
Maximum hogging moment at support = 1540kNm

Resultant stress of top reinforcement = 315MPa < limit = 320MPa (N24 @ 100mm)
Deflection -
Deflection under live load plus DLA = 9.6mm < 28mm (span/600)
Maximum hog deflection = 33mm < 56mm (span/300)
Therefore, the girder satisfies serviceability limit state requirement.

Final girder details in span:
Main deck reinforcements:

Mid-span: N12-200 Top & Bottom
Supports: N24-100 Top, N16-200 Bottom
Design of transverse deck is not shown here.
Abutment/Pile cap design:

Fender wall detail:
The actions at the interface between the deck and the pile cap are similar to the design action at the end of the
girder. Therefore, the hogging bending moment at such location is:
ULS SLS
Bending moment (kNm) 2680 1540
Using a strut and tie model:

Diagonal strut angle, θ ≈ 40° T1
M* = 2680kNm
C2
T1 = -C1 = - M*/0.83m T2
= -3230kN θ
C1
C2 = C1/cos θ
C3
= 4215kN
T2 = -C3 = -C2sin θ
= -2710kN
For girder of 2350mm width with N24 at 100mm centre, tie

capacity:
ΦNT = ΦnAsfy = 0.7 x 23 x 452 x 500
= 3640kN > T1 & T2

For bottom flange of girder = 792mm, strut capacity:

ΦNC = Φbcdcfc.cal ≥ C2
bc = 792mm
f’c = 40MPa
fc.cal = [0.8 – (f’c/200)]f’ca
= 27.5MPa
Required dc = 277mm < Section depth
For service load,

T1 = -C1 = -1855kN
C2 = 2422kN
T2 = -C3 = -1557kN
Tensile stress in tie bars

σ = T1/(nAs)
= 1855/(23 x 452)
= 178MPa < limit = 320MPa
Therefore, the section is adequate.
Section details:

Pile cap detail:

Clear span/overall depth = 2250/1200 = 1.875 <4
Use strut and tie method:
P1 P2 P3
Applied load from superstructure:

Load ULS SLS
combination
P1 (kN) P2 (kN) P3 (kN) P1 (kN) P2 (kN) P3 (kN)
1 1562 1268 1071 1022 792 663
2 1560 1269 1077 1021 793 666
3 889 1019 1206 648 654 738
After analysis (ULS),

Maximum tie force at top fibre, T1 = 623kN
Maximum tie force at bottom fibre, T2 = 367kN
Maximum strut compression, C1 = 1575kN
For reinforcement detail with 9N28 top & bottom,

Tie capacity = 1940kN > T1 & T2
Required strut depth = 67mm
For service load,

Maximum tie force at top fibre, T1 = 382kN
Maximum tie force at bottom fibre, T2 = 223kN
Maximum strut compression, C1 = 1030kN
Tensile stress in tie bars, σ = 382/(9 x 615) = 69MPa < limit = 280MPa

For the shear ligs design, the critical actions are

extracted from the model in ultimate limit state.
Critical Vx* (kN) Vy* (kN) T* (kNm)
effects
V*max 701 1742 973
T*max 608 1026 1297
With ligs set as shown at 200mm,

ΦVusx = 2570kN > Vx*
ΦVusy = 3490kN > Vy*
ΦTus = 2670kNm > T*
All interactions are less than factor of 1.0.
Therefore, the design is adequate structurally.
# The design of barriers and approach slab is not shown here.

7.2 Semi-integral bridge with end diaphragm

General details:
Bridge detail:
• Two lanes carriageway, 7m wide.
• 2 spans continuous over pier, simply supported on abutments.
• Span 1 is 35m long, Span 2 is 29m long, total length 64m.
• 1.5m wide shoulder each side, total trafficable width is 10m.
• 6 no. 1500m deep troffs on elastomeric bearing on abutments.
• 210mm minimum thick deck.
• 3 no. bored piles for each abutment, 1 no. bored pile for pier.

• Fill to 4m depth maximum.
• Residual soil to 10m depth maximum.
• Extremely low to low strength argillite below residual soil.
Estimated lateral spring stiffness:

Abutment A Abutment B Pier
Depth (m) Kh (kN/m) Depth (m) Kh (kN/m) Depth (m) Kh (kN/m)
0~4 13,000 0~1 20,000 0~1 75,000
4~10 26,500 1~5 53,000 1~9 375,000
10~15 53,000 >5 133,000 >9 188,000
>15 332,000
Backfill details:
• 2.9m depth to soffit of abutment.
• Internal friction angle, Φ’ ≈ 40°.

Cross section
1. Construct foundations and substructures.
Stage 1
2. Erect the girders, construct pier diaphragm to make continuity.
3. Pour in-situ slab and end diaphragms. Stage 2
Stage 3
5. Construct approach slab, barriers, footpaths and surfacing.
Design loads:
Three stages of loading are defined according to the construction sequences. Calculation of the loading is done

Precast beam: 13.8kN/m
Abutment: 55.7kN/m
Pier diaphragm: 137.3kN/m


Barrier: 13kN/m


Asphalt: 1.65kPa
Live load –
3 design lanes SM1600
Braking force: 720kN
Thermal effects –

For Region 2 and bridge type 1,
Span 1 Span 2
# Red: Top hot Blue: Top cold
Top hot: Restraint force = 2455kN = 2462kN

Restraint moment = 1141kNm = 1143kNm
Top cold: Restraint force = -825kN = -826kN
Restraint moment = -502kNm = -502kNm


Span 1 Span 2
Shrinkage at erection: εcs.t1 = 240x10-6 = 240x10-6
Shrinkage at 30 year: εcs.t2 = 415x10-6 = 415x10-6
Shrinkage after erection: εcs = 175x10-6 = 175x10-6
Creep factor at erection: Φcc.t1 = 0.744 = 0.744

Creep factor at 30 year: Φcc.t2 = 1.371 = 1.371
Residual creep factor: Φcc.j = 0.628 = 0.628

Residual creep strain: ε = Φcc.j x (σci / Ec)
= 365x10-6 = 310x10-6
Differential shrinkage strain: Φcs.j = 194x10-6 = 194x10-6
Primary moment = 1322kNm = 1358kNm

Residual prestress moment after all loss:
Mps = -5131kNm = -4179kNm
[1 - e-Φcc.j] = 0.466 = 0.466
[1 - e-Φcc.j] Mps = -2391kNm = -1947kNm
Earth pressures –
At rest pressure,
Lateral Earth pressure coefficient, Ko = 1 – sinΦ’
0
= 0.36
Lateral Earth pressure on U/S diaphragm = 0.36 x 19 x 1 1 6.8kPa

= 6.8kPa
Force on end diaphragm = (6.8 x 1)/2
= 3.4kN/m
2.9 19.7kPa

= 19.7kPa
Force on abutment = ((6.8 + 19.7) x 1.9)/2
= 25.2kN/m

Passive pressure on end diaphragm only,

0
Lateral Earth pressure coefficient, K* = (d/0.05H)0.4Kp 0.67
= 8.5(d/50)0.4 1
K*
Force on end diaphragm, Fp = (K* x 19 x 0.67) x (0.67 x ½ + 0.33) Ko
= 8.44K* kN/m
Apply 8.44kN/m on abutment in the model as a basic load.
SAM Model:
Structure module:

Apply passive earth pressure on the resistance side of end diaphragm to braking force with a material partial
safety factor of 0.5, apply at rest earth pressure on another end diaphragm and on both abutments with a material
partial safety factor of 1. With braking force only, the bridge displaces by 8mm. Use 8mm as an initial value for
iterations.
Calculate K*,
K* = 0.5 x 8.5(d/50)0.4
= 2.04
Fp = 17.2kN/m
For a load combination of PE, LL and earth pressures,

K* = 0.5 x 8.5(6.9/50)0.4
= 1.92

K* = 0.5 x 8.5(7.1/50)0.4
= 1.94

K* = 0.5 x 8.5(7.05/50)0.4
= 1.94
The result converges. The bridge longitudinal movement is 7mm, which is acceptable.

Pile design:
Design actions at top of abutment pile (900mm dia.) from SAM:
ULS
N*max 3791 -68 -116 134 57 44 73
N*min 604 143 53 153 -40 -177 181
M*max 2322 -60 -220 228 82 28 86
Long term 2369 23 -232 233 85 -33 91
SLS
Ns 2507 -61 -69 92 33 68 76
Ms 1721 -56 -122 135 45 59 75
Long term 1790 13 -135 136 49 8 49

Design actions at top of pier pile (1800mm dia.) from SAM:
ULS
N*max 20577 -3285 1748 3721 -93 769 775
N*min 6890 -281 0 281 0 -73 73
M*max 19105 -2984 7408 7987 -394 793 885
Long term 18803 -2992 7408 7990 -394 829 918
SLS
Ns 14618 -1941 971 2170 -52 394 397
Ms 13800 -1774 4116 4482 -219 407 462
Long term 13347 -1773 4116 4481 -219 438 489
For SLS check, the steel stress for abutment pile:

Ns 2507 92 0
Ms 1721 135 0
Long term 1790 136 0
All reinforcements are in compression.

The steel stress for pier pile:

Ns 14618 2170 0
Ms 13800 4482 9
Long term 13347 4481 11
Both pile designs are adequate structurally. It is then checked against the geotechnical resistance by the
# check pile design with earthquake load, etc.
20N32
N12-150
N12-150
14N24
Abutment piles Pier piles
Deck design:
Live load of SM1600 is positioned on the deck to generate maximum effects. Results are collected and
superimposed with the other effects. Only calculation for prestress beams in span 1 is shown in this example.

This is done with the use of SAM – beam module.
Prestress beam no.: A1
Prestress beam: 1500mm troff

At transfer check:
With 50 prestress strands, it marginally satisfies the stress requirement at transfer.
Maximum compressive stress at bottom = 22.6MPa ≈ limit = 0.6f’c = 22.2MPa

M*sag = 13,170kNm < ΦMusag = 16,160kNm

The maximum hogging moment at pier support

M*hog = 11,345kNm < ΦMuhog = 13,100kNm
spacing,
Maximum V* (kN) T* (kNm) ΦVus (kN) ΦTus (kNm) Interaction
combined effect
V*/ΦVus + T*/ΦTus
Abutment end
V*max 1489 225 3240 3020 0.53
T*max 1325 400 3450 3020 0.52
Pier end
V*max 2057 176 2470 3020 0.89
T*max 1943 267 2560 3020 0.85

Stress -
Maximum hogging moment at pier support = 6980kNm

Resultant stress of top reinforcement = 130MPa < limit = 320MPa (N36 @ 100mm)

Deflection -
Deflection under live load plus DLA = 25mm < 56.5mm (span/600)
Final girder details for beam A1 in span:
Reinforcement:
G1: 5N16
G2: 3N16
G5: 4N12
G6: N12-200
G7: N12-150
G8: N16-150
G23: N16
G34: 2N36
Main deck reinforcements:

Mid-span:
N20-200 Top, N16-200 Bottom
Over pier supports:
N36-100 Top, N16-200 Bottom
# Repeat the above steps for other girders in span 1

and span 2.
End diaphragm design:

Passive earth pressures behind the end diaphragm of
the deck would be significant. The end diaphragm can
be designed through a conservative calculation and
considered as a bending member spaning before
girders.
ULS bending moment, M* = wL2/8

ULS shear, V* = w(L/2 – 0.35)

Maximum pressure, w = KpγZ x ½ x 1.5

= 8.5 x 19 x 1 x ½ x 1.5
= 121.1kPa
= 121.1kN/m (for 1m deep)
Z
L
Distance between girders, L ≈ 1m
Therefore, M* = 12.1kNm
V* = 18.2kN
With N20 – 150 EF and shear ligs of N16 – 150,

Capacities, ΦMu = 270kNm > M*
ΦV = 420kNm > V*
Therefore, the end diaphragm is adequate for ultimate passive earth pressures.

The abutments are similar to those for simply supported span therefore not discussed here.

7.3 Semi-integral bridge with debond layer at deck ends

General details:
Bridge detail:
• Two railway tracks, 9.9m wide deck;
• Single span of 15.6m;
• 16 no. 600mm wide x 1500m deep precast prestress planks;
• 200mm minimum thick deck;
• 5 no. bored piles for each abutment.

• Fill from ground level to 1m depth.
• Sandy clay from 1m to 4m depth, estimated lateral spring, Kh = 5,000kPa/m per m length.
• Stiff clay from 4m depth downward, estimated lateral spring, Kh = 25,000kPa/m per m length.
Backfill details:
• 1.85m depth to soffit of abutment;
• Internal friction angle, Φ’ ≈ 35°;
Elevation
Cross section

1. Construct substructures.
Stage 1 Dead load applied
2. Erect precast units on abutments.
3. Cast in-situ deck slab and fender walls with debond layers and required gap.
5. Construct approach slab, ballast wall. Further loads applied
6. Place ballast and tracks.
Design loads:
Two stages of loading are defined according to the construction sequences. Calculation of the loading is done

Precast plank: 11.1kN/m
Abutment: 45kN/m

Ballast wall/upstand: 2.6kN/m

Ballast and track: 9.5kPa (assumed 500mm depth)
5.9kN/m (per plank)
Live load –
2 tracks 300LA.
For 15.6m span, dynamic load allowance, α = 0.31
Multiplication factor, (1+α): 1.31 for bending
1.20 for other actions
Braking force: 100kN for each track
Thermal effects –


For Region 2 and bridge type 1 over water, T = 18°C
Because the bridge is covered by 500mm ballast, the reduced temperature is applied to the top of the deck for
y = 500mm.
Top Hot:
T(y) = T(1 – y/1200)5
= 18x(1 – 500/1200)5
= 1.2°C
Top Cold:
T(y) = 0
Differential Temperature
Top hot: Restraint force = 40kN

Restraint moment = 14kNm
Top cold: Restraint force =0
Restraint moment =0
These are small, thus they are negligible.

Shrinkage at erection: εcs.t1 = 85x10-6
Shrinkage at 30 year: εcs.t2 = 265x10-6
Shrinkage after erection: εcs = 180x10-6
Creep factor at erection: Φcc.t1 = 0.315

Creep factor at 30 year: Φcc.t2 = 1.056
Residual creep factor: Φcc.j = 0.741
Residual creep strain: εcc.j = Φcc.j x (σci / Ec) ≈ 220x10-6

Differential shrinkage strain: Φcs.j = 203x10-6
Primary moment = 239kNm

The bridge is not fully integral into the abutments, this effect is not critical.
Earth pressures –
At rest pressure,
Lateral Earth pressure coefficient, Ko = 0.43
= 15.1kPa
Net force on abutment = (15.1 x 1.85)/2
= 14.0kN/m
Passive pressure,
0
Lateral Earth pressure coefficient, K* = (d/0.05H)0.4Kp
= 6(d/92.5)0.4 1.23
Net force on abutment, Fp = (K* x 19 x 1.23) x (1.23 x ½ + 0.62) 1.85

K*
= 28.9K* kN/m
Apply 28.9kN/m on abutment in the model as the basic load. Ko
Fatigue load –
Track 1: 300LA with (1 + ½ α), load factor = 1
Track 2: 80% of 300LA with no DLA, load factor = 1
Stress cycle
Span length, Lf = 15.6m
(2𝐿𝑣−𝐿𝑓) 3
Number of equivalent stress cycles of amplitude, nT = 60( 𝐿𝑓
) +2
= 11.4
Base number of load cycle for main line, CT = 1 x 105
Effective umber of stress cycle, n = CTnT = 1.14 x 106

Space Gass Model:

Structure:
Link slab at span ends:
Assign cracked section property to link slab.

Apply passive earth pressure on the resistance side to braking force with a material partial safety factor of 0.5,
apply at rest earth pressure on another side with a material partial safety factor of 1. With braking forces from both
tracks only, the bridge displaces by 1mm. Use 1mm as an initial value for iterations.
Calculate K*,
K* = 0.5 x 6(d/92.5)0.4
= 0.49
Fp = 28.9K*
= 14.2kN/m
For a load combination of PE, LL and lateral earth pressures,

K* = 0.5 x 6(1.28/92.5)0.4
= 0.54

K* = 0.5 x 6(1.2/92.5)0.4
= 0.53

K* = 0.5 x 6(1.22/92.5)0.4
= 0.53
The result converges. The bridge longitudinal movement is 1.2mm, which is acceptable.

Pile design:
Design actions at top of pile 1 (outer pile) from Space Gass:
ULS
N*max 2400 -640 -169 662 67 266 274
M*max 507 -86 71 112 -34 14 37
N*min 1694 -856 -157 871 63 323 329
SLS
Ns 1662 -441 -120 457 47 183 189
Ms 1240 -573 -113 584 45 218 223

For SLS check, the steel stress:

Ns 1662 457 69
Ms 1240 584 171
The pile design is adequate structurally. It is then checked against the geotechnical resistance by the
# Check other inner piles as well.
12N32
N12-150
Deck design:
Live loads of both tracks of 300LA are positioned on the deck to generate maximum effects. Results are collected
and superimposed with the other effects. Only calculation for prestress beams on the edge is shown in this
example.

This is done with the use of the design spreadsheets of pre-tensioned precast composite beams and section
capacity.
Prestress beam: 700mm depth plank
At transfer check:
With 22 prestress strands, it marginally satisfies the stress requirement at transfer.
Maximum compressive stress at bottom = 16.5MPa < limit = 0.6f’c = 22.2MPa


Input to spreadsheet from SG results:
Location DL1 DL2 DL3 Prestress SDL DiffShrink Support Settle LL(Max) LL(Min) DiffTemp Secondary
(m) Secondary Secondary Max Min Top Hot Top Cold
0.000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.000 0.0 -6.1 0.0 0.0 -23.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.680 0.0 -5.8 0.0 0.0 -7.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 77.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.700 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 32.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 212.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
2.710 0.0 6.9 0.0 0.0 66.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 345.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
3.730 0.0 11.1 0.0 0.0 94.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 460.7 0.0 0.0 0.0
4.750 0.0 14.1 0.0 0.0 115.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 554.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
5.770 0.0 16.1 0.0 0.0 131.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 620.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
6.780 0.0 17.3 0.0 0.0 140.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 658.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
7.800 0.0 17.8 0.0 0.0 143.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 669.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
8.820 0.0 17.5 0.0 0.0 140.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 654.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
9.830 0.0 16.5 0.0 0.0 131.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 612.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
10.850 0.0 14.5 0.0 0.0 115.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 542.7 0.0 0.0 0.0
11.870 0.0 11.6 0.0 0.0 94.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 448.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.890 0.0 7.4 0.0 0.0 66.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 332.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
13.900 0.0 1.4 0.0 0.0 33.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 204.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
14.920 0.0 -5.8 0.0 0.0 -7.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 92.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
15.600 0.0 -6.1 0.0 0.0 -23.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
15.600 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
# Dynamic load allow, α = 0.31.

M*sag = 1952kNm < ΦMusag = 2760kNm

spacing,
Maximum V* (kN) ΦVu (kN) T* (kNm) 0.25ΦTuc Note
combined effect (kNm)
V*max 492 1390 45 53.3 Torsional reo not required
T*max 459 1390 50 53.3 Torsional reo not required
# Dynamic load allow, α = 0.20.
Loads Define Locations for Shear Check Calculate Values

Total Stage 1 Web Thickness
ytop Shear, bv Tors, bw f'c
N* (kN) 0 0 (mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa)
M* (kNm) 300 0
V* (kN) 492 0 Loc 1 140.0 600.0 50.0
Loc 2 560.0 600.0 50.0
T* 45 kNm Centroid 350.0 600.0 600.0 50.0
Concrete Shape Rectangle Beam Torsion Polygon
ytop Width
(mm) (mm)
Diameter 528 mm 60 470
ytop 111 mm 635 470
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
Done 0 0
0 0
0 0
Single Stage Analysis
Shear and Torsion Parameters Calculate Parameters
General Shear Torsion
ycomp 350 mm D/2= 350 fsyf 500 MPa fsyf 500 MPa
ytens 350 mm Asv 226 mm2 Asw 113 mm2
sp.v ert 0 MPa Spacing 150 mm Spacing 150 mm
f 0.7 Pv 0 kN y1 750 mm
sc.p 5.143 MPa av 90 degrees Jt 1.01E+08 mm3
Ast 1030.4 mm2 do 640 mm Am 0 mm2
Apt 1716.0 mm2 b1 1.10 At 270250 mm2
Asc 804.2 mm
2
b2 1.00 ut 2090 mm
Apc 286.0 mm
2
b3 1.00
qv & qt


Stress -
Deflection -
Deflection under live load plus DLA = 13mm < 26mm (span/600)
Fatigue design:
Maximum bending moment at mid span,
M* = 492 x (1 + 0.31/2) + 0.8 x 20
= 582kNm
Therefore, design fatigue stress range = 28MPa (reo)
= 14MPa (prestress strand)
Stress range factor, αf 6
= (2x10 / n) 1/3
= 1.21
Permissible stress in steel = 150 x αf
= 181MPa > Design fatigue stress range
Therefore, the girder satisfies fatigue requirement
Final girder details:

Main deck reinforcements: N12-200 T&B
Plank reinforcements: 2N16
2N16
2N16
2N20
# Repeat the above steps for other girders in span.

Link slab design:

Since the link slab is cast on the planks, the dead weight of the link slab is not included in the design loads. The
link slab is then designed for bending moment and shear force.
The end rotation of the girders causes the hogging moment in the link slab.
Results from SG (per 600mm width):
Unfactored actions
Loads N* M* V*
SDL -37.8 2.4 4.8
LL
Track 1 -44.4 10.8 19.5
Track 2 19.8 1.8 3.2
Braking 1 9.9 0.3 0.3
Braking 2 9.4 0.2 0.3
Thermal
Expansion -18.5 -0.5 -1
Contraction 12.3 0.3 0.7
Long term
Shrinkage 25.2 1 1.3
Creep 30.7 1.3 1.6
Diff. shrinkage -89.6 -3.1 -4.2
Earth pressures
Ko A 11.6 0.3 0.4
Ko B -11.2 -0.3 -0.4
K* A 24 0.7 0.8
K* B -23.2 -0.6 -0.8

ULS bending moment, M* = 34.3kNm

Under axial load, N* = -9.6kN
ULS shear, V* = 56.7kN
With N16 – 100 T&B,

Capacities, ΦMu = 63kNm > M*
ΦVuc = 84kNm > V*
SLS bending moment, Ms = 22.6kNm

Under axial load, Ns = 1.7kN
Stress in reinforcement, σ = 143MPa < limit = 320MPa (bar spacing = 100mm)
Because the crack moment, Mcr = 16kNm, the section is cracked as assumed.
Therefore, the link slab is adequate for both ultimate and serviceability limit state designs.

The abutments are similar to those for simply supported span therefore not discussed here.

8.0 References
British Standard (2004), Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design
Highway Agency (2003), Design of Integral Bridge
Nicholson, B. A. (1998), Integral Abutments for Prestressed Beam Bridges, Prestressed Concrete Association
Standard Australia (2004), AS5100 – Bridge Design
Standard Australia (2011), AS1170 – Structural Design Actions
VicRoads (2012), Bridge Technical Note BTN 2012/003 – Design of Integral and Semi-Integral Bridges

Appendix A: Backfill properties



Appendix B: Value of Kp
δ/φ’ = 0.5


AECOM - Structures 'How To' Guide - Integral Abutment Bridges - RevA

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D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

Date 8 July 2013

Reviewed by Transportation - Structures

A 08-Jul-2013 For review

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

Figure 1: Integral abutment bridge

2.0 Regulatory and design standards

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

3.0 Common types of integral bridge

Figure 2: Embedded abutment on pile foundation

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

3.2 Semi-integral bridges

The common types of semi-integral bridges are shown in Figure 4.

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

3.3 Portal frame

Figure 5: Portal frame

4.0 Construction methods

4.1 Bottom-up construction and top-down construction

The general construction sequences of both methods are shown in Table 1.

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

Table 1: Construction methods for integral bridges

Bottom-up construction Top-down construction

Step 3*: Make integral Step 3: Excavate below deck

Step 4: Construct embankments Step 4: Fill behind abutments

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

4.2 Use of falsework or temporary supports in superstructure construction

Table 2: Bending moment of deck member

Without falsework With falsework

After integral After integral and release of falsework

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

4.3 Staging of construction

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

5.0 Design approach

5.1 Design loads

Load types Unit weight

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

5.1.3 Thermal effects

Top Hot Top Cold

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

5.1.4 Long term effects

5.1.5 Earth pressure

D:\02_Books\05_Structural Analysis & Design\AECOM_Structures 'How To' Guide_Integral Abutment Bridges_RevA.docx

5.1.6 Other loads

5.1.7 Load factors

Table 4: Load factors for bridge design loads

Ultimate limit state

Concrete 1.2 0.85 1.0

Steel 1.1 0.9 1.0

Superimposed dead load

Asphalt 2.0 (or 1.4 controlled) 0 1.3 (or 1.0 controlled)

Ballast and track 1.7 0.7 1.3

Transom track 1.4 0.9 1.2

Other permanent structures 2.0 0.7 1.3

SM1600 1.8 1.0

HLP 1.5 1.0

300LA 1.6 1.0

Pedestrian 1.8 1.0