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Design & Implementation of a 25Watt Audio Power Amplifier

Technical Report · January 2012

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3224.0961

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 DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION OF A 25 WATT
AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER

Submitted by

Mohammed Lutfur Rahman ID: EECE 070300027

Md. Abdur Razzak ID: EECE 070300039

Supervised by

Ashraful Arefin
Senior Lecturer
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

January 2012

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
NORTHERN UNIVERSITY BANGLADESH
 DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION OF A 25 WATT
AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER

A project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of
Science in Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted by

Mohammed Lutfur Rahman ID: EECE 070300027

Md. Abdur Razzak ID: EECE 070300039

Supervised by

Ashraful Arefin
Senior Lecturer
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

January 2012

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
NORTHERN UNIVERSITY BANGLADESH
 DECLARATION
We, here, that the project work, presented in this report is the outcome of the investigation,
performed by us under the supervision of Ashraful Arefin, Senior Lecturer, Department of
Electrical & and Electronic Engineering, Northern University Bangladesh. We also declare that
no part of project report has been or is submitted elsewhere for the award of any degree or
diploma.

Countersigned

___________________
Ashraful Arefin
( Supervisor)

1._____________________
Mohammed Lutfur Rahman
ID EECE-070300027

2. ______________________
Abdur Razzak
ID EECE-070300039

(Candidates)

i
 CERTIFICATION
The Project titled
DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION OF A 25 WATT AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER
Submitted by Mohammed Lutfur Rahman ID:EECE070300027 & Md. Abdur Razzak
ID:EECE070300039 Students of B.Sc. Engineering, has been accepted as satisfactory in partial
fulfillment for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communication
Engineering on January 2012.

Board of Examiners
Ashraful Arefin
Senior Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh
Supervisor

Engr. Md. Badiuzzaman

Head
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh
Member

Kazi Md. Shahiduzzaman

Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh
Member

Md. Abdul Hamid

Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh
Member

Prof. Dr. Md. Nurul Islam

Dean
Faculty of Science & Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh
Member

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No

Declaration -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- i
Certification ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ii

Table of Contents ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ iii

Abstract ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- vi
Acknowledgement ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- vii
List of Figures --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- viii

Chapter 1 : Introduction
Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
Chapter 2 : Audio Amplifier
2.1 What is Amplifier ? --------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
2.2 Design parameters ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
2.3 Filters and preamplifiers ---------------------------------------------------------------- 3
2.4 Further developments in amplifier design -------------------------------------------- 3
2.5 Amplifier Gain ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
2.5.1 Amplifier Gain of the Input Signal ---------------------------------------- 4
2.5.2 Voltage Amplifier Gain ----------------------------------------------------- 4
2.5.3 Current Amplifier Gain ------------------------------------------------------ 4
2.5.4 Power Amplifier Gain -------------------------------------------------------- 5
2.5.5 Example ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
2.6 Amplifier Gain Calculation--------------------------------------------------------------- 6
2.7 Amplifier Efficiency ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
2.8 Amplifier Classes --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
2.9 Class A Operation --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
(a) Class A Output Waveform -------------------------------------------------------- 8
2.10 Class B Operation ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9

iii
 (a) Class B Output Waveform -------------------------------------------------------- 9
2.11 Class AB Operation ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
(a) Class AB Output Waveform ------------------------------------------------------ 10
2.12 Power Amplifier Classes----------------------------------------------------------------- 11

Chapter 3 : Description of Equipments

3.1 Ceramic Capacitor ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12
3.2 What is a function of capacitor? -------------------------------------------------------- 12
3.3 Electrolytic Capacitor -------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
3.4 Ceramic Capacitor ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 13
3.5 The PNP Transistor ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
3.5.1 A PNP Transistor Configuration -------------------------------------------- 15
3.5.2 A PNP Transistor Circuit ----------------------------------------------------- 16
3.6 The NPN Transistor ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
3.6.1 An NPN Transistor Configuration ------------------------------------------ 17
3.6.2 α and β Relationship in a NPN Transistor---------------------------------- 19
3.7 General Description of LM1875 IC ---------------------------------------------------- 20
3.7.1 Features ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
3.7.2 Applications -------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
3.7.3 Connection Diagram ----------------------------------------------------------- 21
3.7.4 Absolute Maximum Ratings -------------------------------------------------- 22
3.7.5 Electrical Characteristics ------------------------------------------------------ 22
3.7.6 Typical Performance Characteristics ---------------------------------------- 24
3.8 LM1875 IC Internal Block Diagram ---------------------------------------------------- 26
3.9 LM1875 IC Schematic Diagram --------------------------------------------------------- 27
3.10 Application Hints ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
3.10.1 Stability ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 28
3.10.2 Distortion----------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
3.10.3 Current Limit And Safe Operating Area Protection -------------------- 29
3.10.4 Thermal Protection ----------------------------------------------------------- 30
3.10.5 Power Dissipation And Heat Sinking -------------------------------------- 30

iv
Chapter 4 : Construction of 25 Watt Audio power Amplifier
4.1 Audio Power Amplifier ---------------------------------------------------------------- 33
4.2 25V Power Supply ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
4.3 Audio Amplifier Module ---------------------------------------------------------------- 35
4.4 Assemble Amplifier on Breadboard --------------------------------------------------- 36
4.5 Hardwire the Amplifier ------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
4.6 Audio Speakers ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40

Chapter 5 : Conclusion and Future Work --------------------------------------------------- 43

References ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44

v
 ABSTRACT
The objective of this project is to become familiar with Design & Implementation of a 25watt
Audio Power Amplifier. Through research and hands-on approach, we hope to learn an
alternative method of amplifying and rectifying electrical signals. Nowadays, most small and
medium size electronic devices utilize solid-state transistors and diodes to perform the above
stated operations. Unlike popular belief, the Audio Power Amplifier are not obsolete and are
still being widely used in large transmitters, high fidelity audio amplifiers and by DIY (do it
yourself) audio enthusiast. As seniors in Electronics Engineering, we have been exposed to both
the transistors and the diodes in classroom and laboratory environments. In order to expand our
knowledge about Electronics Engineering, we decided to take it upon ourselves to learn about
Design & Implementation of a 25watt Audio power Amplifier.

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We have the pleasure express our honest sense of gratefulness, sincere appreciation and profound
regards to Ashraful Arefin, Senior Lecturer, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering,
Northern University Bangladesh, who has given us the opportunity to work at the Electronics
lab, His encouraging guidance and direct supervision, his benevolence and constant
encouragement, constructive criticism, and above all his noteworthy teaching approach and
creativity made the task for us easier to complete.

Our immense gratitude and sincere respect are due to Prof. Dr. Nurul Islam, Dean, Faculty of
Science & Engineering, Northern University Bangladesh and Engr. Md. Badiuzzaman Head,
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Northern University Bangladesh, for
their kind help in preparing the project report. Our very cordial appreciation is due to Md. Abdul
Hamid, Lecturer, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Northern University
Bangladesh for his keen interest in our project work. We are grateful to our family, particularly
our parents, for their inexorable love, prayers, and support. They are the really the source of our
inspiration for our academic success. And above all, we unfold our inevitable gratefulness to the
almighty Allah, for all of his blessings and divine providence.

January, 2012 Mohammed Lutfur Rahman

Dhaka Md. Abdur Razzak

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Page No
Fig.2.1 Amplification Stage --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Fig.2.2 Class A Amplifier Output Waveform ------------------------------------------------------- 8
Fig.2.3 Class B Amplifier Output Waveform ------------------------------------------------------- 9
Fig.2.4 Class AB Amplifier Output Waveform ----------------------------------------------------- 10
Fig.3.1 Electrolytic Capacitor ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
Fig.3.2 Ceramic Capacitor ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Fig.3.3 PNP Transistor Configuration circuit ------------------------------------------------------ 15
Fig.3.4 PNP Transistor Circuit ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 16
Fig.3.5 NPN Transistor Configuration --------------------------------------------------------------- 17
Fig.3.6 LM1875 IC connection Diagram ------------------------------------------------------------ 21
Fig.3.7 LM 1875 IC Internal Block Diagram ------------------------------------------------------- 26
Fig.4.1 25 volt power supply circuit diagram ------------------------------------------------------- 34
Fig.4.2 25 watt Audio Amplifier Circuit diagram -------------------------------------------------- 35
Fig.4.3 Audio power amplifier breadboard connection -------------------------------------------- 37
Fig.4.4 Standard 3.5mm stereo audio plug ---------------------------------------------------------- 38
Fig.4.5 3.5mm stereo audio jack used in this lab --------------------------------------------------- 39
Fig.4.6 Audio Speaker ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
Fig.4.7 (a) Cross section and (b) Impedance curve for a typical 8Ω dynamic speaker --------- 41

viii
 Chapter 1
Introduction
An audio amplifier is an Electronic amplifies low-power audio signal (signals composed
primarily of frequencies between 20 - 20 000 Hz the human range of hearing) to a level suitable
for driving Loudspeaker and is the final stage in a typical audio playback chine. The preceding
stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform tasks like Pre-amplifier,
equalizer, ton control, mixing/effect, or audio sources like record players, CD players, and
cassette players. Most audio amplifiers require these low-level inputs to adhere to line levels.
While the input signal to an audio amplifier may measure only a few hundred microwatts, its
output may be 20-30 watts. Important applications include public address systems, theatrical and
concert sound reinforcement, and domestic sound systems. The sound card in a personal
computer contains several audio amplifiers (depending on number of channels), as does every
stereo or home-theatre system. Instrument amplifiers include guitar amplifiers. The audio
amplifier was invented in 1909 by Lee De Forest when he invented the triode vacuum tube. The
triode was a three terminal device with a control grid that can modulate the flow of electrons
from the filament to the plate. The triode vacuum amplifier was used to make the first AM radio.
Early audio amplifiers were based on vacuum tubes (also known as valves), and some of these
achieved notably high quality (e.g., the Williamson amplifier of 1947-9). Most modern audio
amplifiers are based on solid state devices (transistors such as BJTs, FETs and MOSFETs), but
there are still some who prefer tube-based amplifiers, and the valve sound. Audio amplifiers
based on transistors became practical with the wide availability of inexpensive transistors in the
late 1960s.

Page | 1
 Chapter 2
Audio Amplifier
2.1 What is Amplifier ?
An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current, or power of a signal.
Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and broadcasting, and in audio equipment of all
kinds. They can be categorized as either weak-signal amplifiers or power amplifiers.

Weak-signal amplifiers are used primarily in wireless receivers. They are also employed in
acoustic pickups, audio tape players, and compact disc players. A weak-signal amplifier is
designed to deal with exceedingly small input signals, in some cases measuring only a few nano
volts (units of 10-9 volt). Such amplifiers must generate minimal internal noise while increasing
the signal voltage by a large factor. The most effective device for this application is the field-
effect transistor. The specification that denotes the effectiveness of a weak-signal amplifier is
sensitivity, defined as the number of micro volts (units of 10-6 volt) of signal input that produce
a certain ratio of signal output to noise output (usually 10 to 1).

Power amplifiers are used in wireless transmitters, broadcast transmitters, and hi-fi audio
equipment. The most frequently-used device for power amplification is the bipolar transistor.
However, vacuum tubes, once considered obsolete, are becoming increasingly popular,
especially among musicians. Many professional musicians believe that the vacuum tube (known
as a "valve" in England) provides superior fidelity. Two important considerations in power
amplification are power output and efficiency. Power output is measured in watts or kilowatts.
Efficiency is the ratio of signal power output to total power input (wattage demanded of the
power supply or battery). This value is always less than 1. It is typically expressed as a
percentage. In audio applications, power amplifiers are 30 to 50 percent efficient. In wireless
communications and broadcasting transmitters, efficiency ranges from about 50 to 70 percent. In
hi-fi audio power amplifiers, distortion is also an important factor. This is a measure of the extent
to which the output waveform is a faithful replication of the input waveform. The lower the
distortion, in general, the better the fidelity of the output sound.

Page | 2
2.2 Design parameters

Key design parameters for audio amplifiers are frequency response, gain, noise, and distortion.
These are interdependent; increasing gain often leads to undesirable increases in noise and
distortion. While negative feedback actually reduces the gain, it also reduces distortion. Most
audio amplifiers are linear amplifiers operating in class AB.

2.3 Filters and preamplifiers

Since modern digital devices, including CD and DVD players, radio receivers and tape decks
already provide a "flat" signal at line level, the preamp is not needed other than as a volume
control and source selector. One alternative to a separate preamp is to simply use passive volume
and switching controls, sometimes integrated into a power amplifier to form an integrated
amplifier.

2.4 Further developments in amplifier design

For some years following the introduction of solid state amplifiers, their perceived sound did not
have the excellent audio quality of the best valve amplifiers (see valve audio amplifier). This led
audiophiles to believe that valve sound had an intrinsic quality due to the vacuum tube
technology itself. In 1972, Matti Otala demonstrated the origin of a previously unobserved form
of distortion: transitory inter modulation distortion (TIM), also called slew rate distortion. TIM
distortion was found to occur during very rapid increases in amplifier output voltage.[3] TIM did
not appear at steady state sine tone measurements, helping to hide it from design engineers prior
to 1972. Problems with TIM distortion stem from reduced open loop frequency response of solid
state amplifiers. Further works of Otala and other authors found the solution for TIM distortion,
including increasing slew rate, decreasing preamp frequency bandwidth, and the insertion of a
lag compensation circuit in the input stage of the amplifier.[4][5][6] In high quality modern
amplifiers the open loop response is at least 20 kHz, canceling TIM distortion. However, TIM
distortion is still present in most low price home quality amplifiers.[citation needed]

The next step in advanced design was the Baxandall Theorem, created by Peter Baxandall in
England.[7] This theorem introduced the concept of comparing the ratio between the input

Page | 3
distortion and the output distortion of an audio amplifier. This new idea helped audio design
engineers to better evaluate the distortion processes within an audio amplifier.

2.5 Amplifier Gain

Measured at the output with the signal measured at the input. There are three different kinds of
Then the gain of an amplifier can be said to be the relationship that exists between the signal
Amplifier Gain, Voltage Gain, ( Av ), Current Gain ( Ai ) and Power Gain ( Ap ) and examples
of these are given below.

2.5.1 Amplifier Gain of the Input Signal

Fig.2.1 Amplification Stage

2.5.2 Voltage Amplifier Gain

Output voltage p
out
Voltage Gain( Ai )  
Input voltage p
in

2.5.3 Current Amplifier Gain

Output Current p
out
Current Gain( Ai )  
Input Current p
in

Page | 4
2.5.4 Power Amplifier Gain

Power Gain ( A p )  Av  Ai

Note that for the Power Gain you can also divide the power obtained at the output with the power
obtained at the input. Also when calculating the gain of an amplifier, the subscripts v, i and p are
used to denote the type of signal gain being used.

The power Gain or power level of the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels, (dB). The Bel
is a logarithmic unit (base 10) of measurement that has no units. Since the Bel is too large a unit
of measure, it is prefixed with deci making it Decibels instead with one decibel being one tenth
(1/10th) of a Bel. To calculate the gain of the amplifier in Decibels or dB, we can use the
following expressions.

 Voltage Gain in dB: av = 20 log Av



 Current Gain in dB: ai = 20 log Ai



 Power Gain in dB: ap = 10 log Ap

Note that the DC power gain of an amplifier is equal to ten times the common log of the output
to input ratio, where as voltage and current gains are 20 times the common log of the ratio. Note
however, that 20dB is not twice as much power as 10dB because of the log scale. Also, a
positive value of dB represents a Gain and a negative value of dB represents a Loss within the
amplifier. For example, an amplifier gain of +3dB indicates that the amplifiers output signal has
"doubled", (x2) while an amplifier gain of -3dB indicates that the signal has "halved", (x0.5) or
in other words a loss.

The -3dB point of an amplifier is called the half-power point which is -3dB down from
maximum, taking 0dB as the maximum output value.

Page | 5
2.5.5 Example
Determine the Voltage, Current and Power Gain of an amplifier that has an input signal of 1mA
at 10mV and a corresponding output signal of 10mA at 1V. Also, express all three gains in
decibels, (dB).

2.6 Amplifier Gain Calculation

Output V oltage
0.112
Av    11.2
0.01
Input V oltage

Output Current
2.5
Ai    2.5
1
Input Current

A p  Av  Ai  11 .2  2.5  28

a v  20 log Av  20 log 11 .2  20 .98 dB

a i  20 log Ai  20 log 2.5  7.958 dB

a p  10 log A p  10 log 28  14 .47 dB

in Decibels (dB).

Then the amplifier has a Voltage Gain of 100, a Current Gain of 10 and a Power Gain of 1,000.

Generally, amplifiers can be divide into two distinct types depending upon their power or voltage
gain, Small Signal Amplifiers such as pre-amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers etc, which are
designed to amplify very small signal voltage levels of only a few micro-volts (μV) from sensors

Page | 6
or audio signals and Large Signal Amplifiers such as audio power amplifiers or switching
amplifiers, which are designed to amplify large input voltage signals or switch heavy load
currents.

2.7 Amplifier Efficiency

power delevery to the load p

out
Efficeiency  
dc power take from the sup ply p
in

2.8 Amplifier Classes

The classification of an amplifier as either a voltage or a power amplifier is made by comparing
the characteristics of the input and output signals by measuring the amount of time in relation to
the input signal that the current flows in the output circuit. We saw in the Common Emitter
transistor tutorial that for the transistor to operate within its "Active Region" some form of "Base
Biasing" was required. This small Base Bias voltage added to the input signal allowed the
transistor to reproduce the full input waveform at its output with no loss of signal. However, by
altering the position of this Base bias voltage, it is possible to operate an amplifier in an
amplification mode other than that for full waveform reproduction. By changing the amplifiers
Base bias voltage different ranges or modes of operation can be obtained and these are
categorized according to their Classification better known as Amplifier Class.

Audio power amplifiers are classified in an alphabetical order according to their circuit
configurations and mode of operation. Amplifiers are designated by different classes of operation
such as class "A", class "B", class "C", class "AB", etc. These different classes of operation
range from a near linear output but with low efficiency to a non-linear output but with a high
efficiency. No one class of operation is "better" or "worse" than any other class with the type of
operation being determined by the use of the amplifying circuit. There are typical maximum
efficiencies for the various types or class of amplifier, with the most commonly used being:

Page | 7
  Class A - has low efficiency of less than 40% but good signal reproduction and
linearity.


 Class B - is twice as efficient as class A amplifiers with a maximum theoretical

efficiency of about 70% because the amplifying device only conducts (and uses power)
for half of the input signal.


 Class AB - has an efficiency rating between that of Class A and Class B but poorer
signal reproduction than class A amplifiers.


 Class C - is the most efficient amplifier class as only a very small portion of the input
signal is amplified therefore the output signal bears very little resemblance to the input
signal. Class C amplifiers have the worst signal reproduction.

2.9 Class A Operation

Class A Amplifier operation is were the entire input signal waveform is faithfully reproduced at
the amplifiers output as the transistor is perfectly biased within its active region, thereby never
reaching either of its Cut-off or Saturation regions. This then results in the AC input signal being
perfectly "centered" between the amplifiers upper and lower signal limits as shown below.

2.9.a Class A Output Waveform

Fig.2.2 Class A Amplifier Output Waveform

Page | 8
In this configuration, the Class A amplifier uses the same transistor for both halves of the output
waveform and due to its biasing arrangement the output transistor always has current flowing
through it, even if there is no input signal. In other words the output transistors never turns
"OFF". This results in the class A type of operation being very inefficient as its conversion of the
DC supply power to the AC signal power delivered to the load is usually very low. Generally,
the output transistor of a Class A amplifier gets very hot even when there is no input signal
present so some form of heat sinking is required. The DC current flowing through the output
transistor (Ic) when there is no output signal will be equal to the current flowing through the
load. then a pure Class A amplifier is very inefficient.

2.10 Class B Operation

Unlike the Class A amplifier above that uses a single transistor for its output stage, the Class B
Amplifier uses two complimentary transistors (an NPN and a PNP) for each half of the output
waveform. One transistor conducts for the positive half of the waveform and another conducts
for the negative half of the waveform. This means that each transistor spends half of its time in
the active region and half its time in the Cut-off region thereby amplifying only 50% of the input
signal. Class B operation has no DC bias voltage instead the transistor only conducts when the
input signal is greater than the base-emitter voltage and for silicon devices is about 0.7v.
Therefore, at zero input there is zero output. This then results in only half the input signal being
presented at the amplifiers output giving a greater efficiency as shown below.

2.10. a Class B Output Waveform

Fig.2.3 Class B Amplifier Output Waveform

Page | 9
In a class B amplifier, no DC current is used to bias the transistors, so for the output transistors to
start to conduct each half of the waveform, both positive and negative, they need the base-emitter
voltage to be greater than the 0.7v required for a bipolar transistor to start conducting. Then the
lower part of the output waveform which is below this 0.7v window will not be reproduced
accurately resulting in a distorted area of the output waveform as one transistor turns "OFF"
waiting for the other to turn back "ON". The result is that there is a small part of the output
waveform at the zero voltage cross over point which will be distorted. This type of distortion is
called Crossover Distortion and is looked at later on in this section.

2.11 Class AB Operation

The Class AB Amplifier is a compromise between the Class A and the Class B configurations
above. While Class AB operation still uses two complementary transistors in its output stage a
very small biasing voltage is applied to the Base of the transistor to bias it close to the Cut-off
region when no input signal is present. An input signal will cause the transistor to operate as
normal in its Active region thereby eliminating any crossover distortion which is present in class
B configurations. A small Collector current will flow when there is no input signal but it is much
less than that for the Class A amplifier configuration. This means then that the transistor will be
"ON" for more than half a cycle of the waveform. This type of amplifier configuration improves
both the efficiency and linearity of the amplifier circuit compared to a pure Class A
configuration.

2.11. a Class AB Output Waveform

Fig.2.4 Class AB Amplifier Output Waveform

Page | 10
The class of operation for an amplifier is very important and is based on the amount of transistor
bias required for operation as well as the amplitude required for the input signal. Amplifier
classification takes into account the portion of the input signal in which the transistor conducts as
well as determining both the efficiency and the amount of power that the switching transistor
both consumes and dissipates in the form of wasted heat. Then we can make a comparison
between the most common types of amplifier classifications in the following table.

2.12 Power Amplifier Classes

Class A B C AB

Conduction
360o 180o Less than 90o 180 to 360o
Angle

In between the
Position of Centre Point of Exactly on the Below the
X-axis and the
the Q-point the Load Line X-axis X-axis
Centre Load Line

Better than A
Overall
Poor, 25 to 30% Better, 70 to 80% Higher than 80% but less than B
Efficiency
50 to 70%
Signal
Distortion None if Correctly At the X-axis
Large Amounts Small Amounts
Biased Crossover Point

Badly designed amplifiers especially the Class "A" types may also require larger power
transistors, more expensive heat sinks, cooling fans, or even an increase in the size of the power
supply required to deliver the extra power required by the amplifier. Power converted into heat
from transistors, resistors or any other component for that matter, makes any electronic circuit
inefficient and will result in the premature failure of the device. So why use a Class A amplifier
if its efficiency is less than 40% compared to a Class B amplifier that has a higher efficiency
rating of over 70%. Basically, a Class A amplifier gives a much more linear output meaning that
it has, Linearity over a larger frequency response even if it does consume large amounts of DC
power.

Page | 11
 Chapter 3
Description of Equipments
3.1Ceramic Capacitor

A ceramic capacitor is a capacitor constructed with a ceramic as the dielectric. You'll recall that
the basic definition of a capacitor is two conductors separated by an insulator.

3.2 What is a function of capacitor?

The function of a capacitor is to store an electrical charge. A capacitor is used for storing
electricity. It will not allow a D.C. voltage potential to pass through it. It is used to pass A.C.
through circuits with out the D.C. reference causing problems.

3.3 Electrolytic Capacitor :

Fig.3.1 Electrolytic Capacitor

Have you ever wonder why there are so many capacitors in electronic circuit board? They are all
scattered through out the whole electronic board. You could see mica capacitors, ceramic
capacitors, tantalum capacitors, aluminum electrolytic capacitors, paper capacitors and etc. All of
them in the circuit have a function and you can find widespread applications in the electrical and
electronics fields. Some of the common situations in which capacitors are employed are as
follow:

Page | 12
Electric Field
-Power factor correction;
-Motor start and run; and
-Welding (stored energy in capacitor discharged rapidly)
Electronic Field
- Act as filter to remove ripple in power supplies;
- As inter stage signal coupling capacitors- A capacitor will not pass DC, but an AC signal will
go through;
- Tuning resonant circuits, oscillator circuits;
- Decoupling in power supplies and amplifiers;
- As part of timing circuit; and
- As wave shapers and filters.

3.4 Ceramic Capacitor :

Why not one filter capacitor is enough for each DC line voltage? The answer is that the big filter
capacitors (large value) at the secondary side of power supplies is to smooth the DC and remove
unwanted lower frequency noise.

Fig.3.2 Ceramic Capacitor

Page | 13
Meanwhile the small blue resin coated ceramic disc capacitor is more effective in shorting very
high frequency noise spikes to ground and to preventing it from getting back into the power
supply line and traveling to other circuits. Hope you are now understand why there are two
different types of capacitors in the DC supply line. By the way for the small blue capacitor you
can check it with analog meter set to X10k ohms (charge/discharge) or just use a digital
capacitance meter to check for the capacitance value. The small blue capacitor has very high
chances to go fully shorted compare to electrolytic capacitor which is very rare.

3.5 The PNP Transistor

The PNP Transistor is the exact opposite to the NPN Transistor device we looked at in the
previous tutorial. Basically, in this type of transistor construction the two diodes are reversed
with respect to the NPN type giving a Positive-Negative-Positive configuration, with the arrow
which also defines the Emitter terminal this time pointing inwards in the transistor symbol.

Also, all the polarities for a PNP transistor are reversed which means that it "sinks" current as
opposed to the NPN transistor which "sources" current. The main difference between the two
types of transistors is that holes are the more important carriers for PNP transistors, whereas
electrons are the important carriers for NPN transistors. Then, PNP transistors use a small output
base current and a negative base voltage to control a much larger emitter-collector current. The
construction of a PNP transistor consists of two P-type semiconductor materials either side of the
N-type material as shown below.

Page | 14
3.5.1 A PNP Transistor Configuration

(Note: Arrow defines the emitter and conventional current flow, "in" for a PNP

transistor.)

Fig.3.3 PNP Transistor Configuration circuit

The construction and terminal voltages for an NPN transistor are shown above. The PNP
Transistor has very similar characteristics to their NPN bipolar cousins, except that the
polarities (or biasing) of the current and voltage directions are reversed for any one of the
possible three configurations looked at in the first tutorial, Common Base, Common Emitter and
Common Collector.

PNP Transistor Connections

The voltage between the Base and Emitter ( VBE ), is now negative at the Base and positive at the
Emitter because for a PNP transistor, the Base terminal is always biased negative with respect to
the Emitter. Also the Emitter supply voltage is positive with respect to the Collector ( VCE ). So

Page | 15
for a PNP transistor to conduct the Emitter is always more positive with respect to both the Base
and the Collector. The voltage sources are connected to a PNP transistor are as shown. This time
the Emitter is connected to the supply voltage VCC with the load resistor, RL which limits the
maximum current flowing through the device connected to the Collector terminal. The Base
voltage VB which is biased negative with respect to the Emitter and is connected to the Base
resistor RB, which again is used to limit the maximum Base current. To cause the Base current to
flow in a PNP transistor the Base needs to be more negative than the Emitter (current must leave
the base) by approx 0.7 volts for a silicon device or 0.3 volts for a germanium device with the
formulas used to calculate the Base resistor, Base current or Collector current are the same as
those used for an equivalent NPN transistor and is given as.

I  I  I
C E B

I 
I
C
I   .I
C B
B


enerally, the PNP transistor can replace NPN transistors in most electronic circuits, the only
difference is the polarities of the voltages, and the directions of the current flow. PNP transistors
can also be used as switching devices and an example of a PNP transistor switch is shown below.

3.5.2 A PNP Transistor Circuit

Fig.3.4 PNP Transistor Circuit

Page | 16
The Output Characteristics Curves for a PNP transistor look very similar to those for an
equivalent NPN transistor except that they are rotated by 180 o to take account of the reverse
polarity voltages and currents, (the currents flowing out of the Base and Collector in a PNP
transistor are negative). The same dynamic load line can be drawn onto the I-V curves to find the
PNP transistors operating points.

3.6 The NPN Transistor

In the previous tutorial we saw that the standard Bipolar Transistor or BJT, comes in two basic
forms. An NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative) type and a PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive) type,
with the most commonly used transistor type being the NPN Transistor. We also learnt that the
transistor junctions can be biased in one of three different ways - Common Base, Common
Emitter and Common Collector. In this tutorial we will look more closely at the "Common
Emitter" configuration using NPN Transistors with an example of the construction of a NPN
transistor along with the transistors current flow characteristics is given below.

3.6.1 An NPN Transistor Configuration

Fig.3.5 NPN Transistor Configuration

Page | 17
The construction and terminal voltages for an NPN transistor are shown above. The voltage
between the Base and Emitter ( VBE ), is positive at the Base and negative at the Emitter because
for an NPN transistor, the Base terminal is always positive with respect to the Emitter. Also the
Collector supply voltage is positive with respect to the Emitter ( VCE ). So for an NPN transistor
to conduct the Collector is always more positive with respect to both the Base and the Emitter.

NPN Transistor Connections

Then the voltage sources are connected to an NPN transistor as shown. The Collector is
connected to the supply voltage VCC via the load resistor, RL which also acts to limit the
maximum current flowing through the device. The Base supply voltage VB is connected to the
Base resistor RB, which again is used to limit the maximum Base current.

We know that the transistor is a "current" operated device (Beta model) and that a large current (
Ic ) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals when the
transistor is switched "fully-ON". However, this only happens when a small biasing current ( Ib )
is flowing into the base terminal of the transistor at the same time thus allowing the Base to act
as a sort of current control input.

The transistor current in an NPN transistor is the ratio of these two currents ( Ic/Ib ), called the
DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or nowadays Beta, ( β ). The value
of β can be large up to 200 for standard transistors, and it is this large ratio between Ic and Ib that
makes the NPN transistor a useful amplifying device when used in its active region as Ib
provides the input and Ic provides the output. Note that Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the
current gain of the transistor from the Collector terminal to the Emitter terminal, Ic/Ie, is called
Alpha, ( α ), and is a function of the transistor itself (electrons diffusing across the junction). As

Page | 18
the emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current plus a very large collector
current, the value of alpha α, is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor
this value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999

3.6.2 α and β Relationship in a NPN Transistor

Output Current I
C
DC Current Gain  
Input Current I
B

I
I  I I .....(KCL ) and C 
E B C I
E

I 1
Thus : I I I 
C and I  I (1  )
E B C  B C 

I
C 1
     /1  
(1  1 /  )
I
B

By combining the two parameters α and β we can produce two mathematical expressions that
gives the relationship between the different currents flowing in the transistor.

 
  and  
1  1

0.99
If   0.99    99
0.01
The values of Beta vary from about 20 for high current power transistors to well over 1000 for

Page | 19
high frequency low power type bipolar transistors. The value of Beta for most standard NPN
transistors can be found in the manufactures datasheets but generally range between 50 - 200.

The equation above for Beta can also be re-arranged to make Ic as the subject, and with a zero
base current ( Ib = 0 ) the resultant collector current Ic will also be zero, ( β x 0 ). Also when the
base current is high the corresponding collector current will also be high resulting in the base
current controlling the collector current. One of the most important properties of the Bipolar
Junction Transistor is that a small base current can control a much larger collector current.
Consider the following example.

3.7 General Description of LM 1875 IC

The LM1875 is a monolithic power amplifier offering very low distortion and high quality
performance for consumer audio applications The LM1875 delivers 25 watts into a 4Ω or 8Ω
load on ±25V supplies. Using an 8Ω load and ±30V supplies, over 30 watts of power may be
delivered. The amplifier is designed to operate with a minimum of external components. Device
overload protection consists of both internal current limit and thermal shutdown. The LM1875
design takes advantage of advanced circuit techniques and processing to achieve extremely low
distortion levels even at high output power levels. Other outstanding features include high gain,
fast slew rate and a wide power bandwidth, large output voltage swing, high current capability,
and a very wide supply range. The amplifier is internally compensated and stable for gains of 10
or greater.

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3.7.1 Features

 Up to 30 watts output power

 AVO typically 90 dB
 Low distortion: 0.015%, 1 kHz, 25 W
 Wide power bandwidth: 70 kHz
 Protection for AC and DC short circuits to ground
 Thermal protection with parole circuit
 High current capability: 4A
 Wide supply range 16V-60V
 Internal output protection diodes
 94 dB ripple rejection
 Plastic power package TO-220

3.7.2 Applications
 High performance audio systems
 Bridge amplifiers
 Stereo phonographs
 Servo amplifiers
 Instrument systems

3.7.3 Connection Diagram

Fig.3.6 LM1875 IC connection Diagram

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3.7.4 Absolute Maximum Ratings (Note 1)
Supply Voltage 50V
Input Voltage −VEE to VCC
Storage Temperature −65°C to + 150°C
Junction Temperature 150°C
Lead Temperature
(Soldering, 10 seconds) 260°C
θJC 3°C
θJA 73°C

3.7.5 Electrical Characteristics

VCC=+25V, −VEE=−25V, TAMBIENT=25°C, RL=8, AV=20 (26 dB), fo=1 kHz, unless
otherwise specified.
Parameter Conditions Typical Tested Limits Units
Supply Current POUT=0W 70 100 mA

Output Power THD=1% 25 W

(Note 2)
THD (Note 2) POUT=20W, fo=1 0.015 0.4 %
kHz 0.05 %
POUT=20W, 0.022 %
fo=20 kHz 0.07 0.6 %
POUT=20W,
RL=4Ω, fo=1 kHz
POUT=20W,
RL=4Ω, fo=20
kHz
Offset Voltage ±1 ±15 mV

Input Bias ±0.2 ±2 μA

Current
Parameter Conditions Typical Tested Limits Units
Input Offset 0 ±0.5 μA
Current

Page | 22
Gain-Bandwidth fo=20 kHz 5.5 MHz
Product
Open Loop Gain Dc 90 dB
PSRR VCC, 1 kHz, 1 53 52 Db
Vrms 83 52 Db
VEE, 1 kHz, 1
Vrms
Max Slew Rate 20W, 8, 70 kHz 8 V/μs
BW

Current Limit Vout= Vsupply 4 3 A

−10V

Note 1: “Absolute Maximum Ratings” indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may
occur. Operating Ratings indicate conditions for which the device is
functional, but do not guarantee specific performance limits.
Note 2: Assumes the use of a heat sink having a thermal resistance of 1°C/W and no insulator
with an ambient temperature of 25°C. Because the output limiting
circuitry has a negative temperature coefficient, the maximum output power delivered to a
4load may be slightly reduced when the tab temperature exceeds 55°C.

Page | 23
3.7.6 Typical Performance Characteristics

Page | 24
Page | 25
3.8 LM1875 IC Internal Block Diagram

Fig.3.7 LM1875 IC Internal Block Diagram

The input stage is a differential amplifier. The differential amplifier used as an input stage
provides differential inputs and a frequency response down to d.c. Special techniques are used to
provide the high input impedance necessary for the operational amplifier. The second stage is a
high-gain voltage amplifier. This stage may be made from several transistors to provide high
gain. A typical operational amplifier could have a voltage gain of 200,000. Most of this gain
comes from the voltage amplifier stage. The final stage of the OP AMP is an output amplifier.
The output amplifier provides low output impedance. The actual circuit used could be an emitter
follower. The output stage should allow the operational amplifier to deliver several mill amperes
to a load. Notice that the operational amplifier has a positive power supply (+V CC) and a
negative power supply (-V EE). This arrangement enables the operational amplifier to produce
either a positive or a negative output. The two input terminals are labeled "inverting input" (-)
and "non inverting input" (+). The operational amplifier can be used with three different input
conditions (modes). With differential inputs (first mode), both input terminals are used and two
input signals which are 180 degrees out of phase with each other are used. This produces an
output signal that is in phase with the signal on the non inverting input. If the non inverting input
Page | 26
is grounded and a signal is applied to the inverting input (second mode), the output signal will be
180 degrees out of phase with the input signal (and one-half the amplitude of the first mode
output). If the inverting input is grounded and a signal is applied to the non inverting input (third
mode), the output signal will be in phase with the input signal (and one-half the amplitude of the
first mode output).

3.9 LM1875 IC Schematic Diagram

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3.10 Application Hints

3.10.1 STABILITY
The LM1875 is designed to be stable when operated at a closed-loop gain of 10 or greater, but,
as with any other high-current amplifier, the LM1875 can be made to oscillate under certain
conditions. These usually involve printed circuit board layout or output/input coupling. Proper
layout of the printed circuit board is very important. While the LM1875 will be stable when
installed in a board similar to the ones shown in this data sheet, it is sometimes necessary to
modify the layout somewhat to suit the physical requirements of a particular application. When
designing a different layout, it is important to return the load ground, the output compensation
ground, and the low level (feedback and input) grounds to the circuit board ground point through
separate paths. Otherwise, large currents flowing along a ground conductor will generate
voltages on the conductor which can effectively act as signals at the input, resulting in high
frequency oscillation or excessive distortion. It is advisable to keep the output compensation
components and the 0.1 μF supply decoupling capacitors as close as possible to the LM1875 to
reduce the effects of PCB trace resistance and inductance. For the same reason, the ground return
paths for these components should be as short as possible. Occasionally, current in the output
leads (which function as antennas) can be coupled through the air to the amplifier input, resulting
in high-frequency oscillation. This normally happens when the source impedance is high or the
input leads are long. The problem can be eliminated by placing a small capacitor (on the order of
50 pF to 500 pF) across the circuit input. Most power amplifiers do not drive highly capacitive
loads well, and the LM1875 is no exception. If the output of the LM1875 is connected directly to
a capacitor with no series resistance, the square wave response will exhibit ringing if the
capacitance is greater than about 0.1 μF. The amplifier can typically drive load capacitances up
to 2 μF or so without oscillating, but this is not recommended. If highly capacitive loads are
expected, a resistor (at least 1Ω) should be placed in series with the output of the LM1875. A
method commonly employed to protect amplifiers from low impedances at high frequencies is to
couple to the load through a 10Ω resistor in parallel with a 5 μH inductor.

Page | 28
3.10.2 DISTORTION

The preceding suggestions regarding circuit board grounding techniques will also help to prevent
excessive distortion levels in audio applications. For low THD, it is also necessary to keep the
power supply traces and wires separated from the traces and wires connected to the inputs of the
LM1875. This prevents the power supply currents, which are large and nonlinear, from
inductively coupling to the LM1875 inputs. Power supply wires should be twisted together and
separated from the circuit board. Where these wires are soldered to the board, they should be
perpendicular to the plane of the board at least to a distance of a couple of inches. With a proper
physical layout, THD levels at 20 kHz with 10W output to an 8Ω load should be less than 0.05%,
and less than 0.02% at 1 kHz.

3.10.3 CURRENT LIMIT AND SAFE OPERATING AREA

PROTECTION

A power amplifier’s output transistors can be damaged by excessive applied voltage, current
flow, or power dissipation. The voltage applied to the amplifier is limited by the design of the
external power supply, while the maximum current passed by the output devices is usually
limited by internal circuitry to some fixed value. Short-term power dissipation is usually not
limited in monolithic audio power amplifiers, and this can be a problem when driving reactive
loads, which may draw large currents while high voltages appear on the output transistors. The
LM1875 not only limits current to around 4A, but also reduces the value of the limit current
when an output transistor has a high voltage across it. When driving nonlinear reactive loads
such as motors or loudspeakers with built-in protection relays, there is a possibility that an
amplifier output will be connected to a load whose terminal voltage may attempt to swing
beyond the power supply voltages applied to the amplifier. This can cause degradation of the
output transistors or catastrophic failure of the whole circuit. The standard protection for this
type of failure mechanism is a pair of diodes connected between the output of the amplifier and
the supply rails. These are part of the internal circuitry of the LM1875, and needn’t be added
externally when standard reactive loads
are driven.

Page | 29
3.10.4 THERMAL PROTECTION

The LM1875 has a sophisticated thermal protection scheme to prevent long-term thermal stress
to the device. When the temperature on the die reaches 170°C, the LM1875 shuts down. It starts
operating again when the die temperature drops to about 145°C, but if the temperature again
begins to rise, shutdown will occur at only 150°C. Therefore, the device is allowed to heat up to
a relatively high temperature if the fault condition is temporary, but a sustained fault will limit
the maximum die temperature to a lower value. This greatly reduces the stresses imposed on the
IC by thermal cycling, which in turn improves its reliability under sustained fault conditions.
Since the die temperature is directly dependent upon the
heat sink, the heat sink should be chosen for thermal resistance low enough that thermal
shutdown will not be reached during normal operation. Using the best heat sink possible within
the cost and space constraints of the system will improve the long-term reliability of any power
semiconductor device.

3.10.5 POWER DISSIPATION AND HEAT SINKING

The LM1875 must always be operated with a heat sink, even when it is not required to drive a
load. The maximum idling current of the device is 100 mA, so that on a 60V power supply an
unloaded LM1875 must dissipate 6W of power.
The 54°C/W junction-to-ambient thermal resistance of a TO-220 package would cause the die
temperature to rise 324°C above ambient, so the thermal protection circuitry will shut the
amplifier down if operation without a heat sink is attempted. In order to determine the
appropriate heat sink for a given application, the power dissipation of the LM1875 in that
application must be known. When the load is resistive, the maximum average power that the IC
will be required to dissipate is approximately:

𝑉𝑠2
PD(Max)≈ 2𝜏2𝑅𝐿 +PQ

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where VS is the total power supply voltage across the LM1875, RL is the load resistance, and
PQ is the quiescent power dissipation of the amplifier. The above equation is only an
approximation which assumes an “ideal” class B LM1875 output stage and constant power
dissipation in all other parts of the circuit. The curves of “Power Dissipation vs Power Output”
give a better representation of the behavior of the LM1875 with various power supply voltages
and resistive loads. As an example, if the LM1875 is operated on a 50V power supply with a
resistive load of 8Ω, it can develop up to 19W of internal power dissipation. If the die
temperature is to remain below 150°C for ambient temperatures up to 70°C, the total junction-to-
ambient thermal resistance must be less than Using θJC=2°C/W, the sum of the case-to-heat-sink
interface thermal resistance and the heat-sink-to-ambient thermal resistance must be less than
2.2°C/W. The case-to-heat-sink thermal resistance of the TO-220 package varies with the
mounting method used. A metal-to-metal interface will be about 1°C/W if lubricated, and about
1.2°C/W if dry. If a mica insulator is used, the thermal resistance will be about 1.6°C/W
lubricated and 3.4°C/W dry. For this example, we assume a lubricated mica insulator between
the LM1875 and the heat sink. The heat sink thermal resistance must then be less than
4.2°C/W−2°C/W−1.6°C/W=0.6°C/W. This is a rather large heat sink and may not be practical in
some applications. If a smaller heat sink is required for reasons of size or cost, there are two
alternatives. [EM00001]The maximum ambient operating temperature can be reduced to 50°C
(122°F), resulting in a 1.6°C/W heat sink, or the heat sink can be isolated from the chassis so the
mica washer is not needed. This will change the required heat sink to a 1.2°C/W unit if the case-
to-heat-sink interface is lubricated. Note: When using a single supply, maximum transfer of heat
away from the LM1875 can be achieved by mounting the device directly to the heat sink (tab is
at ground potential); this avoids the use of a mica or other type insulator.

Page | 31
The thermal requirements can become more difficult when an amplifier is driving a reactive
load. For a given magnitude of load impedance, a higher degree of reactance will cause a higher
level of power dissipation within the amplifier. As a general rule, the power dissipation of an
amplifier driving a 60° reactive load (usually considered to be a worst-case loudspeaker load)
will be roughly that of the same amplifier driving the resistive part of that load. For example, a
loudspeaker may at some frequency have an impedance with a magnitude of 8Ω and a phase
angle of 60°. The real part of this load will then be 4Ω, and the amplifier power dissipation will
roughly follow the curve of power dissipation with a 4Ω load.

Page | 32
 Chapter 4
Construction of a 25 Watts Audio Power Amplifier
4.1 Audio Power Amplifier
This audio power amplifier project is based on LM1875 amplifier module from National
Semiconductor. It is able to deliver up to 30W of power using an 8 ohm load and dual 30V DC
power supplies. It is designed to operate with minimum external components with current limit
and thermal shutdown protection features . Other features include high gain, fast slew rate, wide
power supply range, large output voltage swing and high current capability

Page | 33
4.2 25V Power Supply
The schematic below shows how the +25V DC and -25V DC are obtained. In order to provide
power supply for 2 stereo amplifiers, a power transformer rating of 80VA with 240V/36V centre
tapped secondary winding is used. The secondary output of the transformer is rectified by using
four 1N5401 diodes together with 4 electrolytic capacitors to smoothen the ripple voltage. A fuse
and a varistor are connected at the primary input to protect the circuit against power surge.

Fig.4.1 25 volt power supply circuit diagram

Page | 34
4.3 Audio Amplifier Module
The +25V and -25V DC power supply are connected to the audio amplifier module through a 2A
fuse with the peripheral devices shown in the schematic below. The audio input signal to be
amplified is coupled to pin 1 of LM1875 through the resistor R1 and electrolytic capacitor E5.
The output signal at pin 4 of LM1875 can be used to directly drive a 8 ohm loudspeaker. Resistor
R6 and capacitor C5 prevent the capacitance developed at the long speaker leads from driving
the amplifier into Very High Frequency Oscillation.

Fig.4.2 25 watt Audio Amplifier Circuit diagram

Page | 35
A heat sink with a thermal resistance rating of 1.4 Celsius/Watt or better must be used or else the
amplifier module will be cut-off from operation due to the heat that will build up during the
operation of the amplifier. Take note that the heat sink tab on the IC module is internally
connected to the -25V power supply hence it must be isolated from the heat sink by the use of an
insulating washer. If this is not done, the negative rail will be shorted to ground.

4.4 Assemble Amplifier on Breadboard

The schematic for an LM1875 based amplifier is shown in Figure 4.3. We will first construct this
amplifier using 0ur plastic solder less breadboard and bench power supply. Our debug the circuit
and demonstrate that it works properly, you will “hard-wire” it onto a vector board and power it
from a 25 volt dc Supply. The idea of bread boarding the circuit first is not to create more work!
It is good practice in general, since it allows our design more easily, allows to experiment with
component values, and more importantly will help preserve our battery!

□ First study the schematic carefully, and locate all the necessary parts in our kit. Find the
LM1875 chip and compare it with Figure 4.3 and the schematic in Figure 4.2 to correlate pin
numbers with the circuit connections.
□ Configure our breadboard with connections to the power supply and appropriate wiring to the
power busses, then add the LM1785 IC and make the power (pin 5) and ground (pin 3)
connections as shown in the schematic. Add the 0.1μF/50volt and 2200μF/63volt bias/bypass
capacitors.
□ With reference to the schematic, add in the resistor and capacitor elements as shown.

1. 2(0.1μF/50volt) and 2(2200μF/63volt) capacitor: DC blocking, AC couples the input

signal
2. 1k resistor and 0.1μF/50volt capacitor Audio input signal pin no 1 and ground to 1M
and 22k resistor.
3. Pin 2 and 4 short by 20k resistor .

Page | 36
 4. Pin 4 output signal and sound to speaker.
5. Pin 3 negative voltage and ground to 0.1μF/50volt and 2200μF/63volt capacitor .
□ Add in the back-to-back diodes at the input terminal of the device. These diodes clamp the
input voltage on pin 5 at +25 V, to insure that excessive voltage is never applied to this pin,
which could damage the circuit.
□ Add the speaker. Our need to first solder wire jumper leads to the speaker terminals.

Fig.4.3 Audio power amplifier breadboard connection

Page | 37
□ we are now ready to test the circuit .

□ First connect we power section and calculate our dc voltage .Then 25volt(+) connected to pin
5. And 25volt(-) connected to pin 3. Power supply common section connection to amplifier
common. To our amplifier along with the +25V bias. If all goes well, you should hear a tone.

4.5 Hardwire the Amplifier

Now we are ready to put everything together, and add the stereo jacks and battery supply. Before
we go further, let’s consider the standard 3.5mm audio connectors. They look like the picture in
Figure 4.4, and are probably familiar to everyone.

Fig.4.4 Standard 3.5mm stereo audio plug

The stereo “plug” (sometimes called “male” instead of “plug”) has three separate cylindrical
connectors, each separated by a thin plastic insulator. The largest of these is the ground
connection. The other two carry the left and right channels of the stereo signal. The 3.5mm

Page | 38
designation refers to the diameter of the cylindrical conductors. There are other diameters on the
market, but 3.5mm is the standard for audio.

Fig.4.5 3.5mm stereo audio jack used in this lab

In your kit, you should have been provided a stereo “jack” (or “female”) similar to that shown
in figure 4.5. There are a large variety of different jack configurations, depending mostly on how
they will be mounted (i.e. surface mount, PC board, panel mounted, etc.). Some jacks also have
more than three pins which are connected in a way that gives an open or short connection when a
plug has been inserted or removed from the jack. The one we will use is just a simple 3-terminal
PCB stereo jack. On the backside you will see each pin marked by a number, corresponding to
the diagram above.
 Transfer the amplifier design to the vector board and “hardwire” everything into place.
Use the IC socket provided in the parts kit so that if anything goes wrong with the
LM1875, you can replace it without having to resolvers the circuit.
 Add the 9V battery leads supplied in your kits. If you were given a battery holder, install
that as well.
 Attach the stereo jack to the edge of the vector board. Connect pins 2 and 5 to the
summing network, and connect pin 1 to ground.
 Attach the remaining “aux” input on the summing network to a flea clip.
 Lastly, attach the speaker to the vector board. If the speakers have a mounting bracket,
you will be given some screws/nuts to attach the speaker to pre-drilled mounting holes,
otherwise you will be given some double-sided tape to secure the speaker.
Page | 39
  Test your circuit using the bench power supply. When it is working, add the battery and
test again under battery operation. Answer all the remaining questions in the lab record.
 Using the patch-cord in your kits, you can now test your amplifier by hooking it up to the
headphone jack on a portable CD player, MP3 player, or computer.

4.6 Audio Speakers

Audio speakers convert electrical signals into mechanical motion. The most common speakers
for high-quality audio are constructed as shown in Figure 1-3∗. The electric signal is passed
through a coil of wire (the “voice” coil), which is suspended a strong magnetic field provided by
a permanent magnet. A time-varying current in the coil leads to a mechanical deflection relative
to the magnet. The coil is attached to a lightweight conical membrane (usually made from a
heavy-grade paper) that couples the mechanical motion of the coil to the surrounding air
molecules.

Fig.4.6 Audio Speaker

Page | 40
 (a) (b)

Fig.4.7 (a) Cross section and (b) Impedance curve for a typical 8Ω dynamic speaker

If you look through catalogs of audio-speakers, you will find many different sizes and price
ranges. High-quality audio speakers can be quite expensive, and are designed for a flat, omni-
directional frequency response in the specified operating range. Small inexpensive speakers,
such as the ones used in this lab, have poor low-frequency response and limited power-handling
capacity.

Speakers are commonly specified by their frequency response, impedance level, and power-
handling capacity. Typical speaker impedances are “8Ω” or “4Ω” or “16Ω”. This is often a
source of confusion because it suggests the speaker is modeled by a constant resistance of this
value. In reality there is a significant reactive component of impedance and hence a strong
variation of impedance with frequency, as shown in the figure above. The impedance can also
depend strongly on the surroundings. For example, a speaker measured in isolation (the “free-
air” response) will have a different impedance than one mounted in a wooden enclosure.

The AC impedance often displays at least one resonance, relating to the size and stiffness
(“compliance”) of the cone. Electrically this mechanical resonance can be modeled by a parallel

Page | 41
RLC circuit. The operating frequency range for the speaker begins at or above this resonance,
and in this range the speaker impedance is well modeled by just a resistance in series with an
inductance. The inductance comes from the voice coil itself. The resistance term is largely the
DC resistance of the voice coil, with a small additional contribution which represents energy
conversion to mechanical motion. The combination of the two resistances is usually close to the
specified impedance of the speaker (e.g. 8Ω) in the middle of the operating range.
A pretty good equivalent circuit model for any speaker is shown in Figure 4.7 can be created by
measuring or finding the following parameters:

DC Resistance of the voice coil, Rc

■ Free-air resonant frequency, fs
■ Input resistance Rt at f=fs (the impedance is purely resistive at resonance)
■ Bandwidth Δf of the resonance (between the points where | Zt | /2ttZR=). The Q-factor is
then Qms= fs /Δf

■ Inductance Lc of the voice coil (measure at a high frequency, f>>fs)

Page | 42
 Chapter 5

Conclusion and Suggestion and Future Works

Audio power amplifier are useful for lots of things. Audio power amplifier deliver a lot of

performance for peanuts. Audio power amplifier circuits are generally fairly intuitive if you

remember the basic "rules" of audio amplifier operation.

Difference gain we get in the audio Amplifier . We use in the circuit another LM1875 IC. Then

its needed others power supply to starts. This Circuit Parameter Resistor, Capacitor value to

change then we get another watt to output. Volume control is usually accomplished by placing a

potentiometer inline with the incoming signal.

Page | 43
 References
[1] http://CyrusAudio.com/product-archive/amps/1-integrated-amplifier-all versions Cyrus

Audio: Product Archive: Cyrus One

[2] http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/transistor/history/The Transistor in a

Century of Electronics

[3] "Circuit Design Modifications for Minimizing Transient Inter modulation Distortion in

Audio Amplifiers", Matti Otala, Journal of Audio Engineering Society, Vol 20 # 5, June

1972.

[4] Distribution of the Phonograph Signal Rate of Change, Lammasniemi, Jorma;

Nieminen, Kari, Journal of Audio Engineering Society, Vol. 28 # 5, May 1980.

[5] "Psychoacoustic Detection Threshold of Transient Intermodulation Distortion", Petri-

Larmi, M.; Otala, M.; Lammasniemi, J. Journal of Audio Engineering Society, Vol 28 #

3, March 1980.

[6] Discussion of practical design features that can provoke or lessen slew-rate limiting and

transient inter modulation in audio amplifiers can also be found for example in chapter 9.

[7] http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_functions_of_ceramic_capacitor#ixzz1iP0dGbDE

[8] http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_3.html

[9] http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_2.html

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