Example: 6.

2 A signal m(t) band-limited to 3kHz is sampled at a rate 331/3 %

higher than the Nyquist rate. The maximum acceptable error in the sample
amplitude (the maximum quantization error) is 0.5% of the peak amplitude mp.
The quantized samples are binary coded. Find the minimum bandwidth of a
channel required to transmit the encoded signal. If 24 such signals are time-
division-multiplexed, determine the minimum transmission bandwidth required
to transmit the multiplexed system.

Solution: The Nyquist sampling rate RN= 2x3000 =6,000 Hz (samples per
second). The actual sampling rate is RA = 6000x (11/3) =8000 Hz.

The quantization step is ∆v, and the maximum quantization error is ±∆v/2.

Therefore from eqn. we get, ∆v/2 = mp/L = 0.5/100 mp  L = 200

For binary coding, L must be a power of 2. Hence the next higher value of L that is
a power of 2 is L=256.

From Eqn. we need n=log2 256 = 8 bits per sample. We require to transmit a total
of C = 8 x 8000 = 64,000bit/sec. Because we can transmit 2 bit/s per hertz of
bandwidth, we require a minimum transmission bandwidth BT = C/2 = 32kHz. The
multiplexed signal has a total of CM = 24 x 64000 = 1.536Mbit/s, which requires a
minimum of 1.536/2 = 0.768 MHz of the transmission bandwidth.

Example 6.3 A signal m(t) of bandwidth B = 4kHz is transmitted using a binary

companded PCM with  = 100. Compare the case of L = 64 with the case of L=256
from the point of view of transmission bandwidth and output SNR.

Solution: For L =64, n=6, and the transmission bandwidth is nB = 24 Hz,

S0/N0 = ( + 36) dB

 = 10log3/[ln (101)]

Hence, S0/N0 = 27.49dB

Again, for L = 256, n=8, and the transmission bandwidth is 32 kHz,

S0/N0 = ( + 6n)n = 39.49 dB

The difference between the two SNRs is 12 dB, which is the ratio of 16. Thus, the
SNR for L=256 is 16 times the SNR for L = 64. The former requires just about 33%
more bandwidth compare to the later.

6.5 DIFFERENTIAL PULSE CODE MODULATION (DPCM))

PCM is not a very efficient system because it generates so many bits and
requires so much bandwidth to transmit. Many different ideas have been
proposed to improve the encoding efficiency of A/D conversion in DPCM. The
sample values are not independent, and generally there is a great deal of
redundancy in Nyquist samples. Consider a simple scheme; instead of
transmitting of sample values, we transmit the difference between the
successive sample values. Thus, if m[k] is the kth sample, instead of transmitting
m[k], we transmit the difference d[k] = m[k] – m[k-1]. At the receiver, knowing
d[k] and several previous sample value m[k -1], we can reconstruct m[k]. Thus,
from knowledge of the difference d[k], we can reconstruct m[k] iteratively at
the receiver. Now, the difference between successive samples is generally much
smaller than the sample values. Thus, the peak amplitude mp of the transmitted
values is reduced considerably.

We can improve upon this scheme by estimating (predicting) the value of

the kth sample m[k] from a knowledge of several previous sample values. If this
estimate is mˆ[k], then we transmit the difference (prediction error) d[k] = m[k] -
mˆ[k] . At the receiver also, we determine the estimate mˆ[k] from the previous
sample values, and then generate m[k] by adding the received d[k] to the
estimate mˆ[k]. Thus we reconstruct the samples at the receiver iteratively. This
scheme, is known as differential PCM (DPCM), where the estimate of a sample
value is taken as the previous sample value, that is mˆ[k] = m[k-1].
Analysis of DPCM

Figure 6.26a shows a DPCM shows DPCM transmitter. We shall show that the
predictor input is mq[k]. Naturally, its output is mˆq[k], the predicted value of
mq[k]. The difference

d[k] = m[k] - mˆq*k+……………………….. (6.45)

is quantized to yield

dq*k+ = d*k+ + q*k+ ………………………….(6.46)

where q[k] is the quantization error. The predictor output mˆq[k] is fed back to its
so that the predictor input mq[k] is

mq[k] = mˆq[k] + dq[k]

= m[k] – d[k] + dq[k]

=m*k+ + q*k+ ……………………………(6.47)

This shows that mq[k] = is a quantized version of m[k]. The predictor input is
indeed mq[k], as assumed. The quantized signal dq[k] is now transmitted over the
channel. The receiver shown in figure 6.28b is identical to the shaded portion of
the transmitter. The inputs in both cases are also the same, namely dq[k].
Therefore, the predictor output must be mˆq[k] (the same as the predictor output
at the transmitter). Hence the receiver output (which is predictor input) is also
the same, viz. , mq[k] = m[k] + q[k], as found in Eq. (6.47). This shows that we are
able to receive the desired signal m[k] plus the quantization noise q[k]. This is the
quantization noise associated with the difference signal d[k], which is generally
much smaller than m[k]. The received samples mq[k]are decoded and passed
through a low-pass filter for D/A conversion.

SNR Improvement

To determine the improvement in DPCM over PCM, let mp and dp be the

peak amplitudes of m(t) and d(t), respectively. If we use the same value of L in
both cases, the quantization step ∆v in DPCM is reduced by the factor dp/mp .
Because the quantization noise power is (∆v)2/12, the quantization noise in DPCM
is reduced by the factor (mp/dp)2, and the SNR is increased by the same factor.
Moreover, the signal power is proportional to its peak value squared. Therefore
Gp (SNR improvement due to prediction) is at least

Gp = Pm/Pd

where Pm and Pd are the power of m(t) and d(t), respectively. In terms of decibel
units, this means that the SNR increases by 10 log10 (Pm/Pd) dB.
6.7 DELTA MODULATION

Samples correlation used in further exploited in delta modulation (DM) by

oversampling (typically four times the Nyquist rate) the baseband signal. In
comparison to PCM (and DPCM), it is very simple and inexpensive method of A/D
conversion. A 1-bit codeword in DM makes word framing unnecessary at the
transmitter and the receiver. This strategy allows us to use fewer bits per sample
for encoding a baseband signal.

In DM, we use a first- order predictor, which, as seen earlier, just a time
delay of Ts (the sampling interval). Thus, the DM transmitter (modulator) and
receiver (demodulator) are identical to those of the DPCM, with a time delay for
the predictor, as shown in figure 6.30.
 We can write

mq[k] = mq[k-1] + dq*k+ ………………. (6.48)

Hence, mq[k-1] = mq[k-2]+ dq[k] + dq[k-1]

Proceeding iteratively in this manner, and assuming zero initial condition, that is,

mq[0] = 0, we write

mq[k] = m=0k dq*m+ ………………(6.49)

This shows that the receiver (demodulator) is just an accumulator (adder). If the
output dq[k] is represented by impulses, then the accumulator (receiver) may be
realized by an integrator because its output is the sum of the strengths of the
input pulses (sum of the areas under the impulses). We may also replace with an
integrator the feedback portion of the modulator (which is identical to the
demodulator). The demodulator output is mq[k], which when passed through a
low-pass filter yields the desired signal reconstructed from the quantized
samples.

Figure 6.31 shows a practical implementation of the delta modulator and

demodulator. The modulator (figure 6.31a) consists of a comparator and sampler
in the direct path and an integrator-amplifier in the feedback path.
The analog signal m(t) is compared with the feedback signal mˆq(t). The error
signal d(t) = m(t) - mˆq(t) is applied to a comparator. If d(t) is positive, the
comparator output is a constant signal of amplitude E and if d(t) is negative, the
comparator output is –E. Thus, the difference is a binary signal (L =2) that is
needed to generate a 1-bit DPCM. The comparator output is sampled by a
sampler at a rate of fs samples per second, where fs is typically much higher than
the Nyquist rate. The pulse train dq[k] is the delta –modulated pulse train shown
in figure 6.31d. The modulated signal dq[k] is amplified and integrated in the
feedback path to generate mˆq (t) (shown in figure 6.31c), which tries to follow
m(t). The demodulator at the receiver consists of an amplifier-integrator (identical
to that in the feedback path of the modulator) followed by a low-pass filter shown
in figure 6.31b.

DM Transmits the Derivatives of m (t)

In DM, the modulated signal carries information no about the signal

samples but about the difference between successive samples. If the difference is
positive or negative, a positive or negative pulse (respectively) is generated in the
modulated signal dq[k]. Basically, therefore, DM carries the information about the
derivative of m(t), hence, the name “delta modulation.” This can also be seen
from the fact that integration of the delta-modulated signal yields mˆq(t), which is
approximation of m(t).

In PCM, the information of each quantized sample is transmitted by an n-

bit code word, whereas the DM the information of the difference between
successive samples is transmitted by a 1-bit code word.

Threshold of coding and Overloading

Threshold and overloading effect can be clearly seen in Fig. 6.31c.

Variations in m(t) smaller than the step value (threshold of coding) are lost in DM.
Moreover, if m(t) changes too fast, that is , if mˊ(t) is too high, mˆq(t) cannot
allow m(t), and overloading occurs. This is the so-called slope overload, which
gives rise to the slope overload noise. This noise is one of the basic limiting factor
in the performance of DM.

The slope overload occurs when mˆq(t) cannot follow m(t). During the
sampling interval Ts, mˆq(t) is capable of changing by E, where E is the height of
the step. Hence the maximum slope that mˆq(t) can follow is E/Ts or Efs, where fs is
the sampling frequency. Hence no over occurs iif

lm˙(t) l  Efs

Consider the case of the tone momulation

m(t) = A cos t
 The condition for no overload is

lm˙(t) lmax = A  Efs ……………………………..(6.50)

Hence, the maximum amplitude Amax of this signal that can be tolerated without
overload is given by

Amax = Efs/ …………………………………..(6.51)

The overload amplitude of the modulating signal is inversely proportional to the

frequency .

7.8 DIGITAL CARRIER SYSTEM

A spectrum shift to the higher frequencies is also required to transmit

several messages simultaneously by sharing the large bandwidth of the
transmission medium. The spectrum of a signal can be shifted to a higher
frequency by applying the baseband digital signal to modulate a high-frequency
sinusoid (carrier).

In transmitting and receiving digital carrier signals, we need a modulator

and demodulator to transmit and receive data. The two devices, modulator and
demodulator are usually packaged in one unit called a modem for two-way
(duplex) communications.

7.8.1 Basic Binary Carrier Modulations

There are two basic forms of carrier modulations: amplitude modulation

and angle modulation. In amplitude modulation, the carrier amplitude is varied in
proportion to the modulating signal (i.e., the baseband signal). This is shown in
Fig. 7.30. An unmodulated carrier cosct is shown in Fig.30a. The on-off
baseband signal m(t) (the modulating signal) is shown in Fig. 7.30b. It can be
written according to equation as

m(t) = akp(t – kTb) where p(t) = ( (t – Tb/2)/Tb)

The line code ak = 0, 1 is on-off. When the carrier amplitude is varied in proportion
to m(t), we can write the carrier modulated signal as

ASK (t) = m(t) cos ct …………………………………(7.57)

shown in Fig. 7.30c. Note that the modulated signal is still an on-off signal. This
modulation scheme of transmitting binary data is known as on-off keying (OOK)
or amplitude shift keying (ASK).
 If the baseband signal m(t) were polar (Fig. 7.31a), the corresponding
modulated signal m(t) cosct would appear as shown in Fig. 7.31b. In this case,
if p(t) is the basic pulse, we are transmitting 1 by a pulse p(t)cosct and 0 by

-p(t)cosct = p(t)cos(ct + ℼ). Hence the two pulses are ℼ radians apart in phase.
The information resides in the phase or the sign of the pulse. For this reason this
scheme is known as phase shift keying (PSK). Noted that the transmission is still
polar. In fact, just like ASK, the PSK modulated carrier signal has the same form

PSK (t) = m(t) cos ct m(t) = akp(t – kTb)……………..(7.58)

with the difference that the line code is polar ak =  1.

When data are transmitted by varying the frequency, we have the case of
frequency shift keying (FSK), as shown in Fig. 7.31c. A 0 is transmitted by a pulse
of frequency co, and 1 is transmitted by pulse of frequency c1. The information
about the transmitted data resides in the carrier frequency.
 The FSK signal may be viewed as a sum of two interleaved ASK signals, one
with a modulating frequency co, and the other with a modulating frequency c1.
We can use the binary ASK expression of equation. (7.57) to write the FSK signal
as,

FSK (t) = akp(t – kTb)cos c1t +(1 – ak) p(t – kTb) cos c0t

Where, ak = 0, 1 is on-off. Thus the FSK signal is a superposition of two AM signal

with different carrier frequencies and different but complementary amplitudes.

In practice, ASK as an on-off scheme is commonly used today in optical

communications in the form of laser-intensity modulation. PSK is commonly
applied in digital satellite communications and was also used in earlier telephone
modems (2400 and 4800 bit/s).

7.8.4 Demodulation

Differential PSK

Although envelop detection cannot be used for PSK detection , it is still

possible to exploit the finite number of modulation phase values for noncoherent
detection. Indeed, PSK signals may be demodulated noncoherently by means of
an ingenious method known as differential PSK or DPSK. The principle of
differential detection is for the receiver to detect the relative phase change
between the successive modulated phases k and k-1. Since the phase value in
PSK is finite (equaling to 0 and ℼ in binary PSK), the transmitter can encode the
information data into the phase difference k - k-1. For example, a phase
difference of zero represents 0 whereas a phase difference of ℼ signifies 1.
This technique is known as differential encoding (before modulation). In one
differential code a 0 is encoded by the same pulse used to encode the previous
data bit (no transition), and a 1 is encoded by the negative of the pulse used to
encode the previous data bit (transition). Differential encoding is simple to
implement, as shown in Fig. 7.35a.
Notice that the addition is modulo 2. The encoded signal is shown in Fig. 7.35b.
Thus a transition in the line code pulse sequence indicates 1 and no transition
indicates 0. The modulated signal consists
of pulses
A cos(ct + k) = A cosct
If the data bit is the present pulse and the previous pulse have the same polarity
or phase; both pulses are either A cosct or - A cosct. If the data bit is 1, the
present pulse and the previous pulse are of opposite polarities or phases; if the
present pulse is A cosct, the previous pulse is - A cosct, and vice versa.
In Demodulation of DPSK (Fig. 7.35c), we avoid generation of local carrier by
observing that the received modulated signal itself is a carrier (A cosct) with a
possible sign ambiguity. For demodulation, in place of the carrier, we use received
signal delayed by Tb (one bit interval). If the received pulse is identical to the
previous pulse, the product y(t) = A2 cos2ct = (A2/2)(1+ cos2ct), and the low-
pass filter output z(t) =A2/2. We immediately detect the present bit as 0. If the
received pulse and the previous pulse are of opposite polarity, y(t) = - A2 cos2ct
and z(t) = -A2/2, the present bit is detected as 1.