PERGAMON Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

www.elsevier.com/locate/pecs

Combustion control and sensors: a review

Nicolas Docquier 1, SeÂbastien Candel*
Laboratoire EM2C, Ecole Centrale Paris Ð CNRS UPR 288, Grande Voie des Vignes, F-92295 ChaÃtenay-Malabry Cedex, France
Received 15 September 2000; accepted 18 June 2001

Abstract
There is an increased interest in the application of control to combustion. The objective is to optimize combustor operation,
monitor the process and alleviate instabilities and their severe consequences. One wishes to improve the system performance,
for example by reducing the levels of pollutant emissions or by smoothing the pattern factor at the combustor exhaust. In other
cases, the aim is to extend the stability domain by reducing the level of oscillation induced by coupling between resonance
modes and combustion. As combustion systems have to meet increasingly more demanding air pollution standards, their design
and operation becomes more complex. The trend towards reduced NOx levels has led to new developments in different ®elds.
Automotive engines and gas turbine combustors are considered in this article. In the ®rst case, complex exhaust aftertreatment
is being applied and dedicated engine control schemes are required to ensure and maintain high pollutant conversion ef®ciency.
For gas turbines, premixed combustors, which operate at lower local temperatures than conventional systems have been
designed. In both cases, monitoring and control of the operating point of the process have to be achieved with great precision
to obtain the full bene®ts of the NOx reduction scheme. For premixed combustors operating near the lean stability limit, the
¯ame is more susceptible to blowout, oscillation or ¯ashback. Research is now carried out to reduce these dynamical problems
with passive and active control methods. In addition to a broad range of fundamental problems raised by Active Combustion
Control (ACC) and Operating Point Control (OPC), there are important technological issues. This paper contains a review of
some facets of combustion control and focuses on the sensors that take or could take part to combustion control solutions. The
current status of ACC and OPC is presented together with the associated control concepts. The state of the art in sensors is
reviewed and their applicability is evaluated. Research efforts in combustion diagnostics are to a certain extent devoted to the
development of sensors for control applications. The objective of such developments differs from that which is pursued when
one wishes to perform detailed measurements on a laboratory scale experiment. The sensor system should not necessarily
provide quantitative measurements because relative data are already useful for control purposes. This change of orientation will
be discussed and illustrated by examples of current interest. It is concluded that development in control will depend critically on
the availability of sensors and on their reliability, robustness, immunity to noise and capacity to operate in a harsh environment.
Research is needed on the fundamentals of ACC and OPC but it should also address the more technical aspects of the problem.
q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Combustion control; Active control; Optical sensors; Solid state sensors; Gas sensors; Gas turbine control; Automotive engine
control

Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2. Combustion control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.1. Active control of combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 133-1-41-13-10-83; fax: 133-1-47-02-80-35.

E-mail addresses: nicolas.docquier@ifp.fr (N. Docquier), candel@em2c.ecp.fr (S. Candel).
1
Institut FrancËais du PeÂtrole, Techniques d'Applications EnergeÂtiques, 1 et 4, Avenue de Bois PreÂau, F-92852 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex,
France. Tel.: 133-1-47-52-54-19; fax: 133-1-47-52-66-85.

0360-1285/02/$ - see front matter q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0360-128 5(01)00009-0
108 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

2.2. Operating point control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

2.2.1. Automotive control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.2.1.1. Current control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.2.1.2. Automotive control challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.2.2. Gas turbine control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.2.2.1. Lean premixed combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.2.2.2. Gas turbine control challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.2.3. Combustion performances optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3. Control concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.1. Sensing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.2. Input parameters for combustion control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.2.1. Operating point control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.2.2. Performance optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2.3. Active combustion control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2.4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4. Diagnostic techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.1. Optical diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.1.1. Optical absorption sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.1.1.1. Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.1.1.2. Absorption data recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.1.1.3. Velocity measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.1.1.4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.1.2. Optical emission sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.1.2.1. Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.1.2.2. Chemiluminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.1.2.3. Black body emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.1.2.4. IR emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.1.2.5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2. Solid-state sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2.1. Gas sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2.1.1. Zirconia properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2.1.2. Potentiometric Nernst cell for oxygen detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.2.1.3. Amperometric cell for oxygen detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.2.1.4. Three-phase boundary electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.2.1.5. Non-Nernstian electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.2.1.6. Mixed potential sensors: CO and NOx sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.2.1.7. Arrays of electrochemical cells: NOx sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.2.1.8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.2.2. Ion current probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.2.2.1. Ionic properties of ¯ames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.2.2.2. Correlations between ion current and operating parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.2.2.3. Practical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.2.2.4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.2.3. Other sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.2.3.1. Resistive temperature detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.2.3.2. Micromachined sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.2.3.2.1. Pressure sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.2.3.2.2. Flow sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.2.3.2.3. Viscosimetry and Wobbe index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150 109

Nomenclature S T; n0 † transition line strength

T temperature
A/F air/fuel ratio
T mean temperature
c speed of light
T0 ¯uctuation of temperature
D molecular diffusivity
Tu fresh gas temperature
E energy
Tad adiabatic ¯ame temperature
F Faraday's constant
Tf ¯ame temperature
fv soot volume fraction
t time
g line shape function
U voltage drop
h Planck's constant
Up pumping voltage
I light intensity (Sections 2±4.1.2)
v velocity
I current intensity (Sections 4.2.1±4.2.3)
X mole fraction
k Boltzmann's constant
X mean mole fraction
L optical pathlength
X0 ¯uctuation of mole fraction
Ll spectral radiance
a molar stoichiometric coef®cient
m_ mass ¯ow rate
b number of N2 moles per unit mole of O2 in air
N mole number
el spectral emissivity
n electron number
u angle
p pressure
Kn spectral absorption coef®cient
p mean pressure
l air to fuel equivalence ratio (1/F )
p0 ¯uctuation of pressure
n frequency
pi soot emissivity parameters
n0 central frequency
q heat release per unit volume
s leak conductance
q mean heat release
tn spectral trasmissivity
q0 ¯uctuation of heat release
F fuel to air equivalence ratio
R perfect gas constant
S cross section

1. Introduction will require sensors for process monitoring and feedback

Today's standard practice is to control combustion
processes in open loop without feedback of information to
the injection system. It is well recognized that this does not
allow optimization of the process and that the lack of closed
loop control may pose serious problems for future develop-
ments. It is therefore believed that new combustion tech-
nologies will integrate feedback controllers. Automotive
engines already use closed loop concepts [1] which allow
a ®ne tuning of operating conditions. This adjustment of
operation with sensors monitoring the exhaust gases is
considered in many current applications including biomass
combustion [2] and gas turbines [3]. In this last area, a
notable reduction of NOx emissions has been achieved by
adopting a premixed mode of operation in which the ¯ame
temperature is reduced and the level of NOx is diminished to
a great extent. However, premixed combustion requires a
precise determination of the equivalence ratio, which could
be deduced from measurements on the ¯ame and in the
exhaust gases. Also, the premixed mode of combustion,
which is now favored in gas turbine applications leads
to instabilities which reach unacceptable levels and may
have serious consequences. Efforts are being made to
develop active control solutions to this problem, which
input.
Sensors are critical elements for combustion control and
combustion monitoring. Their integration in combustion
systems is extensively explored. We try in this article to
evaluate research in this area and to analyze progress in
sensors in terms of potential for application. To give the
proper perspective we begin with an outline of ideas in
combustion control. We then present some of the underlying
concepts and then survey the state of the art in sensor
systems which are, or could be, considered for combustion
control. The discussion focuses on principles, charac-
teristics, limitations, and tradeoffs.
2. Combustion control
While they share some of their features and objectives,
it is convenient to divide combustion control in two
categories: Operating Point Control (OPC) and Active
Combustion Control (ACC). In the ACC domain, it is
convenient to distinguish Active Combustion Enhancement
(ACE) from Active Instability Control (AIC). Current
developments in ACC will be brie¯y reviewed while OPC
will be discussed in more detail. Table 1 synthesizes
110 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Table 1
Combustion control references
Category Solid state Optical sensor
sensor
Combustion enhancement 2, 4±7 8±15
Instability control 5±7, 16±25 4, 8, 12, 13, 26±28
Operating point control 1, 29±42 11, 13, 15, 43±48
combustion control experiments and illustrates important
aspects of this discipline. Experiments are gathered
according to the sensing technique and to their objectives:
combustion enhancement (ACE) for performance optimiza-
tion, instability control (ACCÐreduction of combustion
oscillations) and OPC for ef®ciency and emissions level
management.
2.1. Active control of combustion
Basic concepts of active control were mainly demon-
strated in small scale laboratory experiments (Rijke tubes
[26], laminar ¯ame burners [49], turbulent combustors
[6,24,50]). Some recent studies have also been carried out
on larger power devices [19,20,25]. Control has been
achieved in many cases with a variable degree of success.
Another set of experiments also indicated that active control
had potential applications in combustion enhancement.
Typical ACC experiments are shown in Fig. 1.
Instability control is one major area of concern. At this
point in time, it is the most advanced but has given rise
to a limited number of large-scale applications. Active
control is speci®cally considered for ramjets [53], lean
premixed combustors [54], afterburners, segmented solid
propellant rocket motors [55]. Many aspects of active
control of combustion instabilities are reviewed in [56±58].
Active control is now considered for other applications and
more speci®cally for the active reduction of pollutant
emissions.
A ®rst case of technological interest is that of the
lean premixed combustors which are being developed
to reduce the exhaust emissions of gas turbines. These
modern devices have excellent emission characteristics
and bring a signi®cant reduction of nitric oxide levels.
Unfortunately the lean premixed mode of operation is
also quite sensitive to pressure waves and features
instabilities and associated side effects like ¯ashback
or ¯ame blowout. Active control may then be used to
avoid unstable operation or at least augment the stability
margin of the combustor [8,16,20]. This is an indirect
application of ACC: control is used to prevent instabil-
ity thus allowing smooth operation of a low emission
level combustor.
The second case of interest concerns standard combustors
operating in the non-premixed mode. The reactants are
introduced separately and their mixing is often poor leading
to long ¯ames with elevated temperatures in broad regions.
Emission levels may be quite high in such circumstances.
Active control may be used to enhance mixing thus modify-
ing the conversion rate, combustion ef®ciency, ¯ame
temperature and pollutant formation and destruction
[9,59,60]. Active control may also be used to reorganize
the ¯ame structure by redistributing fuel and oxidizer to
`stage' the regions of conversion. Combustion enhancement
by means of active control is reviewed in Ref. [61].
Such direct applications of active control could be used to
retro®t existing con®gurations in order to comply with more
stringent regulations.
2.2. Operating point control
Control of the operating point concerns every
combustion device designed to date. From the early
problem of load control to the somewhat more recent
concern of pollutant emissions reduction, any engine or
combustion process relies on a more or less complex
control system in order to operate in an acceptable
way as regards to power, safety or emissions. Various
aspects of OPC are shown in Fig. 2. In this section, the
major issues of operating point control in combustion are
discussed in relation with automotive engines and gas
turbine combustors.
2.2.1. Automotive control
It is known from early work that the smog problems
affecting large urban areas like Los Angeles or Tokyo
since the late 1940s result from sunlight-driven reactions
involving oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbon compounds
exhausted by, among other sources, motor vehicles [62].
As a result, emission standards were introduced in the
mid-1960s and forced the installation of emission control
devices.
2.2.1.1. Current control system. Automotive engines now
feature a combination of electronic fuel injection, catalytic
converters and feedback control [33], for metering air and
fuel mixtures (Fig. 3). Control of the engine operating point
is driven by the conversion ef®ciency (from hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen to carbon dioxide
and nitrogen) of standard three-way catalyst (TWC). It is
known that this ef®ciency is about 100% close to
stoichiometric conditions and dramatically decreases on
the lean side for oxides of nitrogen and on the rich side
for the other carbon compounds, as sketched in Fig. 4.
The control system has to maintain stoichiometric
combustion to ensure ef®cient catalytic conversion and
clean engine operation. This is achieved with the `lambda'
probes (l designates the air to fuel equivalence ratio). These
sensors respond to the presence of oxygen and they
are particularly well suited to the detection of the
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150 111

Fig. 1. (a) Heavy duty (260 MW) gas turbine: instability control and operating range extension by fuel ¯ow modulation (Direct Drive Valve)
and pressure measurement (from Ref. [19]). (b) Model gas-®red combustor (15 kW): active optimization by fuel ¯ow actuation and CO2p
measurement (from Ref. [14]). (c) Liquid-fueled dump combustor (270 kW): active instability suppression by fuel modulation and pressure
measurement (from Ref. [51]). (d) Swirl-stabilized combustor: pressure oscillation reduction by acoustic air ¯ow modulation and pressure or
OH p measurement (from Ref. [52]). (e) Dump combustor (5 kW): active combustion enhancement by fuel ¯ow acoustic forcing and laser diode
T and XH2O measurement (from Ref. [12]). (f) Turbulent spray combustor (137 kW): active instability control by fuel ¯ow modulation (DDV)
and pressure measurement (from Ref. [17]).

stoichiometric point. This condition corresponds to a sizable
variation in the sensor signal (Fig. 5).
2.2.1.2. Automotive control challenges. Motor vehicle
emission regulations are continuously tightened worldwide.
Table 2 presents their evolution for Europe (EU) and
United States (LEV). As the main vehicle emissions
appear today during the warm-up phase (e.g. <80% of the
HC emissions are produced in the ®rst 40 s after cold start
[65]), the strategies to comply with Low Emission Vehicle
112 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

Fig. 2. (a) Premixed gas turbine combustor (30 MW): operating point control by fuel regulation using air ¯ow calculation, hygrometry and fuel
properties measurements (from Ref. [32]). (b) Liquid spray ¯ame burner: operating point control by atomizing air regulation and OH p imaging
using a CCD camera (from Ref. [43]). (c) Hencken ¯at ¯ame burner: temperature control by methane regulation using laser diode absorption
measurements (from Ref. [45]). (d) Gasoline direct injection engine: engine and catalysts management system using O2 and T sensors (from
Ref. [37]). (e) Classical gasoline engine: engine operation at l ˆ 1 for maximum three-way catalyst conversion ef®ciency using a lambda
probe for stoichiometry measurement (from Ref. [1]. (f) Waste incinerator (20 MW): combustion monitoring and control based on laser diode
absorption O2 and H2O measurements (from Ref. [10]).

(LEV) standards are mainly supported by A/F control early
after engine start-up. Therefore, fast oxygen sensor light-off
is required while additional reduction in time delay can be
achieved by the relocation of the probe (together with the
catalyst) closer to the engine on the exhaust manifold (Fig.
6). These modi®cations require temperatures at sensor tip in
excess of 10008C and accordingly, new lambda sensors are
being designed [66±70]. Furthermore, it appears that the
current lambda control strategy, a two-level controller in
which combustion is considered as being stoichiometric or
non-stoichiometric, is not suf®ciently accurate to maintain
high catalyst conversion rate at the maximum deviation
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 3. Conventional automotive engine control system (adapted from Ref. [33]).
Fig. 4. Three-way catalyst, conversion ef®ciency diagram (adapted
from Ref. [63]).
Fig. 5. Lambda probe, typical output signal (adapted from Ref.
[64]).
113
from l ˆ 1: This is especially a problem with aged
catalysts. To reduce these deviations, linear l -control
strategies have been devised [36,41,50] which require new
linear wide band sensors with high accuracy around l ˆ 1:
The more recent concern about global warming due to
greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide is now shifting the
objective of automotive combustion control. Current efforts
are made to decrease the total amount of emissions and to
minimize fuel consumption. To address these two require-
ments, manufacturers are now focusing on lean burn
gasoline (Gasoline Direct Injection conceptÐGDI) and
diesel engines. Unfortunately, the latter feature relatively
higher NOx in comparison with conventional gasoline
engines equipped with a TWC and the oxygen excess in
the exhaust gases of a GDI engine operating in a lean
mode also prevents the reduction of NOx with existing
TWC aftertreatment systems. A solution can be found in
the development of NOx adsorption catalyst [71±74]
which adsorbs NOx during lean operation and decomposes
the adsorbed NOx with combustible gases such as CO, HC
and H2. These gases are supplied during a short period of
rich operation or post injection of HC or urea. In addition to
this NOx trap, a pre-catalyst (or oxidation catalyst) is closely
mounted to the engine to achieve high HC and CO con-
version rate.
This state of the art depicted in Fig. 6 complicates
the engine control system which has to continuously adapt
the fuelling strategy to take into account the status of the
exhaust aftertreatment devices.
In conclusion, new types of gas sensors are needed. On the
one hand, lambda (oxygen) sensors have to be redesigned in
Table 2
Present and future automotive emission limits (from Ref. [65])
Regulation HC CO NOx
ULEV a (g/mile) 0.04 1.7 0.2
SULEV a (2003) (g/mile) 0.01 1.0 0.02
EU III b (2000) (g/km) 0.2 2.3 0.15
EU IV b (2005) (g/km) 0.1 1.0 0.08
a
FTP-test.
b
EU III testcycle.
114 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

Fig. 6. Control system for new gasoline direction injection engines.

order, to either cope with more dif®cult working conditions of reactants takes place before burning. This diminishes the
such as elevated temperatures, or to extend their sensing ¯ame temperature and the related production of NOx which
range in order to supply accurate measurements to the depends exponentially on temperature. Moreover, lean
control system. On the other hand, there is a need for premixed combustion under gas turbine conditions does
monitoring other gaseous species to solve exhaust after- not reduce cycle ef®ciency because the latter depends
treatment dif®culties encountered with the new automo- (for a given pressure ratio) on the turbine inlet temperature.
tive combustion concepts like GDI. As an example, This temperature is essentially limited by materials and it
reliable and accurate NOx sensors will be the key to has to be well below stoichiometric values. In the classical
the management of adsorption catalysts [65,75], in combustor of the non-premixed type, stoichiometric con-
order to determine the appropriate time to switch from ditions are maintained in the primary zone to stabilize the
lean to rich or to inject HC or urea. Finally, to comply ¯ame, the mixture is subsequently diluted with secondary
with on-board diagnostic requirements which come together air to obtain the proper mixture ratio and temperature.
with the new emissions regulations, the catalysts conversion Therefore, the existence of a near stoichiometric region
ef®ciency will have to be monitored using new temperature featuring elevated temperatures results in excessive levels
sensors (resistive detectors [37,76]) or HC/CO gas sensors of NOx. Lean premixed combustion is considered for both
[77,78]. terrestrial and mobile applications, the ®rst being more
advanced because the safety issue is somewhat less critical.
Also, concepts are easier to integrate in ground-based
2.2.2. Gas turbine control
systems where there are less constraints on the combustion
Requirements to limit pollutants emissions also concern
chamber geometry and compacity.
the gas turbine industry. Table 3 presents some of the limits
which apply worldwide for stationary (ground-based) equip-
ment. Regulations are becoming so stringent (`single-digit' 2.2.2.1. Lean premixed combustion. Fig. 7 shows the
NOx emissions are targeted in California) that they have evolution of the main pollutants generated by combustion
often resulted in a radical redesign of combustion systems of a lean mixture of methane (main compound of natural
employed on high pressure ratio aero derived gas turbines. gas) and air. It appears that NOx and CO emissions follow
Reduction of emissions is also a permanent objective for opposite trends. Whereas low ¯ame temperature is favorable
jet engines manufacturers. Important progress has been to NOx reduction, it rapidly prevents the complete oxidation
obtained with premixed combustors [79±86]. It is known of CO and HC. Control of the operating point of such a
that oxides of nitrogen may be notably reduced if the mixing combustion process has to de®ne a trade-off between both
pollutants reduction. In an ideal case, one will try to drive
the system towards the optimum point where both CO and
Table 3 NOx levels will be minimum. However, in an industrial
Emission limits for ground based gas turbines context, the objective is to cope with emission limits
imposed by the legislation. Therefore, the control system
Country NOx CO Rates power
will have to operate the combustor in a range of
(@15% O2) (@15% O2)
equivalence ratios avoiding the rapid increase of CO and
ECC 25 vppm Not stated . 50 MWth NOx.
France 40 vppm 80 vppm . 20 MWth
Italy 29 vppm 48 vppm . 50 MWth 2.2.2.2. Gas turbine control challenges. Premixed
United Kingdom 28 vppm 80 vppm . 50 MWth combustors are quite attractive but pose dif®cult practical
Japan (Tokyo) 28 vppm No limits Not stated
problems. First, they operate near the lean stability limit and
USA (California) 9 ppm Not stated Not stated
under these conditions, the gas turbine is more susceptible to
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 7. Lean premixed combustion, typical pollutant emissions (adapted from Ref. [44]).
serious incidents like ¯ame out, instabilities or ¯ashback
induced by pressure waves. Accordingly, the control
system will also have to monitor the process so that none
of these troubles occur, that is, operate the ¯ame in a safe
range, rapidly detect the occurrence of combustion
instabilities, or provide information, e.g. to a controller
which is dedicated to the reduction of these dynamical
problems (ACC). Control of the gas turbine combustor
operating point which consists in adjusting the
equivalence ratio of the fuel/air mixture is a dif®cult task.
On the one hand, the quantity of air which ¯ows in the
combustor is not known with suf®cient accuracy. The
mass ¯ow of fuel is well metered but there is no easy way
to evaluate the equivalence ratio. Previously, control
systems used to (and sometimes still) operate the
combustor on the basis of a limited set of information
regarding the actual ¯ame properties, and estimate air
mass ¯ux by means of a look-up table using the
compression system rotational speed, guide vane angle,
intake air temperature and pressure as inputs [32,87].
Although effective, this method suffers from the possible
deviation of engine properties with degradation or aging
and it will probably be discarded as regulations become
more stringent. On the other hand, most of the gas
turbines used for power generation are supplied with
Table 4
Composition and heating value of different natural gas sources (from Refs. [40,88]).
Source Main components (vol.%)
CH4 C2H6 C3H8
Germany 78.9 1.00 0.10
Netherlands 81.3 2.85 0.37
Norway 85.8 8.30 2.80
Russia 98.1 0.60 0.20
115
natural gas. This allows a clean operation of the engine.
However, gas suppliers use different sources resulting in
regional and temporal differences in the fuel properties.
Table 4 gives the composition of several natural gas
sources supplied to European customers. The control
system has to adapt to these changes either by on-line
monitoring of the fuel quality [40] or by sensing a
combustion parameter allowing to compensate for changes
in fuel calori®c value.
In conclusion, control of the operating point of a gas
turbine combustor of the premixed type will have to rely
on the development of new strategies allowing to cope with
future regulations. Small changes in the operating con-
ditions (a few tens of degrees) might be responsible for
¯ame-out or dramatic increase of the pollutant emissions.
A precise adjustment of the equivalence ratio is required to
deal with changes in the external conditions are (air moisture,
fuel quality, power demand). Unfortunately, due to the harsh
environment prevailing in the chamber, limited access to the
combustion state is offered to the control engineer. Once again,
this lack of information should be overcome by designing new
sensors rugged enough to withstand these dif®cult condi-
tions over an extended period of time. We describe in the
following sections some of the sensors or diagnostic tech-
niques which could be used in this context.
Calori®c value (kWh/m 3)
N2 CO2 Others
19.5 0.40 0.10 8.10
14.35 0.89 0.24 8.80
0.40 1.50 1.20 11.08
0.90 0.10 0.10 9.97
116 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
2.2.3. Combustion performances optimization
The pollutant emissions pattern shown in Fig. 7 paves the
way to combustion performance optimization procedures.
One would like as an example to minimize both emission
levels (NOx and CO) and/or maximize combustion
ef®ciency. In some laboratory experiments [5,60] as well
as in industrial applications [10,15,89], on-line optimization
strategies have been successfully applied simply by adjust-
ing the operating point of the process. References to such
experiments are included in Table 1.
3. Control concepts
Control of a combustion process relies on several
elements which are essentially similar for the automotive
and the gas turbine applications. In these two cases, com-
bustion takes place between fresh reactants supplied (at least
for the fuel) by ¯ow metering injectors. Exhaust gases are
produced and pass downstream of the combustor through a
manifold.
² In ACC, the controller output is used to modulate the ¯ow
properties (e.g., fuel ¯ow rate modulation) to avoid or
limit pressure oscillations, or to improve the combustion
characteristics.
² In OPC, the injection of fuel is regulated in order to
maintain certain ¯ame parameters like the equivalence
ratio F in a prescribed range of values.
The timescales differ somewhat from one case to the other
but control strategies typically operate from 20 Hz to a few
kHz for ACC and from 1 to 100 Hz for OPC applications.
The fundamental question is to ask to what extent sensors
may provide the information needed for control. Is current
sensor technology capable of supplying a suitable descrip-
tion of the state of the combustion region? This section will
go through some of the issues related to combustion control,
the role of sensors and diagnostics in particular.
Fig. 8. Typical combustion process, sensors and diagnostic techniques for combustion control (LDÐlight detector, LSÐlight source).
3.1. Sensing techniques
Fig. 8 shows a generic combustion process with available
or promising sensing techniques. We also consider in this
discussion diagnostics, which might evolve into sensors.
Sensors may be placed at various locations. In some cases,
it might be useful to sense the ¯ow properties in the
upstream manifold, in the fresh reactants, e.g. to evaluate
the mixing quality [90±92] and improve it if necessary,
determine fuel or air composition [34,40], or estimate the
¯ow velocity [93,94]. Most of the sensors however are
located further downstream to observe the ¯ame or to
analyze the ¯ue gases. The number of ¯ame parameters,
which can be measured is relatively small and the sensing
techniques differ in terms of time and spatial resolution as
well as in accuracy. Table 5 classi®es the diagnostic tech-
niques sketched in Fig. 8 according to their time response,
principle of operation and sensed parameter.
The selection of a diagnostic technique not only depends
on the type of controller one would like to design, but also
and mainly on practical aspects. As an example, optical
techniques generally feature a good spatial and temporal
resolution and are non-intrusive, but require at least one
optical access, which is dif®cult to incorporate in a practical
device. Indeed, windows and window mounts have to
sustain the pressure and temperature of the ¯ow. For in-situ
measurements, ®lm cooling with purge gas might also be
necessary to cool the windows and keep soot and particles
from impacting and depositing on the surface. Although
future combustors might be designed to provide parts for
optical access, the retro®tting of existing systems will
require clever engineering. In this context, the development
of optical ®bers opens new possibilities to the application of
optical diagnostics to industrial systems. Fibers are available
for UV to IR light channeling and feature a reduced cross
section. Their mechanical resistance may be augmented by a
protective envelope. The sensor and its equipment may be
installed at a distance from the combustor thus simplifying
the set-up (see e.g. Refs. [119,120] for in-cylinder and
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150 117

Table 5
Optical and solid-state sensors for combustion control

Optical sensors

Frequency Technique a Detector b Parameter References

Low UV±Vis EM CCD camera OH p, CH p, C2p, CO2p, T 8 (soot) [43,95]

WE SPEC [11,47,96±100]
IR EM CCD camera T8 15
High UV±Vis EM PMT and ®lter OH p, CH p, C2p, CO2p [27,54,101±103]
PD and ®lter [4,13,44,48,104,105]
Vis±IR EM PD and ®lter T8 [106,107]
NB SPEC [3,108]
IR ABS LD and PD H2O, CO2, T 8, p [10,12,89,109±111]
Low Electrochemical O2, CO, HC, NOx [31,41,78,112±114]
Catalytic CO, NOx [115,116]
Thermocouple, RTD T8 [2,5,30,32,37]
Viscosimeter Wobbe index (W0) [40]
High Spark plug Ion current [29,35,39,117,118]
Electric, resistive Pressure ( p) [20,21,23,25]
a
EMÐEmission, ABSÐabsorption.
b
NB/WB SPECÐNarrow/wide-band spectrometer, PMTÐphoto multiplier tube, PDÐphoto diode, LDÐlaser diode, RTDÐresistive
temperature detector.

Refs. [44,106] for gas turbine measurements). One practical
problem which needs to be addressed from the start is that of
obscuration of the light collecting ®ber by deposition of soot or
solid particles. Indeed, obscuration degrades the signal to noise
ratio in absorption measurements, and it directly affects
methods relying on absolute values of the light intensity.
Whereas spatial and time resolution might be essential for
controller design, it is important to note that performance
will be measured in terms of global emissions of the
combustion process. In this respect, the line of sight
methods might lead to errors in the evaluation of the system
output if the ¯ow is highly non-homogeneous. In this case,
the global performance could be evaluated with, for
example, solid-state gas sensors exposed to combustion
products in the exhaust stream (forthcoming regulations
for automotive enginesÐTable 2Ðinclude such on-board
diagnosis requirements). This will induce however a time
lag due to gas transport and it will slow down the controller
response to changes.
Finally, due to the hostile conditions prevailing in
combustors, it is of paramount importance to show that
the sensor will withstand exposure to this environment.
The sensor not only has to be accurate enough for control
but also has to operate safely for long periods of time. Auto-
mobile sensors have to be reliable for more than 160,000 km
and the mean time between failure for gas turbine sensors
should be about 25,000 h. Attention should be paid to sensor
and process aging which are likely to modify the controlled
system behavior.
While techniques presented in Table 5 can be im-
plemented simultaneously, the controller may also rely on
a complex modeling effort of the combustion process (see
e.g. Refs. [36,38,50,121±123]). This allows predictions of
the system response upto a certain limit and makes use of
sensor data to correct the model and take decisions for
process optimization.
Whereas a complete controller design also requires
ef®cient actuators and control algorithms, this article is
intended as a review of the diagnostic techniques which
are available or should be developed to allow precise and
robust control. First of all, a central issue is to identify
parameters which are best suited for this duty.
3.2. Input parameters for combustion control
In this section, we aim at de®ning parameters which could
be used as input to the control system. Of course, the
selected parameter has to be detectable but it also has to
be closely related to the property one wishes to control.
3.2.1. Operating point control
In most cases, the control of the equivalence ratio F of
the mixture is crucial for maintaining emissions at a low
level. It has also been shown in the case of lean premixed
combustion that one of the physical parameters responsible
for the rapid change of NOx and CO with F is the ¯ame
temperature Tf. Therefore, sensing of F or Tf would be
directly useful for control. However, for some reasons
(lack of physical or optical access, low measurement accu-
racy, lack of sensing technique) it is not always possible to
118 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

Fig. 9. Diagram of a premixed combustion process.

detect the appropriate ¯ame characteristic and one has to
combine several parameters. As an example, the equiv-
alence ratio F , ¯ame temperature Tf and oxygen mole frac-
tion in the ¯ue gas X O2 can easily be linked together.
If one considers combustion of a fuel lean mixture of
methane and air (see Fig. 9), the chemistry can simply be
modeled using a single step in®nitely fast global reaction (1)
where a ˆ 2 and b ˆ 3:76:
FCH 4 1 a O2 1 bN2 † ! FCO 2 1 a FH 2 O 1 bN2 †
1 a 1 2 F†O 2
For lean mixtures F , 1†; the equivalence ratio of the
mixture can directly be correlated to the excess of oxygen
present in the burnt gas stream, no oxygen indicating
stoichiometric or rich combustion. The identi®cation of
the oxygen mole fraction X O2 in the reacted mixture yields:
1 2 1 1 b†X O2
Fˆa
a 1 XO2
Flue gas analysis is commonly used to determine the
equivalence ratio of the ¯ame [124]. This analysis can
now be carried out on line with new solid-state gas sensors.
A relation like Eq. (2) can be obtained for any type of fuel
but in many cases of interest, the fuel composition is not
known precisely or may vary with time. Also, in cases where
atmospheric air is employed, the variation of air humidity
may affect the determination of F . As an example, Fig. 10
shows the in¯uence of air moisture on the adiabatic ¯ame
temperature of a methane/air mixture computed with the
equilibrium code included in Chemkin [125]. In this
1†
simulation, the mixture is prepared as if perfectly dry air
were supplied. One notes that temperature decreases with
increasing humidity content for all F . This effect is known
and put to use when steam is injected into the fuel for power
augmentation or NOx abatement. In the present case, Fig. 10
indicates that using air and fuel mass ¯ow rates to adjust F
and achieve a given temperature may lead to errors because
of the non-monotonic behavior of the temperature curves
2†
for X H2 O;air $ 8%: Apart from this humidity effect, using

Fig. 10. In¯uence of moisture (expressed in vol.% of air ¯ow) and equivalence ratio F on the adiabatic ¯ame temperature Tad of a methane/air
mixture F does not account for the presence of water in the air. Fresh reactants temperature of 650 K, pressure of 1 bar.
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 11. Adiabatic ¯ame temperature of a lean premixed methane/air ¯ame as a function of F and unburnt gas temperature Tu (adapted from
Ref. [126]).
Eq. (2) gives a good indication of the equivalence ratio of
the ¯ame provided that one is able to measure XO2 in the
burnt gases. In addition, sensing of any of the stable
combustion products (CO2 or H2O) should theoretically
provide estimates of F . However, if one burns unknown
fuel or wet air, measuring the three reaction products might
be necessary. Otherwise, the choice of the molecule depends
on the available measuring technique or on its reliability and
accuracy.
The equivalence ratio of the ¯ame can also be deduced
from ¯ame temperature. Relations exist between the
adiabatic ¯ame temperature T ad and F . As an example,
correlations have been derived for fuel lean methane/air
mixtures which indicate that T ad is almost independent of
the pressure and can simply be expressed as a function of F
and the unburnt (or fresh) gas temperature Tu (see Fig. 11).
The adiabatic ¯ame temperature is only an indication of the
real ¯ame temperature but it represents its uppermost value
and certainly follows the evolution of the real temperature
pro®le with F . Thus, a temperature-based controller could
use oxygen as an input to drive the combustor or to correct
other ¯ame temperature measurements, depending, e.g. on
the time response of the various techniques.
Remark. If one uses an estimation of the equivalence
ratio as controller input to maintain the pollutant emissions
at a low level, the controller has to rely on a preliminary
study of the combustor performances. Indeed, this control
method will not provide information with regard to the
pollutants themselves. Their mapping as a function of the
controller input is necessary. This might be suf®cient for
119
present regulations but new NOx targets will probably be
dif®cult to achieve with a controller relying on a table
lookup likely to drift with engine components aging.
Therefore, where pollution matters, new controller
strategies should include, in addition to equivalence ratio
or temperature monitoring, information about pollutants,
namely NOx and CO.
3.2.2. Performance optimization
The optimization of combustion performance is often
associated to pollutant emissions reduction or combustion
ef®ciency improvement. In each case, the observation of
combustion parameters directly related to the parameter
one would like to improve should preferably be performed.
As an example, major pollutants such as NOx, CO and soot
should be sensed to achieve pollutant emissions reduction.
Successful experiments have already been carried out using
classical gas analyzers [5,127], calibrated optical sensors
[14], or optical sensors delivering uncalibrated signals [4].
Combustion ef®ciency optimization has also been per-
formed using optical measurements of H2O and tempera-
ture [12] or gas analyzers [7].
3.2.3. Active combustion control
Active control generally requires an observation of the
dynamical state of the system and a performance index. In
many applications, this index is deduced from the signal(s)
describing the state. In some cases, the performance index is
obtained from separate measurements.
In closed loop active control the state information is fed
back by the controller to an actuator or a set of actuators, and
120 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 12. Active combustion control scheme.
the performance index is used to adjust the controller par-
ameters in order to optimize the combustor operation (see
[57] for a review). Fig. 12 illustrates this basic principle.
It is convenient at this point to distinguish active insta-
bility control (AIC) from active combustion enhancement
(ACE). In AIC, the objective is to diminish the level of
oscillation in the system while in ACE, the aim is to improve
the operation of the combustion process, for example by
decreasing pollutant levels and maintaining a constant
ef®ciency (see Ref. [61] for a review). The requirements
in terms of sensing for these two classes of applications
are synthesized in Table 6.
In AIC, the observation of the dynamical state may rely
on a range of variables. The pressure ¯uctuation at a single
point or at an array of points is often used to characterize the
state of oscillation in the system. The pressure ®eld can only
be measured at the system walls but it is often possible to
infer an acoustic wave®eld from a discrete set of detection
points. For example, if the wavelength is much larger than
the transverse dimension of the system, waves propagate as
plane modes and two pressure transducers are in principle
suf®cient to determine the modal amplitudes.
The light emitted by free radicals like CH p ; Cp2 ; OHp has
also been used extensively to observe the dynamics of free
or con®ned ¯ames. It was shown in some fundamental
experiments that under certain conditions the radiation
intensity from free radicals could be interpreted in terms
of heat release ¯uctuations [128±130]. For premixed ¯ames,
it is even possible to establish an essentially linear relation
between ICHp ; ICp2 ; and q 0 . For non-premixed or partially
premixed ¯ames, the light emitted from free radicals is
less directly correlated with heat release but the level of
¯uctuation in light intensity constitutes a suitable indication
of the ¯ame motion.
While pressure and heat release ¯uctuations p 0 and q 0 are
directly involved in the instability process which one wishes
to control, other variables may also be considered. Time
resolved measurements of temperature, mole fractions and
Table 6
State variables and performance index for AIC and ACE
Active control application State variables Performance index
Combustion instability p0; q0 p 02 ; q 02 ; p 0 q 0
 T;
 X 02 ; T 02
Combustion enhancement X0, T0 X;
related variables like mixture fractions may also be used to
observe the state of the system. These variables may be used
in AIC but they are less directly related to the mechanism of
instability. On the other hand, such variables are probably
more suitable in ACE applications where mixing, tempera-
ture and temperature ¯uctuations are a central issue.
3.2.4. Conclusions
Combustion control strategies are needed to ful®ll future
objectives in pollutant emissions reduction and instability
alleviation. This will require monitoring of a broad range of
parameters. Detection should be carried out with fast,
reliable and preferably low cost sensors. At present, only
some of the combustion parameters of interest can be
detected easily (e.g. pressure and oxygen content of the
¯ue gases) but promising techniques are now being devel-
oped for this purpose. Some of them, together with well-
established techniques will be presented in Section 4.
Table 7 gathers most of the combustion parameters which
can serve as inputs to combustion controllers. References to
the corresponding diagnostic techniques are also included in
this table.
4. Diagnostic techniques
Basic challenges of combustion control as well as guide-
lines for selecting appropriate diagnostic techniques were
discussed in Section 3. Diagnostics and sensors are now
surveyed. It is out of the scope of this article to present an
extensive review of the sensors available for combustion
control. While classical devices such as thermocouples,
pressure sensors and optical detectors (photodiodes, photo-
multiplier tubes and spectrometers) certainly deserve the
interest of the control engineer, they will not be covered
in this survey which ®rst considers optical diagnostic
techniques (A) and then some of the most promising
solid-state sensors (B).
4.1. Optical diagnostics
Optical diagnostics operate in a broad spectral range,
from UV (<200 nm) to IR (<10,000 nm), most sensors
operating in the UV to near IR (<2000 nm) range. In each
spectral domain, the optical sensors can either monitor
emission, absorption, scattered light or ¯uorescence.
Qualitative or quantitative data may be collected. Sensors
detecting the light emission essentially provide qualitative
information. A calibration procedure may be used to
extract an indirect information on the ¯ame parameters
(equivalence ratio or heat release). Absorption sensors on
the other hand may be used to determine the mole fraction of
combustion intermediates products as well as the tempera-
ture and sometimes even the pressure or the velocity of the
probed medium. Only these two types of sensors will be
discussed in this section.
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150 121

Table 7
Flame parameters and diagnostic technique

Parameter Principle a Location b References

A/F ratio Ion current Flame [29,35,39,118,131]

UV±Vis EM Flame [11,44,96,98,99,101,103,119,132]
Heat release UV±Vis EM Flame [8,13,22,26,27,133,134]
Mass Flux Vis±IR ABS Fresh [94,135±138]
MEM Fresh [93]
Mixing LIF Fresh [90]
IR ABS Fresh ¯ue [91,92]
Pressure MEM Fresh, ¯ame [120,139]
Microphone Flame [16,17,20,21,23,25,28]
Temperature IR ABS Flame, ¯ue [12,89,109,111,137,140,141]
Vis±IR EM Flame, ¯ue [15,95,106±108,142]
SS sensor Flame, ¯ue [2,5,30,32,37]
CO IR ABS Flame, ¯ue [110,111,143±145]
SS sensor Flue [77,78,113,115,146±148]
CO2 IR ABS Flame, ¯ue [89,110,111,149,150]
IR EM Flame, ¯ue [108]
SS sensor Flue [151]
H2 O IR ABS Flame, ¯ue [10,12,109,110,135,141,149]
HC SS sensor Fresh, ¯ue [40,64,152±154]
NOx IR ABS Flue [143,155±158]
SS sensor Flue [112,114,159±163]
O2 NIR ABS Fresh, ¯ame [10,89,164]
SS sensor Flue [66,67,70,165±168]
a
ABSÐabsorption, EMÐemission, MEMÐmicromachined electromechanical, SSÐsolid state.
b
Diagnostics locations in the referenced experiments.

4.1.1. Optical absorption sensors
A notable effort has been expended to devise practical
sensors based on near IR and visible absorption. These
devices have been mainly tested in laboratory scale facilities
[12,111,140,141,149, 158,169] but experiments in a 20 MW
waste incinerator [10] and a 1 GW gas-®red power plant
[89] have been reported. Tests of an optical mass ¯ux sensor
on a full-scale gas turbine engine have also been carried out
[136] and ¯ight quali®cation is under way [94]. Equivalence
ratio ¯uctuations have also been measured using probes
based on the absorption of the 3.39 mm He±Ne laser line
[91,92] by gaseous hydrocarbon fuel molecules. More refer-
ences concerning the detection of combustion products and
temperature are presented in Table 7 (`ABS technique').
As pointed out in Ref. [170], the development of near-IR
absorption techniques is closely related to the progress in
room temperature, tunable and low cost diode lasers in the
telecommunications industry. Commercially available units
range from 0.63 to 2.0 mm (AlGaAs, InGaAsP, InGaAs/InP)
and allow exploitation of absorption bands of species like
H2O, NOx, CO or CO2. Processing of the absorption data
collected at several wavelengths may be used to calculate
the temperature. The light is provided by diode lasers and
the detection system includes optical isolators, ®bers and
photodetectors which are most of the time photodiode
elements (InGaAs, Si). Taking advantage of ®ber com-
ponents for wavelength division multiplexing, multiple
lasers may be combined into common signal and reference
®bers. Each laser may be swept at different phases of a
common ramp function. This provides a time-domain multi-
plexing where a single photodetector observes the sequen-
tial absorption features as each laser is swept across its
corresponding lineshape [140,171]. Wavelength-domain
multiplexing has also been used in diode-laser combustion
sensors [12,111,172]. In this con®guration, the lasers can be
ramped across their respective absorption lines simul-
taneously. Multiple wavelengths appearing in the trans-
mitted beam are separated onto multiple detectors using a
frequency-dispersive unit such as a diffraction grating.
Fig. 13 presents such a con®guration.
4.1.1.1. Fundamentals. Absorption techniques rely on the
Beer±Lambert law which relates the transmissivity t n of
narrow-linewidth radiation at frequency n through a
uniform medium of length L (cm) to the spectral
absorbance k n L:
 
I
tn ˆ n ˆ exp 2kn L† 3†
I0 n
In this expression, In is the monochromatic laser intensity
at frequency n measured after propagating a pathlength L,
I0 designates the incident intensity and k n the spectral
122 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 13. Laser diode based near-IR absorption spectroscopy. Ical is used to convert signals from time to frequency domain in Iref is used as a
reference signal. Laser beams are multiplexed using a ®ber coupler and wavelengths in the transmitted beam are separated onto multiple
detectors using a diffraction grating (adapted from Ref. [172]).
absorption coef®cient (cm 21). Near a spectral line this
coef®cient can be expressed as:
kn ˆ S T; n0 †pXabs g n 2 n0 †
22 21
where S(T, n 0) (cm atm ) is the temperature-dependent
transition line-strength centered at n 0, Xabs is the mole
fraction of the absorbing species, p is the total pressure
and g n 2 n0 † (cm) is the frequency-dependent
R lineshape
function normalized such that gn dn ˆ 1: This function
depends on temperature through Doppler broadening and
on both pressure and temperature through collisional
(pressure) broadening. The temperature-dependence of the
line-strength arises from the Boltzmann population statistics
governing the internal energy-level population distribution
of the absorbing species. The line-strength is a fundamental
spectroscopic property of these species which may be found
in spectroscopic databases such as HITRAN [173] and
HITEMP. In many cases however, the line strength must
be speci®cally determined for the particular temperature
and pressure conditions of interest. A short review of the
spectroscopic literature dedicated to this aspect is presented
in Ref. [174] together with the main features of the diode
laser absorption sensors for gas-dynamics and combustion
¯ows.
4.1.1.2. Absorption data recording. Two techniques
described in Ref. [172] have been developed to acquire
and process the absorption data, the scanned-wavelength
approach and the more recent ®xed-wavelength technique.
In the ®rst approach, a narrow-line width laser scans a
speci®c spectral range and the resultant transmission
signal is integrated. If the gas temperature, line-strength
and absorption path are known, the measured transmission
may be directly related to the absorbing species partial
pressure. It is usually possible to select a transition such
that the temperature variation of the line-strength can be
neglected at least over some limited range (several
hundred K). Corrections using separate temperature
measurements may also be performed. Alternatively, two
absorption transitions may be scanned and the ratio of the
integrated absorbance of each transition is only a function of
temperature [175]. With the temperature determined, one or
4†
both absorbances can be used to calculate the partial
pressure.
The scanned-wavelength technique has been mainly used
under atmospheric pressure conditions [109,140,144,175,
176]. Indeed, the broadening of spectral lines with pressure
(Fig. 14) prevents measurement of the zero-absorption base-
line. This problem may be solved with a collection of
laser sources operating at ®xed wavelengths [141]. The
absorbances recorded at these wavelengths are used to deter-
mine the temperature and the mole fraction of the probed
species. This attractive technique relies on the accurate
modeling of the spectral absorption of a given species
under standard conditions of operation. One dif®cult
problem is the determination of the baseline (see Fig. 14).
The feasibility of the method is however demonstrated
in Refs. [141,172]. It is interesting to note that for the
®xed wavelength technique, the tuning requirements are
signi®cantly relaxed and therefore, the measurement
acquisition rate is essentially limited by the detection
system (photodiode and data acquisition electronics)
whereas for the scanned wavelength technique, the measure-
ment acquisition rate is limited by the tuning rate of the
lasers as well.
4.1.1.3. Velocity measurements. An interesting feature of the
diode laser absorption sensors is the possibility to determine
the velocity of a ducted ¯ow. The principle of the setup is
shown in Fig. 15. The velocity of the ¯ow can be deduced
from the Doppler frequency shift Dn 12 measured with a
pair of pro®les simultaneously acquired in two different
directions u 1 and u 2 with respect to the ¯ow. The velocity
is given by:
cDn12
vˆ 5†
n0 cosu1 2 cosu2 †
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 14. HITEMP calculation of H2O absorbance at various pressures for a mixture of N2 and CO2 corresponding to the products of a
stoichiometric methane/air combustion. T ˆ 1000 K; 10 cm pathlength (adapted from Ref. [141]).
where c is the speed of light and n 0 designates the unshifted
centerline laser frequency. Moreover the absorption
measurement itself may be used to obtain the density of
the gas. When combined with the velocity deduced from
the Doppler shift, it allows a direct estimation of the mass
¯ow rate. Such measurements have been performed in air
¯ows using O2 absorption near 763 nm (wind tunnel and
full-scale engine tests [94,136]) and in high speed ¯ows
containing water vapor using H2O absorption bands near
1.31 mm [137] and 1.38 mm [135].
The air mass ¯ow rate estimation is particularly interest-
ing for combustor control schemes based on the regulation
of the equivalence ratio since the fuel ¯ow rate is generally
known with good accuracy and intake air mass ¯ow can be
measured directly using this absorption and Doppler-shift
Fig. 15. Sketch of a basic diode laser mass ¯ux sensor (adapted from
Ref. [136]).
123
combined method. Provided one can estimate the amount of
air bleeding, which may take place between intake and
combustor, it should be possible to directly adjust the
equivalence ratio. One may note that air bleeding is exactly
the parameter most affected by aging.
4.1.1.4. Conclusions. Diode laser based absorption sensors
are quite promising. In-situ measurements in the ¯ame
region or in the exhaust gases of major combustion
species such as H2O, CO2 and O2, gas temperature,
velocity and pressure are well demonstrated. Although the
detection of minor species such as NOx [157] and CO [111]
have been carried out in combustion environments, strong
interferences with high temperature water vapour limits
the sensitivity (e.g. <140 ppm for NO [157]). Sampling
the combustion gases into a low-pressure, low-temperature
multipass absorption cell [144,177] eliminates many of the
interference problems associated with in-situ measurements.
Better sensitivity is achieved (e.g. <10 ppm for CO [144])
but the time response notably increases. A typical cell
response time is <1 s [144] which is still better than
conventional gas analyzers (a few seconds) but far slower
than in-situ measurements (less than 1 ms).
Under laboratory conditions, diode laser based absorption
data are in good agreement with reference measurements.
Relative errors on T and major combustion products (H2O
and CO2) of about 5% have been achieved [109,137].
Similar precision has been obtained for velocity measure-
ments [135,137]. Practical problems arise however. Weak
absorption strengths in the visible±near-IR range require
advanced detection schemes such as frequency or
124 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

wavelength modulation [178] and balanced ratiometric

detection [179]. Also, the absorption database in near IR
is incomplete especially for CO2 and further work is needed
on the spectroscopic level, in particular under high tempera-
ture and high pressure conditions which correspond to
typical engine operation. Furthermore, ¯ow turbulence or
mechanical vibrations can introduce pointing-instabil-
ities in the incident beam, which may induce amplitude
instabilities in the transmitted radiation and can severely
degrade the sensor response. This might require tight
alignment tolerances in some cases. This problem may
be solved with an active alignment control loop developed Fig. 16. Typical setup used to collect the light emitted by a ¯ame. A
in Ref. [89] to cope with wall deformations in a gas-®red single optical access is needed. Photomultiplier tubes, photodiodes
power-plant. (associated to band-pass ®lters) or spectrometers may be used to
Despite these technical challenges, fast, simultaneous and record information.
in-situ (path-averaged) measurements of important combus-
tion parameters have been demonstrated. Spatially resolved
information could also be obtained from multiple beam little spatial resolution. We will see however that under
absorption measurements as explored for example in some circumstances, quantitative or spatial information
Refs. [164,180,181]. Progress in fundamental spectroscopic may be derived from light emission measurements.
studies as well as in the spectral range covered by laser
diodes (mid-IR) should lead to a widespread application 4.1.2.2. Chemiluminescence. Among the contributions to the
of this type of sensor (see Ref. [174]). natural light emitted by a ¯ame, the chemiluminescence is
related to the generation of electronically excited species
4.1.2. Optical emission sensors (i.e. in thermal non-equilibrium) D p during chemical
The light emitted by the ¯ame may be used to moni- reactions such as:
tor and control combustion. Information may be gath-
ered from UV to IR wavelengths. Several phenomena A 1 B ! C 1 Dp 6†
contribute to the light emission process. Discrete emis- p
sion spectra correspond to the chemical reactions produ- This chemically excited molecule D may be destroyed
cing electronically excited radicals in the ¯ame front in by spontaneous emission Dp ! D 1 hn† or collisional
the UV±visible range (chemiluminescence). Combustion quenching Dp 1 M ! D 1 M†: Chemiluminescence corre-
products in thermal equilibrium such as H2O, CO2 as sponds to the spontaneous emission of photons
well as CO are also responsible for rotation±vibration (hn ˆ E2 2 E1 with E2 the energy of the excited state and
emission bands in the near-IR and IR range (IR emis- E1 the energy of the ®nal state). This emission generally
sion). Continuum emission may also be considered takes place in the UV or visible range. Each radical
whenever soot is produced and radiates in the com- produced in an excited state is responsible for a particular
bustion process (black body emission). A broad review spectrum, which is related to its quantum properties, and can
of the spectroscopy of ¯ames may be found in Ref. [182] be easily identi®ed. Table 8 gathers the most luminous
and references concerning the detection of combustion excited radicals observed in typical ¯ames together with
products and temperature are presented in Table 7 (`EM the corresponding spectral transitions and bandhead wave-
technique'). lengths. Other radicals such as NO p or CN p also radiate light
but their luminosity is in general much lower in typical
4.1.2.1. Experimental setup. Sensing emission is simpler industrial ¯ames (by three orders of magnitude lower for
than measuring absorption. A single optical access to the
process is required and the association of a ®lter, a collecting
Table 8
lens and a photo-detector (photo-multiplier tube or photo-
Excited radicals observed in typical industrial ¯ames [183]
diode) is suf®cient to observe the light emitted by the ¯ame
(from UV to IR) or the burnt gases (IR). Fig. 16 presents a Radical Transition l (nm)
typical con®guration used to investigate light emission. A
grating spectrometer may also replace the ®lter and the OH p A2 S 1 ! X 2 P Dn ˆ 1† 282.9 (Q2)
photo-detector. The time resolution of emission sensors is OH p A 2 S 1 ! X 2 P Dn ˆ 0† 308.9 (Q2)
only limited by the detector response, the acquisition CH p B 2 S 2 ! X2 P 387.1
CH p A 2 D ! X2 P 431.4
electronics and the data processing algorithms. In its
C2p A 3 P g ! X 3 P u Swan† 516.5
simplest form, the method only allows line-of-sight CO2p Continuum 350 ! 500
detection and provides mainly qualitative information with
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
p
NO in rich premixed propane/air ¯ames [184]). Fig. 17
shows three spectral bands corresponding to OH p, CH p
and Cp2 taken from the emission spectrum of a premixed
methane/air ¯ame F ˆ 1:1†:
The formation mechanisms of these excited radicals are
not yet completely understood but some key reactions have
been identi®ed. The formation of OH p and CO 2p are well
documented in Refs. [185,186]. Reactions leading to CH p
have also been investigated [187] but more work is still
needed for Cp2 : As an example for methane/air ¯ames, the
following kinetic reactions are put forward to describe the
production of OH p, CH p and COp2
CH 1 O2 ! OHp 1 CO
C2 H 1 O2 ! CHp 1 CO2
C2 H 1 O ! CHp 1 CO
CO 1 O 1 M ! COp2 1 M
Additional paths have been identi®ed for CH p and Cp2 but
the rate constants are not well known
C2 1 OH ! CHp 1 CO
C 1 CH ! Cp2 1 H
Numerical simulations using these kinetics and exper-
imental measurements of OH p and CH p are in satisfactory
Fig. 17. Premixed methane/air ¯ame, F ˆ 1:1 and p ˆ 1 bar. Emission spectra: OH p (transition A 2 S 1 ! X 2 P (0±0)). From left to right, R1,
R2 and Q2 bandheads), CH p (transition A 2 D ! X 2 P: From left to right, Q(0±0), and Q(2±2) bandheads) and C 2p (Swan band A3 P g ! X 3 P u; ,
Dv ˆ 0: From left to right, (1±1), and (0±0) bandheads) excited radicals. Spectra recorded with a CHROMEX grating spectrograph (1800 lines/
mm, 0.027 nm resolution) (from Ref. [96]).
125
agreement in the case of methane/air ¯ames under atmos-
pheric [185,187] and elevated pressures [96].
One interesting feature of chemiluminescence for
combustion control is that it may be related to several
important ¯ame parameters. Correlations between
chemiluminescence and equivalence ratio have been
reported [11,46,47,96,101,103,119,132]. Fig. 18 presents
the evolution of the normalized OH p, CH p and Cp2 emis-
sion as a function of the equivalence ratio for a
premixed methane/air ¯ame. One notes the strong in¯u-
ence of F on the signals. The light emitted by OH p is
the most intense under lean to stoichiometric conditions
whereas the CH p and C 2p chemiluminescence signals are
7† stronger in stoichiometric to rich ¯ames. Depending on
the targeted F range, a controller could use one or
several of these lines to estimate the equivalence ratio
8† of the process and adapt the injection of fresh gases to
achieve a given F setpoint.
In active control applications, chemiluminescence signals
have also been widely used to characterize heat release
9†
¯uctuations [17,18,26,28,54,57] or de®ne the ¯ame front
motion [22,23,27,59,188,189]. As an example, Fig. 19
shows simultaneous measurements of velocity and CH p
10† chemiluminescence in an acoustically pulsated premixed
methane/air ¯ame.
While chemiluminescence measurements are essentially
integrated along the line of sight, spatially resolved chemi-
11† luminescence measurements have also been achieved using
Cassegrain optics [98,102,190,191], CCD cameras [43,96]
and tomographic techniques [142,192,193]. Information
concerning tomographic techniques may be found in Refs.
12†
[194±196]. Fig. 20 shows some of the techniques used to
obtain spatially resolved information: (a) CCD camera
associated with deconvolution algorithms such as the Abel
126 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

Fig. 18. Premixed methane/air ¯ame at atmospheric pressure. Normalized OH p, CH p and Cp2 emission as a function of F . Signals are recorded
with a 600 lines/mm grating spectrometer using a 10 nm wide top hat ®lter centered around 310, 431 and 516 nm respectively (from Ref. [96]).

transform [197,198], (b) tomography [196], (c,d) Cassegrain
optics [98].
Chemiluminescence sensors have already been designed
for operating point and active control purposes. In active
control applications, chemiluminescence has been mainly
used to track heat release ¯uctuations [4,8,13,26±28,57]
but control schemes have also been developed to perform
operating point control of boilers [11,43] as well as for
combustion performance optimization [14,59]. In-cylinder
measurements of fuel/air mixing have also been carried out
[119]. Equivalence ratio and power measurements have
been obtained using a ®bered miniaturized PC-based
spectrometer in a 2 MW furnace [47]. Chemiluminescence
has also been investigated for gas turbine operating point
control [44,96,101].
4.1.2.3. Black body emission. It is possible to estimate the
¯ame temperature whenever soot is produced during the
combustion process. Indeed, it is generally accepted that
soot particles are in thermal equilibrium with the local
combustion products (although a recent study [106]
indicates that soot could achieve radiative equilibrium
with the dominant source in the combustor). As a result,
determining the soot particles temperature distribution
may give indications on the temperature pattern in the
combustor. The principle of the method relies on the
characterization of the light emitted by the particles as
they radiate at elevated temperatures. For a radiating body
at temperature T, the monochromatic spectral radiance L ls
(Wm 22 m 21 sr 21) can be obtained by multiplying the
spectral emissivity e l with the black body spectral

Fig. 19. Premixed CH4/air conical ¯ame burner (F ˆ 0:95; mean ¯ow velocity of 1.2 ms 21). Simultaneous measurement of axial velocity
component measured at 1.5 mm above the exit of the burner and global spontaneous emission of CH p in the whole ¯ame. The axial ¯ow is
acoustically modulated at 10 Hz (left) and 30 Hz (right). The ¯ame acts like a low-pass ®lter (from Ref. [133]).
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150 127

Fig. 20. Spatially resolved chemiluminescence measurements. (a) CCD camera and Abel transform: every CCD matrix pixel collects the light
emitted by the ¯ame elements along the line of sight (z axis). Local information (¯ame structure in the (x,y) plane) may be recovered using the
Abel transform assuming an axisymmetric ¯ame and optically thin medium (from Ref. [198]). (b) Tomography: image reconstruction of
arbitrary three-dimensional ¯ames. Flame projections are recorded at several angles (reconstruction precision increases with projections
number) and ¯ame structure is reconstructed using e.g. algebraic reconstruction or FFT techniques (from Ref. [196]). (c) Cassegrain optics:
spatially resolved measurements are achieved due to the very low spherical aberration of the pair of mirrors and the absence of chromatic
aberration of the pair mirrors and the absence of chromatic aberration (from Ref. [98]). The observation volume (diameter 100 mm, length
800 mm) may be estimated with the (d) measured light-collection-rate around the focal point (from Ref. [98]).

radiance L0l T†: been investigated by several authors from UV to IR

[199±203]. It may be conveniently expressed as [201]:
Lsl ˆ el L0l T† 13†  
p f
el ˆ 1 2 tl ˆ 1 2 exp 2kl L† ˆ 1 2 exp 2 1p2v L 15†
l
where L0l T† is given by Planck's law
where L is the path length, fv the volume fraction of the
c 2hc2 soot particles, p2 a parameter relatively independent of
L0l T† ˆ h  1  i ˆ h   i 14†
l5 exp lcT2 2 1 l5 exp khc 2 1 fuel type in the range 0.77±1.25 according to Ref. [203]
lT
or 0.83 ^ 0.08 by performing a least squares ®t on
extinction measurements in the wavelength range
where c is the speed of light, h the Planck constant, k the 0.514±5.2 mm [200], and ®nally p1 a parameter in the
Boltzmann constant and T the blackbody temperature (K). range 4.9 [204] to 6.0 [201]. The soot spectral emissiv-
Fig. 21 gives the evolution of the black body spectral ity is shown in Fig. 22 for several soot particles volume
radiance as a function of the wavelength and for several fractions. For small fv, the emissivity rapidly decreases
temperatures. Also shown is Wien's displacement law with increasing wavelengths. It is close to one for l ,
lmax T ˆ 2898 mm K† which indicates that the 2 mm as fv . 1 ppm:
wavelength at which the spectral black body radiance Two techniques may be used to estimate the soot
peaks shifts towards the visible spectrum as black body particles temperature. First, the soot monochromatic
temperature increases. spectral radiance function (13) may be ®tted to the
The dependence of the soot emissivity on wavelength has continuum of the emission spectrum of the sooty
128 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

Fig. 21. Planck's law for black body spectral radiance (14). Evolution of radiance with wavelength for different temperatures. The maxima
locus calculated using Wien's displacement law is also shown.

¯ame recorded with a wide band spectrometer. The
main adjustable parameters are the temperature T and
the soot particles mole fraction. This procedure is
shown in Fig. 23 where the emission spectrum from a
butane ¯ame is ®tted with Planck's function. The
temperature used in this function is adapted to ®t the
spectrum and band emissions should be discriminated
from the continuous background. Temperature can also
be estimated using the two-colour pyrometry technique.
Using Wien's approximation of Planck's law (valid for

Fig. 22. Spectral emissivity of soot particles (15) for several soot particles mole fractions (L ˆ 1 m; p2 ˆ 0:83 and p1 ˆ 6:0 after Ref. [200]).
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150 129

Fig. 23. Measured emission spectrum of a butane diffusion ¯ame containing contributions of ¯ame radical band emissions and of soot black
body radiation. Also displayed are the calculated Planck functions corresponding to different temperatures (from Ref. [193]).

lT , 0:002 m K; typically l , 1000 nm and T, Fig. 24 shows the evolution with temperature of the ratio
2000 K† of the black body spectral radiance at two wavelengths in
c1 the UV and the near IR. It is particularly important to select
L0l T† < c lT , 0:002 m K† 16† wavelengths, which are not perturbed by emissions bands.
l exp 2 †
5
lT In principle, this two-colour pyrometry technique only
requires two sets of narrow-band ®lters and photodetectors.
the soot temperature might be directly related to the However, for high and spectrally variable noise, the
ratio R ˆ Sl2 =Sl1 of the light signal collected at two intensity ratio of two given wavelengths will likely result
wavelengths l 1 and l 2 using relation (17) in an erroneous temperature. Therefore, several pairs of
 
1 1 wavelengths could be selected to perform a reliable
c2 2
l1 ! l2 temperature estimation. One may also detect the emission
Tˆ   17†
el1 l2 spectrum over a broad range of wavelengths and use curve
ln R 1 ln 1 5 ln ®tting to estimate the temperature. For both temperature
el2 l1

Fig. 24. Evolution with temperature of the ratio of the black body spectral radiance at two wavelengths in the UV and the near IR.
130 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

Fig. 25. Infrared emission spectrum of a stoichiometric premixed methane/air ¯ame at 1, 5 and 10 bar. Spectra were recorded with a NICOLET
Magma 550 FTIR spectrometer (resolution 0.125 cm 21) looking downstream in the combustor through an optical ®ber. The sharp increase of
the signal for l . 3:2 mm is related to the low temperature ®ber radiation. Also observed near 4.2 mm is the cold atmospheric CO2 absorption
(from Ref. [3]).

evaluation procedures however, an accurate calibration of
the detection system should be performed, for the spectral
sensitivity and the detector linearity as well. A calibration of
the temperature sensor using a black body radiation source
should be carried out to achieve maximum accuracy.
The determination of temperature from soot radiation
using curve ®tting is documented in Refs. [142,193]. Two-
colour pyrometry is exempli®ed in Refs. [95,106,205]. The
uncertainty on the temperature measurements has been
estimated between 20 and 50 K [142,205] depending on
the combustor type and measurement technique. It is often
possible to obtain spatially resolved temperature ®elds using
tomographic techniques [95,142,193] but temperature
distribution measurements have also been carried out in
a gas turbine combustor using an optical ®ber based
pyrometer [106].
4.1.2.4. IR emission. Temperature may also be deduced
from IR light emission. Indeed, thermal radiation of major
combustion products (H2O, CO2 or CO) result in rotation±
vibration emission bands. These bands may be identi®ed
with a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer and
this information may be used to measure temperature
and combustion products concentrations. FTIR in-situ
measurements in laboratory scale combustors have been
reported in Refs. [206,207]. This technique was also used
to analyze aircraft exhaust gases [208,209]. However, FTIR
systems are too bulky and their time response is too slow for
practical application in combustion control. Practical
systems using ®lterbanks and multiple sensors have been
developed and could lead to interesting combustion
control applications. In Ref. [107], temperature in the exit
plane of a supersonic combustor could be determined by
observation of the IR radiance from a portion of the
H2O(n 2) band from 6.5 to 9.5 mm. In Ref. [108],
temperature pro®les were determined in the exhaust gases
of an aero-engine by observation of the CO2 radiance around
4.2 mm, and gas turbine combustor temperature was
estimated by observation of H2O radiance near 3 mm. The
technique basically consists of comparing the IR radiance
recorded by the sensor to a radiance database or model and
adjusting the database or model parameters like T so as to
match the sensor data. The temperature determination is
complicated because spectral bands and lines of
combustion products depend on many parameters such as
concentration, pressure, temperature as well as the optical
thickness of the probed medium. As an example, Fig. 25
shows the in¯uence of pressure on the IR emission spectrum
of a premixed (stoichiometric) methane/air ¯ame. This will
have to be taken into account in the determination of
temperature. The use of emission data often requires a
careful preliminary investigation of the infrared spectral
features of the process. The selection of the wavelength
range constitutes a central issue as it determines the main
optical components of the system as well as the operating
domain of the sensor in terms of pressure and temperature
range, and sensitivity. The effect of pressure is speci®cally
important as the optical thickness varies with this parameter.
4.1.2.5. Conclusions. Recent advances in laser diodes,
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
®bers, ®ber splitters and photo-detectors will drive further
developments of optical sensors for practical combustion
control applications. As an example, spatially resolved
temperature data were obtained in a domestic burner using
an imaging device (Hyperspectral Imager) recording at each
pixel spectral information between 3 and 5 mm with a
resolution Dl of 10 nm [210]. In a larger scale
experiment [15], the temperature ®eld in a 40 MW waste
incinerator was recorded using an infrared camera scanning
light radiated by the fuel bed surface between 3.8 and
4.0 mm. This sensor was successfully integrated in the
plant control system and allowed a notable reduction of
CO and UHC emissions. Operating point control of gas
turbine combustors was also explored using an IR
emission temperature sensor [3]. Because they are simple,
naturally robust and relatively easy to set-up, light emission
sensors will ®nd further applications in the estimation of
combustion parameters like the equivalence ratio, the
temperature or the heat release ¯uctuations.
4.2. Solid-state sensors
Various types of solid-state sensors have been developed
during the last decade mainly for combustion control appli-
cations in the automotive industry. The effort has focused
on sensors able to withstand severe operating conditions,
offering long term reliability at a low cost. These devices
are intended to measure species mole fractions, ¯ame
presence, or temperature. In most cases, the sensors are
designed for the inlet or exhaust pipes. Some units like
ion current probes, have to be mounted directly on the
cylinders. More recently, the technologies devised for auto-
motive combustion have been adapted to other systems like
furnaces or boilers [40,113] and are now considered for gas
turbines [3].
This section will focus on some of the most advanced or
promising concepts. Gas sensors will be considered in more
detail because they constitute key elements for automotive
engine control. There are also potential applications in other
areas either for control and/or health and pollutant emissions
monitoring.
4.2.1. Gas sensors
The ®rst production solid-state gas sensors were designed
to monitor automotive combustion stoichiometry and were
operating on a binary basis. These `lambda probes' respond
to a given gaseous mixture as shown in Fig. 5. To improve
control performance, wide-band oxygen sensors have been
recently introduced. These units can monitor variable
amounts of oxygen mixed with combustion products.
Current efforts are aimed at improving sensor light-off and
resistance performance. To cope with more stringent pollu-
tant emissions regulations, new sensors are now devised to
measure regulated species such as CO, unburnt hydrocar-
bons (UHC) and NOx. This is a dif®cult task as detection of
131
pollutant mole fractions as low as a few ppm is needed for
future combustion control strategies and on-board diagnosis.
Gas species monitoring is mainly achieved with semi-
conductor sensors. These probes use a semiconducting
material to detect a particular species. Materials employed
are metal oxides: zirconium (ZrO2), titanium (TiO2) and tin
(SnO2) oxides doped with other oxides. The corresponding
sensors are often designated as ceramic gas sensors. In TiO2
and SnO2 units, the principle of operation relies on the
change of the semiconductor resistance with oxygen partial
pressure whereas in ZrO2 units, the presence of the probed
species is determined through voltage or current changes
across the semiconductor. TiO2 and SnO2 sensors have
also been designed for NOx and CO [77,211±213] monitor-
ing but are less attractive than new zirconium oxide based
sensors which have greater selectivity [147,154] and feature
better stability under elevated operating temperature con-
ditions. Other types of gas sensors use catalytic effects.
These devices generally comprise two resistive temperature
detectors (RTD), one of which is coated with a catalytic
material, which activates reactions with the gas to detect.
The heat released at one probe induces a difference in
resistance between the two RTD elements, which can be
related to the mole fraction of the target gas molecule.
Sensors of this type have been developed for CO and NOx
(via ammonia addition) monitoring (see Ref. [115])
but feature relatively poor selectivity and are subject to
poisoning [116]. Fig. 26 shows typical designs for (a) poten-
tiometric zirconia sensor, (b) tin oxide sensor, (c) catalytic
sensor.
The following discussion will concentrate on the latest
developments in zirconium oxide based sensors. Indeed,
most ceramic gas sensors now rely on the electrochemical
properties of a solid solution of zirconium oxide doped with
other oxides such as CaO, MgO or Y2O3. This material is
designated as stabilized zirconia. The electrolytic properties
of zirconia are ®rst described to provide an understanding
of the sensor response and fundamental limitations. The
structure of basic potentiometric and amperometric oxygen
detection cells is then reviewed. Electrochemical principles
used in some novel sensor designs for CO and NOx monitor-
ing are ®nally discussed.
4.2.1.1. Zirconia properties. Zirconia properties originate
from the dopant (e.g. Y2O3). This compound provides the
stability of the cubic crystallographic form of the ZrO2 from
room temperature to its melting point. The dopant
introduces a defect structure with a ®nite concentration of
octahedral voids. In a solid solution of ZrO2 and Y2O3 some
Zr 41 ions are replaced by lower valency ions Y 31 so that
oxygen vacancies are created (Fig. 27, left) and O 22 ions can
actually move in the solid mixture. As a result, zirconia acts
like a solid electrolyte. This behavior is temperature
sensitive and becomes effective above 3008C. Additional
information concerning zirconia conductivity may be
found in Refs. [214,215].
132 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

Fig. 26. Solid-state gas sensors. (a) Potentiometric zirconia cell: mole fraction is sensed as an electromotive force between electrodes located
on both sides of a zirconia layer submitted to different partial pressures of the detected species (adapted from Ref. [165]). (b) Tin oxide device:
the mole fraction is sensed as a change of the semiconductor resistance in the presence of the detected species (adapter from Ref. [212]).
(c) Catalytic probe: in the presence of the detected species, heat is released at the catalytically coated electrode and the mole fraction is sensed
as a change between the two RTDs resistance (adapted from Ref. [115]).

One consequence of these properties is that all sensors
based on doped zirconia material will be sensitive to O2 to a
certain extent. It is then logical to ®rst consider the basic
oxygen detection cells which form the core of oxygen
sensors and constitute key structures for more advanced
NOx or CO zirconia sensors. An extensive review of tech-
niques for oxygen measurement using zirconia sensors is
given in Ref. [165].
4.2.1.2. Potentiometric Nernst cell for oxygen detection. A
basic potentiometric zirconia cell for oxygen detection
(Nernst cell) is sketched in Fig. 27 (right). At zirconia
temperatures above 3008C, O 22 ions drift from high
(reference gas, generally atmospheric air) to low (sampled
gas, combustion products) oxygen partial pressure regions
producing in turn an electromotive voltage U, which can be
easily detected. The sensor temperature affects its time
response: ions drift faster at high temperatures and the
potentiometric cell responds more rapidly to changes in
the O2 content of the sampled gases. Current sensors are
generally equipped with a heater to maintain the zirconia
layer at a constant and elevated temperature. The O2 mole
fraction XO2 can be determined using the Nernst law:
!
RT pO2;ref
U ˆ Uoffset DT† 1 ln 18†
nF pO2
together with pO2 ˆ pXO2 ; where U is the voltage drop
between the two electrodes, Uoffset an offset voltage, R the
universal gas constant, T the electrode temperature, n the
number of electrons involved to generate the potential (in
the present case n ˆ 4†; F the Faraday constant, pO2 the
oxygen partial pressure in the sampled gases and pO2;ref ;
the reference oxygen partial pressure. This relationship is
based on thermodynamic equilibrium and fast kinetic
reactions at the electrode interface. Fig. 28 shows the
evolution of the output signal of a potentiometric zirconia
oxygen sensor as a function of the oxygen mole fraction of
an O2/N2 mixture as well as the corresponding Nernst law
predictions. The offset voltage corresponding to equal
pressures on both sides of the zirconia layer pO2 ˆ pO2;ref †;
is due to the temperature difference DT which exists
between the two electrodes due to forced convection and/
or asymmetric sensor geometry. Practical sensors based
on potentiometric principles are described in Refs.
[68,167,216].
4.2.1.3. Amperometric cell for oxygen detection. The cell in
Fig. 27 may also operate as an electrochemical oxygen
pump. By applying a voltage difference across the cell
electrodes, oxygen may be electrochemically transferred
through the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode. The
corresponding oxygen ¯ux is related to the applied current I
by Faraday's law
dNO2 I
ˆ 19†
dt pump nF
where NO2 is the mole number of oxygen, F the Faraday
constant and n is the number of electrons involved in the

Fig. 27. (a) Yttria Stabilized Zirconium (YSZ). (b) Nernst cell: basic potentiometric cell for oxygen detection. Oxygen mole fraction is sensed
as an electromotive potential U established between two porous Pt electrodes printed on the solid electrolyte layer (YSZ). Yttria forces a defect
crystallographic ZrO2 structure with a ®nite concentration of oxygen vacancies enable O 22 ions drift through the zirconia layer.
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 28. Output signal (symbols) of a potentiometric zirconia oxygen sensor as a function of the oxygen mole fraction p < pref ˆ 1 atm† of an
O2/N2 mixture. Also shown (solid line) is the Nernst law prediction (18) calculated at the sensor operating temperature T ˆ 5508C† (from Ref.
[112]).
pumping of one mole of oxygen (here O2 ! 2O22 1 4e2
and n ˆ 4†: A basic setup for oxygen detection using an
electrochemical pumping cell is sketched in Fig. 29 (the
exhaust gas should contain oxygen). A voltage is applied
to the zirconia cell so that the internal electrode is at a
negative potential. Therefore, O2 is electrochemically
removed from the internal volume according to expression
(19) while O2 ¯ows in the sensor chamber through a
diffusion barrier. This ¯ux of oxygen is governed by a
linear diffusion law
dNO2
ˆ s O2 pO2 2 pO2 ;v † 20†
dt diffusion
Fig. 29. Basic amperometric zirconia cell for oxygen detection. A
voltage is applied between two porous Pt electrodes printed on the
solid electrolyte layer (YSZ). A diffusion barrier limits the O2 ¯ow
to the chamber and O2 is pumped out by the zirconia cell. The
resulting pumping current I is related to the oxygen mole fraction
is the gas stream (adapted from Ref. [165]).
133
where s O2 is the leak conductance with respect to oxygen,
pO2 the partial pressure of oxygen in the exhaust stream and
pO2 ;v the partial pressure of oxygen within the internal
volume. For an ori®ce of uniform cross section S and
length L, s O2 ˆ DO2 S= RTL† where DO2 is the molecular
diffusivity of oxygen. For pure bulk diffusion (mean free
path of gas molecules much smaller than the diffusion
barrier diameter), DO2 is inversely proportional to the
absolute pressure [217]. Under steady state conditions
(constant pO2 ;v ) the balance of the ¯uxes (19) and (20) gives:
I
ˆ s O2 pO2 2 pO2 ;v † 21†
nF
and if the voltage applied to the pumping cell is suf®ciently
high, pO2 ;v may be almost zero because the diffusion barrier
restricts the transport of O2 to the inner cavity [217]. A
limiting condition is then achieved, the pumping current is
controlled by the diffusion rate and it is proportional to the
oxygen mole fraction
Ilim < nF s O2 pO2 / XO2 22†
Typical current±voltage characteristics of diffusion-
controlled oxygen sensors are shown in Fig. 30. For a
small pumping voltage Up, I is determined by the impedance
of the cell. When Up increases, pO2 ;v decreases and at some
point, O2 is essentially pumped out of the cavity and the
current I reaches a saturation level and is proportional to
XO2 : For very high Up, a large increase of I is observed due to
electrolyte decomposition and/or electronic leakage [218].
Advanced amperometric concepts designed for other
134 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 30. Current±voltage characteristics of a diffusion-controlled
amperometric zirconia oxygen sensor. Pumping current plotted as
a function of the applied voltage for two O2 concentrations at T ˆ
8008C (adapted from Ref. [166]).
exhaust stream conditions (e.g. oxygen free gases) may be
found in Refs. [69,165,166].
4.2.1.4. Three-phase boundary electrochemistry. The
electrical potential of oxygen sensor electrodes represents
the equilibrium oxygen partial pressure at the three-phase
boundary (TPBÐmetal electrode/solid electrolyte/gas
phase interface). The main kinetic pathways shown
schematically in Fig. 31 for O2 molecules in the gas phase
correspond to dissociative adsorption, and incorporation
O2;gas 1 2G $ 2Oads 23†
Oads 1 V 00O 1 2e2 $ O2electrolyte 1 G 24†
where G denotes a free adsorption site and V 00O an oxygen
ion vacancy. The catalytic and electrochemical activity of
the metal electrodes is essential for selectivity, sensitivity,
Fig. 31. Three-Phase Boundary (TPB) and possible pathways of
electrochemical reactions (adapted from Ref. [113]).
and short response times. In general, the number of TPBs
should be maximized in the sensor design. Although
electrode kinetics at the TPB are not completely
understood, models have been derived [219] to assist
performance improvement.
Deviations from the standard Nernstian model may be
observed when zirconia sensors are used to monitor
combustion gases:
² The equilibrium oxygen partial pressure at the active
electrode may differ from the real oxygen partial pressure
due to O2 consumption caused by catalytic combustion
processes.
² The active electrode may have a non-Nernstian behavior
depending on its catalytic properties.
The ®rst phenomenon occurs when sampled gases simul-
taneously feature high O2 mole fraction and unburnt species
like CO and UHC (typically, lean burn conditions). For
present oxygen sensor designs, this process enhanced by
temperature becomes quite important for sensor tempera-
tures exceeding <6508C [112]. As zirconia permeability
to oxygen ions (and therefore sensor time response)
improves with temperature, operating sensor temperature
selection becomes a tradeoff between accuracy and time
response. It is generally taken equal to 8008C to minimize
the time response.
Concerning the second phenomenon, it is known that
the electromotive force of zirconia cells can exhibit
strong deviations from the equilibrium values given by
Nernst law (18) if oxygen together with oxidizable
gases are present at the TPB and the working electrode
has suitable properties [220,221]. Under these con-
ditions, electrode potentials much higher than those
predicted by the Nernst law (assuming O2 consumption)
are detected for amounts of CO or H2 (e.g.) in the ppm
range. This behavior is exploited in current developments
of sensors for minor species like CO, NOx, NH3 or CHx in
mixtures containing oxygen.
4.2.1.5. Non-Nernstian electrodes. Non-Nernstian electrode
potentials are obtained in the presence of oxidizable gases
by replacing highly catalytic Pt electrodes with weakly
active electrodes. The material is chosen so that reactions
are greatly in¯uenced by adsorption and desorption
processes [113]. Among other choices, oxides such as
CdO and SnO2 [147] or LaMnO3 [148], and binary Pt
alloys with Au [222] or Rh [114] may be selected for this
purpose. The detailed mechanisms are not completely
understood. Although more profound knowledge might
improve materials selection for sensitivity and durability
enhancement, the process may be simply described as
follows. Consider the monitoring of mole fractions of CO
and O2 in a CO/O2 mixture. In addition to reactions (23) and
(24), the following processes might be considered at the
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150 135

electrode potential. Materials present at the TPB de®ne

the unit sensitivity and selectivity.

4.2.1.6. Mixed potential sensors: CO and NOx sensors.

Fig. 32. Typical mixed potential zirconia sensor design. The refer-
ence electrode is exposed to atmospheric air and the non-Nernstian
electrode to exhaust gases (from Ref. [146]).
TPB (see e.g. Refs. [153,233]:
COgas 1 Oads $ CO2;gas oxidation† 25†
COads 1 O22 00 2 output signals of a potentiometric CO/O2 sensor (an O2
electrolyte $ CO2;ads 1 V O 1 2e
26†
electrochemical oxidation†
On the one hand, a classical Pt electrode exposed to air
only operates as an oxygen electrode and its potential is
®xed under a constant O2 concentration. On the other
hand, at the non-Nernstian electrode, O2 and CO undergo
electrochemical reactions at three-phase contacts between
electrolyte (YSZ), electrode and gas. Reactions (24) and
(26) which correspond to different electrode potentials,
take place simultaneously and form a local cell that deter-
mines a mixed-potential at which the cathodic (forward
(24)) and anodic (forward (26)) reactions proceed at an
equal rate. As shown later (Fig. 33), the electrochemical
oxidation of CO will result in an upward shift of the
Developments of zirconia sensors based on mixed
potential have been reported for CO [78,113,146±
148,233] and NOx [114,152,161,162,224] detection. Most
mixed potential sensors operate in the range 500±6008C
and are designed (Fig. 32) like classical potentiometric
sensors. Inside of a half-open cylindrical ceramic YSZ
tube, a Pt reference electrode is exposed to atmospheric
air whereas the working non-Nernstian electrode is
exposed to the exhaust gases on the outer tube surface.
The geometry is quite simple, but the signal interpretation
is dif®cult. Fig. 33 presents the evolution with time of the
detection Nernst cell is set in parallel to the CO cell)
exposed to a CO/O2/N2 mixture featuring different
compositions. This sequence is used to examine the sensor
response to variable mole fractions of O2 and CO. One notes
the logarithmic behavior of the signals (maximum signal
changes occur for small gas concentrations) and the ability
of the sensor to detect small amounts of CO, but also a clear
in¯uence of XO2 on the CO signal. As a result, the O2
channel signal should also be used to interpret the
measurements. It also has to be mentioned that most of
the CO sensors feature a cross-sensitivity to unburnt
products and particularly H2 [113,147,148,223] which is
more or less important depending on the electrode
material. In combustion control, these products together
with CO will all be interpreted in the same way as

Fig. 33. Output signals of a potentiometric CO/O2 sensor exposed to a CO/O2/N2 mixture. O2 steps (from left to right): 1, 3, 7, 10, 13 and 17%.
CO steps (from left to right for each O2 step): 0, 50, 100, 200, 300 and 400 ppm (from Ref. [78]).
136 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

Therefore, more elaborate designs have been devised to

monitor NOx in exhaust combustion gases.

4.2.1.7. Arrays of electrochemical cells: NOx sensor. In

Fig. 34. Mixed potential NOx sensor (CdMn2O2 oxide electrode).
Dependence of e.m.f on NOx mole fraction in constant oxygen mole
fraction (atmospheric air level). Device at 5008C (from Ref. [224]).
incomplete combustion products and most control strategies
will not be affected by this problem.
The measurement of NOx using solid state gas sensors
poses many challenges. The following reactions have been
proposed to describe the mixed potential at the non-
Nernstian electrode in the presence of NO/O2 and NO2/O2
mixtures [161±163]
( chamber as well as one or several O2 detection cells to
NO 1 O22 ! NO2 1 2e2
NO=O2 mixture : 27†
O2 1 4e2 ! 2O22
( Fig. 36 shows the signal dependence on NOx and O2 mole
NO2 1 2e2 ! NO 1 O22
NO2 =O2 mixture :
2O22 ! O2 1 4e2
The reduction of NO2 according to Eq. (28) or the oxi-
dation of NO according to Eq. (27) respectively result in an
upward and a downward shift of the working electrode
potential as can be seen in Fig. 34 which shows the depen-
dence of the e.m.f. of a mixed potential NOx sensor on NO
and NO2 concentrations. These opposite trends complicate
the interpretation of a mixed potential NOx sensor exposed
to a NO/NO2/O2 mixture even if NO represents more than
90% of NOx emissions in automotive engine exhaust gases.
combustion control and monitoring applications, it is
necessary to detect low concentrations of NOx, typically
less than 100 ppm. Because oxygen strongly in¯uences the
signal measured at a non-Nernstian electrode and due to the
reverse sensitivity to NO and NO2, it is dif®cult to achieve
the task with simple mixed potential sensors. This is
why advanced NOx zirconia sensors include a series of
electrochemical cells.
Fig. 35 shows a typical advanced NOx sensor setup. The
sensor is usually comprised of two cavities connected in
series. Gases diffuse into the primary chamber. There, a
pumping voltage Up of about 400 mV is applied to a classi-
cal zirconia cell and O2 is pumped out of the sampled gas as
already described in Fig. 29. The remaining gas molecules
¯ow to the second chamber connected to the ®rst cavity by a
second diffusion path. There, NOx molecules are detected
either by a potentiometric [114,225] or an amperometric cell
[159,226].
Ideally, only NOx should diffuse to the second chamber.
In practice however, there are a few O2 molecules left
(typically about 1 ppm) and their concentration varies with
XO2 in the exhaust stream. Therefore, the NOx signal still
features a dependency on O2. To circumvent this problem,
another pumping cell may be included in the second
monitor remaining XO2 and accordingly adjust the pumping
voltage(s) [226]. Another technique consists in monitoring
XO2 in the exhaust stream to interpret the NOx signal [225].
fractions for an advanced potentiometric zirconia sensor.
28†
Mechanisms involved in NOx detection for these sensors
still need some clari®cations. However, in Ref. [161], a
catalytic conversion of NO to NO2 is claimed in the ®rst
chamber so that only NO2 is detected in the second chamber.
In other cases [225±227], the reduction of NO2 to NO
together with O2 pumping is claimed in the ®rst chamber
whereas NO is reduced further into N2 and O2 in the second
chamber.
4.2.1.8. Conclusions. Zirconia gas sensors initially
developed to monitor oxygen are also being used to

Fig. 35. Advanced NOx sensor geometry (adapted from [112]).

 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 36. Advanced potentiometric NOx sensor, Pt electrodes, single pumping cell. Sensor exposed to a NO/O2/N2 mixture. Evolution of the NOx
signal with NOx and O2 mole fractions (abscissa in logarithmic scale). Device at 6008C (adapted from Ref. [112]).
measure CO and NOx. Designs have also been proposed for
HC [152,153] H2S [228] and even CO2 [151] monitoring.
Oxygen detection is now a mature technique. Accurate and
fast (up to several Hz) measurements can be performed
under severe conditions. Uncertainties lower than 5% have
been reported over a wide range of O2 mole fractions for
present oxygen sensors [112]. The challenge now concerns
the improvement of minor gas species detection designs in
terms of accuracy, sensitivity, durability, selectivity and
time response. This characteristic time which is at least a
few seconds for present CO and NOx sensors, should be
further reduced to allow combustion control applications.
For present CO and NOx sensors, the detection thresholds
determined with synthetic gases are in the range 10±
50 ppm [112,114,146,162] but seem somewhat higher
under real exhaust gas conditions, from 50 to 100 ppm
[78,113,226]. Under the same conditions, uncertainties
of 10 to 25% are typical for NOx and CO mole
fraction measurements [78,112,160,226] but can easily
be in¯uenced by sensor aging. With respect to reliability,
simple sensor designs should be preferred. Additional work
should be carried out to fully understand the mechanisms
underlying minor species detection that could help improve
present designs.
Combustion control applications based on solid state
gas sensors have mainly concerned automotive engines
(see e.g. Refs. [1,37,41,42,65]) but oxygen probes are
now used for continuous emission monitoring in other
areas [115,229]. While the technology developed for
minor species detection is not completely mature, it
has considerable potential and in the future could ®nd
a wide range of applications from health monitoring to
combustion optimization.
137
4.2.2. Ion current probes
While solid state gas sensors provide useful information
concerning the combustion process, they suffer from major
disadvantages with respect to optical diagnostics:
² Gas sensors are operated downstream of the process. This
induces a time lag between combustion and correspond-
ing probe measurements. This delay affects the control
algorithm stability and design.
² Gas sensors have a slow time response and only provide
global information about the combustion process. As a
result, they cannot be used to monitor transients like
combustion instabilities, knock or mis®re in spark igni-
tion (SI) engines. In this case also, gas sensors cannot
provide cylinder-to-cylinder information.
To address these problems, optical techniques may be
used advantageously. However, optical access is required
together with speci®c optical elements (adapters, ®lters,
detectors). Ion current probes or ionization sensors provide
alternative possibilities. These elements developed for SI
engines since the seventies [230,231] and more actively in
the past few years (see e.g. Refs. [117,232]), are used to
characterize ion currents associated with the ¯ame. This
technique is well suited to SI engines because one may
use the spark plug as the ion current detector. As a result
time-resolved combustion related information may be
obtained at a low cost on a cylinder-to-cylinder basis.
4.2.2.1. Ionic properties of ¯ames. The main source of ions
in ¯ames is provided by chemiionization. This process
occurs during elementary reactions when the energy of the
reactants together with the reaction energy are large enough
138 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 37. Maximum positive ion concentration investigated with a low pressure (33 mm Hg) ¯at-¯ame burner for different fuel/air mixtures as a
function of equivalence ratio (from Ref. [234]).
to ionize one of the products of a chemical reaction
involving neutral species. The following reaction is
considered to be the most important [233]:
CH 1 O ! CHO1 1 e2
Some reactions with electronically excited species like
CH p and Cp2 may also constitute an important source of
ions [234,235]. Due to charge transfer reactions, CHO 1 is
not the dominant ion in hydrocarbon ¯ames. As pointed out
in Ref. [234], CHO 1 is quickly consumed by H2O via:
CHO1 1 H2 O ! CO 1 H3 O1
While there are many other secondary ions formed by
similar reactions, H3 O1 is generally the most abundant.
Finally, the concentration of electrons and ions is limited
by the dissociative recombination reaction:
H3 O1 1 e2 ! H2 O 1 H
Ions are normally localized in a thin slab in the ¯ame.
However, due to competing electron attachment to electro-
negative species such as O and OH, H3O 1 ions can be
present far in the post ¯ame region [118].
In SI engines, due to the high pressures and temperatures
encountered in the cylinder after ignition, thermal ionization
29† may also play an important role [118,232,236]. More infor-
mation about ionic properties of ¯ames may be found in
Refs. [233,237].
Chemical kinetic mechanisms have been proposed to
describe the ionization process. However, since all the
chemical reactions are not completely known, they are
limited to a small range of fuels (see Ref. [235] for
30† methane/air ¯ames). As a result, most of the information
concerning ions in ¯ames originate from empirical studies.
The latter show that ion current can be correlated with par-
ameters of importance in combustion control. Some practi-
cal results will be described in Section 4.2.2.2.
31†
4.2.2.2. Correlations between ion current and operating
parameters. The relation between ion current and ¯ame
parameters is shown in Fig. 37 which shows the strong
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 38. Averaged ion current signal acquired within one of the cylinders of a turbocharged 2.31 production engine operated at 2500 RPM with
Isooctane. (Left) l scan at constant inlet manifold pressure (101,300 Pa). (Right) Load scan at constant l . 08 crank angle corresponds to top
dead center (TDC) (from Ref. [118]).
dependence of fuel type and equivalence ratio on the
maximum positive ions concentration in a laboratory low
pressure burner (from Ref. [234]). The most advanced
applications based on ion current measurements were
carried out in SI engines. The spark plugs installed within
the cylinders are generally used with a small modi®cation of
the ignition circuit. The ion current generated through the
electrode gap during the combustion process is recorded
when the spark is off. Fig. 38 (left) shows the evolution of
the ion current as a function of the crank angle and l ˆ
F 21 : These data corresponding to a production engine
indicate that at a given l , the current features two peaks,
the ®rst peak (about 58 before TDC) being related to
chemiionization and the second one (about 158 after TDC)
to thermal ionization [118]. As l determines the early ¯ame
kernel properties through chemistry, it de®nes the ®rst peak
intensity. The second peak which is related to the
thermodynamical state in the post¯ame region is also
in¯uenced by l which affects this state (Fig. 38, left) but
it clearly rises with engine load (Fig. 38, right). The
in¯uence of operating parameters on the ion current
features is well illustrated in this example. Some practical
applications are now reviewed to demonstrate the potential
of this technique.
4.2.2.3. Practical applications. Several applications of ion
probes using this technique have been successfully
developed for automotive engines, mostly using the spark
plug as an ion current detector early after spark ignition. The
detection circuit is sketched in Fig. 39. In general, it is
dif®cult to directly interpret the ion current signal as it
depends on many parameters, including fuel composition
[118,234] and fuel additives which are likely to perturb
the ionic properties of ¯ames [118]. For these reasons,
most applications have been focused up to now on engine
mis®re detection and knock control [29,39,117]. For knock
control, instead of using accelerometers to sense above-
139
normal vibration levels on the cylinder head [63], the
frequency content of the ion current signal is used to
detect knock occurrence and accordingly adjust the
injection timing on a cylinder-to-cylinder basis [29,39].
Efforts are now being made to adapt ion current sensing
for peak pressure [232,238] and equivalence ratio control
[131,239]. A lean limit control scheme based on ion current
detection has already been demonstrated for a small
displacement engine [29] and the control of the equivalence
ratio of a domestic boiler is reported in Ref. [35].
4.2.2.4. Conclusions. Ion current probes have potential for
combustion control applications. Although this technique
seems particularly well adapted for SI engines (localized
combustion process, spark plug sensing, fast cylinder-to-
cylinder measurements), it could certainly be adapted
to other situations provided studies are carried out to
determine the best ion sensor location. Ion current signals
are generally dif®cult to interpret but they clearly correlate
with parameters such as pressure and equivalence ratio.
Fuel-type correction databases such as the one developed
in Ref. [118] should facilitate signal processing for
advanced ion current based equivalence ratio control
concepts.
4.2.3. Other sensors
This review of sensors will be concluded with a short
description of some other devices which lead or could
lead to interesting developments for combustion control
applications.
4.2.3.1. Resistive temperature detector. Resistive
temperature detectors (RTD) have been developed to
monitor the temperature of automotive engine exhaust
gases. Their sensing element is generally made up of a
140 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150

Fig. 39. Schematic diagram of a dual energy ignition circuit modi®ed for ionization sensing (from Ref. [131]).

thin Pt based ®lm whose resistance increases with
temperature. These probes are derived from the
temperature regulated heater of solid state gas sensors. A
typical design is shown in Fig. 40. The sensing element
thermally decoupled from the sensor body to minimize
conduction, is exposed to the exhaust gas ¯owing in an
open housing, which also acts like a radiation shield.
These RTD sensors are now being used in automotive
engine and catalyst diagnostic and control [37,76,240].
They feature a relatively good mechanical resistance at a
low cost in comparison with conventional thermcouples.
Their sensitivity (voltage drop across the sensing element)
exceeds 1 mV/8C with an accuracy of <1.5% and a time
response of <5 s for DT ˆ 3008C up to 10008C. Other
applications could certainly take bene®t from these
temperature sensors as they are rugged and easy to set up.
4.2.3.2. Micromachined sensors. The improvement and
spreading of micromachining techniques drives the
development of new sensors having a good potential for
combustion control applications. This will be illustrated
with three devices for ¯ow, pressure and viscosity sensing.
4.2.3.2.1. Pressure sensor. The design of a hybrid solid
state/optical micromachined pressure sensor presented in
Ref. [120] is given in Fig. 41. A broad-band (<30 nm
around 1.3 mm) incident light beam (i) is partially
re¯ected at the glass/air interface (1). The transmitted
beam propagates through the air cavity and is re¯ected
back on the diaphragm surface (2) deformed by pressure.
The return light beam (r) contains a series of constructive
and destructive interference fringes which depend on the

Fig. 40. Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD) design (from Ref. [76]).
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 41. Micromachined solid state/optical pressure sensor. Building
blocks are integrated onto a single silicon-chip. Incident light beam
(i), is partially re¯ected at the optical ®ber end (1) and the trans-
mitted beam re¯ects back on the pressure exposed diaphragm (2).
Beams (1) and (2) interfere with each other and produce an inter-
ference pattern in the return light beam (r) which describes the
diaphragm deformation (from Ref. [120]).
deformation. Pressure is recovered from (r) by spectral
analysis using a Mach±Zehnder interferometer integrated
to the sensor body. This device is still under development
but was already successfully tested for in-cylinder pressure
measurements in a direct injection diesel engine. Alternative
pressure sensors using all ®ber optic techniques are also
being developed [241] and could be more robust.
4.2.3.2.2. Flow sensor. Fig. 42 presents the principle of
operation of a micromachined ¯ow velocity sensor
described in Ref. [93]. The sensor operates like a classical
Pitot tube. It measures ¯ow velocity by detecting the
difference between stagnant ¯uid pressure in front of the
sensor and dynamic ¯ow pressure around the sensor. This
pressure difference results in the de¯ection of a suspended
silicon diaphragm, which serves as the counter electrode of
an integrated capacitor directly exposed to the gaseous
stream. Unlike the classical Pitot tube, this pressure sensor
Fig. 42. Micromachined ¯ow velocity sensor. Pressure difference ptot 2 pstat causes a de¯ection of the membrane resulting in a decrease of
capacitance between the electrodes (from Ref. [93]).
141
3
features a large bandwidth (several 10 Hz) and promising
results were obtained during tests carried out in the injection
port of a GDI engine.
4.2.3.2.3. Viscosimetry and Wobbe index. One problem in
the control of the operating point of a gas turbine combustor
is to deal with the large variations in the composition of the
fuel supplied to the combustor (see Table 4). The energy
content of gaseous fuel is frequently characterized by
suppliers in terms of a Wobbe index W0. An interesting
sensor has been devised and presented in Ref. [40] to
determine W0 on line. In this study, one shows that W0 can
be directly related to m , the dynamic viscosity of the
gaseous fuel as shown in Fig. 43. As a result, the device
which is exposed to the fuel upstream of the combustor
measures m using a micropump and a capillary
viscosimeter. The sensor tested in the control loop of a
laboratory scale burner allowed to adjust the injection of a
fuel of variable composition, in order to maintain a constant
equivalence ratio.
5. Conclusions
State observation and performance estimation are central
issues in combustion control. The sensor systems needed in
this context must feature adequate precision and bandwidth,
and at the same time cope with the hostile environment
prevailing in combustion processes. In this respect the
main obstacles to the development of combustion control
are practical aspects related to:
² Sensor integrity
² Immunity to vibration and obscuration for optical devices
² Immunity to poisoning for solid state sensors
² Reliability, durability and lifetime
Considerable ingenuity is needed to deal with these issues
and improve the technology so that it becomes widely
applicable. New ideas and scienti®c advances are also
142 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
Fig. 43. Relation between dynamic viscosity m and Wobbe index W0 for several gaseous fuels and temperatures from 10 to 308C (from
Ref. [40]).
needed to consolidate the current techniques and ®nd new
measurement methods or new ways of interpreting the
signals provided by current sensors. As an example, Ref.
[242] indicates that in the context of spectroscopic diag-
nostics, additional useful information may be recovered
from the signals by means of hybrid neural network analy-
sis. Concerning the reliability and accuracy, optimal control
and optimization algorithms are now being developed for
automotive engines [243] and gas turbines [244] to predict
engine and sensor behavior and improve control per-
formance and sensors reliability. The development of arti-
®cial oxygen sensors based on neural networks models is
also investigated for more accurate automotive engine cold
start control [245].
In addition, future strategy in combustion control will be
speci®c to each machine type (gas turbines, jet engines,
internal combustion engines). Factors which should be
taken into account are size, meantime between failure of
sensors and, in all cases, budgetary constraints. Certainly
one control and sensing will not cater to all needs but
there may be transfer of concepts and technology from
one area to the other. Operating point control is most
advanced in the automotive domain and one expects further
improvement in this area due to competition between manu-
facturers and zero pollutant emission vehicle targets. While
active control is a demonstrated solution in terrestrial gas
turbine applications where it is needed to solve dif®cult
stability problems, the development of OPC and ACC for
jet engines will be more dif®cult because it has to deal with
certi®cation procedures.
Finally, extensive testing in well controlled laboratory
scale experiments reproducing real conditions should be
carried out together with larger scale experiments to bring
sensor technology to maturity.
Acknowledgements
Many ®gures included in this article come from original
contributions. We wish to thank the authors for allowing us
to use their work. This research was initiated in the frame-
work of a European Community Brite Euram project under
the leadership of Rolls-Royce Industrial and Marine Gas
Turbines Limited. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
In the following references, AIAA papers may be
obtained from the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500, Reston,
VA 20191-4344, USA (http://www.aiaa.org). NATO RTO
meeting proceedings may obtained from Research and
Technology Organization, BP 25, 7 Rue Ancelle, 92201
Neuilly-sur-Seine Cedex, France (http://www.dtic.mil/
intst/natorto.htm). SAE papers may be obtained from the
Society of Automotive Engineers, 400 Commonwealth
Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, USA (http://
www.sae.org). The ESCBT conference proceedings may
 N. Docquier, S. Candel / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 28 (2002) 107±150
be obtained from European Committee of Burner Manu-
facturers. Birkenwaldstrasse 163, 70191 Stuttgart-Nord/
Killesberg, Germany.
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