Absolute errors : e Xm- Xreat;

elim= Xmax/Xm-Xmeall

Relative error : 3r=xreat=Freae:Eisat (percentage multiply by now

-

-stream
Reference error : en= eg
The accuracy class : C =
eplin not [.)= sein=as*e'tse

Error propagation in indirect measurements : y

f(xn, ...,xn)
=

1. The absolute error for y : eximy-lil=1xxilmax

2. The relative error :
Sein,y== oemi
The resistance divider :

==He
ro H(w) <n
for a divider
circuit
for voltage
H(w) in
for a circuit for voltage
amplifier

Signal parameters :

Average signal (mean value/ offset) : u(t) Um I =

=

eat
Absolute signal : Uma=ut) =

Fuceslat
Non-linear circuit: the peak amplitude of the output signal is limited

Half-wave rectifier :

u
 -
Input signal: sine wave

Full wave rectifier (RDA) :

Half wave rectifier (RMA) :

/r(t)) Uma=
Full wave rectification : un(t)= I (signal average)
Half wave rectifier :

1.positive alternation (+) : ur(t) x (t) E(u(t)

=
+
= (u(t))) Uma
+
=

+ xt)
=

2.negative alternation (-) : ur(t) e =

-
(t) (u(t) (u)t))) -> Uma
= -

-- t

Effective value : Veg

(Root mean square)
rat-
=

Peak factor : Kr =
The slope factor : Ks a
=

PldB) :Preg
Dolg
=
nw
=

P(dBru) nolgg;Preg=amw
=

U(dB) 20 =

egreg :Uref nV =

Uldom) 2olgreg;Ureg 0,775V

= =

i(dB) egireg;Treg
20
=
nA
=

i(dBm) zolgreg:iref
=
0,775 A
=
 we
just
cosat-
Low pass filter (LPF) :

2R Ri. XR R+jx
=
=

·
↳ vo z jut
=

X1 wL =

zc jc
= Xc
=
=

WinnettinAMPLINDE (a jb) 0*b2

+
=

-
=Noeto arg[a+jb}= arty a

= zz) EnnisHews/.et3H)

Hullname-
DEPHASE
arg[n) -arg[n1jwRch--artge e

IH(wil in -

aural"
IH(w)/dB 200g Ein 2olg Uo-zolg Uin=VodB-VindB
= =

/H(wildB colg mwrc:

=
=

colgn-zolg
wRC2 o-nolg (n +wRc)
=

=> n (w)
2
n (H(wildB 0 (H(w))max
=

if wR(n +
= = =

·
wRc n =

=)/H(wildB = -

·
wic n n +
(wix) (wR)
= -/H(w)/dB =-zolg(wRe
 /HewildBmax 0 =>
=

(H(w)) n =
Uo=
=

UinThis case is for a filter not an amplifier

3 -
time constant

we=I (cutoff angular frequency

I=c(cutoff frequency): the modules
of the transfer function
decreases with 3dB with respect
to its max
value

decade-the interval between times its

the
frequency and no value

no rad/e => (H(wildB

w
-zolg(wme) =-2plgw- zolg(R) 40-20bg(RC)
=
= =-

w no rad/s=> (Hino/dB
=
=-
60-20lg(RC)

octare the interval between its

frequency and twice value
-

(H(w) /dB
0
a

·stee >w
 High pass filter (HPF) :

·are tent
= Hw

IH(wil- e
arg[H(w1] E-arctg(wRC)
=

/H(w)/-zolg(wRc-noeg [n+(uRa] 20lg(we) -nolg [n +(we)2]

=

wi n (H(wildB
colg(we) -noegn 20eg(wz)
=

if
=
=

wi n =
)(H(wi) 3wt cift zr
=
= =
- =

we n (H(wildB colg(wi)-zoeg(w)
= 0
=

NH(wildB
/ Hiw/max-wax

is in
 Impedance measurements

Serial :z R+ =

jX

-
Algebraic form
I Parallel :y
=
E G
=

jB
+

(y)ejey
=

Impedance

↳
Exponential (polar) form z
·

12).e642;12) 0x2;
=
=
Tz=arctan

between
combinations RaudX ->
Dissipative
reactors

↳ SERIES RS j.Xs

↳
-ES-E

↳ Derivation--
E-
I
- -

Hulettemedium
paper

Quality factor: a
=

shows how much the reactive

relation
caracter dominates in
with the resistive
are

ve assoseethe
seriesdissipatireactor
For

Equivalent
(n+
reactors

Y Ys =

*j jxsRp =Rs - =

Rp Rs(n xY (p Ls(n E)
=
= + +

Xp Xs(n E2)(p cs(n E)

=
+ =
+
 PARTICULAR CASE

&> z)
E Pp=Rsa"(Reductance
Xp = Xs
the same)
is

an
[P(Resistance is the same
t

Los D =
factor

angle o-arctar*
Loss arctauD
=

Wheatstone bridge

-4 resistive branches
-1 charging diagonal (with voltage source E) [3]
-1 detection diagonal

Ud+desequilibrium voltage
S
LRg
-

4R*u
[n]

Rg -sauce resistance;neglijable(+ru)

Equilibrium condition:Ud=Unz =

Un
=>
=
Wan
I
the the
S =
A)2 of the mattwater
position change
dose not

equilibrium condition, no matter on which

diagonal
Rx =
it
isplaced

A B=
=
 Alternative current bridges

A. Ratio bridge

yazn
=

.
Product bridge

2x

&yx3
=

= 23-En-z3.Y2
zizas
branches
En, zs auxiliary

Types of points- product X realary 3 ispee a

Iatio/reae
-imaginary re
 B. Serial bridge

RX XA
- 2x Rx
= +

jXx

Derivation bridge

L- yx
-

Gx
=

-
-

-x)
Saity bridge
equilibrium condition:2x= . Em RATOBRIDGE

mor**
Rn2n R22x
=

serial real
2) ratio
bridge
I Y
T =
3 theyhadtheof the
Rx

x .e
=

frequency
bridge for capacitors measurement

e
Parallel Real RatioBridge

* Rn 2r R2. 2x=

Rx =
Qx x
=
wRx ax
=

x
=

For parallel Qp=

p
 Maxwell bridge BRANCH WITH

ex
UNKNELEMENTS

Auxicitis serial real product

bridge

by
D
Rx s
=

AUXILIAR
BRANCH
↳x Rn
=

Qx ve
=

REFERENCE
BRANCH