Journal of Manufacturing Processes 46 (2019) 337–344

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

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Microstructure and mechanical properties of wire and arc additive T

manufactured Ti-6Al-4V and AlSi5 dissimilar alloys using cold metal
transfer welding
⁎
Yinbao Tiana,b, Junqi Shena,b, , Shengsun Hua,b, Zhijiang Wanga,b, Jian Goua,b
a
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Advanced Joining Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300354, China
b
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300354, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ti-6Al-4V and AlSi5 wires were used for wire and arc additive manufacturing using the direct current cold metal
Wire and arc additive manufacturing transfer welding. Ti alloy was deposited first, and then Al alloy was deposited on the Ti layer. A small amount of
Cold metal transfer Ti alloy was melted when the first layer of Al alloy was deposited due to the low heat input. A component
Dissimilar alloys composed of Ti/Al dissimilar alloys can be produced. The interface layer between the Ti and Al alloys included a
Microstructure
continuous layer and a discontinuous layer. The continuous layer was composed of Ti7Al5Si12, and the dis-
Mechanical property
continuous layer consisted of Ti(Al1-xSix)3. Element Si was rich in the continuous layer. The hardness and
modulus of the interface layer were between those of Al and Ti alloys. The average tensile strength of the
component was 79 MPa. The fracture located at the interface layer.

1. Introduction
Due to the characteristics of light weight and low cost, the com-
ponent of Ti/Al dissimilar alloys has extensive application prospects,
including the aerospace, aviation, automobile and transport industries.
The joining of Ti and Al alloys has a significant challenge because of the
large differences of these two materials in chemical and physical
properties [1]. A large number of brittle intermetallic compounds are
formed in the Ti/Al interface layer, which sharply decreases the me-
chanical properties of component [2]. To obtain the satisfactory com-
ponent of Ti/Al dissimilar alloys, it is necessary to decrease the thick-
ness of brittle intermetallic compounds, which can be realized by using
the welding technology with low heat input. The cold metal transfer
(CMT) welding characterized by low heat input and no spatter, which is
invented by Fronius company, differs from the traditional metal inert
gas (MIG) welding [3–5]. The CMT technique has been used to join
dissimilar alloys due to the aforementioned characteristics [6–8]. Al
alloy and galvanized mild steel can be joined using the CMT welding
[9]. A Ti/Cu welded joint was obtained using the copper wire as the
filler metal via the CMT welding [10]. Ti and Al alloys were successfully
joined by CMT welding [11,12].
The wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) technology is
famous for the capability of fabricating complex and large-scale com-
ponents with high deposition rate and low costs of material and
equipment [13]. For WAAM, the heat source is the arc, and the feed
metal is the filler wire. The metallic components are built layer by layer
according to the computer aided design model during the WAAM pro-
cess. The advantage of WAAM is that the material utilization efficiency
is near 100% of the wire material deposited into the component [14].
Steels [15], Al alloys [16], Ti alloys [17,18] and Ni alloys [19] have
been successfully fabricated by using WAAM technology. Besides, there
have been some attempts to fabricate components by using WAAM
based on CMT technique [20–24]. The pores were formed with different
inner morphologies because of the distinct microstructures and solidi-
fication processes during CMT-WAAM process of Al alloys [25]. Qi et al.
[26] developed a double WAAM system to add magnesium into Al-Cu
deposits for higher mechanical properties by the CMT welding. Re-
cently, the WAAM for dissimilar alloys is one of the hot topics. WAAM
components of dissimilar alloys are generally used for products with
special requirements, such as light-weight materials. Components made
of stainless steel and nickel-based dissimilar alloys have been obtained
successfully using WAAM technology [27].
Ti-6Al-4V is widely used in various fields due to the characteristics
of high strength with low density and excellent corrosion resistance.
AlSi5 has the advantages of light weight, high strength-to-weight ratio,
and low cost. The components of Ti-6Al-4V/AlSi5 dissimilar alloys
fabricated by CMT-WAAM technology can be used for the structures
with less bearing capacity, which will lead to the cost savings and fuel

⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300354, China.
E-mail address: shenjunqi@tju.edu.cn (J. Shen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.09.006
Received 13 December 2018; Received in revised form 2 May 2019; Accepted 3 September 2019
Available online 27 September 2019
1526-6125/ © 2019 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Tian, et al.
Table 1
Chemical compositions of the substrate and filler materials (wt. %).
Material Al Ti Cu Si
Ti-6Al-4 V Substrate 6.17 Bal. – –
Ti-6Al-4 V Wire 6.01 Bal. – –
ER4043 Bal. 0.14 0.029 4.9
consumption reduction due to the light-weight advantage. In the pre-
sent work, the component of Ti-6Al-4V and AlSi5 dissimilar alloys will
be fabricated using WAAM technology via the CMT welding. Since the
interface layer as a weak area exists in the component of Ti/Al dis-
similar alloys, the microstructure of interface layer and its effect on the
mechanical properties of the component will be discussed in detail.
2. Experimental procedure
A Ti-6Al-4V plate with a dimension of 200 mm × 50 mm × 4 mm
was used as the substrate. The Al and Ti filler materials were ER4043
and Ti-6Al-4V, respectively. The diameter of filler materials was
1.2 mm. The chemical compositions of the substrate and filler materials
are shown in Table 1. In this study, the experimental platform for
WAAM process was similar to that reported by Zhang et al. [14].
A Fronius CMT advanced 4000R welding system was used during
the WAAM process. The wire feed speed (WFS) was controlled by a
remote control unit. The substrate was sanded before depositing. Ti
alloy was deposited on the substrate for 15 layers. Then, 25 layers of Al
alloy were deposited on the previous Ti alloy layer. During WAAM
process, the time interval of adjacent layers was 2 min. Direct current
CMT was employed when depositing Ti and Al alloys. The processing
parameters are shown in Table 2. The travel speed was kept at 0.3 m/
min by using a 6-axis robot (MOTOMAN HP6) during the deposition
process.
A schematic of the component fabricated by WAAM is shown in
Fig. 1(a). As shown in Fig. 1(a), the metallographic samples included Ti
alloy, Al alloy and the interface layer with the dimension of
20 mm × 5 mm × 10 mm were cut and polished. The standard Keller
solution was used to etch the metallurgical samples for ∼1 min. The
microstructure of component was observed via an optical microscope, a
scanning electron microscope (SEM) and a transmission electron mi-
croscopy (TEM). The observed surfaces of the metallographic samples
were perpendicular to the X axis. The element compositions were
analyzed by an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The load-dis-
placement curves and the modulus were obtained via a nano-indenter
with a Berkovich diamond indenter. A Vickers hardness tester was used
to measure hardness values. 11 points near the interface layer were
measured, and the interval between adjacent points was 0.2 mm. The
dwell load was 200 g and the duration was 15 s. Fig. 1(b) shows the
dimension of the tensile sample. Tensile tests were conducted by an
electro-mechanical universal testing machine at room temperature with
a constant displacement rate of 0.5 mm/min. Three specimens were
used for tensile test.
Table 2
Processing parameters.
Ti wire Al wire WFS of Ti alloy WFS of Al alloy Argon gas flow
(m/min) (m/min) rate
(L/min)
Ti-6Al-4V ER4043 7.2 4 20
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 46 (2019) 337–344
Mg Mn Fe Zn Zr V C N H O
– – 0.13 – – 3.93 0.01 0.005 0.004 0.088
– – 0.15 – – 3.96 0.012 0.016 0.02 0.17
0.007 0.01 0.12 0.01 0.01 – – – – –
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Component appearance
As shown in Fig. 2, a component of Ti/Al dissimilar alloys, which is
similar to a high wall with Ti and Al alloys, can be fabricated via CMT-
WAAM process. The length, height and thickness of component were
∼150 mm, 130 mm and 6 mm, respectively. The Al side of the com-
ponent was flat and smooth with metallic luster. No obvious defects
were found on the component surface. The Ti side of component was
not flat with dark grey. Grooves between the layers were formed be-
tween adjacent Ti layers. Szost et al. reported that the low thermal
conductivity of Ti alloy led to the uneven temperature field and the
formation of grooves [18]. It can be found that the slightly bending
deformation of substrate occurred due to the unevenly distributed
stresses [28].
3.2. Microstructure characteristics of interface layer
Fig. 3 shows the cross-sectional microstructure of the component,
which can be divided into 3 areas: Al alloy area (area A), interface layer
between Al and Ti alloys (area B), and Ti alloy area (area C). Fig. 3(a)
shows the morphology of component. The interface between Ti and Al
alloys was easy to recognize. The porosity occurred in area A. The
average diameter of the pores with circular shape was ∼70 μm. Most
pores at Al alloy side were the undissolved hydrogen, which is attrib-
uted to the large difference in solubility between the liquid and solid
phases [29]. As shown in Fig. 3(b), the microstructure of Al alloy side
consisted of α-Al, Al-Si eutectic and a small amount of long strips. Ac-
cording to the EDS result of point 1, as shown in Table 3, the long strip
was TiAl3. Chen et al. reported that Al atom could be replaced by Si
atom due to the similar atomic radii in TiAl3 lattice structures [30]. The
Si content is 6.81 at. % for point 1. Therefore, the long strips can be
identified as Ti(Al1-xSix)3. At Al side, the amount of Ti(Al1-xSix)3 re-
duced with the increase in the distance from the interface layer.
Fig. 3(b) presented Ti(Al1-xSix)3 phase with discontinuous long strip.
The liquid Al alloy impacted the strips during the flow process, which
caused some strips to break and form the Ti(Al1-xSix)3 phases with
different length. As shown in Fig. 3(c), the strip and block shape in-
termetallic compounds were formed in the interface layer. Fig. 3(d)
shows the basket-wave structure of deposited Ti alloy.
As shown in Fig. 4(a), the interface layer between Ti and Al alloys
was composed of the discontinuous layer and continuous layer with
different morphologies. The discontinuous layer with serrate shape or
block shape was formed near the Al side. According to the EDS result of
point 2, the discontinuous layer was Ti(Al1-xSix)3. The continuous layer
closed to the Ti alloy presented the line shape with brightness. Ac-
cording to the EDS result of point 3, the continuous layer was
Ti7Al5Si12. As shown in Fig. 4(b), the results of EDS line scanning in-
dicated that the interface layer mainly consisted of elements Al, Ti, Si,
and a little content of element V. The Si content was ∼7 at. % in the
discontinuous layer, and significantly increased to ∼50 at. % in the
continuous layer. Si element was rich in the continuous layer. The
dissolution of Ti alloy in liquid filler decreased the Si chemical poten-
tial, which led to the gathering phenomenon of element Si at the con-
tinuous layer with high concentration of Ti [31].
According to Fig. 4, the width of discontinuous layer and continuous
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Fig. 1. A schematic of (a) the sampling positions and (b) dimension of tensile sample (unit: mm).

Table 3
EDS results of the selected points (at. %).
Point Ti Al V Si Possible phase

P1 25.39 66.58 1.22 6.81 Ti(Al1-xSix)3

P2 25.55 64.20 0.83 9.42 Ti(Al1-xSix)3
P3 28.46 15.85 1.86 53.83 Ti7Al5Si12
P4 – 99.3 – 0.7 Al
P5 25.69 67.05 1.21 6.05 Ti(Al1-xSix)3
P6 35.88 11.34 1.02 51.76 Ti7Al5Si12
P7 81.94 10.32 7.74 – Ti
P8 21.14 70.39 0.96 7.51 Ti(Al1-xSix)3

The thickness of interface reaction layer can be calculated by the fol-

lowing equation [33].
Q
X = k 0t n exp(− )
Fig. 2. A component of Ti/Al dissimilar alloys. RT (1)

where X is the average thickness of interface reaction layer; k0 is the

layer were ∼6 μm and 2 μm, respectively, which was thinner than the
width of interface layer (20–40 μm) in the electron beam welded joints
[32], due to the relatively low heat input of CMT welding was. Inter-
metallic compounds grew vertically in the direction of Ti alloy surface.
rate constant; t is the reaction time; n is the kinetic exponent and n is
reckoned as 0.49; Q is the diffusion activation energy; R is the molar gas
constant; T is the reaction temperature. It can be seen that the thickness
of reaction layer is determined by reaction time and reaction tem-
perature.

Fig. 3. Component microstructure of the rectangle in Fig. 2: (a) the cross-sectional morphology of component and (b)-(d) SEM of A–C indicated using rectangles in
Fig. 3(a).

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Fig. 4. SEM-EDS analysis results of interface layer: (a) SEM image of the rectangle in Fig. 3(c), and (b) EDS line scan along line a–b in Fig. 4(a).
Fig. 5 shows the TEM micrographs of parts near the interface layer.
After verification, Al alloy was dominant in area I. Ti(Al1-xSix)3, which
was found in discontinuous layer, was formed in Area II. Area III was
composed of Ti7Al5Si12, which was found in continuous layer. TEM
results of areas II and III were consistent with the results of EDS shown
in Table 3. Area IV was confirmed as having Ti alloy. The results of TEM
of area I-IV were consistent with those of EDS of points 4–7, respec-
tively.
3.3. Formation mechanism of interface layer
The formation mechanism of interface layer in the component can
be described as follows. As shown in Fig. 6(a), due to the low heat
input, Ti alloy is melted slightly under the action of arc according to the
formation of thin interface layer in Fig. 4. Si atoms from Al alloy diffuse
toward Ti alloy during the deposition process, which led to the rich of
element Si in the interface layer. Ti atom can decrease the Si chemical
potential [31]. Atoms easily diffuse to the position where the chemical
potential is low. Si atoms prefer to diffuse to the area with low Si and
high Ti molar fraction. Chen et al. reported that the Si chemical po-
tential is far higher in liquid Al than that in liquid Ti, which indicates
that the Si atoms diffuse strongly to liquid Ti from liquid Al due to the
drive of chemical potential gradient [31]. In the interface layer, the Ti
content is very high due to the molten Ti alloy. During solidification
process, Si atoms move to the area with high Ti concentration. There-
fore, it is especially obvious that element Si enriches in the continuous
layer.
As shown in Fig. 6(b), the continuous layer with Ti7Al5Si12 phase is
formed due to the Si gathering phenomena near Ti alloy. For the con-
tinuous reaction layer, Ti7Al5Si12 is the heterogeneous nucleation due
to the existence of Ti alloy surface, which presents slice shape or par-
ticles shape. Under the condition of high temperature, the Ti7Al5Si12
phase begins to grow along the direction perpendicular to the interface.
Ti atoms are consumed with the formation of Ti7Al5Si12, which leads to
a decrease in the Ti content in liquid Al.
Ti atom continues to move toward the liquid Al alloy via the dif-
fusion. The intermetallic Ti(Al1-xSix)3 is formed near discontinuous
layer in Fig. 6(c). Ti(Al1-xSix)3 is more easily generated under the
condition of low concentration of Ti. The diffusion ability of Ti to Al
side is much higher than that of Al to Ti side [34]. The chemical re-
action occurs due to the encounter of Ti and Al atoms, which leads to
the formation of TiAl3. Si atom can replace the lattice positions of Al
atom in TiAl3 to form Ti(Al1-xSix)3 phase as the substitutional solid
solution of TiAl3 phase during the interface reaction process. The Gibbs
energy change per mol atoms for formation reactions of Ti7Al5Si12 was
lower than that of TiAl3, which means that the formation of Ti7Al5Si12
was preferred than that of TiAl3 [30].
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 46 (2019) 337–344
As shown in Fig. 6(d), the long strips of Ti(Al1-xSix)3 phase are
formed in Al alloy side. With the increase in the distance from the Ti
alloy, the Ti content decreases, which reduces the formation of Ti(Al1-
xSix)3.
3.4. Formation of crack
As shown in Fig. 7, a crack was found in the interface layer of
component. The fracture strength of Ti alloy was higher than that of Al
alloy. The crack preferred to propagate toward Al alloy. The length of
crack was ∼40 μm. The reason for the crack formation can be con-
cluded as follows: Ti atoms diffused toward the liquid Al alloy, which
formed the brittle Ti(Al1-xSix)3 intermetallic compounds. The formation
rate of Ti(Al1-xSix)3 was higher than that of consumption for Ti atoms
[34]. The strong internal stress occurred, which led to the crack for-
mation [35]. Besides, the thermal conductivities of Ti and Al were
21.6 W·m−1·K−1 and 238 W·m−1·K−1, respectively; and the thermal
expansion coefficients of Ti and Al were 8.9 × 10–6 K−1 and
23.5 × 10–6 K−1, respectively [36]. The coefficient of thermal expan-
sion and thermal conductivity between Ti and Al alloys were sig-
nificantly different, which led to the residual stress due to the serious
difference in shrinkage degree along the deposition direction. The re-
sidual stress played a negative role in preventing crack initiation and
propagation [37]. Ti(Al1-xSix)3 had the characteristic of brittleness. The
crack was inclined to initiate and to propagate along the interface layer
under the effect of residual stress. The crack restricted the service life
and application of components. Therefore, the restraining formation of
Ti(Al1-xSix)3 during WAAM process for Ti/Al dissimilar alloys still need
to be further researched.
3.5. Mechanical properties
The micro-mechanical properties of Al alloy, interface layer (dis-
continuous layer) and Ti alloy were assessed via the nano-indentation
test. As shown in Fig. 8, the peak loads of Al alloy, interface layer and Ti
alloy were 64 mN, 183 mN, and 447 mN, respectively. This result in-
dicates that the plastic deformation resistance of interface layer is
higher than that of Al alloy, but lower than that of Ti alloy. Meanwhile,
according to Fig. 9, the modulus of Al alloy, interface layer and Ti alloy
were 80 MPa, 112 MPa and 156 MPa, respectively. The results of the
load-displacement curves and modulus indicated that the hard brittle
intermetallic compounds had been formed in the interface layer of the
component. The TiAl3 with a tetragonal D022 structure phase was
characterized by extreme brittleness and hardness [35,38].
Fig. 10 shows that the microhardness distribution near the interface
layer is uneven. The average hardness of Al alloys, interface layer and
Ti alloy were ∼55 HV, 195 HV and 340 HV, respectively. The
Y. Tian, et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 46 (2019) 337–344

Fig. 5. TEM analysis of part near interface layer: (a) TEM image of Al alloy; (b) electron diffraction pattern of area I; (c) TEM image of discontinuous layer; (d)
electron diffraction pattern of area II; (e) TEM image of continuous layer; (f) electron diffraction pattern of area III; (g) TEM image of Ti alloy; and (h) electron
diffraction pattern of area IV.

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Fig. 6. A schematic of the formation for interface layer.

Fig. 7. Crack in the interface layer. Fig. 9. Modulus of different areas of the component.

Fig. 10. Hardness distribution near the interface layer.

Fig. 8. Nano-indentation load-displacement curves of the component.

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Fig. 11. SEM morphology of fractures from Al side: (a) fracture, (b) magnified micrographs of rectangular area from Fig. 11(a).
microhardness of Ti alloy remained nearly constant. The hardness of Al
alloy slightly increased near the interface layer. In Al alloy near the
interface layer, a certain amount of Ti(Al1-xSix)3 was formed. The
quantity of Ti(Al1-xSix)3 increased with the decrease in distance from
interface layer, which led to an increase in hardness in Al alloy side.
The hardness in interface layer was between that of Ti and Al alloys due
to the formation of Ti(Al1-xSix)3. The result of hardness was in agree-
ment with those of load-displacement curves and modulus. Complex
interfacial reaction layers were formed, which resulted in changes in
mechanical properties (i.e. microhardness, load-displacement curves
and modulus).
The maximum and average tensile strength of the component were
83 MPa and 79 MPa, respectively. The maximum and average the
elongation of the component were 8% and 6%, respectively. The frac-
ture located at the interface layer, and no apparent necking was ob-
served. The SEM morphology of fracture surfaces of Al side is shown in
Fig. 11. The step-like cleavages can be found in Fig. 11(a). At the
fracture surface, many micro tear ridges occurred. The surface of
fracture was flat and straight as shown in Fig. 11(b). It indicates that it
was a typical brittle fracture characteristic, and the sample failed in a
brittle fracture mode. According to the EDS result of point 8, the frac-
ture located in the layer of Ti(Al1-xSix)3, which belonged to the area B
as shown in Fig. 3(a). The intermetallic compounds exhibited a strong
tendency to strain localization, which resulted in the brittle fracture
[39]. Ti-Al intermetallic compounds had the high brittleness due to
insufficient slip systems, which resulted in the crack initiation and
propagation [40]. Cracks appeared in the component and then propa-
gated along the interface layer during the tensile test [41]. Therefore,
the Ti(Al1-xSix)3 phase is a source for internal microcracks initializing.
The fracture initiated from the micro cracks and propagated along the
interface layer, which led to fracturing in the interface layer and the
reduced tensile strength of the component. To enhance the tensile
strength, it is necessary to control the thickness of interface layer and
reduce the formation of crack.
4. Conclusions
In this study, the Ti-6Al-4V and AlSi5 wires were used for WAAM
process via the direct current CMT welding. The study focused on the
microstructure of interface layer and the mechanical properties of
fabricated component. Conclusions from the study are drawn as fol-
lows:
(1) Via WAAM based on CMT welding, a component of Ti/Al dissimilar
alloys can be achieved using Ti-6Al-4V and AlSi5 wires. Little
amount of deposited Ti alloy was melted when the first Al layer was
deposited on the Ti layer using direct current CMT welding.
(2) The interface layer of the component was composed of continuous
layer and discontinuous layer. The continuous and discontinuous
layers were composed of Ti7Al5Si12 and Ti(Al1-xSix)3, respectively.
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 46 (2019) 337–344
Element Si enriched in the continuous layer.
(3) The crack was found in the interface layer. It initiated at interface
layer and propagated to Al side under the residual stress due to the
difference in shrinkage for Al and Ti alloys.
(4) The peak loads for the nano-indentation and hardness values of
interface layer were between those of Al and Ti alloys. The max-
imum tensile strength of the component was 83 MPa with the brittle
fracture mode in the interface layer.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the research funding by
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51575381)
and Tianjin Research Program of Application Foundation and Advanced
Technology (Grant No. 15JCZDJC38600). This work was supported by
the China Scholarship Council (No. 201706255090 and No.
201806250043).
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