Materials Science & Engineering A 760 (2019) 339–345

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Science & Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Evaluation of the mechanical and wear properties of titanium produced by T

three different additive manufacturing methods for biomedical application
H. Attara,*, M.J. Berminghama, S. Ehtemam-Haghighia,b, A. Dehghan-Manshadia, D. Kenta,b,
M.S. Darguscha
a
Queensland Centre for Advanced Materials Processing and Manufacturing, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane,
Queensland, 4072, Australia
b
School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, QLD, 4558, Australia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Commercially pure titanium, as a widely used metallic biomaterial, was fabricated using dissimilar additive
Additive manufacturing manufacturing (AM) methods, namely selective laser melting (SLM), laser engineered net shaping (LENS) and
Titanium wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Microstructures as well as mechanical and wear properties of the
Mechanical properties produced titanium samples were studied. Diverse microstructural features were related to the different linear
Wear resistance
energy densities and cooling rates induced by each AM method. Tensile testing evaluation indicated the highest
Microstructure
yield and ultimate tensile strengths as well as elastic energy for titanium produced by SLM. However, the
maximum ductility was obtained in the WAAM-fabricated titanium due to its larger grain size and slightly higher
densification. All the mechanical properties obtained were either superior or comparable to those of cast and
powder metallurgy produced titanium. Fracture surface analysis showed the presence of mainly coarse and fine
dimples for WAAM and SLM-produced samples, respectively. This was consistent with the grain size of each
sample. Wear performances and mechanisms were also examined and the results were in agreement with the
values obtained from the hardness to elastic modulus ratios (H/E and H3/E2).

1. Introduction various additive manufacturing (AM) methods as outlined in ISO/ASTM

Ti and Ti alloys are widely used for various areas including bio-
medical applications due to their outstanding biocompatibility, corro-
sion resistance and mechanical properties [1–3]. Over the past years, a
large number of Ti alloys, especially alloys from the β group, have been
developed for biomedical applications [4,5]. Although β-Ti alloys are
increasingly being developed for orthopedic applications, they gen-
erally contain alloying elements with densities and melting tempera-
tures higher than commercially pure Ti (CP–Ti). This may increase the
density of the alloy, introducing additional processing complexities and
increase the final cost of the product [6,7]. Therefore, biomedical im-
plants fabricated from CP-Ti are still of interest, despite their relatively
lower mechanical properties compared to Ti alloys.
Ti-based materials are generally fabricated by conventional tech-
niques such as casting [8] and powder metallurgy [9]. Over recent
years, additive manufacturing has been also applied increasingly for the
fabrication of Ti materials due to its advantages over conventional
manufacturing methods. These advantages mainly include the ability to
produce near net shapes and lower production times [10–15]. There are
52900. The metal AM methods have been described elsewhere and they
have generally substantial similarities [16]. However, some of them
differ in important aspects such as the material feeding system and/or
power source configuration which influence melting, solidification and,
consequently, microstructures as well as resulting performances, in-
cluding mechanical and wear properties. It is important that AM-pro-
duced parts show properties at least comparable or even better to those
fabricated by traditional techniques to fulfill the standards required for
biomedical orthopedic applications.
Although AM of Ti materials has been progressively studied, far less
attention has been paid to comparative studies for a given Ti material.
Over the past years, a number of comparative studies have been con-
ducted on Ti–6Al–4V alloy produced by different AM and conventional
manufacturing methods [17,18], however, AM methods applied in the
aforementioned studies have the same material feeding systems and
nearly similar power source configurations. To our best knowledge,
limited attention has been devoted to study the influence of dissimilar
AM technologies on the important properties of CP-Ti. Therefore, this
work aims to study the processing conditions as well as the

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hooyar.attar@gmail.com, h.attar@uq.edu.au (H. Attar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.06.024
Received 2 November 2018; Received in revised form 9 May 2019; Accepted 7 June 2019
Available online 08 June 2019
0921-5093/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Attar, et al.
microstructures, mechanical and wear properties of CP-Ti produced by
different AM methods (including Powder Bed Fusion and Direct Energy
Deposition specified by ASTM 52900), namely selective laser melting
(SLM), laser engineered net shaping (LENS) and wire arc additive
manufacturing (WAAM). These AM methods utilize different feedstock
material and feeding systems specifically powder-bed, blown-powder
and wire-feeding, respectively, and different heat-input methods, em-
ploying laser melting for SLM and LENS, and an electric arc for WAAM.
This will lead to varied interactions between the power sources and
starting materials as well as different scan speeds, energy densities, melt
pool sizes, heating/cooling rates and consequently process-micro-
structure-properties relationships. This study will use linear energy
density as one of the key factors that can be used to compare the dif-
ferent AM processes. The main focus of the paper is to provide a
technical framework which can guide researchers and practitioners in
the AM and biomedical implant engineering communities to select the
most desirable manufacturing method according to their requirements
and resources.
2. Experimental
Commercially pure titanium (CP–Ti) in the forms of both powder
and wire was used in this study. The powder and wire feedstock com-
plied with the composition of CP-Ti (ASTM Grade 1). The feedstock
materials were supplied by Advanced Powders and Coatings Company
and Baoji Xinnuo Net Metal Materials Company, respectively. The
chemical composition of both powder and wire feedstock are listed in
Table 1. To fabricate the titanium samples, SLM Solution 250HL and
Optomec LENS™ 450 machines, and a WAAM deposition device with
the processing details explained previously [19] were used. The AM
processing parameters used to obtain the highest possible densifications
are listed in Table 2. Although not the focus of the present study, the
deposition parameters in Table 2 were determined from pilot studies to
identify suitable processing parameters required to produce titanium
samples with at least 99.5% densification measured by Archimedes
method. Deposited samples were then cut and metallographic speci-
mens were prepared through standard procedures and they were also
etched using a solution consisting of 10% HF, 5% HNO3, and 85%
distilled water (all in volume fractions). They were then examined using
a Polyvar Met optical microscope for microstructural characterizations.
To evaluate the mechanical properties, tensile and microhardness
tests were conducted. Tensile specimens with same geometry and di-
mensions (4 mm diameter and 20 mm gauge length as per ASTM E8M)
were prepared by machining from the AM-produced bulk samples.
Tensile testing was performed on the prepared round titanium speci-
mens using an Instron machine with a crosshead speed of 0.001 mm/s.
The Instron machine was equipped with extensometer for strain mea-
surement. Young's modulus, yield and ultimate strengths and de-
formation strain (ductility) of the tested specimens were measured from
the stress–strain curves. Tensile tests were performed at least three
times for each group. Vickers microhardness measurements were car-
ried out on the polished surface of the titanium samples using a Struers
Duramin hardness tester with a load of 50 g and 15 s dwell time. The
average microhardness values were obtained from at least 10 mea-
surements for each sample. To evaluate the wear performance, a pin-
on-disk device was used and the cylindrical titanium samples were
abraded against a hardened steel disk under 30 N load, with 0.54 m/s
sliding speed, and 250 m sliding distance. Wear resistance of the
Table 1
Chemical compositions of the starting CP-Ti powder and wire feedstock used in the current work (wt.%).
Material type Supplier
CP-Ti powder used for SLM and LENS Advanced Powders and Coatings (AP&C)
CP-Ti wire used for WAAM Baoji Xinnuo Net Metal Materials
340
Materials Science & Engineering A 760 (2019) 339–345
titanium samples was assessed based on the weight loss method by
measuring the weight of the samples before and after the wear test
using an accurate microbalance. Additionally, a Hitachi (TM3030)
scanning electron microscope (SEM) was applied to study the worn
surfaces as well as the fracture surface of the specimens after tensile
testing.
3. Results and discussion
Fig. 1 shows the microstructures of the AM-produced titanium
samples. The microstructure of the SLM-produced titanium reveals the
martensitic phase (α′) with lath-type and acicular morphologies. In
contrast, titanium fabricated using LENS and WAAM show a structure
dominated by the α phase structure with various morphologies. The
LENS-produced titanium displays mainly plate-like α, with serrated and
acicular α in some regions. Similarly, WAAM-produced titanium exhibit
mainly serrated α with limited amounts of acicular α in some areas. It is
also noted that SLM-produced titanium shows the finest grain size
(1.8 μm), while WAAM-fabricated titanium demonstrates the largest
grain size (11.9 μm) as presented in Table 2. Diverse microstructural
features can be explained through interrelated varied energy densities
and cooling rates. It is known that the scale of the α-phase in titanium
and its alloys is influenced by the cooling rates during its formation (i.e.
during the β → α transition) [20]. As reported previously [21], the ratio
of power to scanning speed is described by the linear energy density
(LED), a key determinant of the heating environment:
P
LED =
V (1)
Where P is the heating power (W) and V is the scanning speed (mm/s).
The differing phases and microstructural features of the titanium sam-
ples can be related to the different heating powers and scanning speeds
which impart varied LEDs (Table 2) induced by dissimilar AM pro-
cesses. The power source for WAAM is much higher than those of LENS
and SLM, while the scanning speed applied in WAAM is considerably
slower. Hence, a significantly higher heat input was formed in WAAM
compared to LENS and especially to SLM. As energy density influences
the heat diffusion depth, the penetration distance will be much higher
in WAAM than LENS and SLM. It is thus expected that when new ti-
tanium layers are formed during WAAM on the previously deposited
layers, heat removal through the preformed layers and substrate is slow
due to accumulated heat. This also led to some minor sample distortion
in the WAAM-produced titanium induced by thermal residual stress
which was resolved through short stress-relief treatments at 480 °C for
2 h (recommended stress relief for CP-Ti that does not cause grain
growth [22]). The development of the observed microstructure can be
also interpreted through an understanding of the solidification and
cooling rates using the following equation [23]:
1 ∂T
R=
G ∂t (2)
where R is the solidification rate, G is the thermal gradient and ∂T is the
∂t
cooling rate. In our study, WAAM-produced titanium under the afore-
mentioned processing conditions has the slowest solidification and
cooling rates, leading to an increased α grain size in the phase trans-
formation of β to α. Similar conditions also occurred during LENS
which led to the formation of α phase with a relatively larger size
compared to SLM-produced titanium but lower size than the WAAM
Ti C Fe O N
Balance 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.02
Balance 0.009 0.023 0.05 0.014
H. Attar, et al. Materials Science & Engineering A 760 (2019) 339–345

Table 2
List of the processing parameters used for AM of titanium samples; the calculated LEDs and the resulting densifications and grain widths.
Method Power (W) Scanning speed (mm/s) LED (J/mm) Densification (%) Grain width (μm)

SLM 165 138 1.19 99.6 ± 0.1 1.8 ± 0.9

LENS 350 12 29.16 99.5 ± 0.2 3.1 ± 1.1
WAAM 1237 0.83 1490 99.7 ± 0.1 11.9 ± 2.6

Fig. 1. Optical microstructural images of CP-Ti samples produced by (a) SLM, (b) LENS and (c–d) WAAM methods.

sample (Table 2). In contrast, SLM-fabricated titanium received much
lower heat input (LED) and this stimulates significantly higher cooling
rates, leading to the martensitic β to α′ phase transformation with a
reduced grain size, which has been also reported before [11,21].
The tensile stress-strain curves of the titanium samples are shown in
Fig. 2. All titanium samples possess excellent ductility, showing the
maximum for the WAAM-produced titanium. Tensile properties (Fig. 3)
Fig. 2. Nominal tensile stress-strain curves of CP-Ti produced by SLM, LENS
and WAAM methods.
revealed that SLM-produced titanium has the highest yield strength (σy )
and ultimate tensile strength (σUTS ) which can be attributed to its finest
grain size and α′ phase. As mentioned before, the fine grain size and αʹ
phase obtained in SLM-produced CP-Ti can be related to a high cooling
rate created during the SLM process which promoted the β to αʹ phase
transformation during fast cooling. LENS-produced titanium showed
slightly higher yield and ultimate strengths compared to those of
WAAM-produced titanium due to the smaller grain size and finer mi-
crostructural phase feature. Nonetheless, the α phase in CP-Ti obtained
using LENS and WAAM was also responsible for the resulting, lower
yield and ultimate strengths compared to those of SLM-produced CP-Ti
because the α phase usually has a lower strength and hardness than αʹ.
Additionally, it is well-known that the yield strength is inversely pro-
portional to the α grain size (or colony size) [22]. Generally, a smaller
yield strength can serve as a warning message for maintenance or in-
tervention before catastrophic failure happens in a potential implant
material [24] and improved yield strength can enhance an implant
material's resistance to permanent shape change, which may increase
its effectiveness for implant applications [25]. All AM-fabricated tita-
nium samples showed yield and ultimate strengths superior to those of
CP-Ti (Grades 1 and 2) and comparable to those of CP-Ti (Grade 3)
produced previously by casting [26,27]. Although yield and ultimate
strengths of AM-produced samples are relatively low compared to those
of powder metallurgy (P/M) produced CP-Ti [28], they showed sig-
nificantly superior ductility, indicating that AM-produced samples have
no major defects. Nonetheless, the ductility of the SLM and LENS-pro-
duced samples narrowly fell below that of CP-Ti (Grade 1) but the

341
H. Attar, et al.
Fig. 3. Comparison of the mechanical properties of CP-Ti produced by various
AM methods in our study as well as by conventional manufacturing methods
reported earlier [27–29].
WAAM-produced titanium fully exceeded the tensile ductility require-
ments.
Fig. 3 (b) displays the elastic modulus and Vickers hardness of the
AM-produced titanium samples along with those reported for cast, and
samples produced by powder metallurgy (P/M) CP-Ti [28,29]. The
elastic modulus obtained for AM-produced samples are very compar-
able, however, their hardness shows the same trend to that observed for
σy and σUTS . The highest hardness (229 Hv) was observed for the SLM
sample due to its smaller grain size and the presence of martensitic
phase, while the WAAM sample presented the lowest value (190 Hv).
However, it should be noted that all the AM-produced titanium samples
showed higher hardness than those of the cast and P/M CP-Ti.
As observed, the ductility of AM-produced CP-Ti samples was
comparable to conventionally produced CP-Ti. Nevertheless, SLM-pro-
duced and WAAM-produced CP-Ti showed a difference of around 10%
ductility. Therefore, the fracture surfaces of these two samples were
studied by SEM and the results are presented in Fig. 4. The fracture
surface of the WAAM sample (Fig. 4(a)) shows mainly a mixture of
coarse and fine dimples, indicating a ductile-type fracture behavior.
Isolated and randomly distributed microvoids are also present across its
fracture surface. In contrast, the fracture surface of the SLM sample is
mainly characterized by very fine dimples and microcracks. The
varying size of the dimples on the fracture surfaces of the WAAM and
342
Materials Science & Engineering A 760 (2019) 339–345
Fig. 4. SEM images of the fracture surfaces of CP-Ti after tensile testing: (a)
WAAM sample and (b) SLM sample.
SLM samples are consistent with their corresponding grain sizes which
is similar to previously reported findings [30,31]. As seen in Table 2,
the average grain width of the WAAM sample is 11.9 μm which is larger
than that of the SLM sample (1.8 μm). Furthermore, a large number of
microvoids are present across the fracture surface of the SLM sample
and it has been reported that a smaller grain size causes an increased
density of nucleation sites to initiate microvoid coalescence [32]. As
such, since the SLM sample in our study possesses the smallest grain
size, nucleation and growth of numerous microvoids and their eventual
coalescences resulted in the initiation and propagation of microscopic
cracks (Fig. 4 (b)), leading to a reduction in the strain to failure (duc-
tility) of the SLM-produced CP-Ti compared to WAAM-produced
counterpart.
It has been reported that biomedical implant materials with high
strength and low elastic modulus are required to tolerate heavy loads
[29,33]. Biomedical materials are generally exposed to service condi-
tions within the elastic region; therefore it is necessary to evaluate the
elastic energy to ensure a safe performance during service. Fig. 5 (a)
shows a schematic representation of elastic energy in a typical tensile
stress-strain curve. The elastic energy can be described using the fol-
lowing equation [33,34]:
1 σy2
δe = ⋅εe σy =
2 2E (3)
Where δ is the elastic energy, εe is the elastic strain, σy and E are the
yield strength and Young's modulus, respectively. Fig. 5 (b) presents the
elastic energy values of the CP-Ti samples produced by AM methods as
well as those of the cast and P/M CP-Ti calculated from the corre-
sponding mechanical properties reported in the literature [27,28]. As
H. Attar, et al.
Fig. 5. (a) A schematic illustration of elastic energy in a tensile stress-strain
curve, and (b) elastic energy versus elastic modulus for CP-Ti produced by
various AM methods in our study as well as those of CP-Ti reported previously
for samples produced by casting and conventional powder metallurgy (P/M)
[27,28].
can be seen, the elastic energy of the SLM-produced samples is higher
than CP-Ti produced by LENS and WAAM. It is also greater than the
elastic energy of Grades 1, 2 and 3 CP-Ti. However, it is slightly lower
than CP-Ti (Grade 4) and P/M CP-Ti due to the lower yield strength
observed in SLM-produced CP-Ti. These results show that for the pro-
cess parameters and experimental conditions adopted in this study the
SLM-produced CP-Ti possesses a better heavy-loading capability com-
pared to CP-Ti produced by LENS and WAAM as well as the results
presented in the literature for CP-Ti produced by conventional casting,
owing to the significant improvement in yield strength associated with
samples produced by the SLM technique.
Weight loss values of the AM-produced titanium samples after wear
testing are shown in Fig. 6. It is evident that titanium samples produced
by SLM show the lowest weight loss, suggesting that SLM provides
better wear resistance than other AM methods. Classical theories of
wear show that hardness is a crucial factor in controlling the wear re-
sistance of a material, and a hard material usually presents better wear
resistance [35,36]. Therefore, the lowest weight loss observed in SLM-
produced CP-Ti can be associated with its higher hardness. In fact, it has
been realized that the wear resistance of a given material is related to
the elastic strain to failure which can be described by the hardness to
elastic modulus ratio (H/E) [37]. Another ratio (H3/E2), referred to as
343
Materials Science & Engineering A 760 (2019) 339–345
Fig. 6. H/E and H3/E2 ratios and wear weight loss values for CP-Ti samples
produced by SLM, LENS and WAAM methods.
the yield pressure, can also be used to assess the wear resistance of a
material [11]. These aforementioned ratios have been used successfully
before to evaluate the wear performance of titanium materials [35,37],
so the values of H/E and H3/E2 ratios were measured for CP-Ti samples
in our study in order to evaluate the wear performance of the materials.
To this end, the Vickers microhardness values of the AM-produced ti-
tanium samples were converted to the unit of GPa using the equation
reported in the literature [38]. Fig. 6 also presents the H/E and H3/E2
ratios of the CP-Ti samples produced by the different AM methods. It is
evident that SLM-produced CP-Ti shows the maximum values for H/E
and H3/E2 which is in good agreement with its minimum weight loss.
The SEM images of titanium samples after wear testing are pre-
sented in Fig. 7. The wear mechanisms observed in all samples are si-
milar to those of other titanium materials in which wear occurs mainly
by abrasion [39,40]. The samples have almost identical composition,
and for this reason, the wear tracks of the AM-produced CP-Ti samples
show relatively similar features including ploughing grooves, micro-
cracks and delamination. However, the incidents of delamination ob-
served in SLM-produced titanium are less frequent than that observed
in the samples produced by LENS and WAAM as higher hardness and
strength was obtained from the samples produced by SLM. There was
also evidence to suggest that initial cracking could not easily propagate
into complete delamination of the surface, indicating higher wear re-
sistance in SLM-produced titanium. Generally, wear volume is inversely
proportional to the hardness of a given material according to Archard's
wear equation [41], therefore higher surface and subsurface plastic
deformation occurs during wear for lower hardness and lower strength
materials, causing deeper cracks and delamination. In this study, LENS
and WAAM-produced titanium showed higher weight loss as well as
deeper delamination and cracking consistent with these explanations.
Based on the results obtained in the present study, the samples
produced by SLM exhibited better wear performance and strength
compared to those produced using LENS and WAAM methods. This is
because the lower LED associated with SLM produces faster cooling
rates and finer microstructures. However, it is important to note that
LED is varied with processing conditions; hence, cooling rates and mi-
crostructures can also be modified in all AM processes which may
produce different results. For example, although the WAAM processing
parameters used in this study produced a LED of 140 J/mm, others have
used different parameters in WAAM that produced much lower LEDs as
low as 147 J/mm [42]. Therefore while the present study has shown
that the improved properties of the SLM samples were associated with
the high cooling rates it is possible that modifications to the LENS and
WAAM such as the scale of feedstock and deposition process may result
in higher cooling rates and thus finer α microstructures with better
strength (albeit with reduced ductility). All deposition pathways were
capable of producing high density preforms and should be considered
for future research as potential manufacturing routes for biomedical
H. Attar, et al. Materials Science & Engineering A 760 (2019) 339–345

LED for WAAM, whereas the lowest LED was observed during SLM,
leading to the highest cooling rates and, consequently, the finest grain
size and a microstructure consisting of the martensitic (αʹ) phase.
Tensile testing of titanium produced by SLM showed the highest yield
and ultimate strengths, while WAAM-produced titanium demonstrated
the maximum ductility. Nonetheless, all the samples showed mechan-
ical properties at least comparable with those obtained previously from
conventional manufacturing techniques. There was a direct relationship
between wear performance and hardness of the titanium samples, and
the greatest wear resistance was observed in the SLM-produced tita-
nium. Furthermore, the ratios of H/E and H3/E2 measured for CP-Ti
produced by each AM method showed consistency with the corre-
sponding weight loss value, indicating that these ratios are good in-
dicators of wear resistance and should be further considered in future
investigations. Although CP-Ti produced by AM methods with the de-
position parameters selected for this study provided mechanical prop-
erties better than those of produced by conventional methods due to the
inherently higher cooling rates, it is suggested that SLM can provide
greater mechanical strength and wear properties compared to WAAM
and LENS which may be more desirable for biomedical applications.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the support of Queensland Centre for

Advanced Materials Processing and Manufacturing (AMPAM). Authors
also acknowledge the Australian Research Council (ARC) Hub of
transforming Australian industry through Additive Manufacturing
(IH130100008). M.J Bermingham acknowledges the support of the
Australian Research Council through DE160100260.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://

doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.06.024.

References

Fig. 7. SEM micrographs showing the features of the worn surface of the tita-
nium samples produced by (a) SLM, (b) LENS and (c) WAAM methods.
applications. Nevertheless, other important considerations ae required
given that powder-bed SLM is likely to offer greater precision and de-
sign flexibility over LENS and WAAM and thus remains the most pro-
mising route to produce complex, near net shaped titanium components
[10] L. Deng, S. Wang, P. Wang, U. Kühn, S. Pauly, Selective laser melting of a Ti-based
for biomedical application.
[11] H. Attar, S. Ehtemam-Haghighi, D. Kent, I. Okulov, H. Wendrock, M. Bӧnisch,
4. Conclusions
[12] W. Chen, C. Chen, X. Zi, X. Cheng, X. Zhang, Y.C. Lin, K. Zhou, Controlling the
In this work, CP-Ti samples were fabricated using the different AM
methods of SLM, LENS and WAAM. A fine α′ microstructure was ob-
[13] A. Ataee, Y. Li, M. Brandt, C. Wen, Ultrahigh-strength titanium gyroid scaffolds
tained from SLM which was different to α microstructure obtained from
LENS and WAAM. Processing conditions provided significantly high
[1] Q. Chen, G.A. Thouas, Metallic implant biomaterials, Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 87
(2015) 1–57.
[2] I. Okulov, A. Volegov, H. Attar, M. Bönisch, S. Ehtemam-Haghighi, M. Calin,
J. Eckert, Composition optimization of low modulus and high-strength TiNb-based
alloys for biomedical applications, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 65 (2017)
866–871.
[3] I. Okulov, M. Bönisch, A. Okulov, A. Volegov, H. Attar, S. Ehtemam-Haghighi,
M. Calin, Z. Wang, A. Hohenwarter, I. Kaban, Phase formation, microstructure and
deformation behavior of heavily alloyed TiNb-and TiV-based titanium alloys,
Mater. Sci. Eng. A 733 (2018) 80–86.
[4] M. Geetha, A.K. Singh, R. Asokamani, A.K. Gogia, Ti based biomaterials, the ulti-
mate choice for orthopaedic implants–a review, Prog. Mater. Sci. 54 (2009)
397–425.
[5] M. Niinomi, M. Nakai, J. Hieda, Development of new metallic alloys for biomedical
applications, Acta Biomater. 8 (2012) 3888–3903.
[6] S. Ehtemam-Haghighi, Y. Liu, G. Cao, L.-C. Zhang, Influence of Nb on the β→ α
″martensitic phase transformation and properties of the newly designed Ti–Fe–Nb
alloys, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 60 (2016) 503–510.
[7] S. Ehtemam-Haghighi, H. Attar, M.S. Dargusch, D. Kent, Microstructure, phase
composition and mechanical properties of new, low cost Ti-Mn-Nb alloys for bio-
medical applications, J. Alloy. Comp. 787 (2019) 570–577.
[8] Z. Zhang, S. Qu, A. Feng, X. Hu, J. Shen, Microstructural mechanisms during
multidirectional isothermal forging of as-cast Ti-6Al-4V alloy with an initial la-
mellar microstructure, J. Alloy. Comp. 773 (2019) 277–287.
[9] L. Bolzoni, E.M. Ruiz-Navas, E. Gordo, Quantifying the properties of low-cost
powder metallurgy titanium alloys, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 687 (2017) 47–53.
bulk metallic glass, Mater. Lett. 212 (2018) 346–349.
A. Volegov, M. Calin, J. Eckert, M. Dargusch, Nanoindentation and wear properties
of Ti and Ti-TiB composite materials produced by selective laser melting, Mater. Sci.
Eng. A 688 (2017) 20–26.
microstructure and mechanical properties of a metastable β titanium alloy by se-
lective laser melting, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 726 (2018) 240–250.
manufactured by selective laser melting (SLM) for bone implant applications, Acta

344
H. Attar, et al.
Mater. 158 (2018) 354–368.
[14] D. Zhao, Y. Huang, Y. Ao, C. Han, Q. Wang, Y. Li, J. Liu, Q. Wei, Z. Zhang, Effect of
pore geometry on the fatigue properties and cell affinity of porous titanium scaf-
folds fabricated by selective laser melting, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 88
(2018) 478–487.
[15] J. de Krijger, C. Rans, B. Van Hooreweder, K. Lietaert, B. Pouran, A.A. Zadpoor,
Effects of applied stress ratio on the fatigue behavior of additively manufactured
porous biomaterials under compressive loading, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 70
(2017) 7–16.
[16] W.E. Frazier, Metal additive manufacturing: a review, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 23
(2014) 1917–1928.
[17] H. Gong, K. Rafi, H. Gu, G.J. Ram, T. Starr, B. Stucker, Influence of defects on
mechanical properties of Ti–6Al–4 V components produced by selective laser
melting and electron beam melting, Mater. Des. 86 (2015) 545–554.
[18] L. Murr, S. Quinones, S. Gaytan, M. Lopez, A. Rodela, E. Martinez, D. Hernandez,
E. Martinez, F. Medina, R. Wicker, Microstructure and mechanical behavior of
Ti–6Al–4V produced by rapid-layer manufacturing, for biomedical applications, J.
Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2 (2009) 20–32.
[19] M. Bermingham, S. McDonald, M. Dargusch, Effect of trace lanthanum hexaboride
and boron additions on microstructure, tensile properties and anisotropy of Ti-6Al-
4V produced by additive manufacturing, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 719 (2018) 1–11.
[20] H. Attar, S. Ehtemam-Haghighi, D. Kent, X. Wu, M.S. Dargusch, Comparative study
of commercially pure titanium produced by laser engineered net shaping, selective
laser melting and casting processes, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 705 (2017) 385–393.
[21] D. Gu, Y.-C. Hagedorn, W. Meiners, G. Meng, R.J.S. Batista, K. Wissenbach,
R. Poprawe, Densification behavior, microstructure evolution, and wear perfor-
mance of selective laser melting processed commercially pure titanium, Acta Mater.
60 (2012) 3849–3860.
[22] M.J. Donachie, Titanium: a Technical Guide, ASM international, 2000.
[23] S. Bontha, N.W. Klingbeil, P.A. Kobryn, H.L. Fraser, Thermal process maps for
predicting solidification microstructure in laser fabrication of thin-wall structures,
J. Mater. Process. Technol. 178 (2006) 135–142.
[24] P.F. Santos, M. Niinomi, H. Liu, K. Cho, M. Nakai, A. Trenggono, S. Champagne,
H. Hermawan, T. Narushima, Improvement of microstructure, mechanical and
corrosion properties of biomedical Ti-Mn alloys by Mo addition, Mater. Des. 110
(2016) 414–424.
[25] H. Attar, S. Ehtemam-Haghighi, D. Kent, M.S. Dargusch, Recent developments and
opportunities in additive manufacturing of titanium-based matrix composites: a
review, Int. J. Mach. Tool Manuf. 133 (2018) 85–102.
[26] J.D. Beal, R. Boyer, D. Sanders, Forming of titanium and titanium alloys,
Metalwork.: Sheet Form.(ASM Handbook) 14 (2006) 656–669.
[27] M. Niinomi, Mechanical properties of biomedical titanium alloys, Mater. Sci. Eng. A
243 (1998) 231–236.
345
Materials Science & Engineering A 760 (2019) 339–345
[28] L. Bolzoni, E.M. Ruiz-Navas, E. Gordo, Powder metallurgy CP-Ti performances:
hydride–dehydride vs. sponge, Mater. Des. 60 (2014) 226–232.
[29] P. Wang, Y. Feng, F. Liu, L. Wu, S. Guan, Microstructure and mechanical properties
of Ti–Zr–Cr biomedical alloys, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 51 (2015) 148–152.
[30] M.-H. Cai, C.-Y. Lee, Y.-K. Lee, Effect of grain size on tensile properties of fine-
grained metastable β titanium alloys fabricated by stress-induced martensite and its
reverse transformations, Scripta Mater. 66 (2012) 606–609.
[31] Y.G. Ko, D.H. Shin, K.-T. Park, C.S. Lee, An analysis of the strain hardening behavior
of ultra-fine grain pure titanium, Scripta Mater. 54 (2006) 1785–1789.
[32] M. Bermingham, L. Nicastro, D. Kent, Y. Chen, M. Dargusch, Optimising the me-
chanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V components produced by wire+ arc additive
manufacturing with post-process heat treatments, J. Alloy. Comp. 753 (2018)
247–255.
[33] S. Ehtemam-Haghighi, Y. Liu, G. Cao, L.-C. Zhang, Phase transition, microstructural
evolution and mechanical properties of Ti-Nb-Fe alloys induced by Fe addition,
Mater. Des. 97 (2016) 279–286.
[34] M. Clifford, K. Simmons, P. Shipway, An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering,
CRC Press, 2012.
[35] S. Ehtemam-Haghighi, G. Cao, L.-C. Zhang, Nanoindentation study of mechanical
properties of Ti based alloys with Fe and Ta additions, J. Alloy. Comp. 692 (2017)
892–897.
[36] J. Xu, G. dong Wang, X. Lu, L. Liu, P. Munroe, Z.-H. Xie, Mechanical and corrosion-
resistant properties of Ti–Nb–Si–N nanocomposite films prepared by a double glow
discharge plasma technique, Ceram. Int. 40 (2014) 8621–8630.
[37] A. Hynowska, E. Pellicer, J. Fornell, S. González, N. van Steenberge, S. Suriñach,
A. Gebert, M. Calin, J. Eckert, M.D. Baró, Nanostructured β-phase Ti–31.0 Fe–9.0 Sn
and sub-μm structured Ti–39.3 Nb–13.3 Zr–10.7 Ta alloys for biomedical applica-
tions: microstructure benefits on the mechanical and corrosion performances,
Mater. Sci. Eng. C 32 (2012) 2418–2425.
[38] Y. Sun, J. Liang, Z.-H. Xu, G. Wang, X. Li, Nanoindentation for measuring individual
phase mechanical properties of lead free solder alloy, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron.
19 (2008) 514–521.
[39] S. Ehtemam-Haghighi, K. Prashanth, H. Attar, A.K. Chaubey, G. Cao, L. Zhang,
Evaluation of mechanical and wear properties of Ti xNb 7Fe alloys designed for
biomedical applications, Mater. Des. 111 (2016) 592–599.
[40] G. Straffelini, A. Molinari, Dry sliding wear of Ti–6Al–4V alloy as influenced by the
counterface and sliding conditions, Wear 236 (1999) 328–338.
[41] Q. Wang, P.-Z. Zhang, D.-B. Wei, X.-H. Chen, R.-N. Wang, H.-Y. Wang, K.-T. Feng,
Microstructure and sliding wear behavior of pure titanium surface modified by
double-glow plasma surface alloying with Nb, Mater. Des. 52 (2013) 265–273.
[42] Q. Wu, Z. Ma, G. Chen, C. Liu, D. Ma, S. Ma, Obtaining fine microstructure and
unsupported overhangs by low heat input pulse arc additive manufacturing, J.
Manuf. Process. 27 (2017) 198–206.