Wear 462-463 (2020) 203518

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Cavitation erosion resistance of the titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V manufactured

through additive manufacturing with various peening methods
Hirotoshi Sasaki a, *, Fuimo Takeo b, Hitoshi Soyama a
a
Department of Finemechanics, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aoba Aramaki-aza, Aoba-ku, Senadai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan
b
Department of Industrial Systems Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Hachinohe College, 16-1 Uwanotai, Tanomoki, Hachinohe, Aomori, 039-1192, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Additive manufacturing (AM) can produce parts with complex shapes quickly; therefore, it is applied in the
Cavitation manufacturing of impellers for pumps and screws for ships. However, cavitation erosion may occur in these fluid
Erosion machine components. The fatigue strength and fatigue life of parts manufactured through AM are weaker than
Additive manufacturing
those of bulk metals, and the surfaces of these parts are rough owing to AM. Thus, the cavitation erosion
Surface treatment
Peening
resistance of the AM metal may be weaker than those of bulk metals. In this study, to investigate the cavitation
erosion resistance of the AM metal, a cavitation erosion test was conducted by using a cavitating jet. The test
specimens of titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V manufactured through electron beam melting were treated using various
peening methods that succeeded in improving the fatigue strength of the AM metal. The cavitation erosion
resistance of the as-built AM metal without surface treatment was much lower than that of the bulk metal. When
the results of the AM metal treated using various peening methods were compared with those of the as-built
metal, the erosion rate was observed to have decreased by approximately 40% and 95% for cavitation peen­
ing and abrasive cavitation peening, respectively. Therefore, it was found that the cavitation erosion resistance of
the AM metal can be improved through peening treatment.

1. Introduction cavitation erosion in lubrication liquids using a theoretical approach

Additive manufacturing (AM) is a processing method that can
quickly form a complex product according to the computer-aided design
model [1]. The AM is expected to be applied to manufacture parts
having complicated shapes such as aircraft parts, medical equipment
[2], naval propellers [3] and pump impellers [4]. In particular, parts of a
fluid machine such as a pump impeller are exposed to cavitation during
operation state of fluid mechanics and are easily damaged by cavitation
erosion [5]. Therefore, to manufacture the part of the fluid machine by
AM, it is important to understand the cavitation erosion resistance of the
AM material.
Many studies on cavitation erosion, especially for metallic materials
and their alloys, have long been conducted in the past [6–11]. However,
some studies have evaluated the cavitation erosion resistance of mate­
rials such as plastics [12] and ceramic [13]. Focusing on the fluid side,
cavitation erosion has been predicted from the impact of cavitation
bubble collapse [14–17], and the effects of liquid temperature on cavi­
tation erosion have been studied [18,19]. Moreover, cavitation erosion
in fluids other than water has been studied. Meged et al. investigated
and experiment on various oils [20]. Sreedhar et al. conducted a cavi­
tation erosion test of stainless steel for vibratory cavitation based on the
ASTM G 32-09 [21] by using liquid sodium [22]. Dular investigated
cavitation erosion in liquid nitrogen in which thermodynamic effects
were significant [23]. Brunhart et al. performed the analysis of cavita­
tion erosion generated from a thin gap within a diesel fuel pump by
experiment and numerical simulation [24]. About a cavitation erosion
of titanium alloy, Zhou and Herman showed that the cavitation erosion
resistance can be increased for both titanium and Ti-6A1-4V by nitriding
[25] or implantation of boron ions [26]. Mochizuki et al. conducted a
cavitation erosion test on pure titanium and titanium alloys using the
rotating disk in seawater, and showed that they have a peak of erosion
amount in a certain temperature range as well as in cases using cavi­
tating liquid jet and vibratory apparatuses [27]. In a study of cavitation
erosion for AM metals, Girelli et al. demonstrated that the AlSi10Mg
alloy of AM had better cavitation erosion resistance than the cast alloy,
and the heat treatment harmed the cavitation erosion resistance of the
AM metal, here, this heat treatment is T6 heat treatment (solution at
540 ◦ C for 9 h, water quench at 65 ◦ C, and ageing at 160 ◦ C for 4 h) [28].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hirotoshi.sasaki.c1@tohoku.ac.jp (H. Sasaki).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2020.203518
Received 29 April 2020; Received in revised form 12 October 2020; Accepted 15 October 2020
Available online 16 October 2020
0043-1648/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Sasaki et al.
In addition to quickly producing complicated shapes, AM has several
other advantages such as little wasting materials while making parts,
producing shapes that cannot be made using conventional machining,
and enabling weight reduction because of the optimized design and the
use of light-alloy powder [29–31]. On the other hand, the metal mate­
rials manufactured through AM are disadvantageous in that the fatigue
strength and fatigue life are significantly less than those of wrought bulk
metals [2,32]. This is because the metal particles are sintered using a
laser or electron beam; thus, many defects such as lack-of-fusion pores
and gas pores are present in the entire material owing to the unmelted
particles generated in the manufacturing process [33]. Moreover, the
surface roughness increases because of the particles existing on the
material surface [34–36]. Cavitation erosion progresses easily when the
material surface is rough [37]. Therefore, as the parts manufactured
using AM have a rough surface, their cavitation erosion resistance is
expected to be weaker than the parts manufactured through original
machining. Regarding the influence of surface roughness, it has been
clarified that AM metal with a smooth material surface has better fatigue
life than the as-built AM metal [38]. However, it is not optimal to use
machining to polish the surface of parts manufactured by AM to make
them smooth because the process is time consuming and costly. To solve
these disadvantages of the AM metal, Tan and Yeo improved the arith­
metic mean roughness Ra of Inconel 625 manufactured through direct
metal laser sintering (DMLS) by up to 45% as compared to the as-built
AM metal using ultrasonic cavitation abrasive finishing [39]. Naga­
lingam and Yeo reduced the surface roughness of the as-built DMLS parts
by up to 40% using hydrodynamic cavitation erosion with abrasive
particles [40].
Soyama and Okura improved the fatigue strength and surface
roughness of titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V manufactured through electron
beam melting (EBM) using various peening methods [41]. Peening is a
processing technique for improving fatigue strength and preventing the
stress corrosion caused by cracking; in this process, compressive residual
stress is introduced on the material surface, and the material surface is
modified [42]. Peening can be classified as shot peening (SP) [43],
cavitation peening (CP) [44], laser peening (LP) [45], and abrasive
cavitation peening (ACP) [46]. Therefore, there is a possibility that the
cavitation erosion resistance of the AM metal can be changed by
applying various peening methods. Whether or not the cavitation
erosion resistance of the AM metal can be improved through the peening
treatment will be important for manufacturing the parts of fluid ma­
chines using AM in the future.
In this study, to investigate the cavitation erosion resistance of the
AM metal and the effect of various peening methods on the aforemen­
tioned cavitation erosion resistance, a cavitation erosion test was con­
ducted using a cavitating jet. The test specimens were titanium alloy
Ti–6Al–4V manufactured using EBM treated with various peening
methods. The cavitation erosion of each test specimen was compared.
The effect of peening on the improvement of the cavitation erosion
resistance of the AM metal was investigated from the viewpoint of the
surface roughness after peening treatment and the characteristics of
each peening.
2. Experimental method
2.1. Test specimen
In this study, AM metal is the titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V manufac­
tured through EBM. The powder utilized in the EBM process had an
average diameter of approximately 75 μm. The spot size of the electron
beam for selective melting was 0.2 mm in diameter, and the stacking
pitch was 90 μm, where the stacking pitch is the thickness of each layer
piled up in the AM process. The specimens were heat-treated at 1208 K
under vacuum for 105 min and then cooled in argon gas, then aging was
conducted at 978 K under vacuum for 120 min before the specimens
were cooled in argon gas [47]. The following surface treatments were
2
Wear 462-463 (2020) 203518
applied to this AM metal: shot peening, cavitation peening, laser peen­
ing, and abrasive cavitation peening. The detailed conditions of these
peening treatments are in the following papers [41,46]. Moreover, the
AM metal polished using sandpaper #1500 and flattened was referred as
a flat and smooth metal (AM-FS), and the as-built AM metal is known as
AM-NP (i.e. non-peening). Bulk metal of titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V was
prepared for comparison with these AM metals. This bulk metal was
polished using sandpaper #1500 and flattened, which is called Bulk-FS.
Each metal was cut into a square with a size of approximately 17 mm
and used as the test specimen. The thickness is about 4.7 mm for bulk
metal and about 2.0 mm for other specimens. To measure the roughness
parameter, the profile of the specimen surface was evaluated using a
stylus type profilometer.
2.2. Experimental apparatus
Fig. 1 presents a schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus of
the cavitating jet loop [48]. The cavitating jet apparatus for the erosion
test is satisfied with the ASTM G 134-17 standard [49]. The erosion test
is a submerged cavitation erosion test [50]. The cavitating jet was
injected through the nozzle into the test chamber filled with deionized
water. The test conditions are listed in Table 1, and the test condition is
the same of the interlaboratory study (ILS) conducted by Soyama et al.
[51]. In order to consider repeatability and reproducibility in this
erosion test, this test was also performed under the same conditions as
ILS of Table 1. The cavitation number σ is a dominant parameter of the
cavitation flow defined by Eq. (1), where pv is the saturated vapor
pressure of water. For a cavitating jet, the cavitation number σ can be
simplified as shown in Eq. (1), because p1 » p2 » pv. The standoff distance,
s, is the distance from the test specimens to the nozzle tip, and it is the
optimum standoff distance under this experimental condition [52]. The
specimen was weighed every 10 min, and the erosion test was conducted
from the start to 150 min, and the specimens that underwent the erosion
test were taken by a single-lens reflex camera.
p2− pv p2
σ= ≅ (1)
p1− p2 p1
3. Experimental results and discussion
3.1. Cavitation erosion resistance of additive manufacturing metals
Fig. 2 illustrates the relationship between the mass loss and exposure
time for each test specimen. Fig. 3 shows the relationship between the
cumulative mass loss rate and exposure time. The error bars in this test
result were added regarding an interlaboratory study (ILS) conducted by
Soyama et al. [51]. According to the ILS by Soyama et al. the variation of
repeatability coefficient was from 2% to 7% in the erosion test
Fig. 1. Cavitating jet apparatus [48].
H. Sasaki et al.
Table 1
Test conditions.
Diameter of nozzle d 0.4 mm
Upstream pressure p1 20 MPa
Downstream pressure p2 0.28 MPa
Cavitation number σ 0.014
Standoff distance s 19 mm
Temperature T 297 ± 2 K
Fig. 2. Relationship between exposure time and mass loss with AM and bulk.
Fig. 3. Relationship between exposure time and cumulative mass loss rate with
AM and bulk.
conducted in collaboration with four institutions using five materials
under the same test conditions as this test [51]. Thus, in this study, in
consideration of this result, an error bar was added to the erosion test
result with a repeatability coefficient of 7%.
The results of the AM-FS and the Bulk-FS specimens in Figs. 2 and 3
were compared to investigate the cavitation erosion resistance of the AM
metal and bulk metal. The erosion rate of the AM specimen increased
approximately 13 times compared to that of the bulk specimen in the
first 10 min, despite the insignificant difference in surface roughness.
This result indicates that the AM metal is more susceptible to cavitation
erosion than the bulk metal. This is because the main fracture mecha­
nism of cavitation erosion is the fatigue fracture caused by the repeated
impact of the collapsed numerous cavitation bubbles on the material
surface [53]. Therefore, the mass of cavitation erosion similarly
increased because the AM metal had a weaker fatigue strength than the
bulk metal [54].
The results obtained from the AM-NP and AM-FS specimens, as
shown in Figs. 2 and 3, were compared to investigate the influence of the
initial surface roughness of the AM material on cavitation erosion. The
3
Wear 462-463 (2020) 203518
erosion rate of AM-NP specimen increased approximately 6 times
compared with that of AM-FS specimen in the first 10 min. This is
because the initial roughness of the AM-NP specimen is significantly
more than that of AM-FS specimen. The cavitation erosion increases as
the material surface becomes rough [37]. Therefore, the AM metal may
be significantly damaged in the early stage of the cavitation erosion
owing to its initial surface roughness.
For these results, it is considered that the cavitation erosion resis­
tance of the parts manufactured through AM, as they are without any
surface treatment, is significantly weaker than that of the parts manu­
factured through a conventional manufacturing method.
3.2. Effect of various peening methods on the cavitation erosion resistance
of additive manufacturing metals
To investigate the effect of surface treatment using various peening
methods, the cavitation erosion rate of the AM metal treated using each
peening method, namely CP, LP, SP, and ACP, was compared with that
of the as-built AM metal of NP (AM-NP) in the first 10 min of the erosion
test [41,46]. The reason for comparing the results obtained in the first
10 min is that the effect of surface treatments is lost when erosion
progresses deeply, because the effects of various peening treatments are
in the order of several hundred micrometers from the material surface
[43–45,55–58]. It can be observed from Figs. 4 and 5 that the effect of
the peening treatment disappears as the cavitation erosion progresses;
hence, the mass loss and cumulative mass loss rates of all peened AM
metals converge to the same value. Fig. 6 displays the eroded surface of
each specimen. After 150 min, erosion marks with numerous small and
deep holes, which are characteristic of cavitation erosion, are observed
in all the specimens (Fig. 6 (c)). When the cavitation erosion progresses
to this state, peening no longer has an effect.
The erosion rates of the CP, SP, and ACP specimens decrease by
approximately 40%, 8%, and 95% of that of the AM-NP specimen,
respectively, in the first 10 min (Figs. 4 and 5). On the contrary, the
erosion rate of LP specimen increased by approximately 40% of that of
AM-NP specimen. However, as demonstrated in Fig. 6, even when each
eroded surface is visually compared after 10 min, the difference of each
erosion rate cannot be judged (Fig. 6 (b)). These differences in erosion
rate were due to the surface roughness of AM metals after each peening
and the characteristic of each peening method. Table 2 presents the
arithmetic mean roughness Ra and maximum height of roughness profile
Rz in each specimen [41,46]. Ra indicates the average of the absolute
value along the sampling length, and Rz indicates the absolute vertical
distance between the maximum profile peak height and the maximum
profile valley depth along the sampling length.
The Ra and Rz of the CP specimen are approximately equal to those of
the AM-NP specimen [41]. However, CP can apply the effect of peening
Fig. 4. Relationship between exposure time and mass loss in various peen­
ing treatments.
H. Sasaki et al. Wear 462-463 (2020) 203518

aging heat treatments indicated that mechanical properties of EBM

Ti–6Al–4V ELI material can be tailored by adjusting the cooling rates,
temperatures, and times of the heat treatment [60]. Aboulkhair et al.
reported that T6 heat treatment reduced the compressive yield strength
of SLM AlSi10Mg alloy, and softened it rather than hardening [61].
Girelli et al. demonstrated that T6 heat treatment was detrimental to the
cavitation erosion resistance of the AM metal due to microstructure
modification and pore enlargement [28]. Consequently, the cavitation
erosion resistance of the LP specimen is considered to be weak even
though the surface roughness did not change significantly compared to
the AM-NP specimen.
Ra and Rz of the SP specimen considerably decreased compared to
those of the other specimens, namely, the surface roughness was
considerably improved. However, compared with other specimens, the
character was that the skewness value of the surface roughness Rsk was
significantly less than zero [41]. As the surface of the SP specimen is
Fig. 5. Relationship between exposure time and cumulative mass loss rate in peened by shots that are larger than the metal particles of the AM ma­
various peening treatments. terial, the effect of SP does not reach the details even though the surface
is plastically deformed and flattened by SP. Accordingly, as fine gaps
to the details that are difficult for SP and LP because the cavitation exist inside the AM metal, the cavitation bubbles penetrated through
bubbles can penetrate the details of the parts and perform peening [58]. these gaps and caused cavitation erosion. Therefore, the erosion rate did
Therefore, it is considered that the cavitation erosion resistance was not decrease substantially, even though the surface roughness was the
similarly increased in the AM metal because the cavitation bubbles
penetrated the details of the roughness derived from the metal powder,
which was present on the surface of the material, to introduce Table 2
compressive residual stress. Arithmetic mean roughness Ra, maximum height of roughness profile Rz [41,
In the case of LP, although Ra of the LP specimen is close to that of the 46].
AM-NP specimen, Rz is slightly larger than that of the AM-NP specimen Arithmetical mean roughness Ra Maximum height of roughness profile
[41]. However, the cavitation erosion rate of the LP specimen was μm Rz μm
higher than that of the AM-NP specimen. This is because the specimen
AM- 19.3 ± 1.3 116.1 ± 9.9
surface may have been modified by the heat of the laser during the LP NP
treatment. Regarding the influence of heat on the AM metal, Vrancken SP 4.7 ± 1.1 33.4 ± 5.3
et al. conducted various heat treatments for Ti6Al4V produced by Se­ LP 19.1 ± 1.6 147.9 ± 8.8
lective Laser Melting (SLM), and showed that its ductility may increase CP 17.8 ± 2.4 114.6 ± 20.2
ACP 7.6 ± 1.6 42.0 ± 10.0
by 85% [59]. Galarraga et al. showed that combining solutionizing and

Fig. 6. Eroded surface in each specimen.

4
H. Sasaki et al. Wear 462-463 (2020) 203518

smallest among the other peening specimens.

The Ra and Rz of the ACP specimen were approximately less than half
of those of the AM-NP specimen. In APC, the material surface is ground
and flattened through abrasive acceleration using a cavitating jet.
Simultaneously, compressive residual stress is introduced into the sur­
face by work hardening due to abrasive grinding [46]. Moreover, the
collapse of the cavitation bubble introduces compressive residual stress
to the material surface. Therefore, the cavitation erosion resistance is
much stronger than other peening processes in the initial stage of
cavitation erosion. This resistance is comparable to that of the bulk
specimen in the first 10 min.
For these results, CP and ACP were able to decrease the erosion rate;
on the other hand, SP did not decrease the erosion rate, however, LP
increased it. Fig. 7 shows the results of the normalized erosion resistance
and normalized fatigue strength of each peened specimen. The
normalized erosion resistance is defined by being inverse with each
erosion rate in the first 10 min divided by that of the AM-NP specimen.
The normalized fatigue strength is defined by dividing each fatigue Fig. 7. Normalized erosion resistance and fatigue strength of each specimen
strength of peened specimens with that of the AM-NP [41,46]. The fa­ with various peening treatments [41,46].
tigue strength of the AM metal is improved by more than 50% compared
to the AM-NP metal by all the peening treatment methods; however, the editing. Hitoshi Soyama: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources,
cavitation erosion resistance was not improved in all cases. Considering Validation, Project administration, Writing - review & editing, Funding
the results of this experiment, it was found that not the fatigue strength acquisition, Supervision.
but the surface condition significantly influences the cavitation erosion
resistance of the AM metal after the peening treatment. Therefore, to
improve the cavitation erosion resistance, a peening method that can Declaration of competing interest
flatten the material surface densely and simultaneously introduce
compressive residual stress is effective. ACP is a peening method that The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
can perform these two treatments simultaneously and significantly interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
improve the cavitation erosion resistance of the AM metal. the work reported in this paper.

4. Conclusions Acknowledgments

In this study, the cavitation erosion of the additive manufacturing This research was partly supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
(AM) metal and the effects of various peening treatments on the cavi­ 18KK0103 and 20H02021.
tation erosion resistance of the AM metal were investigated. A cavitation
erosion test using a cavitating jet was performed for titanium alloy Nomenclature
Ti–6Al–4V manufactured by electron beam melting with various peen­
ing treatments. The results obtained are as follows. d diameter of nizzle [mm]
p1 upstream pressure [MPa]
(1) When the bulk metal and AM metal for cavitation erosion were p2 downstream pressure [MPa]
compared, the cavitation erosion resistance of the AM metal was Ra arithmetical mean roughness [μm]
much lower than that of bulk metal. Moreover, the erosion Rsk skewness of surface roughness [− ]
increased significantly owing to the surface roughness of the AM Rz maximum height of roughness profile [μm]
metal. Therefore, the cavitation erosion resistance of the parts s standoff distance [mm]
manufactured by AM will be significantly weaker than for the T temperature [K]
parts manufactured by conventional cutting. t exposure time [min]
(2) When comparing the effect of surface treatments on cavitation Δm mass loss [mg]
erosion resistance, the cavitation peening (CP) and abrasive Δm/t mass loss rate [mg/min]
cavitation peening (ACP) were able to reduce the erosion rate in σ cavitation number [− ]
the initial stage of cavitation erosion. This is because the CP and
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