Received: 30 March 2020 | Revised: 7 July 2020
DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.13414
REVIEW
The value of bioactive compounds of cruciferous vegetables
(Brassica) as antimicrobials and antioxidants: A review
Kenia Mirozlava Favela-González1 | Ayerim Yedid Hernández-Almanza1 |
Norma Margarita De la Fuente-Salcido1,2
1
Graduate Program in Biochemical
Engineering, Biological Sciences Faculty,
Autonomous University of Coahuila,
Torreón, México
2 benefits. In this regard, Brassicaceae family plants, previously named cruciferous,
Bioprospecting and Bioprocesses
Department, Biological Sciences Faculty,
Autonomous University of Coahuila,
Torreón, México
Correspondence
Norma Margarita De la Fuente-Salcido,
Graduate program in Biochemistry,
Biological Sciences Faculty, Autonomous
University of Coahuila, Torreón, 27275,
Coahuila, Mexico.
Email: normadelafuentesalcido@uadec.edu.
mx; normapbr322@gmail.com
J Food Biochem. 2020;00:e13414.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13414
| Accepted: 8 July 2020
Abstract
Nowadays, consumers are demanding nutrient-rich products for health optimal
group a large number of widely consumed species around the world. The popularity
of Brassica is increasing due to their nutritional value and pharmacological effects.
The group includes a large number of vegetable foods such as cabbages, broccoli,
cauliflower, mustards as well as, oilseed rapeseed, canola, among others. In recent
years, the phytochemical composition of Brassicaceae has been studied deeply be-
cause they contain many valuable metabolites, which are directly linked to differ-
ent recognized biological activities. The scientific evidence confirms diverse medical
properties for the treatment of chronic diseases such as obesity, type-2 diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, stroke), cancer, and osteoporosis. The unique
features of Brassicaceae family plants conferred by their phytochemicals, have ex-
tended future prospects about their use for beneficial effects on human nutrition
and health worldwide.
Practical applications
For years, the Brassicaceae plants have been a fascinating research topic, due to
their chemical composition characterized by rich in bioactive compounds. The im-
plementation of extracts of these vegetables, causes various beneficial effects of
high biological value in the treatment of diseases, owing to their bioactive proper-
ties (anti-obesity, anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, cardio-
protective, gastroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antianemic, and immunomodulator).
Therefore, this review summarizes the chemical composition, describes the bioactive
compounds isolated in the plant extracts, and highlights diverse biological activities,
mainly the antimicrobial and antioxidant capacity. Brassica plants, as source of natural
bioactive agents, have a great potential application to improve the human nutrition
and health.
KEYWORDS
antimicrobial, antioxidant, bioactive compounds, Brassicaceae, phytochemical compounds
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfbc © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC. | 1 of 21
2 of 21 | FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N
Brassicaceae plants, previously named cruciferous, cover a large
number of species with great economic and nutritional importance
around the world. This group includes vegetables such as cabbages,
broccoli, cauliflower mustards, and also oilseed rapeseed and canola
(Bischoff, 2016). Most of the Brassicaceae species are important veg-
etables consumed worldwide due to their particular essence, aroma,
and flavor, but mainly for their broadly recognized functional prop-
erties (Aires, 2015). These properties are directly related with their
phytochemical composition and represent the most striking features
of this botanical family. The phytochemicals in Brassicaceae are clas-
sified into several kinds of micronutrients (amino acids, minerals,
and vitamins), macronutrients (high content of proteins and dietary
fiber, low in carbohydrates), and secondary metabolites (Ramirez,
Abellán-Victorio, Beretta, Camargo, & Moreno, 2020). These metab-
olites synthesized particularly by each species are the responsible
for providing a unic and distinctive taste, and also, many interesting
and beneficial bioactivities for regular consumers of these crops.
The main phytochemical compounds include several kinds includ-
ing phenolics, polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids
(zeaxanthin, lutein, and β-carotene), alkaloids, phytosterols chloro-
phyll, glucosinolates (isothiocyanates, indoles) (Argento, Melilli, &
Branca, 2019), terpenoids, and glucosides, among other less stud-
ied compounds such as phytosteroids, phytoalexins, terpenes, and
tocopherols (Nawaz, Shad, & Muzaffar, 2018; Ramirez et al., 2020;
Šamec & Salopek-Sondi, 2019).
In this context, the research about the main components of these
plants and their derivatives leads to more deep study of bioactive
compounds that show not only potential in the prevention and treat-
ment of different diseases. At this point, it is very important to men-
tion the existence of reports with scientific evidence that relates the
biological activity of Brassicaceae with an important contribution in
the treatment of chronic diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases (including hypertension and stroke), cancer,
and osteoporosis (Chen, Koh, Yuan, Qin, & van Dam, 2018; López-
Chillón et al., 2019; Raiola et al., 2018; Silva Dias, 2019; Thomas-
Charles & Fennell, 2019). In this regard, is important highlight the
biological activity developed by specific compounds, in particular
their broad antioxidant capacity (decrease oxidative stress) and
the antimicrobial activity (reduce microbial colonization) (Ramirez
et al., 2020).
This review focuses on their main characteristics antioxidant and
antimicrobial bioactive compounds presents in Brassica vegetables
and the scientific facts about their antioxidant capacity and antimi-
crobial activity are highlighted. Additionally, some extraction tech-
niques and evidence of the beneficial effects on human health that
have been somewhat linked to many particular phytochemicals are
mentioned. Finally, the imperative need to carry out scientific re-
search on the chemical composition of these vegetables is addressed
in order to be able to use them as a natural source of phytochemi-
cals, exploit their pharmacological properties and increase their ap-
plications in medicine.
2 | B R A S S I C AC E A E FA M I LY
The family Brassicaceae previously named Cruciferae is classified
in the group of dicotyledonous angiosperm (Chen et al., 2011) and
comprises a large number of species, (approximately 3,709), divided
into 338 different genera (Al-Shehbaz, Beilstein, & Kellogg, 2006),
including the genera Arabidopsis, Brassica, Camelina, Crambe,
Glaucocarpum, Sinapis, and Thlaspi (Abu-Ghannam & Jaiswal, 2015).
The Brassicaceae family is easily distinguished by having the cru-
ciform corolla, tetradynamous stamens, capsular fruits described
above, strongly curved embryos, and pungent watery sap (Al-
Shehbaz, 2011). Taxonomic classification of Brassicaceae was com-
plex and confusig until 2006, when the molecular biology techniques
mange to appropriately define the taxonomy of this important
plants (Franzke, Lysak, Al-Shehbaz, Koch, & Mummenhoff, 2010;
Russo, 2008).
Their wide worldwide distribution and abundant consumption
in the diet give them relevant nutritional and economic importance,
because Brassicaceae are the most commonly consumed plants that
produces edible buds, flowers, leaves, roots, seeds, and stems that
separately have multiple uses and also, produce fresh vegetables, oil,
condiments, fodder, and preserved food among others by-products
(Fourie, Ahuja, Lammers, & Daneel, 2016).
3 | B R A S S I C A PL A NT S
The genus Brassica has a long history on all the continents in the
agricultural implementation, becoming the most important one
within the Brassicaceae plants. Brassica spp. is generally classified
into three groups, viz coles, mustards, and rapeseeds. The coles are
leafy and stalk vegetables group includes cabbage, broccoli, cau-
liflower, Brussels sprouts, tronchuda and kale, considered an ex-
cellent source of vitamin C and folates (Dias, 2019). The mustards
are garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), white mustard (Brassica alba),
Ethiopian mustard (B. carinata), Asian mustard (B. juncea), oilseed
rape (B. napus), black mustard (B. nigra), rapeseed (B. rapa), white
ball mustard (Calepina irregularis), ball mustard (Neslia paniculata),
treacle mustard (Erysimum repandum), hedge mustard (Sisymbrium
officinale), Asian hedge mustard (S. orientale), smooth mustard (S.
erysimoides), and canola are the major economically important oil-
seed crops in many countries (Rahman, Khatun, Liu, & Barkla, 2018).
Finally, Brassica napus comprises important oil seed crops, such
as canola or rapeseed, including Chinese cabbage, pak choi, and
turnip. Particularly the Brassica napus L., are the third most impor-
tant oil crop in the world after maize and oil palm (Beszterda &
Nogala-Kałucka, 2019).
The principal species of vegetables is B. oleracea, which include
different headed and non-headed cabbage, kale, broccoli, Brussels
sprouts, cauliflower, and others (Šamec & Salopek-Sondi, 2019)
being the most common brassica vegetables consumed through-
out the world for the human nutrition (Jahangir, Kim, Choi, &
Verpoorte, 2009). The principal compounds present in B. oleracea
FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al. | 3 of 21

vegetables are the responsible of their nutritional value and many
biological activities. The nutritional value of different Brassica vege-
tables is shown in Table 1. Evidently, water is the major component
of these vegetables, with ranges between 89%–92%, while the fat
content is relatively low (0.37 g in broccoli). Some plants as kale (leaf
cabbage) have high calcium content, about six times more than other
types of these vegetables (36.6–93.4 mg) and twofold of magnesium
(12–32.7 mg), both are essential in human for a better nutrition and
healthier life (USDA, 2019). Vitamins are one of the main compo-
nents in Brassica vegetables, like carotenes, tocopherols, vitamin C,
and folic acid (Kurilich, Jeffery, Juvik, Wallig, & Klein, 2002). This
family of plants is also considered rich in minerals, with calcium and
iron being the most abundant; also a really good source of phospho-
rus (P), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), strontium (Sr),
and potassium (K) (Kmiecik, Lisiewska, & Korus, 2007).
The concentration of free sugars has a great influence on the
flavor of Brassica vegetables and fructose, glucose, and sucrose are
the most representative soluble sugars, and fructose represents
the highest proportion of them (Jahangir et al., 2009). In addition,
these plants contain signaling and regulatory compounds such as
phytoalexins, salicylic acid, ethylene, H2O2 and jasmonic acid and sig-
nal peptides play the role of defense mechanism against the attack
of pathogenic microorganisms and herbivorous animals (Pedras,
Okanga, Zaharia, & Khan, 2000).
4 | M A I N B I OAC TI V E PH Y TO C H E M I C A L S
I N B R A S S I C A PL A NT S
The Brassica plants have the advantage of providing not only nu-
trients, also many heterogeneous phytochemical compounds
popularly considered as beneficial to human well-being and health
(Önder, 2018). Phytochemical compounds are sometimes inap-
propriately referred as phytonutrients, however, they are not
considered essential nutrients as proteins, fats, minerals, and vita-
mins (Tiwari, Tiwari, & Kim, 2012). The phytochemicals are respon-
sible for providing plants with their color, flavor, smell and taste
(Aćimović, Grahovac, Stanković, Cvetković, & Maširević, 2016).
Likewise, it is difficult to properly classify phytochemical because
have differences in the origin, stage of development and compo-
sition of each Brassica group (Gómez-Gómez & Boller, 2000). In
general, the phytochemicals as secondary metabolites (terpenoid,
alkaloids, phenolic compounds, lignins, plants steroid, curcumines,
saponins, flavonoids, glucosides), depending on their role in plant
metabolism (Ferreira, Passos, Cardoso, Wessel, & Coimbra, 2018)
are synthesized as defense system (Javed et al., 2019). In particular,
the Brassica is rich in phytochemical compounds recognized as bio-
active secondary metabolites naturally occur in these plants, have
the capacity to act on diverse molecular targets into the cells. The
Brassica plants are rich in glucosinolates (GLSs) and their breakdown
products (isothiocyanates and indoles) and phenolic compounds;
including also flavonoids, tocopherols, and carotenoids, among
others terpenes and important seed oils (Abbaoui, Lucas, Riedl,
Clinton, & Mortazavi, 2018; Mahmud et al., 2019; Shankar, Segaran,
Sundar, Settu, & Sathiavelu, 2019). Table 2 lists the main bioactive
compounds present in Brassica plants. Also, Figure 1 shows the dis-
tinctive molecular structures of the bioactive compounds detected
in extracts of Brassica plants. The chemical nature of each compo-
nent in plants is directly related to the multiple recognized bioactive
properties.
Is important to know that the synthesis, diversity, and quan-
tity of Brassica’s phytochemicals depend on the interaction of sev-
eral factors such as germination, the environmental conditions,
or the nutrient supply in the crops (Abellán, Domínguez-Perles,
Moreno, & García-Viguera, 2019; Frede, Schreiner, & Baldermann,
2019; Podsedek, 2007). Furthermore, the chemical nature of each
component is responsible for the different bioactive properties
recognized.

TA B L E 1 Nutritional value of Brassica vegetables/100 g

Nutrient for 100 g

Energy Carbohydrates Fiber Fats Proteins Water Calcium Magnesium Vitamin

Brassica plant (Kcal) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (mg) (mg) C (mg)

Broccoli 34 6.64 2.60 0.37 2.82 89.30 47.00 21.00 89.20

Cauliflower 25 4.97 2.00 0.28 1.92 92.07 22.00 15.00 48.20
Red Cabbage 31 4.97 2.10 0.16 1.43 90.39 45.00 16.00 57.00
White Cabbage 25 5.80 2.20 0.09 1.28 92.18 40.00 12.00 36.60
Kale 35 4.42 4.10 1.49 2.92 89.63 254.00 32.70 93.40
Collard greens 32 5.42 4.00 0.61 3.02 89.62 232.00 27.00 35.30
Mustard 60 5.83 4.00 3.34 3.74 83.72 63.00 48.00 0.30
Rapini 22 2.85 2.70 0.49 3.17 92.55 108.00 0.395 20.20
Chinese cabbage 13 2.18 1.00 0.20 1.50 95.32 105.00 19.00 45.00
Turnip 28 6.43 1.80 0.10 0.90 91.87 30.00 11.00 21.00

United States department of agriculture, agricultural research service, national nutrient database for standard reference legacy release (USDA, 2019).
4 of 21 | FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
TA B L E 2 Main bioactive compounds present in Brassica plants
Phytochemical class Major constituents
Glucosinolates (β-thioglucoside-N-hydroxysulfates) Water soluble
(β-thioglucoside-N-hydroxysulfates) organic anions share a basic structure
Phenoles Hydroxycinnamic acids
Flavonioids
Anthocyanins (acylated cyanidin glucosides)
Lignans
Tocopherols (vitamin E) and α- δ- and γ-tocopherols
carotenoids
α- carotenoids with lutein, β- carotene
Seed oils Fatty acids
4.1 | Glucosinolates (GLCs)
The glucosinolates are water-soluble anions present in sixteen fami-
lies of dicotyledonous angiosperms including a large number of ed-
ible species. It is a small but diverse group of over 130 nitrogen and
sulfur-containing products found almost exclusively in cruciferous
plants (1% of their dry weight) (Abbaoui et al., 2018). The structure
of GLCs contains a central β-thioglucoside N-hydroxysulfate with a
side chain and a β-D-glucopyranose moiety. The structure of the side
chain determines its classification, based on the precursor amino
acid, (1) aliphatic (e.g., glucoraphanin; Ala, Leu, Ileu, Val, Met), (2)
aromatic (e.g., gluconasturtiin; Phe, Tyr), and (3) indole (e.g., gluco-
brassicin; Trp). Now, about 130 types of glucosinolates have been
identified, from 11 plant families, however, only five of them are the
most commonly found in foods for human consumption, glucobras-
sicin, sinigrin, glucoraphasatin (dehydroerucin), glucoraphanin, and
glucoiberin (Melrose, 2019; Wang et al., 2019). According to studies
carried out by Wang et al., (2019), the content and types of glucosi-
nolates present in plants such as rocket, are affected by germination.
Observing a drastic decrease in the total glucosinolate content after
germination, but an increase in the types of glucosinolates in the
plant; this due to their decomposition and transformation.
These secondary metabolites are bioactivated until they
are hydrolyzed by the enzyme myrosinase (β-thioglucosidase
Constituents types
Aliphatic
Dehydroerucin, Epi-progoitrin Glucoalyssin,
Glucoerucin, Glucobrassicanapin,
Glucoiberin, Glucocapparin, Glucoerysolin,
Glucohirsutin, Glucoibervirin, Glucolepidin,
Gluconapin, Gluconapoleiferin,
Glucoraphanin, Glucoputranjivin
Glucoraphenin, Glucorerysolin Glucosiberin,
Progoitrin, Sinigrin
Indolic
4-Hydroxyglucobrassicin, Neoglucobrassicin
4-Methoxyglucobrassicin, Glucobrassicin,
Aromatic
Glucobarberin, Gluconasturtiin, Glucosibarin,
Glucosinalbin, Glucotropaeolin
Caffeic, ferulic, sinapic and p-coumaric acids
Flavonols with quercetin, kaempferol and
isorhamnetin
Cyanidin-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside
Phenylpropanoids coupling of two C6C3 units
(2S)-2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-2-[(4S,8S)-4,8,12-
trimethyltridecyl]-3,4-dihydro-2H-chromen-
6-ol
Precursors of vitamin A
Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic,
eicosenoic, and erucic acids
glucohydrolase, E.C.3.2.3.1), released after some mechanical dam-
age in the plant (Verhoeven, Verhagen, Goldbohm, Brandtb, &
Poppel, 1997). (Verhoeven et al., 1997). The more common glucosino-
late breakdown products are isothiocyanates, nitriles, thiocyanates,
epithionitriles, and oxazolidinethiones (Cartea & Velasco, 2008;
Vaughn & Berhow, 2005).
4.2 | Phenolic compounds
Brassica vegetables possess potent antioxidant properties attributed
to the high levels of vitamins, highlighting the carotenoids, and par-
ticularly phenolic compounds (Xiao et al., 2019). Their classification
according to the number and arrangement of their carbon atoms
group flavonoids (flavonols, flavones, flavan-3-ols, anthocyanidins,
flavanones, and isoflavones) and non-flavonoids (phenolic acids,
hydroxycinnamates, stilbenes), and frequently linked to sugars and
organic acids (Cartea, Francisco, Soengas, & Velasco, 2011; Ramirez
et al., 2020; Vergun et al., 2019). The most widespread and diverse
group of phenolic constituents in Brassica species are simples phe-
nols, phenolic acids, flavonoids (pelargonidine, cyanidine, delfinidine,
peonidine, petunidine, and malvidin), and hydroxycinnamic acids (p-
coumaric, sinapic, and ferulic acids, often found in conjugation with
sugar or other hydroxycinnamic acids) (Vale et al., 2015; Vallejo &
FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
F I G U R E 1 Molecular structures of the main bioactive compounds present in extracts of Brassica plants. *JSME: a free molecule editor in
JavaScript Bienfait and Ertl (2013)
Ferreres, 2004). In studies carried out by Li et al., (2018), the phenolic
profiles of 12 different cruciferous vegetables are shown by studies
of UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS (ultra-high performance liquid chroma-
tography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry). They iden-
tified 74 phenolic compounds, including 16 hydroxycinnamic acids
and their derivatives, and 58 flavonoids and their derivatives. Being
glycosylated quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin, the main fla-
vonoids identified. Among the hydroxycinmic acids, the main com-
pounds found were ferulic, synapic, caffeic, and p-coumaric acids.
Where cauliflower had the highest content of phenolic compounds
(5.70 mg/g dry weight). The cabbage presented high contents of hy-
droxycinnamic acids (46.02 mg/g of dry weight) and its derivatives,
being the ferulic and synapic acids conjugated with gentiobiosa, the
most predominant. Emphasizing that B. oleracea vegetables have a
higher content of these acids, with respect to the subspecies B. rapa.
4.2.1 | Hydroxycinnamic acids
Hydroxycinnamic (HCAs) acid group comprises several highly polar
compounds. Cinnamic acids have nine carbon atoms (C6–C3) usually
bound to the plant cell wall. They are organic acids as caffeic (3,4-di-
hydroxycinnamic), ferulic (4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic), sinapic
(3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxycinnamic), and p-coumaric (4-hydroxy-
cinnamic) acids. HCAs are also phenolic compounds distributed
in plants and display pharmacological properties attributed to the
| 5 of 21
presence of hydroxyl functions bound to the aromatic ring (Călinoiu
& Vodnar, 2018; Coman & Vodnar, 2020; Li et al., 2018; Razzaghi-
Asl, Garrido, Khazraei, Borges, & Firuzi, 2013).
4.2.2 | Flavonoids
The flavonoids are essential constituents of the cells plants with high
antioxidant activity and important antioxidant ability and involved in
a vast diversity of biological functions (anticancer, immunomodula-
tor, and cellular homeostasis). Flavonoids contain 15 carbon atoms
in their basic structure arranged in the form C6-C3-C6 with two
aromatic rings (A, B) linked by three carbons, which may or not
link to a third ring (C). (Cartea et al., 2011; Falcone Ferreyra, Rius,
& Casati, 2012; Salehi et al., 2020; Santos, Maia, Sales, Ferriani, &
Dias Teixeira, 2017). The flavonols found are quercetin, kaempferol,
isorhamnetin, and cyaniding, and represent the most popular flavo-
noids by their diversity in different species (Fusari, Beretta, Locatelli,
Nazareno, & Camargo, 2019; Singh et al., 2017).
4.2.3 | Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are water-soluble plant pigments responsible for
the deep rich purple/red/blue colors in red cabbage and purple
cauliflower. They are one of the major subclasses of flavonoids, of
6 of 21 | FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
polyphenols. Anthocyanins are the sugar-conjugated forms of an-
thocyanidins, common anthocyanins are pelargonidin, cyanidin, del-
phinidin, peonidin, petunidin, and malvidin, being cyanidin the most
common in Brassica crops (Rodríguez-García, Sánchez-Quesada,
Toledo, Delgado-Rodríguez, & Gaforio, 2019).
Anthocyanins in the genus Brassica present unusually com-
plex structures with one or more cinnamic acids. The p-coumaryl
and feruloyl esterified forms of cyanidin-3-sophoroside-5-gluco-
side are predominant in cauliflower, while the sinapoyl ester are
mostly present in red cabbage (Lo Scalzo, Genna, Branca, Chedin, &
Chassaigne, 2008).
In broccoli sprouts the anthocyanins are the cyanidin-3-O-diglu-
coside-5-O-glucoside acylated and double acylated with p-coumaric,
sinapic, caffeic, ferulic, or sinapic acids with at least three predomi-
nant anthocyanins isomers [cyanidin 3-O-(acyl) diglucoside-5-O-glu-
coside, cyanidin 3-O-(acyl1)(acyl2) diglucoside-5-O-glucoside, and
cyanidin 3-O-(acyl1)(acyl2) diglucoside-5-O-(malonyl) glucoside] (Lo
Scalzo et al., 2008).
4.3 | Tocopherols and carotenoids
Tocopherols and tocotrienols (vitamin E) are lipid-soluble compounds
with antioxidant activity (Zuta, Simpson, Zhao, & Leclerc, 2007).
Natural organic compounds of tocochromanols which include to-
copherols (4) and tocotrienols (2) groups (Lu, Yang, Li, & Sun, 2014;
Mène-Saffrané, 2018).
Carotenoids are symmetrical tetraterpenes with a characteristic
structure of forty carbon atoms with conjugated double bonds re-
sponsible for the radical scavenging activity and antioxidant capacity.
Their function as pigments (yellow, orange or yellow) in Brassicaceae
family is widely valued and recognized (Flakelar, Prenzler, Luckett,
Howitt, & Doran, 2017; Jahangir et al., 2009). The most representa-
tive carotenoids are β-carotene, α-carotene, γ-carotene, and β-cryp-
toxanthin, they act as precursors of vitamin A and as antioxidants
(Frede et al., 2019).
4.4 | Other terpenes and seed oils
Phytosterols are steroid alcohols, organic compounds with a mo-
lecular nucleus of 17 carbon atoms and a characteristic three-di-
mensional arrangement of four rings. Phytosterols belongs to the
isoprenoid group, are structurally very similar to cholesterol but
functionally opposite and nutritionally it is one of the most impor-
tant constituent of oil, which is beneficial for human health (Gül &
Şeker, 2006). In fact, phytosterols increase the solubilization of cho-
lesterol and as a result, cholesterol absorption lowers in intestine
(Sharma, Rai, & Prasad, 2018).
Brassicaceae are considered an oilseed-rich and economically
important plant family. Regarding seed oils in Brassicaceae, they in-
clude fatty acids. The content of seven major fatty acids present in
the oil extracted from Brassica crops (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic,
linolenic, eicosenoic, and erucic) and other minor fatty acids (ara-
chidic, arachidonic, and behenic) (Cai et al., 2020; Cartea et al., 2019).
5 | E X TR AC TI O N O F B I OAC TI V E
CO M P O U N D S
A crucial step to explore and exploit the phytochemicals from plants
is the efficient extraction of these bioactive agents. Nowadays, there
is a wide variety of extraction methods, including traditionals such
as maceration or more sophisticated with microwave and ultrasound
implementation. (Azwanida, 2015). The objective of the techniques
for extracting bioactive compounds from plants is based on five dif-
ferent working strategies; (1) extract specific complex compounds;
(2) increase the specificity of the methods; (3) concentrate com-
pounds; (4) transform compounds into more manageable forms; and
(5) create an efficient and reproducible method (Azmir et al., 2013).
The Figure 2 shows the general steps suggested to achieve a good
extraction of bioactive compounds from plants. The key to achieving
optimal extraction also includes selecting the most suitable method,
and without damaging the nutritional quality (components may be
sensitive to high pressure, boiling, and/or high temperatures). These
treatments may be aggressive and degrade flavonoids, glucosi-
nolates hydrolysis, hydroxycinnamic; among others damages (Raiola
et al., 2018). The comparison between extraction methods for bioac-
tive compounds is described in Table 3. The table includes different
extraction methods and conditions, possible advantages, as well as
the method routinely used to identify any biological activity.
Another point to be considered is the yield of extraction which de-
pends on the nature of the vegetable sample, solvent used (polarity),
time, temperature, and sample-solvent ratio (Dai & Mumper, 2010).
Yu et al., (2018) suggest that in vegetables such as broccoli and kale,
the particle size infers on the availability of bioactive components
such as Indole-3-carbinol, and different phenolic compounds. Also,
the grinding of the vegetables, originates a greater extraction com-
pared with simple chopped and increases the antioxidant activity. In
addition, they point out that the implementation of liquefaction of
the extracts in microwaves, does not affect the availability of their
compounds.
5.1 | Solvent extraction
In the extraction of bioactive compounds from plants with solvents,
it is necessary to make an adequate selection of the solvent, de-
pending on the polarity of the solute of interest. Similar polarities
facilitate the adequate dissolution of the solute. There is the pos-
sibility of using a sequence of various solvents, playing with the po-
larities, in order to limit the desired compound to be extracted, as
well as improve its performance. Discovering that the implementa-
tion of highly polar solvents has a better effect on the extraction
of phenolic compounds, also increasing its antioxidant effectiveness
(Altemimi, Lakhssassi, Baharlouei, Watson, & Lightfoot, 2017).
FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
FIGURE 2 Important considerations in the process of extracting bioactive compounds from Brassica plants
The extraction of phenolic compounds from plants is generally
carried out with solvents and the most used are methanol, etha-
nol, acetone, ethyl acetate, and their combinations with different
percentages of water. Thus, the suitable selection of the solvent is
important to obtain greater yield, with the desired characteristics
(Xu & Chang, 2007). The methanol is the solvent with greater effi-
ciency in the extraction of low molecular weight polyphenols and
acetone-water combination for extract high molecular weight com-
pounds such as flavonoids. In this regard, Doheny-Adams, Redeker,
Kittipol, Bancroft, and Hartley (2017) compared three solvent ex-
traction methods, in order to obtain a higher yield of glucosinolates,
in four species of the Brassicaceae (B. juncea, S. alba, R. sativus, and
E. sativa) using extraction with hot methanol, cold methanol, boiling
water, and they found that the higher yield of glucosinolates was ob-
served with cold methanol (80%). Continuing with studies in which
methanol was applied as a solvent, Rajapriya, Geetha, and Ganesan
Kripa (2017), in methanol extracts of cauliflower, highlights the
finding of flavonoids such as luteolin, myricetin, and quercetin, with
anti-inflammatory, chemopreventive and antioxidant properties.
Reporting therapeutic effects of its methanolic cauliflower extract,
in rats fed with ethanol; by reducing the levels of pancreatic marker
enzymes (pro-inflammatory cytokines), as well as an increase in the
antioxidant state of the pancreas, protecting it from the oxidative
stress to which it was subjected. Noting that extraction with metha-
nol causes an increase in the antioxidant activity of the extract.
In general, it is considered that the safe way to obtain bioactive
compounds for human consumption, the ethanol is an excellent op-
tion (Shi et al., 2005). Aranaz et al., (2019) compared the extraction
| 7 of 21
of bioactive compounds from broccoli with two different 70% sol-
vents, ethanol and methanol, finding that there was no difference
between the implementation of ethanol or methanol as extraction
solvent in the quantitation of the total phenolic content.
5.2 | Hydrodistillation
Hydrodistillation is a traditional method of extracting bioactive
compounds from plants, mainly essential oils. It can be carried out
in three different ways: (1) distillation by water; (2) steam and water
distillation; and (3) direct steam distillation. The main physicochemi-
cal processes that occur in hydrodistillation are basically three, hy-
drodiffusion and hydrolysis, by the release of bioactive compounds
by the action of hot water/ steam, separating from the medium by
the effect of condensation. Furthermore, decomposition due to the
required heat treatment, which generates a possible loss of heat-
sensitive compounds, which makes it a limitation in the extraction
of volatile compounds (Aramrueang, Asavasanti, & Khanunthong,
2019; Oreopoulou, Tsimogiannis, & Oreopoulou, 2019). Park, Chung,
and Ahmad (2012) studied the chemical composition of canola seed
essential oil obtained by two different extraction methods (hydrodis-
tillation and extraction with petroleum ether). They found a higher
level of extraction through hydrodistillation. Showing through a
gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis, the
prevalence of compounds such as 1-butene 4-isothiocyanate (4.8%),
bicyclohept-6-en-1-yl-tert-butyl ether (13.7%), 2-phenyl ethyl isothi-
ocyanate (39.2%), 2- (allylthio) 1-nitrobutane (12.8%), etc. However,
TA B L E 3 Comparison of extraction methods of bioactive compounds from Brassica plants
8 of 21

Description Bioactive compound

|

Extraction Determination
method Brassica Process conditions Advantages Characteristics method Biological activity References

Ultrasound- Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. 40 kHz; 132 W; 120 min; 60% 70% more extraction Derivatives of fatty y GC–MS Antioxidant activity: 13% Prá et al. (2015)
Assisted capitata ethanol; 30 ºC acids, sulfur compounds – 80% inhibition DPPH
Extraction (UAE) and glycosides radical.
Kale Brassica oleracea L. var. 20 kHz; 100 W; 60 min; 80% 80%–90% more Phenolic acids and HPLC-ESI–MS/MS ‒ Oniszczuk and
sabellica etanol extraction flavonoids Olech (2016)
Mustard Seed Meal Brassica High-Intensity Ultrasound; 70% Yield increase in dry Phenolic compounds Folin-Ciocalteu Antioxidant activity: 70% Anwar et al.
juncea ethanol; 30 min; 20 kHz weight inhibition DPPH radical (2013)
Canola seed Brassica napus Ultrasonic treatment; 20 min; 112.18% higher Phenolics and flavonoids Folin-Ciocalteu Antioxidant activity: Teh and
70°C Methanol:acetone: water concentration 34.17% inhibition of Birch (2014)
solvent; 200 W DPPH radical
High-pressure Broccoli seeds Brassica 20– 160 MPa; 5 passes; Ethyl- 3 times more Sulforaphane HPLC Xing et al. (2019)
processing oleracea var. italica acetate solvent extraction than the
control
Red cabbage Brassica oleracea CO2; 10 MPa; 60°C; two phases Less extraction time Anthocyanins spectrophotometric ‒ Xu et al. (2010)
L. var. capitata f. rubra in half increase in pH differential
volumetric mass
transfer coefficients
Solvent extraction Cauliflower Brassica oleracea 80% methanol; oven-dried Yield increase in dry Phenolic compounds Folin-Ciocalteu Antioxidant activity: 70% Anwar et al.
var. botrytis (40°C) weight inhibition DPPH radical (2013)
Cabbage Brassica oleracea Variety of polar solvents (0 – 9 better extractions at Phenolic compounds Folin-Ciocalteu Good antioxidant Nawaz, Shad, and
Convar Capitata Var L. D polarity) higher polarity of the potential against metals Rauf (2017)
solvent and free radicals
African mustard Brassica Organic solvents of increasing - Isothiocyanates and GC–MS anti-15-LOX, anti- Rahmani,
tournefortii polarity (Cyclohexane polyphenols α-glucosidase, and Bouajila,
dichloromethane methanol) cytotoxic activities Jouaide, and
Debouba (2020)
Root and shoot mix Brassica 70% methanol; 90–92°C; 5 min Robust and rather Glucosinolates HPLC ‒ Grosser and van
nigra, B. rapa, and B. oleracea. straightforward Dam (2017)
method Low-cost
per sample
Soxhlet extraction Rapeseed B. napus L Petroleum ether; 6 hr; 100°C Organic solvent Essential oil GC–MS ‒ Yu, Wang, Liu,
extraction yield of Liu, and Wang
rapeseed oil was (2012)
35.88%
Broccoli Fiolaro Brassica 60% Methanol; 6 hr; 3 cycles of Highest inhibitory Phenolic components HPLC Enzyme inhibitory Mollica
oleracea L. convar. Italica extractions AChE effects effects ex-vivo and et al. (2018)
botrytis (L.) Alef. var. cymosa in-vivo
Duch
FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al. | 9 of 21

through solvent extraction, they reached a greater number of iso-

Nguyen, Le Ngoc,

Saka et al. (2017)

Kijchavengkul,
Samsudin, and
Lertsiri (2020)
Huynh (2020)
lated compounds. So the final characteristics of the product are an

PhanThiKieu,
Tran Thanh,

et al. (2018)
References
important starting point in the selection of the extraction method.

Netramai,
and Mai

Bassan
5.3 | Soxhlet extraction

human cancer cell lines

antimicrobial activities
Antioxidant activity

Cytotoxic effect in
Soxhlet extraction is a traditional technique, which is used to iso-
Biological activity

Antioxidant and
late a compound with limited solubility in a specific solvent, with
impurities insoluble in the same solvent. Mainly used in heat resist-
ant compounds, due to the long exposure of the materials to high
temperatures. This technique is widely used with various types of
‒

solid materials of natural origin; and for years it was applied as a

routine methodology in many laboratories. the devices needed to
Folin-Ciocalteu
pH-differential
Determination

spectroscopy

carry out a soxhlet extraction consist of a distillation flask, a sample

GC/GC–MS
method;

holder (thimble), siphon, and condenser (Nafiu, Hamid, Muritala, &

method

GC–MS
UV-Vis

Adeyemi, 2017; Zygler, Słomińska, & Namieśnik, 2012). In review-

ing studies using soxhlet extraction, Verma, Sharma, and Rai (2019),
compared the implementation of two different solvents (petroleum
Volatile glucosinolates
Phenolic compounds:
Bioactive compound

ether and n-hexane), in order to obtain a better yield in the extrac-

tion of essential oils edibles present in Indian mustard. Finding that
Characteristics

anthocyanins

Anthocyanins

Essential oils

by implementing petroleum ether a better oil yield was achieved,

obtaining 37% as total oil content of the seeds. With a powerful an-
tioxidant activity of 88.43 µg/g ascorbic acid equivalents. In another
study by Aydin (2020), antioxidant, antibacterial activity (against
resistant compounds

Salmonella enterica, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterobacter aerogenes, and

High impact of plant
Efficient extraction
time and increase
Reduce extraction

method of heat-
60% ethanol, 1:30 solid/solvent; Highest contents

Proteus vulgaris), and antifungal (against Candida albicans, Candida

of anthocyanin,

yield of color

tropicalis, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) were found in kale extracts,

polyphenol
Advantages

extraction

obtained with ethanol as a solvent by means of the soxhlet meth-

odology. Highlighting a greater antimicrobial activity against fungi
part

than against bacteria. Attributing the bioactivity to the extracted

phenolic compounds with ranges between 21 and 50 micrograms
500 – 380 rpm; Ethyl acetate
Red Cabbage Brassica oleracea 1:3 g/ml (solid/water); 800 W;

1:5 solid/water; 500 – 400°C;

1:2 solid/water; diethyl ether;

GAE/ml.
dried over sodium sulfate.
and dichloromethane
Process conditions

5.4 | Microwave extraction

600 W; 2 min

The extraction of bioactive compounds from plants by microwaves

8 min

is an area of great interest in the scientific community. Describing

them as electromagnetic waves, which consist of an electric field
Red cabbage Brassica oleracea

and a magnetic field. The frequency of microwave electromagnetic

Mustard Brassica juncea var.

radiation occurs between 300 MHz and 300 GHz, with a wavelength
Turnip Brassica rapa var.
L. var. Capitata f. Rubra

L. var. Capitata f. Rubra

between 1 cm and 1 m. The implementation of microwave-assisted

extraction of antioxidant compounds has become popular with re-
spect to conventional techniques. Because it reduces the working
times and the volume of the extraction solvent; avoiding, in addition,
rapifera
Brassica

losses of bioactive compounds (Altemimi et al., 2017). One of the

raya

main uses of microwaves is in the pretreatment of plant samples; for

example, in the extraction of canola oil. By microwaving the seeds,
Hydrodistillation

the processing time and use of solvents are reduced. Also achiev-
Microwave-
Description

Extraction
Extraction

ing a higher content of desirable compounds in oleaginous products

assisted
method

(tocopherols, phytosterols, and phenolic compounds) (Gaber, Tujillo,

Mansour, & Juliano, 2018). Ferreira et al., (2018), implemented
10 of 21 | FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
microwave assistance in the conventional extraction of bioactive
compounds by hydrodiffusion into broccoli by-products. Preserving
the stability of polysaccharides and proteins. Obtaining great yield
of phenolic compounds (317 µg/ml GAE), free sugars (11 mg/ml),
amino acids (9 mg/ml), and glucosinolates (356 µg/ml). Which makes
microwave broadcasting an excellent combination.
5.5 | Ultrasound extraction
The implementation of ultrasound in the extraction of bioactive
compounds from plants is one of the simplest techniques to use,
since an ultrasonic bath is common equipment in laboratories.
Ultrasound levels from 20 kHz to 100 MHz are used, in order to
break the cell walls of plants. This increases the extraction yield,
due to the better penetration of the solvent into the cells (Altemimi
et al., 2017). Furthermore, this process has the ability to work at
low temperatures, thus maintaining the quality of the compounds
of interest to be extracted. Flores-Jiménez et al., (2019)investigated
the impact of the application of high intensity ultrasound on the
extraction of canola protein isolates. Evaluating changes in com-
positional, physicochemical, biochemical, functional, and structural
properties. Noting that the application of ultrasound does not break
the covalent bonds of proteins, since no changes were found in the
electrophoretic patterns of glutelin (the most abundant protein frac-
tion in canola protein isolates). This suggests a great opportunity for
ultrasound treatments, as a tool to extract compounds for food use,
without causing structural damage. When comparing conventional
extractions like maceration against ultrasound-assisted extraction,
it is possible to find certain advantages. Pezeshkpour et al., (2018)
studied the phenolic compounds extracted from the broccoli veg-
etable. They evaluated extracts obtained by maceration against
extracts obtained with ultrasound, comparing parameters of anti-
oxidant activity and antibacterial effects against clinical strains of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Finding a higher concentration of phe-
nolic compounds in ultrasound-assisted extraction, which leads to
greater antioxidant activity and greater antibacterial activity. Thus,
achieving a better synergistic effect in their tests with metal-organic
framework nanocubes (MOF-5-NCs). Which points to ultrasonic-
assisted extraction, as a fast and efficient technique of extraction of
biologically active phenolic compounds.
5.6 | High-pressure extraction
The application of high pressures in the extraction of bioactive
compounds has become a method to extract various compounds
such as polysaccharides, anthocyanins, flavonoids, and phenolic
compounds. Method that is based on the activation of phenomena
such as the phase transition from one form to another. Promoting
the decrease in volume, resulting in better extraction. Showing great
advantages, such as lower energy consumption and reductions in
processing times. In addition to promoting better yields, with less
impurities (Khan, Aslam, & Makroo, 2018). According to studies
carried out on white cabbage by (Alvarez-Jubete, Valverde, Patras,
Mullen, and Marcos (2014), the use of treatments such as bleach-
ing or processing with high pressures results in a reduction in ascor-
bic acid levels. However, at working parameters of 600 MPa and
20–40°C, the effect is less pronounced. Also pronouncing, an in-
crease in the content of total phytochemicals (phenolic compounds,
isothiocyanate compounds), compared to bleaching. Converting this
technology into an attractive process to obtain products of plant ori-
gin with biological properties beneficial to human health. Similarly,
Clariana, Valverde, Wijngaard, Mullen, and Marcos (2011) showed
that the best treatment to extract compounds with physicochemical
and nutritional properties from swede roots, was under pressures of
600 MPa (20°C). Originating less loss of antioxidant capacity, com-
pared to bleaching. Also inducing a higher level of compounds such
as glucosinolates, and the preservation of the original qualities.
6 | B I O LO G I C A L AC TI V ITI E S FRO M
PH Y TO C H E M I C A L S I N B R A S S I C A
The Brassicaceae (Cruciferous) vegetables have a lot of attention be-
cause in recent years their phytochemical compounds have been di-
rectly linked to beneficial effects in human health. Biological activity
is linked with different health benefits like anticancer, antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory, and cardioprotective activities. This activity prin-
cipally is due to the synergistic action of glucosinolates, polyphenols,
and triterpenes, considered the main complexes in cruciferous, and
the most studied regarding its structure, mechanism of action and
the effects in human cells (Šamec & Salopek-Sondi, 2019). In plants,
glycosylation of triterpenes is one of plant defense mechanisms,
changing the physicochemical properties and biological activities of
triterpenes to triterpenic saponins (Bönisch et al., 2014), originating
several functional properties, including anti-inflammatory, antifun-
gal, antibacterial, anti-parasitic, anticancer, and antiviral activities
(Mugford & Osbourn, 2013). In addition, it has been reported that
these compounds have antimicrobial activity, inhibiting the growth
of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, yeast, and fungi
(Davidson, Critzer, & Taylor, 2013). In Figure 3, some biological activ-
ities present in Brassica vegetables are shown, which are associated
with the abundant secondary metabolites that they develop as the
main defense mechanism. It is important the plant selected to work
because finding variations in the concentration and types of the phy-
tochemicals identified, there are marked differences in the concen-
tration of bioactive compounds between the seeds and the leaves
of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L) (Sharma et al., 2018). Finding
around 8.22%, 2.06%, and 2.55% less concentration of 2-butyl iso-
thiocyanate, linoleic acid and oleic acid, respectively, in leaves, com-
pared to seeds. They also found compounds that are unique to the
leaves, such as furaldehyde, 1-phenyl ethanol, and ethyl benzoate.
An important point in the effectiveness of the bioactive com-
pounds present in vegetables of the Brassicaceae family is their
adequate processing and handling. These factors directly impact
FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
its nutritional and sensory properties, affecting the bioactivity of
its compounds. As an example, the end effect of processes such
as blanching, cooking and/ or canning, affects the composition and
sensory characteristics of Brassica vegetables. Having a negative ef-
fect by degrading or diluting the compounds; or concentrating the
components due to the loss of water, as a positive effect (Martínez,
Armesto, Gómez-Limia, & Carballo, 2020). Another study carried out
on kale and cauliflower, shows that the effects of blanching and boil-
ing, respectively, generate losses in the concentration of amino acids,
proteins, minerals, and the content of phytochemical compounds
(Ali, 2015; Korus, 2014). Causing a loss of its bioactive potential.
However, according to studies by Şengül, Yildiz, and Kavaz (2014)
the action of boiling vegetables such as radishes and kale, causes
an increase in antioxidant activity, but reduces it in vegetables such
as red cabbage, white cabbage, and broccoli. Attributing this effect
to the properties of each vegetable, however, the heat treatment
implemented is decisive in the biological activity of the compounds.
6.1 | Brassica antimicrobial potential
Antimicrobial activity of different species of vegetables, herbs, and
their derivatives has been widely recognized since ancient times
(Koley, Howlader, & Bhaumik, 2019). Finding antimicrobial activity
in multiple plants such as garlic, licorice, hydrastis, sanguinaria, etc.,
stating that relatively all plants have been tested as antimicrobials.
Various extraction procedures have been developed, in which (1)
water, (2) organic solvents, (3) water/organic solvent mixtures or (4)
essential oils are implemented. In order to find an alternative with
good stability and low toxicity, to replace conventional therapies
against increasing microbial resistance (Salehi et al., 2018). Since
worldwide microbial infections have become responsible for high
morbidity and mortality. Attributing the resistance of the strains to
conventional antibiotics, so the new search for antimicrobial agents
is of utmost importance. Molecules synthesized by plants can be
non-antibiotic drugs with antibacterial properties that can create
FIGURE 3 Main biological activities of Brassica vegetables and their bioactive compounds
| 11 of 21
opportunities for innovative therapeutic approaches without caus-
ing resistance. Figure 4 shows what happens inside the cell when
it comes into contact with some antimicrobial agent, causing an in-
hibitory or resistance effect. An antimicrobial agent is the term used
for substances, drugs, or chemicals (natural or synthetic) that kill
or retard the growth of microorganisms. Over time, antimicrobials
have been mostly obtained from bacteria and fungi, through chemi-
cal or fermentative synthesis. Therefore, the implementation of new
antimicrobial compounds of plant origin is a new research topic.
They are unique compounds, that cannot be equaled by synthetic
molecules. Also, they have good tolerance and great acceptance
by sick patients (Salehi et al., 2019). Many plants have been stud-
ied, but few have been applied commercially and it is expected that
with new technologies, the production costs of these natural com-
pounds will decrease and become more attractive to the market (M.
Sharifi-Rad et al., 2018). The application could be as antibacterial,
antiviral, antifungal, or antiparasitic agents (Burnett-Boothroyd &
McCarthy, 2011). At present, the use of plant-derived antimicrobial
agents is greatly increased day by day, and plants are a great source
of bioactive metabolites. The natural antimicrobials being a good op-
tion for the development of new alternatives antimicrobials against
resistance caused by the abuse of conventional synthetic antibiotics.
Organic compounds from plants with sulfur in their mole-
cules have shown antibacterial activity against gram-positive and
gram-negative bacteria. Glucosinolates and their hydrolysis by the
enzyme myrosinase originates some specific products that affect
the growth of different microorganisms (Barbieri et al., 2017). The
bioactive potential of glucosinolates produced by vegetables of the
Brassicaceae family is evident, making them excellent candidates in
the biocontrol of pathogens that cause serious infections in humans.
However, most of the glucosinolates tested act synergistically with
conventional antibiotics, improving their effect (Melrose, 2019).
Over time, it has been reported that breakdown products such as
isothiocyanate exhibit inhibitory activity against a large number
of microorganisms including fungi and pathogenic bacteria, being
Escherichia, Klebsiella, Salmonella, Bacillus, Serratia, Staphylococcus,
12 of 21 | FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
FIGURE 4 Antibacterial activity and bacterial resistance mechanisms
and Listeria the most representative species (Alvarez, del Moreira,
Roura, Ayala-Zavala, & González-Aguilar, 2015). Aires, Mota,
Saavedra, Rosa, and Bennett (2009) analyze different glucosinolates
and their corresponding enzymatically hydrolyzed products and find
null antibacterial activity for intact glucosinolates. However, the
isothiocyanates studied, sulforaphane, benzyl-isothiocyanate, and
2-phenylethylisothiocyanate, derivatives of glucoraphanin, aromatic
glucotropaeolin, and gluconasturtiin, respectively, were potent anti-
microbials, even more than control (vancomycin), with 400% larger
inhibition halos. The henzyl-isothiocyanate shows a 60 mm inhibi-
tion diameter against S. aureus and S. saprophyticus, while the con-
trol barely exceeds 10 mm in both (3 μmol). In other reports, the
presence of glucosinolates (2 ppm) in Brassica juncea oil (85% allyl
isothiocyanate, 10% butenyl isothiocyanate), shows antifungal ac-
tivity, inhibiting the growth of Penicillium roqueforti, P. corylophi-
lum, Eurotium repens, A. flavus, and Endomyces fibuliger in rye bread
(Melrose, 2019; Suhr & Nielsen, 2003).
Another important group of secondary metabolites with antimi-
crobial activity present in plants are phenolic compounds (Mandal,
Dias, & Franco, 2017). Its antimicrobial activity depends on its chemi-
cal structure, specifically, on the position of the benzene ring and the
length of the saturated chain. Being its mode of action, the inactiva-
tion of cellular enzymes, in addition to modifying the permeability of
membranes (Cueva et al., 2010). According to the studies presented
by Prasad et al., (2015), ethanol extracts of white cabbage, cauli-
flower and radish, have inhibitory activity against E. coli, B. subtillis,
and S. epidermis, with inhibition of 65%–85%, regarding the control
(streptomycin). That confirms that the possibility to achieve effects
close to those shown by commercial drugs. The results also confirm
that ethanol extraction improve the yield of antimicrobial com-
pounds in plants (Redfern, Kinninmonth, Burdass, & Verran, 2014).
Phenolic fractions rich in quercetin and kaempferol derivatives,
evaluated by Ayaz et al., (2008), effectively inhibited the growth of
the Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter fae-
calis, Bacillus subtilis, and the Gram-negative bacterium Moraxella
catarrhalis, which is known to be a major respiratory pathogen in
humans. Also including the yeasts Candida albicans and C. tropicalis.
Obtaining its extracts from leaves and seeds of kale, by extractions
with methanol. Reaching inhibition halos of 20–32 mm in diameter,
in the case of bacteria (highly active) and values of 12 mm in yeasts
(normal activity).
Jaiswal, Abu-ghannam, and Gupta (2012) evaluated the anti-
bacterial activity of different extraction solvents at 60%. This work
showed that hydroalcoholic extracts of broccoli, brussels sprouts,
and white cabbage have inhibitory activity in the growth of L. mono-
cytogenes with ranges of 51.1%–69.1%, 33.3%–39.1%, 23.2%–34.0%,
respectively, for each vegetal. Where the methanol extracts showed
the highest total phenolic content, 23.6, 20.4, and 18.7 mg gallic acid
equivalents (GAE).g-1.
Is important to show the isothiocyanate sulforaphaneis (IS) pow-
erfully bactericidal against Helicobacter pylori infections are strongly
associated with the worldwide pandemic of gastric cancer. The
scientific reports have confirmed that a dietary high consumption
of sulforaphane-rich broccoli reduce colonization and attenuate
FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
gastritis in Helicobacter pylori-infected mice and humans. The treat-
ment includes feeding with 70 g/d of broccoli containing 420 µmol
of SF precursor and seems to enhance chemoprotection of the gas-
tric mucosa against H. pylori-induced oxidative stress (Yanaka, 2017;
Yanaka et al., 2009).
6.1.1 | Mode of action of glucosinolate
breakdown products
Nitriles, thicynates, and isothiocyanates are some products of the
action of myrosinase enzyme on glucosinolates. The most reac-
tive compounds are the isothiocynates, showing high antimicro-
bial activity at low concentrations (Calmes et al., 2015). This has
been demonstrated in the study conducted by Sellam, Dongo,
Guillemette, Hudhomme, & Simoneau, 2007, where fungal cells
over-express several genes involved in the protection against
oxidative damage. Happening in the same way in tumor cells in
mammals treated with isothiocyanates, causing apoptotic and
autophagic cell death of different types of cancer cell (Boreddy,
Sahu, & Srivastava, 2011).
The activity of isothiocyanates is associated with the chemical
reactivity that they possess. They can affect the biological activity
of various proteins and enzymes, by modifying cysteine, selenocys-
teine or amine residues. Allyl-, benzyl-, and 4-methylsulfinylbutyl
isothiocyanates are the confirmed compounds with antimicrobial
activity against pathogenic bacterial and fungal present in plants
(Sellam et al., 2007; Tierens et al., 2001).
Studies conducted by Lazzeri, Curto, Leoni, and Dallavalle
(2004), showed that the glucosinolate-myrosinase system, typical
of vegetables in the Brassicaceae family, is a good alternative to
control pests and pathogens. These tests showed a clear in vitro
nematicidal activity of the degradation products of glucosinolates
against Meloidogyne incognita and confirmed that intact gluco-
sinolates (without myrosinase action) did not show any biocidal
activity.
6.2 | Brassica antioxidant potential
Free radicals are very reactive atoms or groups of atoms that have a
missing electron and. tend to capture an electron of stable molecules
to achieve their electrochemical stability and this starts a chain reac-
tion, damaging the cells. An antioxidant agent inhibits the formation
of these free radical or interrupt its propagation (Atasoy, Yesilnacar,
& Atasoy, 2019; Huang, Ou, & Prior, 2005).
Most vegetables are subjected to constant oxidative stress.
Therefore, the development of an antioxidant system is important
for control the oxidation of cells (Agati, Matteini, Goti, Tattini, &
Tattini, 2005; Wen et al., 2016). Phenolic compounds are one of the
major antioxidant compounds of Brassica plants, which exist predom-
inantly as conjugated structures (Vale et al., 2015). Phenolic com-
pounds possess properties such as hydrogen peroxide production in
| 13 of 21
the presence of certain metals, the ability to scavenge electrophiles
(Cartea et al., 2011).
6.2.1 | Mechanism of action of antioxidants of
Brassica plants
Oxidation is a process in which chemical substances are transformed
into highly reactive free radicals, known as reactive oxygen species
(ROS). Therefore, antioxidants prevent or eliminate diseases related
to oxidative stress by counteracting the deteriorating effect of ROS,
preserving cellular functions (Neha, Haider, Pathak, & Yar, 2019).
The mechanism of action of antioxidant components depends on
their chemical properties, as well as their location. Antioxidants
exert their action in one or more ways: (a) scavenging species that
initiate peroxidation, (b) chelating metal ions such that they are un-
able to generate reactive species or decompose lipid peroxides,
(c) quenching O2, preventing formation of peroxides, (d) breaking
the auto-oxidative chain reaction, and/or (e) reducing localized O2
concentrations (Brewer, 2011). In vegetables, the tolerance to oxi-
dative damage induced by stress depends largely on the rapid and
efficient detoxification of ROS, a mechanism made by their defense
system, comprised of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants as
the flavonoids, and polyphenols some of the most prominent agents.
(Anjum, Tantray, Khan, & Ahmad, 2020). The ability to eliminate
ROS in these compounds is related with the hydroxylation, methyla-
tion, glycosylation and/or acylation in their main chains (Chapman,
Muhlemann, Gayomba, & Muday, 2019).
The polyphenols are a large and diverse class of antioxidant com-
pounds, many of which occur naturally Brassica plants character-
ized by the presence of several phenolic groups (Qaderi, Kurepin, &
Reid, 2006). The hydroxyl groups of polyphenols are very reactive in
neutralizing free radicals by donating a hydrogen atom or an electron,
chelating metal ions, inactivating lipid-free radical chains and pre-
venting hydroperoxide conversions into reactive oxyradicals (Jaiswal
et al., 2012). Studies conducted by Xiao et al. (2019), the antioxidant
activity or 2,2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging
capacity of different varieties of the Brassicaceae is located in a range
of 157.3 to 806.3 μmol of Trolox equivalents (TE)/100 g of fresh veg-
etable. The values correspond to total phenolic content from 88.6 to
811.2 mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g of fresh vegetable.
The radish ruby, kohlrabi purple, white and red cabbage are consid-
ered the vegetables with the greatest antioxidant potential.
7 | A PPLI C ATI O N S A N D PE R S PEC TI V E S
The implementation of natural extracts from vegetables rich in phy-
tochemicals/bioactive compounds, is an excellent alternative to ob-
tain value-added food products that represent multiple benefits for
the nutrition and health of consumers (Surbled & Mompon, 2008).
One of the great challenges today is to reduce oxidative stress in
cells, which is related to various conditions associated with aging.
TA B L E 4 Applications of Brassica plant extracts

Origin Bioactive compound Extraction method Biological activity Application References

14 of 21
|

Broccoli Glucosinolates Phenols Solvent extraction Anti-obesity Hypolipidemic agents in treatment of Aranaz et al. (2019)
hyperlipidemia
Broccoli & Collard Polyphenols Glucosinolates Solvent extraction Antioxidant Antitumor Cytotoxic effect on cancer cell lines Radošević et al. (2017)
Broccoli Glucosinolates Maceration/Solvent extraction Antifungal Minimally processed arugula. Flores-Córdova
et al. (2015)
Cauliflower Isothiocyanates Ultrasound-assisted extraction Antioxidant Enriched apple drink Amofa-Diatuo,
by-products (UAE) Anang, Barba, and
Tiwari (2017)
Red cabbage Anthocyanins Hydro-alcoholic extraction pH indicator Intelligent food packaging Arruda, Stefani, Aniceto,
and Nat, (2015)
Red cabbage Anthocyanins Cold acetic acid extraction Gastrointestinal digestive In vitro digestion pepsin/HCl and bile Mcdougall, Fyffe,
stimulant salts/pancreatin Dobson, and
Stewart (2007)
Red cabbage Anthocyanins Acidified ethanol extraction pH indicator pH-sensitive films Prietto et al. (2017)
Kale Phenolic acids Soxhlet extraction Antioxidant/ antibacterial In vitro antimicrobial activity Ayaz et al. (2008)
Fermented curly kale Phenolic compounds Solid phase extraction Antitumor potential Decrease in the number of tumor Michalak et al. (2020)
epithelial cell lines
Indian mustard Phenolic compounds Solvent extraction Anticorrosive effect Inhibition of steel corrosion Casaletto et al. (2018)
Glucosinolates
Cabbage Isothiocyanates Solid phase microextraction Antifungal Control Alternaria rot in bell pepper Troncoso, Espinoza,
was tested Sánchez-Estrada,
Tiznado, and García
(2005)
Cauliflower Phenolic compounds Mechanical extraction Antimicrobial in Green silver In vitro antimicrobial activity at Singh, Sharma and
nanoparticles concentrations of 5 ppm Deswal (2018)
FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
Place where plants could play an important role in the search for
alternative compounds with beneficial powers. Reducing the oxida-
tive stress of the cells, and with this, avoiding the consequent ail-
ments (Salehi et al., 2020). Therefore, the consumption and scientific
exploration of the bioactive secondary metabolites present in the
crucifers would be positive for the prevention of health problems.
These bioactive compounds are molecules with therapeutic
potential for human health by reduce pro-inflammatory state, and
many metabolic disorders. Different kinds of studies indicate that
the intake of foods rich in compounds with high content in vitamins,
phytochemicals, and phenolic compounds, has a positive effect on
the health of the regular consumers reduce a wide variety of con-
ditions including cancer-and age-related functional decline (Santos,
Manuel, Saraiva, Vicente, & Moldão-martins, 2019). The extraction
and purification of bioactive molecules lead to develop of new tech-
nologies and design of new products, promoting the implementation
of natural components instead of harmful synthetic compounds.
The Brassica extracts are an excellent alternative to enrich foods
and design balanced diets for the provision of energy and nutrients
essential to human health and well-being (Aires, 2015). Numerous
studies over time have extracted and implemented different com-
pounds with large biological activities from these vegetables. Studies
conducted by Aranaz et al. (2019), relate the effects found in meta-
bolic syndromes (obesity and related diseases) with the compounds
present in broccoli. This confirms the study carried out by An, Han,
Kim, Park, and Han (2010), in which confirm that the exposure of
white adipocytes of obese mouse models to extracts of brassica
plants, induced the expression of genes related to lipolysis.
Table 4 shows a summary of the outstanding applications of
extracts of the genus Brassica most consumed around the world.
In health issues, broccoli extracts have the greatest potential and
they are a good option to consume during the treatment of cancer
tumors, with promising results against breast cancer cells and cer-
vical-uterine cancer. Creating an alternative in the search and inno-
vation of antitumor drugs. In the last three decades, about 80% of
the drugs approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), for
the treatment of cancer, come from natural bioactive agents. Being
small active molecules, proteins, and antibodies, the most widely
accepted and used compounds (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2019). Opening a
great window for the development of natural antitumor drugs from
the bioactive compounds of Brassica plants. In terms of antimicrobial
activity, works carried out by Pacheco-Cano, Salcedo-Hernández,
López-Meza, Bideshi, and Barboa-Coral (2018), confirm the poten-
tial of plant extracts of the Brassicaceae family, finding inhibitory
activity in broccoli extracts, against pathogenic bacteria, phyto-
pathogenic filamentous fungi and yeast. This extract can be applied
in a wide variety of products in the food preservation and quality
industry as additive of natural origin. Specifically, the glucosinolates
have anti-biofilm formation application in medical implements (cath-
eters, mechanical heart valves, pacemakers, prosthetic joints, and
contact lenses). The bacterial biofilms targets are Enterococcus faeca-
lis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus
viridans, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirase, and
| 15 of 21
Proteus mirabilis (Melrose, 2019). Likewise, Rubab et al. (2018) con-
firm a preservative effect exercised by extracts of Chinese cabbage
through antioxidant and antimicrobial activity against bacterial
pathogens at minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 16.5 mg/
ml. Therefore, these extracts have great potential to be used for the
eradication of foodborne diseases, and may be a natural substitute
for synthetic antimicrobial agents.
The same effects may be achieved to reduce from 1 to 3 log-
arithms the growth of bacteria related to gastrointestinal diseases
such as Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocy-
togenes (Brandi, Amagliani, Schiavano, Santi, & Sisti, 2006). Post-
harvest food care is another important issue because freshly cut
vegetable products are prone to contamination with a large number
of microorganisms. In the case of arugula, a vegetable that is normally
attacked by the fungus Alternaria alternata was effective a treatment
with broccoli extracts to control the attacks of this fungus.
The natural extracts of Brassica plants can have both in vitro and
in vivo applications (Musso, Salgado, & Mauri, 2019), according to
evidence of an intelligent biofilm made with gelatin and extracts of
red cabbage. The biofilm shows antioxidant power and the peculiar
coloration provided offers the possibility of being used in smart
packaging. The color turn by change in pH can be used to indicate
the microbial spoilage of food. Thus, granting a visual effect on the
quality of the products packed with this biofilm. Rubab et al., (2019)
studied the effect of the implementation by immersion of fresh
beef, in Chinese cabbage extract. The evaluation of the shelf life in
refrigeration confirms microbiological stability of the beef treated
with the Brassica extract, over the storage time, compared to the
control sample without the extract. In addition, they emphasize a
positive effect on the durability in the quality of the food’s attri-
butes. Another interesting application (Melathopoulos, Winston,
Whittington, Higo, & Le Doux, 2000), is the management of the
honey bee mite parasites by canola and neem oils. However, useful
limitations for beekeepers stand out, when comparing the effects
of synthetic acaricides versus natural extracts, since they show less
activity. In the near future, different extraction methods could be
evaluated, to potentiate the isolation of bioactive compounds and
generate competitive treatments against mites.
In addition to biological applications, the extracts of these plants
also can be used in natural dyes, because contain excellent pigments
as anthocyanins. Haddar, Ben Ticha, Meksi, and Guesmi (2018) ana-
lyzed the implementation of red cabbage pigment (anthocyanins) in
the dyeing of wool and silk fibers with good results in after washing,
rubbing, and light exposure of dyed fabrics.
Also discovering a biodegradability ratio of less than 1.5, making
this process with natural dyes an excellent treatment for biodegrad-
able color baths.
8 | CO N C LU S I O N
Brassica or Cruciferous vegetables are phytochemical-rich plants,
one of the most economically important plants in the world. These
16 of 21 | FAVELA-GONZÁLEZ et al.
vegetables have recently increased in popularity due to their ben-
eficial effects on human health linked to phytochemicals because
they allow them to display a wide spectrum of biological activities,
including antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor, anti-mutagenic, anti-
inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-oxidative. Many benefi-
cial effects on health include the prevention of oxidative stress,
induce the action of detoxification enzymes, stimulate immune
system, decrease the risk of cancers, inhibit malignant transforma-
tion and carcinogenic mutations, as well as, reduce proliferation
of cancer cells.
Undoubtedly, the Brassica vegetables are excellent source of
pharmaceuticals, and could be studied in vitro or in vivo to be ex-
ploited according to their phytochemical diversity, as well as, by the
wide variety of beneficial effects on nutrition and human health.
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
Kenia Mirozlava Favela González is a master’s degree student sup-
ported by CONACyT with a scholarship (887943). We appreciate
Dr. David F. Lafuente and Dr. Javier Hernández for their helpful
comments.
C O N FL I C T S O F I N T E R E S T
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ORCID
Kenia Mirozlava Favela-González https://orcid.
org/0000-0002-8649-5459
Norma Margarita De la Fuente-Salcido https://orcid.
org/0000-0001-8824-9529
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How to cite this article: Favela-González KM, Hernández-
Almanza AY, De la Fuente-Salcido NM. The value of bioactive
compounds of cruciferous vegetables (Brassica) as
antimicrobials and antioxidants: A review. J Food Biochem.
2020;00:e13414. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13414