The Cubic Quest

When you first learnt algebra, you probably came across a certain equation that
somewhat baffled you.

However, it probably didn’t take long for you to find out how to solve it. The formula for
the general quadratic is one the we all learn in grade school, and it looks something like
this.

Now that you have the power to solve all the quadratics that one throws at you, you
probably thought to go a step further. Little did you know that you would embark on
perhaps one of the longest and most twisted endeavors ever in math. Yes, you came
across an equation something like this:

The first solution:

People knew of cubic equations for centuries, millennia even. Evidence of attempts to
solve it is found in almost every ancient culture with a rich history of math. Several of
them even declared the cubic to be unsolvable, while some came close. However, the
first known solution was invented by mathematician Scipione Del Ferro, at around 1510.
However, the equation he solved looked something like this:

Now, that looks a bit different from what we saw, right? It’s missing an “x square” term.
Due to this reason, it is commonly known as the depressed cubic. Although incomplete,
this was the first big step to actually solving a proper cubic equation
Ferro’s method was as follows (according to what I found):
{3 }
x +bx=c
Then he took the following substitutions:
b=3st, c= s{3 }−t {3 }, x = s-t
Solving these simultaneous equations then gave a reliable answer to the depressed
cubic.
Now that Del Ferro has solved a problem that has baffled mankind for thousands of
years, what does he do? Simple- he tells absolutely no one about it. To us right now, it
Written by: Isaam Wafidur Rahman
may sound twisted and wrong, but he actually had a very good reason to do so. Back in
his time, a mathematician could challenge another one to a “duel” of sorts where they
both gave each other a set of questions, and the one who could answer more would get
the position and credibility of the other, while the other one would face public
humiliation. By never revealing the solution to anyone, he effectively made it so that he
could never lose in such a duel.
Antonio Fior: It is now the year 1526. Del Ferro has kept his achievement a secret for
decades now. Only on his deathbed does he reveal his solution to his student, Antonio
Fior. Now, Fior was somewhat of a greenhorn when it came to math, and frankly, lacked
mathematical prowess. But what he did not lack was ambition. With his newfound
knowledge, he began to boast everywhere about “his” mathematical prowess, and how
“he” had found the solution to the depressed cubic. On February 12, 1535, he
challenged a mathematician Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia, but soon comes to regret it.
Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia: Niccolo was born in Brescia, and had a very pitiful
childhood. He lost his father to robbers, leaving his whole family impoverished, and had
to survive during a war against the ruthless French. At the end of the war, Niccolo had
his face injured by a French soldier that impaired his speech, earning him his nickname,
Tartaglia (meaning “stammerer” in Italian). Self-taught, he rose through society to
become a respected mathematician. Due to Fior’s challenge, all of that was now at
stake.
As per custom, Tartaglia gave Fior 30 mathematical problems, and Fior did the same.
All thirty of the problems that Tartaglia received were depressed cubic. In the end, Fior
was able to solve none of Tartaglia’s problems. On the other hand, Tartaglia solved all
30, finding his own method to solve the depressed cubic.
This solution made Tartaglia famous. Anyone who was anyone in the world of math
wanted to know just how such a feat was possible. Amidst the chaos, another figure
emerged, one who would finally, properly, end the confusion of cubics.

Gerolamo Cardano: Cardano was a polymath based in Milan, who essentially begged
Tartaglia to reveal his secrets. As you may have guessed, Tartaglia firmly refused.
However, Cardano was stubborn, and eventually, stubbornness got through to him.
Finally, on March 25, 1539, Tartaglia reveals his methods, making him promise that he
would take the secret to his grave.
Cardano was overjoyed. Not because he had found the solution to the depressed cubic,
but because he now had hope to fulfill his ambitions- a solution to the general cubic,
including the “x squared” term. By a stroke of luck, he finds it. He performs the following
substitution:

Written by: Isaam Wafidur Rahman

Yes, I know it’s unusual to substitute x in terms of x, but let’s play along. Amazingly, this
substitution results in all the “x squared” terms to get cancelled out, leaving the equation
to be a depressed cubic. Solving that, then finding x from the original equation finally
solved the millennia long general cubic.
Now for his dilemma. He has no reason to keep this a secret. But he must. He swore an
oath. So, how are we all talking about him today? By yet another stroke of luck,
Cardano comes across Del Ferro’s diary, containing the solution to the depressed
cubic. Now, Cardano was able to publish his work without violating his oath

Imaginary Numbers

Humanity was not yet done with cubics, not yet. Cardano’s method was mostly reliable,
mostly. Every now and then, you would come across a cubic that would be “unsolvable”.
However, with a little guesswork, you could see that it definitely had at least one
solution. This was largely due to the fact that the “square root of negative numbers”
found their way into the solution. Back then, no one knew what that even meant. But
then, something changed.
Rafael Bombelli: Rafael is the final mathematician I will be mentioning, and I apologize
for making his segment so short. Since this is an article about the history of cubics, I
decided not to spend too much time on imaginary numbers, Rafael’s “invention”, which
deserves its own article.
Rafael decided to abandon all the pre-perceived beliefs of “negative areas” and “square
roots of negative numbers” and treated them as their own type of number. Sure enough,
with some algebraic manipulation, these numbers could cancel each other out, leaving
the correct solution.
Rafael’s discoveries shook the very core of polynomial equations, as his method
involved abandoning geometric proof. The result was that algebra was recognized as
independent of geometry.

Conclusion: I’m sure that we have now finished embarking on a wonderful journey
through this rich historical and mathematical topic of cubics. I believe this article may
open one’s eyes to how vast a simple problem can be, and similarly, how vast its
solutions can be. Thank you for reading so far
References:
i) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUzklzVXJwo
ii) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equation

Written by: Isaam Wafidur Rahman

iii) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_formula
iv) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolo_Tartaglia
v) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano

Written by: Isaam Wafidur Rahman