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Solve
(a) Because all the atoms are of the same type, Figure P1.2(a) depicts a pure element. The particles take up a
definite volume and are ordered, so this element is in the solid phase.
1
2 | Chapter 1 Particles of Matter: Measurement and the Tools of Science | 2
(b) Because there is a mixture of blue diatomic molecules and red diatomic molecules, Figure P1.2(b)
depicts a mixture of two elements. Both the blue and red diatomic particles fill the volume of the container
and are highly disordered; the mixture depicted is in the gas phase, and the mixture is homogeneous.
Think About It
Elements do not need to be present as single atoms. They may be diatomic, as in H2 or Br2, or even more
highly associated, as in S8 or P4.
Analyze
Chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds in which atoms are combined differently in the
products than in the reactants. In considering a possible phase change, solids have a definite volume and a
highly ordered arrangement where the particles are close together, liquids also have a definite volume but
have a disordered arrangement of particles that are close together, and gases have disordered particles that fill
the volume of the container and are far apart from each other. It may help to visualize each scenario, as
shown below:
Solve
In Figure P1.3 two pure elements (red–red and blue–blue) in the gas phase recombine to form a compound
(red–blue) in the solid phase (ordered array of molecules). Therefore, answer (b) describes the reaction
shown.
Think About It
A phase change does not necessarily accompany a chemical reaction. We will learn later that the polarity of
the product will determine whether or not a substance will be in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state at a given
temperature.
Analyze
Chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds in which atoms are combined differently in the
products than in the reactants. In considering a possible phase change, solids have a definite volume and a
highly ordered arrangement where the particles are close together, liquids also have a definite volume but
have a disordered arrangement of particles that are close together, and gases have disordered particles that fill
the volume of the container and are far apart from each other.
Solve
In Figure P1.4 we see that no recombination of the diatomic molecules occurs. The pure element (red–red)
condenses to a slightly disordered phase, while the other element (blue–blue) remains in the gas phase.
Therefore, answer (a) describes the reaction pictured.
Think About It
Cooling of air in this fashion to different temperatures separates the components of air.
Analyze
Based on the Atomic Color Palette (see the inside back cover of the textbook), we see that this model
contains one hydrogen atom bonded to a carbon atom that is bonded to an oxygen atom and to an O–H unit.
Solve
HC(O)OH or CH2O2
Think About It
This model represents formic acid, and the presence of the C(O)OH unit classifies it as a carboxylic acid.
Analyze
Based on the Atomic Color Palette on the inside back cover of the textbook, we see that this model contains
two CH3 units bonded to a central C atom with both an H atom and OH unit.
Solve
H3CCH(OH)CH3 or C3H8O
Think About It
This model represents isopropanol, and the presence of the O–H unit classifies it as an alcohol. Sometimes
isopropanol is called “rubbing alcohol.”
Analyze
Accuracy described how close the measured value is to the true value. In this case, each pill should weigh
3.25 mg, so the masses must be near this value to be accurate. Precision describes how consistent repeated
measurements are with one another.
4 | Chapter 1 Particles of Matter: Measurement and the Tools of Science | 4
Solve
Sample A is both accurate and precise. The average of the four masses is near 3.25 mg, and the values appear
fairly close to one another. Sample B is precise but not accurate. While the data points are quite similar to
one another, the average value is closer to 3.10 mg than 3.25 mg.
Think About It
Accuracy and precision can be somewhat difficult to evaluate without a statistical analysis of the data. In
Section 1.10, we discuss how the mean, standard deviation, and confidence intervals can be used to
determine if a true value is near our actual data and how similar data points are to one another.
Analyze
A and H are ball-and-stick models, while B, D, and I are space-filling models, and F is a structural formula.
C, E, and G are equations with included depictions of the transformation in the real world. Bonds are broken
or formed as a chemical reaction proceeds, while a physical process involves a change of phase but no
breaking or formation of chemical bonds. Compounds are made from elements and have different types of
atoms in them. Elements are composed of atoms that are all the same.
Solve
(a) C is the only chemical reaction depicted. In this reaction, hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form water
and oxygen gas.
(b) After consulting the Atomic Color Palette on the inside back cover of the textbook, we see that B
contains a central N atom bound to three H atoms, with the molecular formula NH3. The same molecular
formula is depicted in F.
(c) E and G are depictions of physical processes. E depicts the vaporization of N2, the transformation from
the liquid to the gas phase. G depicts the sublimation of I2, the transformation from the solid to the
gas phase.
(d) The pure elements depicted are A (P4, phosphorus), E (N2, nitrogen), G (I2, iodine) and I (O2, oxygen).
(e) The ball-and-stick depiction in H contains three colored spheres, corresponding to hydrogen (white),
carbon (black), and oxygen (red). The molecular formula for this compound is HC(O)H, or CH2O.
(f ) From the molecular formula provided in D (C5H12), we can tell that this molecule contains 17 atoms,
more than any other molecule depicted.
Think About It
C5H12 depicted in D is pentane, a hydrocarbon. The term hydrocarbon is used to describe molecules
containing only the elements hydrogen and carbon.
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competition with theirs, and who will prize more highly the pleasure
he receives than that he may be capable of bestowing—such a man
appears to me, in the essentials of character, a brute. The brutes
commonly seek the satisfaction of their propensities with straight-
forward selfishness, and never calculate whether their companions
are gratified or teased by their importunities. Man cannot assimilate
his nature more closely to theirs, than by imitating them in this.
Again. There is no instinct in regard to which strict temperance is
more essential. All our animal desires have hitherto occupied an
undue share of human thoughts; but none more generally than this.
The imaginations of the young and the passions of the adult are
inflamed by mystery or excited by restraint, and a full half of all the
thoughts and intrigues of the world has a direct reference to this
single instinct. Even those, who like the Shakers, ‘crucify the flesh,’
are not the less occupied by it in their secret thoughts; as the Shaker
writings themselves may afford proof. Neither human institutions
nor human prejudices can destroy the instinct. Strange it is, that men
should not be content rationally to control, and wisely to regulate it.
SEXUAL WEAKNESS
After seven months of pregnancy the fœtus has all the conditions
for breathing and exercising its digestion. It may then be separated
from its mother, and change its mode of existence. Child-birth rarely,
however, happens at this period: most frequently the fœtus remains
two months longer in the uterus, and it does not pass out of this
organ till after the revolution of nine months.
Examples are related of children being born after ten full months
of gestation; but these cases are very doubtful, for it is extremely
difficult to know the exact period of conception. The legislation in
France, however, has fixed the principle, that child-birth may take
place up to the two hundred and ninety-ninth day of pregnancy.
Nothing is more curious than the mechanism by which the fœtus is
expelled; everything happens with wonderful precision; all seems to
have been foreseen, and calculated to favor its passage through the
pelvis and the genital parts.
The physical causes that determine the exit of the fœtus are the
contraction of the uterus and that of the abdominal muscles; by their
force the liquor amnii flows out, the head of the fœtus is engaged in
the pelvis, it goes through it, and soon passes out by the valve, the
folds of which disappear; these different phenomena take place in
succession, and continue a certain time; they are accompanied with
pains more or less severe; with swelling and softening of the soft
parts of the pelvis and external genital parts, and with an abundant
mucous secretion in the cavity of the vagina. All these circumstances,
each in its own way, favor the passage of the fœtus. To facilitate the
study of this action, it may be divided into several periods.
The first period of child-birth.—It is constituted by the precursory
signs. Two or three days before child-birth a flow of mucus takes
place from the vagina, the external genital parts swell and become
softer; it is the same with the ligaments that unite the bones of the
pelvis; the mouth of the womb flattens, its opening is enlarged, its
edges become thinner; slight pains, known under the name of flying
pains, are felt in the loins and abdomen.
Second period.—Pains of a peculiar kind come on; they begin in
the lumbar region, and seem to be propagated towards the womb or
the rectum; and are renewed only after intervals of a quarter or half
an hour each. Each of them is accompanied with an evident
contraction of the body of the uterus, with tension of its neck and
dilatation of the opening; the finger directed into the vagina
discovers that the envelopes of the fœtus are pushed outward, and
that there is a considerable tumor, which is called the waters; the
pains very soon become stronger, and the contraction of the uterus
more powerful; the membranes break, and a part of the liquid
escapes; the uterus contracts on itself, and is applied to the surface of
the fœtus.
Third period.—The pains and contractions of the uterus increase
considerably; they are instinctively accompanied by the contraction
of the abdominal muscles. The woman who is aware of their effect is
inclined to favour them, by making all the muscular efforts of which
she is capable: her pulse then becomes stronger and more frequent;
her face is animated, her eyes shine, her whole body is in extreme
agitation, and perspiration flows in abundance. The head descends
into the lower strait of the pelvis.
Fourth period.—After some moments of repose the pains and
expulsive contractions resume all their activity; the head presents
itself at the vulva, makes an effort to pass, and succeeds when there
happens to be a contraction sufficiently strong to produce this effect.
The head being once disengaged, the remaining parts of the body
easily follow, on account of their smaller volume. The section of the
umbilical cord is then made, and a ligature is put around it at a short
distance from the umbilicus or navel.
Fifth period.—If the midwife has not proceeded immediately to the
extraction of the placenta after the birth of the child, slight pains are
felt in a short time, the uterus contracts freely, but with force enough
to throw off the placenta and the membranes of the ovum; this
expulsion bears the name of delivery. During the twelve or fifteen
days that follow child-birth the uterus contracts by degrees upon
itself, the woman suffers abundant perspirations, her breasts are
extended by the milk that they secrete; a flow of matter, which takes
place from the vagina, called lochia, first sanguiferous, then whitish,
indicates that the organs of the woman resume, by degrees, the
disposition they had before conception.
MANAGEMENT OF LABOR.