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Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Jones, Isabela
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
Second Semester, School Year 2021-2022
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
I. TITLE OF THE MODULE
Chapter One (1): INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
II. INTRODUCTION
This module is the first of six that deal with the subject of organic chemistry and organic
compounds. Organic compounds are the chemical basis for life itself, as well as an important
component of the basis for our current high standard of living. Proteins, carbohydrates, enzymes,
and hormones are organic molecules. Organic compounds also include natural gas, petroleum, coal,
gasoline, and many synthetic materials such as dyes, plastics, and clothing fibers.
III. TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Organic and Inorganic Compounds
2. Bonding Characteristics of the Carbon Atom
3. Hydrocarbons and Hydrocarbon Derivatives
4. Chemical Formulas
5. Isomers and Isomerism
6. Homologous Series & Functional Group
IV. LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this module, the students are expected to:
• Recognize the importance of organic compounds;
• Compare properties of organic and inorganic compound;
• Familiarize the methods of indicating covalent bonding in organic compound;
• Identify and draw structural formulas;
• Define isomerism; and
• Draw structures of isomers.
V. LEARNING CONTENT
1. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
During the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth century,
chemists began to categorize compounds into two types: organic and inorganic. Compounds
obtained from living organisms were called organic compounds, and compounds obtained
from mineral constituents of the earth were called inorganic compounds.
During this early period, chemists believed that a special “vital force” supplied by a living
organism was necessary for the formation of an organic compound. This concept was proved
incorrect in 1828 by the German chemist Friedrick Wöhler. Wöhler heated an aqueous
solution of two inorganic compounds, ammonium chloride and silver cyanate, and obtained
urea (a component of urine).
Soon other chemists had successfully synthesized organic compounds from inorganic
starting materials. As a result, the vital-force theory was completely abandoned.
The terms organic and inorganic continue to be used in classifying compounds, but the
definitions of these terms no longer reflect their historical origins. Organic chemistry is the
study of hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen) and their derivatives. Nearly all
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compounds found in living organisms are still classified as organic
compounds, as are many compounds that have been synthesized in
the laboratory and have never been found in a living organism.
Inorganic chemistry is the study of all substances other than
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
In essence, organic chemistry is the study of the compounds of
one element (carbon), and inorganic chemistry is the study of the
compounds of the other 116 elements. This unequal partitioning
occurs because there are approximately 7 million organic
compounds and only an estimated 1.5 million inorganic Fig. 1.1 Ratio of
compounds. This is an approximately 5:1 ratio between organic Inorganic Compound to
and inorganic compounds. organic Compound
Approximately 7 million
organic compounds are
known, compared to “just” 1.5
million inorganic compounds.
2. BONDING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CARBON ATOM
Why does the element carbon form five times as many compounds as all the other elements
combined? The answer is that carbon atoms have the unique ability to bond to each other in a
wide variety of ways that involve long chains of carbon atoms or cyclic arrangements (rings)
of carbon atoms. Sometimes both chains and rings of carbon atoms are present in the same
molecule.
The variety of covalent bonding “behaviors” possible for carbon atoms is related to
carbon’s electron configuration. Carbon is a member of Group IVA of the periodic table, so
carbon atoms possess four valence electrons. In compound formation, four additional valence
electrons are needed to give carbon atoms an octet of valence electrons. These additional
electrons are obtained by electron sharing (covalent bond formation). The sharing of four
valence electrons requires the formation of four covalent bonds.
Carbon can meet this four-bond requirement in three different ways:
• By bonding to four other atoms. This situation requires the presence of four
single bonds.
• By bonding to three other atoms. This situation requires the presence of two
single bonds and one double bond.
• By bonding to two other atoms. This situation requires the presence of either
two double bonds or a triple bond and a single bond.
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3. HYDROCARBONS AND HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES
Figure 1.2 A summary of classification terms for organic compounds
The field of organic chemistry encompasses the study of hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon
derivatives. A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon atoms and hydrogen
atoms. Thousands of hydrocarbons are known. A hydrocarbon derivative is a compound that
contains carbon and hydrogen and one or more additional elements. Additional elements
commonly found in hydrocarbon derivatives include O, N, S, P, F, Cl, and Br. Millions of
hydrocarbon derivatives are known.
Hydrocarbons may be divided into two large classes: saturated and unsaturated. A
saturated hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single
bonds. Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest type of organic compound. An unsaturated
hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon in which one or more carbon–carbon multiple bonds (double
bonds, triple bonds, or both) are present. In general, saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
undergo distinctly different chemical reactions.
Saturated hydrocarbons are the subject of this module one. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are
considered in the next chapter. Figure 1.2 summarizes the terminology presented in this
section.
Two categories of saturated hydrocarbons exist, those with acyclic carbon atom
arrangements and those with cyclic carbon atom arrangements. The term acyclic means “not
cyclic.” The following notations contrast simple acyclic and cyclic arrangements of six-carbon
atoms.
Figure 1.3 Categories of Saturated Hydrocarbons
We first consider saturated hydrocarbons with acyclic carbon atom arrangements and then
saturated hydrocarbons with cyclic carbon atom arrangements.
4. CHEMICAL FORMULAS
A chemical formula is a notation made up of the chemical symbols of the elements
present in a compound and numerical subscript (located to the right of each chemical symbol)
that indicate the number of atoms of each element present in a molecule of the compound.
The chemical formula for the compound aspirin is C9H8O4. This chemical formula
conveys the information that an aspirin molecule contains three different elements— carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O)—and 21 atoms—9 carbon atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, and 4
oxygen atoms.
When only one atom of a particular element is present in a molecule of a compound, that
element’s symbol is written without a numerical subscript in the formula for the compound.
The formula for rubbing alcohol, C3H8O, reflects this practice for the element oxygen.
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In order to write formulas correctly, one must follow the capitalization rules for
elemental symbols. Making the error of capitalizing the second letter of an element’s symbol
can dramatically alter the meaning of a chemical formula. The formulas CoCl2 and COCl2
illustrate this point; the symbol Co stands for the element cobalt, whereas CO stands for one
atom of carbon and one atom of oxygen.
Sometimes chemical formulas contain parentheses; an example is Al2(SO4)3. The
interpretation of this formula is straightforward; in a formula unit, there are present 2
aluminum (Al) atoms and 3 SO4 groups. The subscript following the parentheses always
indicates the number of units in the formula of the polyatomic entity inside the parentheses. In
terms of atoms, the formula Al2(SO4)3 denotes 2 aluminum (Al) atoms, 3 x 1 = 3 sulfur (S)
atoms, and 3 x 4 = 12 oxygen (O) atoms. Example 1.5 contains further comments about
chemical formulas that contain parentheses.
Example: Interpreting Chemical Formulas
For each of the following chemical formulas, determine how many atoms of each
element are present in one molecule of the compound.
a. HCN—hydrogen cyanide, a poisonous gas
b. C18H21NO3—Codeine, a painkiller
c. Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2—hydroxyapatite, present in tooth enamel
Solution
a. One atom of each element hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen is present. Remember
that the subscript 1 is implied when no subscript is written.
b. This formula indicates that 18carbon atoms, 21 hydrogen atoms, 1 nitrogen atom,
and 3 oxygen atoms are present in one molecule of the compound.
c. There are 10 calcium atoms. The amount phosphorus, hydrogen, and oxygen are
affected by the subscript outside the parentheses. So, there are 6 phosphorus atoms
and 2 hydrogen atoms present. As for oxygen atoms, which have two locations, it
has the total number of 26 oxygen atoms. Wherein 24 came from PO4 and 2 from
the OH subunits.
5. ISOMERS AND ISOMERISM
The phenomenon that two or more different chemical compounds have the same molecular
formula is called isomerism, from the Greek isos meaning “equal”, and meros meaning “part”,
a concept and term introduced by the Swedish scientist Jacob Berzelius in 1830.
Isomerism is a consequence of the fact that the atoms of a molecular formula can be
arranged in different ways to give compounds, called isomers, that differ in physical and
chemical properties.
There are two types of isomerism: structural isomerism and stereoisomerism, which can be
divided into further subtypes.
Figure 1.4 Flowchart Map of Isomers
• Structural isomerism is commonly referred to as constitutional isomerism.
The functional groups and the atoms in the molecules of these isomers are
linked in different ways.
• Stereoisomerism arises in compounds having the same chemical formula but
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different orientations of the atoms belonging to the molecule in three-
dimensional space. The compounds that exhibit stereoisomerism are often
referred to as stereoisomers. This phenomenon can be further categorized into
two subtypes. Both these subtypes are briefly described in this subsection.
• Enantiomers are chiral molecules that are mirror images of one another and
are not superimposable.
• Diastereomers are the stereoisomer compounds with molecules that do not
mirror images of one another and that are not superimposable.
6. HOMOLOGOUS SERIES & FUNCTIONAL GROUP
• A functional group is defined as an atom or group of atoms linked with carbon
determines characteristic properties of the organic compounds. The chemical properties of
an organic compound solely depend on upon the nature of functional group present in the
molecule.
Figure 1.
• A homologous series is a family of hydrocarbons with similar chemical properties who
share the same general formula.
VI. ASSESSMENTS
1. Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a. The number of organic compounds exceeds the number of inorganic compounds by a factor
of about 2.
b. Chemists now believe that a special “vital force” is needed to form an organic compound.
c. Historically, the org- of the term organic was conceptually paired with the org- in the term
living organism.
d. Most but not all compounds found in living organisms are organic compounds.
e. Over 7 million organic compounds have been characterized.
f. The number of known organic compounds and the number of known inorganic compounds
are approximately the same.
g. In essence, organic chemistry is the study of the compounds of one element.
h. Numerous organic compounds are known that do not occur in living organisms.
2. Indicate whether each of the following situations meet or do not meet the “bonding
requirement” for carbon atoms.
a. Two single bonds and a double bond
b. A single bond and two double bonds
c. Three single bonds and a triple bond
d. A double bond and a triple bond
3. For each of the following chemical formulas, determine how many atoms of each element
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are present in one molecule of the compound.
a. H2SO4
b. C17H20N4O6
c. Ca(NO3)2
4. What is the difference between a hydrocarbon and a hydrocarbon derivative?
5. Classify each of the following hydrocarbons as saturated or unsaturated.
Set 1.
Set 2.
6. On the basis of its chemical formula, classify each of the following substances as an
element or a compound?
a. LiClO3 b. CO c. Co d. S8
7. Write chemical formulas for compounds in which the combining ratios of atoms are as
follows:
a. Table sugar: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 12:22:11
b. Caffeine: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, 8:10:4:2
c. Vitamin C: carbon, hydrogen. oxygen, 6:8:6
d. Nicotine: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, 10:14:2
VII. ASSIGNMENT
Read module two (2) in advance as preparation for the next discussion.
VIII. RESOURCES
• Sachkheim, George I. and Lehman Denis D. Chemistry for the Health Sciences. 8th Edition. Prentice-
Hall, Inc.
• Stoker, Stephen H. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry. 5th Edition. Brooks//Cole, Cenage
Learning. 2010
• Holm, Johanna Forgotten Chemistry. Barron’s Educational Series, Inc. 2006
• Vollhardt, Peter, and Neil E. Schore. Organic Chemistry: Structure and Function. 5th Edition. New
York: W. H. Freeman & Company, 2007.
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