ON THE THEORY O F NORMAL GROUND IMPINGEMENT O F

AXI-SYMMETRIC J E T S I N INVISCID INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW

by

T. STRAND
G e n e r a l Dynamic 3 / C o n v a i r
San Diego, C a l i f o r n i a

AIAA P a p e r
No. 64-424

1st AIAA Annual Meeting

Washington, D. C. June 29 - July 2,1964
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of aeronautic^ and A ~ t r ~ m ~ t 1290i ~ s Sixth
. Avenue. New York. N. Y. 10019.
Abstracts m a y be Published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA. (Price-AIAA Member SOs. Non-Member 11.00).
 OS T I E THFORY O F NORhIAL GROUND 1MPINGEMPNT OF AXl-SYI\I!4ETRIC ]PTS
IN IliVlSClD INCOMPRFSSIBLE FLOW
T. Strand
Technical Assistant to Vice President-Engineering
General Dynamics/Convair
San Diego, California
Summary
An inviscid incompressible flow theory of ro-
ixtional symmetric jets impinging normally on the
ground i s developed and compared with test results.
The velocity distribution along the ground and across
the j e t exit, the location of the f r e e streamline jet bound-
a r y , and the thrust augmentation at constant power as a
function of the height above the ground a r e presented.
Satisfactory agreement between theory and experiments
is shown.
Introduction
All schemes so far developed for vertical takeoff
and landing of aircraft utilize one o r another form of a
subsonic jet. Various thrust devices a r e available to
create jet momentum transfer, among them being pro-
pellers, rotors, ducted fans, ejectors and jet engines.
Common to all these devices is the j e t o r downwash im-
pingement problem created by the interaction of the jet
and the ground plane.
Investigations of the behaviour of jets in ground
effect have to a large degree k e n hampered by the lack
of an inviscid flow theory around which the viscous, flow
work related to particle paths and entrainment of dust,
sand and gravel could he built. In fact a recent Cornell
report1 states that " m e r e a r e no h o w n theoretical
solutions which include the effects of jet flaring and
which can be used to calculate the flow field of a three-
dimensional j e t imping on tfie ground. The usual approach
i s to neglect this aspect of the problem and to use the
classical model of a j e t in proximity with the ground to
calculate the flow field That i s , the jet is re-
placed by a cylindrical vortex sheet of a constant radius
which extends to the ground. The ground plane is r e -
placed by an equivalent image of the j e t model. An im-
portant limitation of this model ------ i s the lack of
similarity to the actual physical situation on the ground
plane; indeed the model - - - - - h a s a singularity on the
ground plane at the edge of the jet which produces an in-
finite velocity a t this point. *'
Several authors have in the past considered the
flare problem associated with the normal ground im-
pingement of axi-symmetric jets in inviscid flow. Thus,
Schach2 employed an integral equation method in con-
junction with an assumed location of the free streamline
to satisfy the cmdition of constant pressure along the
boundary. ~ e ~ l e r employed
c3 electrolytic analog tech-
niques to find the shape of the free boundary after which
the j e t flow was computed using relaxation methods.
S h e d expanded the velocity potential in series using
Legendre polynomials. Here the free streamline bound-
a r y condition was satisfied in an average manner. An
iteration scheme was suggested, but not carried out.
In the following development a series solution in-
volving modified %ssel functions will he employed. The
streamlines will be assumed to be parallel across the j e t
exit. This condition, as well a s the conditions that the
flow direction is normal to the ground along the j e t
centerline,and horizontal along the ground, w i l l be
satisfied exactly. Along the free streamline the bound-
a r y conditions will be satisfied in an approximate
manner.
Analysis
Velocity Potential
The governing differential equation for the velocity
potential 'p of an inviscid incompressible flow with rota-
tional symmetry can be written a s follows
Here x and r a r e cylindrical coordinates with the
origin located at the center of the j e t exit as shown in
Figure 1. The subscripts denote partial differentiation.
The velocity components (Figure 1) are then u = cpx
and v = vr in the x and r directions respectively.
There a r e two sets of general solutions to the
above equation, as may be easily verified by the method
of separation of variables. One set involves various
combinations of J , Y , and hyperbolic sine and cosines.
The other s e t i s moade %p of I , K , and sine and cosines.
Here J , Y , I , and K are ?+&el functions of the
zerothoord8r. % the sussequent development only one of
these combinations will be used, namely
Ca lJ
The reason for the choice of this particular part of
the general solution will become clear from the discus-
sion of the boundary conditions given below. In Eq. (Z),
A and in are constants to be determined, and I o de-
ndtes the so-called modified Bessel function of the f i r s t
kind of zeroth order [identical to Jo(ix). tabulated in Ref.51.
UO and H are respectively the velocity at infinity and
the distance of the jet exit above the ground.
It is readily seen that Eq. (2) satisfies the bound-
a r y condition of parallel streamlines normal to the j e t
exit plane (line AB in Figure l ) , because the velocity
component 'pr is zero for all values of r at x = 0.
Parallel streamlines imply a constant velocity potential
across the j e t exit. The potential has been chosen arbi-
trarily to be zero across the jet exit a s indicated by
Eq. (2).
- iet (line BC. Fieure 1). co,
Alone the axis of the ~. . L ,~
alp0 equal to zero, a s required, because the derivative
is
I o z 11 = 0 for r = O .
n e boundary condition of no flow normal to tfie
ground (line CD, x = H) i s satisfied by letting
cos@, H) = 0. This cosine expression then leads to
the eigenvalues:
h n = (n/ZH)(1+2n) where n = 0, 1, 2 , etc.
(3) J
 Constant pressure is required along the f r e e
streamline (line AE), i.e.

vx2 2
+pr = u,2 for r = R, o ~ sx H (4)
v
Comparison of Eqs. (7) and (8), yields the
This is a condition which cannot easily he satis- equation for the free streamline boundary as follows
fied since the location of the free streamline boundary
is not known.
2
Consideration will from here on he restricted to
the flared portion (ABCDE, Figure 1) of the total jet flow
m
n=
I: o An 1 (A R) cos(Xn x) =
I n
c v Ro
2H R
- (9)
field. Test data 6 , 7 have shown that the velocity dis-
tribution across the j e t exit is uniform when H/D z 1,
where D is the jet exit diameter. It has also teen found
experimentally that the pressure along the ground i s Solution for H/D z 1
essentially constant and equal to the ambient pressure
f o r r 1 D, approximately, i.e. in the so-called wall- Since the solution is expressed in terms of a
jet region. Consequently it i s only necessary to solve series it is necessary to satisfy boundary conditions at
the flare ground impingement problem for H/D < 1, and as many discrete points as there a r e terms in the series.
to limit the attention to the region for which r < D. There a r e three houndaries along which boundary con-
ditions can be satisfied. These a r e 1) across the jet
exit (line AB, Figure I), 2 ) along the unknown boundary
General Expressions (line AE), and 3 ) along some line connecting the points
D and E.
Before proceeding with the solution it is conven-
ient for later reference to write down some of the general By a process of trial and e r r o r it w a s found that
relations implied by the particular approach chosen in fair results could he obtained hy limiting the Series to
the present investigation. the first four terms and satisfying the following four
boundary conditions, letting H/D = 1.
Velocity Components. By differentiation of Eq. (2)
the velocity components a t an arbitrary point (x. r ) a r e 1. The volume flow is the same as if the ground
obtained as follows: were not present.
2 . The velocity is vertical in direction and equal
m (5) to U in magnitude at point A.
n I: O 3. T h e v e l y i ratio v / ~ i i s e q u a l to
'Px= T "0 n = o n' (1 f2 n) Io(Xn r) cos(An x)
(dxp + (dR)2 a t point f w i t h R = D, and x
by the far fiefd constant-pressure volume-flow
Y (6) relation (see helow).
m
n 4. The vel ci ratio u/Uo is equal to
Vr =T' 0 n'=o An (1+2 n) II(Xn r ) sin($, x) dx/[(dxp + (m)231,2 a t point E.

There a r e several other boundary conditions

Volume Flow. As the jet approaches the ground
the volume flow decreases. This decrease in volume flow
may be measured through the introduction of a non-
dimensional volume flow coefficient Cv, defined a s
follows
2 field constant-pressure volume-flow relation.
Vol. flow = Cv n Ro Uo
where Ro denotes the j e t exit radius.
This volume flow coefficient i s , of course, equal
to unity when the jet is exhausting into free air in the
ahsence of ground. However, experimental data, a s
mentioned above, show that C remains unity also in the
presence of the ground as lonJas H/D is equal to o r
larger than unity, approximately. This experimental
fact w i l l be used helow as one of the boundary conditions
to obtain the solution for H/D 2 1.
which could have been imposed. Among these are f o r
instance
1. rpx = U a t as many discrete points on the
line AB (jet exit) 'as desired.
2. The radius of curvatuse (Uo/q x) of the jet
boundary could he satisfied at point E u d n g the far
(7)
The labor involved in obtaining a solution r i s e s
almost exponentially, however, and precludes inclusion
of these conditions.
Boundary Condition 1: The volume flow condition
with C, = 1 was satisfied across the j e t exit plane, i.e.
by Eq. (9):
x3
n=o An I1 (A n R o ) = R o / 2 H for H/D = 1 (IO)

In terms of the assumed s e r i e s solution the volume Boundary Condition 2: A t point A the velocity
flow may be written component w r is zero by the choice of solution. The
.H velocity in the x direction at the same p i n t is equal to
Uo. Hence by Eq. (5)
(11)
3
I: An (1 + 2 n) I o (An Ro) = 2/77 for H/D = 1
n=o

2
 Boundary Condition 3: The constant pressure the first term of the series only, namely
volume flow across the cylindrical surface represented
n r n x
by the line DE is in inviscid incompressible flow equal
to 2 n R(H - x) Uo, from which, by Eq. (7). the f a r
Q = Uo H A, Io (m) sin(m) (15)
field jet boundary shape is given by the following expres-
sion

C R 2
Application of the boundaq condition that J
R =n (12) ‘px = U0 when x = 0, r = Ro, determines thecon-
2(H - x) stant Ao, and yields
(16)
Differentiation of this expression with respect to nR
x and substimion into the slope relation ‘p / U =
r o
(p = (2/n) Uo H Io (m)
7TX sid$-$/lo (&

(dR/du)/[l + ( d R / d ~ ) ~ ] ~yield
/~
The velocity components along the f r e e stream-
line boundary is then

nx
I
I uo cos(m) (17)
This boundary condition was satisfied at R = D
(point E, Fig. 1). ?he corresponding x coordinate i s
given by Eq. (12). The volume flow coefficient was
nR nx Ro
assumed equal to unity, a s determined experimentally. (pr =’ Uo I1 (m) sin(=) /Io (-)
Boundary Condition 4: Similarly the slope relation
nx
e Uo sin(-) 2 H (18)
‘px/Uo = [I + ( d R / d ~ ) ~ ] - ” ~w a s satisfied at point E by
writing
The boundary condition, Eq. (4). specifying cnn-
stant pressure along the f r e e streamline is therefore
3 seen to be automatically satisfied in an approximate
i: An ( I + 2 n) lo(An R ) cos(X x) =
n =o n manner.
..J
The expression f o r the velocity distribution across
(Z/nXl - x/H)[O - x/H)’ + (R/H) ]
2 -1/2
(14) the jet exit is now a s follows
nR
The simultaneous solution of the four linear alge- = uo Io(%) /Io(&) 09)
braic equations given above [Eqs. (IO), 01), (13) and (14)l
yields the following constants: A, = .65710, AI = -.010@38,
A2 =-.00063097, A3 =-.0000098113.
This relation has been plotted in Figure 4a for
The resulting velocity distributions across the jet various values of H/D. The discrepancy shown between
exit and along the ground are presented in Figures 2a and theory and experiment for H/D = . 2 5 mi& possibly he
2b, respectively. Figure 2a indicates that the jet exit due to the fact that H/D in this case is not much less than
(or start of flare) velocity distribution i s uniform within unity a s demanded for validity of the theory.
+ 2 per cent using the four term series. ?he calculated
velocity distribution along the ground is compared with Differentiating the velocity potential with respect to
experimentai data taken from Reis. 5 and 6 in Figure Ti.. and ietting~ X~~ -yTeIcEe ~eloci-v along-~~-e~wound
~~

The agreement between theory and experiment is consid-

ered satisfactory.
= uo /Io(,, = Ro (20)
The shape of the jet b u n d a r y during the flared wr(x=H
portion was obtained from Eq. (9), and i s presented in
Figure 3a. ?he velocity d i s t r i h t i o n along this boundary, A graph of this expression is presented in Figure
2 4b. Experimental test data a r e also shown. The theory
i.e.((px + Q,Z)!/~, was also calculated and is plotted shows f a i r agreement w i t h experiment for values of
in Figure 3b. An e r r o r of + I and -6 per cent is indi- r / R o l e s s than 0.8, approximately.
cated using the four term series solution.
?he volume flow coefficient is obtained from
Eq. (9), still using only the first term of the series. It
Solution for H/D < < 1
is easily shown that in this case Cv = 8 H which cor-
In this case the increase in radius of the f r e e responds to a two-dimensional flow rim contraction coef-
streamline boundary during the flare is assumed negli- ficient of 0.637. d
gible, L e . R = Ro. I h e flow may now be obtained using

3
 Thrust Augmentation at Constant Power constant power is restricted to height/diameter ratios
below 0.2 approximately.
As shown in Ref. 8 the thrust T (or lift a s the
case may be) can be obtained from the fdllowing expres-
sion Experiment

v To enahle assessment of the validity of the analy-

RO 2 sis presented above, a 3 1/2 inch steel tube was connected
T = 2 n s I@-po + pep,) dr to the plant a i r supply. The tube m a s s flow was regulated
0 to maintain constant power while exhausting normal to a
large flat plate, L e . the product of the mass flow and the
total head (page) was held constant. Strain gage record-
ing@of the thrust augmentation ratio gave the results
presented on Figure 5. The experimental data a r e seen
to be generally somewhat lower than the values predicted
theoretically.
where p. po and U0 a r e respectively the local pres-
The changes in m a s s flow in ground effect a t con-
sure, the ambient pressure and velocity a t infinity down- stant power were also recorded. Figure 6 shows the
stream with the jet exit a t height H. It is clear f h t for results. Also indicated on this figure is the theoretical
H = -, L e . with the jet out of ground effect T = curve corresponding to m/mH = = (iib) 8 H 213. satis-
P n Ro UoH=- a s it should be by the momentum
factory agreement between theory and experiment is
theorem. Thus the ratio of the thrust in ground effect to noted.
that out of ground effect may be written a s shown below
122)
References

1. Study of the VTOL Downwash Impingement Problem.

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc. U.S. Army
TREC Technical Report 60-70, November 1960.

An expression for the power input P may ke ob- 2. Schach, W. : "Deflection of a Circular Fluid Jet by a
tained by noting that the power is always equal to Flat Plate Perpendicular to the Flow Direction".
Ingenieur-Archiv. Vol. VI, 1935, pp. 51-59.
1
m
,:U where m is the mass flow. n u s PH = - --
3. LeClerc, A. : "Deflection of a Liquid Jet by a
Perpendicular Boundary". M.S. ?he&, State
1
v
-T p n :R uo: = _ , n e corresponding expression, University of Iowa, 1948.

4. Shen, Y. C. : "Theoretical Analysis of Jet-Ground

valid for any jet exit height, is then Plane Interaction". IAS Paper No. 62-144. June 1962.
5. Jahnke, E. and Emde, F.: "Tables of Functions".
Dover Plrblications, 1945.

6. Brady, W. G. and Ludwig, G. : "Theoretical and

Equating the above expressions f o r power, it is found Experimental Studies of Impinging Uniform Jets".
that constant power requires

3
L4S Paper No. 63-29, Jan. 1963.
(24)

[*
. .
UO RO 7. Vidal, R. J. : "Aerodynamic Processes in the Down-
-= r ( r P x / u o ) dr = ,s)-1/3
n D
wash Impingement Problem". IAS Paper No. 62-36,
Jan. 1962.
UoH =-
8. Strand, T. : "Inviscid-Incompressible-Flow Theory
of Static Two-Dimensional Solid Jets in Proximity to
The t i u u s t augmentation ratio at constant power the Ground". Journal of the Aerospace Sciences,
can now, from Eqs. (22) and (24), be written as follows Vol. 29, No. 2, Feb. 1962.

n r
Substitution of wx / Uo = lo(Tfi/lo(w)
Ro

in the above equadon and performance of the indicated

integration by numerical means yield the curve presented
J in Figure 5. It is noted f h t the thrust augmentadon at

4
 r/Ro
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
I I I I
" P O
H / D=
A H/O = 21& 4 I LROM REF. 6

0.5
CALCULATED WITH H/D = 1,
''
VALID FOR H/D 2 1
0
A A
1.0- " CI (
..a

I- a. Velocity Distribution Across Jet Exit, (x = 0)

&
I

y
JET BOUNDARY

GROUND

Axi-Symmetric Jet Impinging on the Ground

r/ 0
b. Velocity Distribution Along Ground, (x = H)
Figure 1.
Figure 2,

c c c
 c

‘ B O
0

- -~
0.2
+CALCULATE0 (PRESENT
THEORY) WITH H/D = 1.
FOR H/D > 1 ADD CYLINDRICAL
PORTION A V E x = o

1.0
Iu
- I
Eq. (19)
I

a. Velocity Distribution Across Jet Exit, H/Dc<I

I
7
~ /,/ -
,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,
.7 -
?
,,,,,/,/ -

cr) 1.0
GROUND
I
a. Jet Impingement Flare Boundary

1/2

EXPERIMENT, H/D =0.25,

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
r/Ro
x/H b. Velocity Distribution Along Ground, H/D<< 1
b. Calculated Velocity Distribution Along Boundary, H/D = 1

Figure 3.

Figure 4.
 +I D I--

? / / / / / / I/I/ / / / I / / /

1. a

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0. a

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

H/D 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Thrust Augmentation in Ground Proximity at constant power H/D
Figure 5.
Mass Flow Variation in Ground Proximity at Constant Power
Figure 6 .

c c