GROUP THEORY – II

APPLICATIONS OF
EXTERNAL DIRECT
PRODUCT
 Public Key
Cryptography

Digital
Genetics
Signature
APPLICATIONS

Data Electric
Security Circuits
 DATA SECURITY
Data security refers to the process of protecting data
from unauthorized access and data corruption
throughout its lifecycle.

▪ Computers are built from two-state electronic components, it is natural

to represent information as strings of 0s and 1s called binary strings.

▪ A binary string of length n can naturally be thought of as an element of

Z2 ⊕ Z2 .....⊕ Z2 (n copies).

▪ The sum of 2 binary sequences a1a2...an + b1b2....bn=000.

▪ Thus, the basis for a data security system used to protect Internet
transactions is that sequences are identical.
EXAMPLE
Assume that A wants to purchase something from an online shopping site – B

◂Say A wants to send an eight-digit binary string such as s = 10101100 to B

(actual credit-card numbers have very long strings) and B sends A’s
computer the key k = 00111101 (This can be related to locking the data).

◂A’s computer returns the string s + k =10101100+00111101 = 10010001 to B

and B adds k to this string to get 10010001 + 00111101 = 10101100, which is
the string representing A’s credit-card number. (unlocking the data)

◂If someone intercepts the number s + k = 10010001 during transmission it

is no value without knowing k.

4
 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Many homes have light fixtures that are operated by a pair of switches and the
wiring is done so that the light is on when both switches are in the
up position.

▪ We can match the states of the two switches with the elements of Z2⨁Z2, with
the two switches in the up position corresponding to (0, 0) and the two
switches in the down position corresponding to (1, 1).

▪ Each time a switch is thrown, we add 1 to the corresponding component in the

group Z2⨁Z2

CONCLUSION
▪ The lights are on when the switches correspond to the elements of the
subgroup ⟨(1, 1)⟩
▪ The lights are off when the switches correspond to the elements in the
coset (1, 0)+⟨(1, 1)⟩

5
 PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY

➢ Public-key cryptography is a cryptographic system that uses pairs of

keys.

➢ Each pair consists of a public key (which may be known to others) and
a private key (which may not be known by anyone except the owner).

➢ The generation of such key pairs depends on cryptographic algorithms

which are based on mathematical problems termed one-way functions.

➢ Effective security requires keeping the private key private, the public
key can be openly distributed without compromising security
 ALGORITHM
RECEIVER
1. Pick very large primes p and q and compute n = pq.
2. Compute the least common multiple of p – 1 and q – 1; let us call it m.
3. Pick e relatively prime to m.
4. Find d such that ed mod m = 1.
5. Publicly announce n and e.
SENDER
1. Convert the message to a string of digits
2. Break up the message into uniform blocks of digits; call them M1,M2,..., Mk.
3. Check to see that the greatest common divisor of each M_i and n is 1. If
not, n can be factored and our code is broken.
4. Calculate and send R_i = (M_i)^e mod n.
RECEIVER
1. For each received message R_i, calculate (R_i)^d mod n.
2. Convert the string of digits back to a string of characters. 7
 DIGITAL SIGNATURE
A digital signature is a mathematical technique used
to validate
the authenticity and integrity of a message or digital
document.

• Suppose that A wants to send a secret message to person B in such that:

✓ Only B can decode it.
✓ B can validate that only A must have sent it.

• Some of the situations can be:

1. An electronic funds transfer takes place, and the receiver increases the amount of funds
transferred and claims that the larger amount had arrived from the sender.

2. An electronic mail message contains instructions to a stockbroker for a transaction that

subsequently turns out badly.
 ALGORITHM

▪ Let and D_A denote the algorithms that A uses for encryption and
decryption, respectively, and let E_B and D_B denote the algorithms
that B uses for encryption and decryption, respectively

▪ We assume that E_A and E_B are available to the public, whereas
D_A is known only to A and D_B is known only to B, and that D_B
E_B and E_A D_A applied to any message leaves the message
unchanged.

▪ Then A sends a message M to B as E_B (D_A(M)) and B decodes the

received message by applying the function E_A D_B to it to obtain
(E_A D_B) (E_B(D_A(M))= E_A(D_B E_B)(D_A(M)) =
E_A(D_A(M)) = M.
9
 GENETICS
A DNA molecule is composed of two long strands in the form of a double helix.
Each strand is made up of strings of the four nitrogen bases adenine (A), thymine
(T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

▪ The genetic code can be conveniently modeled using elements of Z4 ⊕ Z4 ⊕

...⊕ Z4

▪ For modeling, we identify A with 0, T with 2, G with 1, and C with 3.

▪ Thus, the DNA segment ACGTAACAGGA and its complement segment
TGCATTGTCCT are denoted by 03120030110 and 21302212332.

▪ In Z4, 0 +2 = 2, 2 + 2 = 0, 1 + 2 = 3, and 3 + 2 = 1, we see that adding 2 to

elements of Z4 interchanges 0 and 2 and 1 and 3.

CONCLUSION
▪ For any DNA segment a1a2 ... an represented by element of Z4 ⊕ Z4 ⊕ ..... ⊕
Z4, we see that its complementary segment is represented by a1a2 ... an +2
2... 2.
10
THANK YOU
NAME – HIYA SRIVASTAVA
ROLL No. – 2020/1683